Roshan Fazal

Short Questions:
1. What do you know about accommodation? Explain with the help of an example.

Initially proposed by Jean Piaget, the term accommodation refers to the part of the adaptation process.
The process of accommodation involves altering one's existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new
information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.

Consider, for example, how small children learn about different types of animals. A young child may
have an existing schema for dogs. She knows that dogs have four legs, so she might automatically
believe that all animals with four legs are dogs. When she later learns that cats also have four legs, she
will undergo a process of accommodation in which her existing schema for dogs will change and she will
also develop a new schema for cats.

2. Narrate the implications of the theory of operant conditioning in educational settings.

3. How would you create a link between autonomy and motivation? Page no.55
4. How does response set create hindrance in transference? Page no.43

Response set on the other hand is the rigidity of response. It is the tendency to response in a familiar
way. If a person consumes to react and response in the old, familiar ways, he/she is said to showing a
response set. Functional fixedness, the inability to use objects and tools, including knowledge in a new
way and response set the rigidity of response pattern are two most significant barriers in the ways of
transfer of learning from one situation, or one domain to another situation or domain. Some
psychologists distinguish between two levels or kinds of transfer:

a) Low road transfer b) High road transfer

5. Which method is considered more beneficial for exams, weekly or monthly? Justify your answer
with examples.
6. Define self-regulation? Exemplify that how do you rate your ability of self-regulation?

Self Regulation:

Self-regulation is the process we use to activate and sustain our thoughts, behaviors and emotions in
order to reach out goals. In other words what we do to attain our goals in life, including self-learning,
learning of new skills, sustaining old skills, self-control and motivating ourselves to attain what we want
to attain, is self regulation.

INCOMPLETE

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7. Amna, a two years old baby girl wants to put her clothes on by herself. Her mother allows her to
try until she succeeds or ask for assistance. In which stage of psychology develop (given by Eric
Ericson) Amna is passing through. Name that stage and justify it?

 You can explain this example in your own words following the given below.

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an
encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow
the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance. So, the parents need to encourage the child to
become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is
avoided.

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if
the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly
when toilet training).The aim has to be “self control without a loss of self-esteem.

8. Debate about effective teacher, one group of psychologists believe that effective teachers born,
other believe they made, In this regard what do u believe, give own opinion?

Effective teacher is a concept related to training, skills, practice, knowledge and interaction between
teacher and students. All of these variables make an effective teacher.

Prospective teachers become “effective” teachers through hard work, study and experience.

Thus in my opinion, effective teachers are made.

9. Enlist factors which lead to lack of tolerance, Have u experience any of those?

• Emotional pathology of students • Easy access to weapons • Lack of surveillance/supervision in

schools • Violence depicted in the media • Violence depicted in the video games

10. Are you intrinsically or extrinsically motivated; explain with the example of daily life?
 Extrinsically:

I am motivated extrinsically. Extrinsic motivation is when we are motivated to perform a behavior or

engage in an activity because we want to earn a reward or avoid punishment.

For example:

 I participate in Annual Sports Gala to win awards.

 I clean my room to avoid being reprimanded by my parents.

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 Intrinsically:
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In my daily life, I am motivated intrinsically. Intrinsic motivation is when we engage in a behavior
because we find it rewarding. We are performing an activity for its own sake rather than from the desire
for some external reward. The behavior itself is its own reward.

For example:

 I participate in a sport because I find the activity enjoyable.

 I clean my room because I like tidying up.
11. Piaget give four stages of development, Enlist any three of them?

1) Sensorimotor Stage 2) Preoperational Stage 3) Concrete Operational Stage 4) Formal Operational

Stage

 For details see page no.8

12. Gender Bias with example:

Gender Bias:

Gender bias is the difference in view of males and females that often favors one gender over the other.
Gender Bias in the Curriculum: Some school curriculum manifest gender bias. They show preference/
superiority of one gender over the other in Pakistan. There used to be more stories about male
characters than about females; in addition, the females tended to be shown in the home, behaving
passively and expressing fear or incompetence.

13. Questions about Intelligence:

1- Do we inherit intelligence?
2- Is intelligence acquired?
3- What do you think; is this ability god gifted, or do human beings acquire it in this life times?
4- Or is it his present level of intellectual functioning?
5- Is intelligence to be found in the genes of a person that he inherits from his parental set?
6- Or does he acquire by education and experience.
14. Difference b/w stigma and self-fulfilling prophecy:

Stigma:

A stigma is a bad name, a negative label; a name which describes the protagonist in uncomplimentary
manner; you may notice that amongst children, amongst adults and amongst public figures also.

Self-fulfilling Prophecy:

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Self-fulfilling prophecy is a process through which an originally false expectation leads to its own
confirmation. In a self-fulfilling prophecy an individual’s expectations about another person or entity
eventually result in the other person or entity acting in ways that confirm the expectations.

15. Difference between Hostile and Instrumental Aggression. Explain with two examples each.

Instrumental Aggression:

Instrumental aggression is need to gain an object or a favor; here the intention of aggressor is not to
hurt the other, but to gain something.

Examples:

 If a child wants to get pen or any book from the other student, so he/she can fight the other one to
get it. He/she is not showing aggression to heart another student but just to gain possession of
some material thing.
 Hurting another person in a robbery or car-jacking is an example of this type of aggression.

Hostile Aggression:

The intention of the aggressor is to inflict harm on the other person.

Examples:

 A fight in a bar with a stranger is an example of hostile aggression.

 The fights and arguments that we see in the news.
16. Strategies of problem solving explain with working backward strategy.

Working backward strategy: Where one student with goal moves backwards to solve a problem. It is
sometimes an effective heuristic for solving geometry proofs.

 For more Problem Solving Strategies see Page no.39-40

17. Peer Influence

Peer pressure, in cultural context, is a factor that influences academic performance and achievement.
Because poor students move and are friendly with other poor students, their peers and friends also
belong to poor backgrounds. They usually therefore disregard and reject other different classes’
behaviors and values, including the value of putting in hard work at academics. So, poor students (who
are willing to work hard academically) learn to reject academic input because their friends and peers
pressurize them to do so.

18. Enlist three limitations of experimental method.

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 There is no control over extraneous variables that might bias the results. This makes it difficult for
another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way.
 They may be more expensive and time consuming than lab experiments.
 Results may only apply to one situation and may be difficult to replicate.
19. What happens at the 'Trust vs. Mistrust' Stage? Who proposed it?

It is the first stage of development proposed by Erick Erickson.

In this stage, the age of child at this stage is between births and about a year and half. The infant at this
stage is faced with the problem of trust or mistrust with care giver. One of the crises is that he must
choose either to trust the care giver or mistrust him. If his family and any other significant members help
him, then he would develop trust and knows and have confidence that there are other people who will
help him. This satisfaction wills him to develop a good personality. If family doesn’t help, discourage
then he would develop mistrust that is a barrier in health development.

20. How to teach compassion and tolerance?

Compassion and tolerance can be taught by direct means, where material related to tolerance is directly
taught. It can also be taught by indirect means. Following are the strategies:

 Jigsaw
 Reciprocal Questioning
 Scripted Cooperation
21. Locus of control:

Locus of control or locus of causality refers to whether a person’s behavior is caused by internal or by
external factors. If we take a bird’s eyes view of different points of view regarding what motivates
people, four major approaches appear as explanations. Let us view these four major points of view of
what motivates a person.

22.Observable teaching characteristic:

1- Begins class promptly and in a well-organized way.
2- Treats students with respect and caring.
3- Provides the significance/importance of information to be learned.
4- Provides clear explanations. Holds attention and respect of students….practices effective classroom
management.
5- Uses active, hands-on student learning.

23. Interpersonal or Intrapersonal:

Interpersonal is between two or more people, and intrapersonal is between you and yourself.

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24. Implicit Memory:
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Implicit memory as part of long term memory is the memory that we are not conscious of recalling but
affects our behavior or thoughts without our awareness. For example a person being a male or a female
is not consciously recalled but it influences the way he or she dresses etc.

25. Effective teacher:

Researchers have identified three of these qualities of effective teachers.

1. Knowledge of the teacher

2. His clarity of thought

3. His warmth for others

26. Over learning:

It is another important method of learning and retaining. Over learning is practicing a skill beyond, over
and above the point of mastery in that skill. Research shows that over learning helps the learner in two
important ways. Firstly it helps to retrieves information. And secondly this revival process becomes way
efficient and quick. So over learning, learning beyond mastery level is another way of efficient and quick
retrieval.

27. Non- materialistic culture:

Then there is non-material culture which is expressed in one’s language, the customs, traditional ways
of behavior and living etc. the way one dress, walks, hand/arms and gestures etc. All of these, according
to some are expressions non material culture. Experts also put forward the view that although there
might be diversity in cultures, as in case of Pakistan, in terms of punjabi, baluchi, pashtun and sindhi
culture, there is also cultural uniformity. It refers to common perceptions, goals and patterns of
behavior.

28. Emotional intelligence:

Emotional intelligence has been defined in different ways.
One definition of emotional intelligence is that it is the ability to process emotional information
accurately and efficiently. It was psychologist David Goldman who popularized the idea of emotional
intelligence or EQ for short. Some psychologists also defined EQ as the ability to understand one’s
own emotions, the emotions of other around the person, and there to use this information for the
welfare and benefit of all concerned. Psychologists have identified four broad abilities to be the
constituent’s parts of EQ. These four abilities includes: - Perceiving emotions, integrating emotions
and Understanding emotions
29. Reviewing in learning of mathematics:

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Reviewing means going over the solution again and finding the answer to be correct.

30. First-wave constructivism:

Psychological constructivists are concurred about an individual builds up his cognitive and emotional
apparatus. They are interested in looking attain individual, how he gains knowledge, his beliefs,
expectations and self-concept. This approach is also called “first-wave constructivism”, associated with
the names of such psychologists as Piaget and others.

 Page no. 46 for second-wave constructivism.

31. Functional Fixedness:

Learning is hindered when the learner does not consider unconventional uses for materials at hand.
Functional fixedness is the inability of person, or a learner to use tools and objects in a new and a moral
way. It is the lack of flexibility in using tools of learning.

32. An experiment was conducted to check the effectiveness of anxiety treatment, during experiment
group A attained the individual therapy session and receive new medication while Group B
receive Placebo, in this case Group A refers to What? Identify + briefly describe?

Psychologists have found strong evidence for the impact of our beliefs and expectations on outcomes,
particularly when we are convinced that our predictions will manifest, even when we aren’t aware that
we hold the expectation.

A commonly understood example of a self-fulfilling prophecy in psychology is what is known as the

placebo effect. The placebo effect refers to the improvements in outcomes measured in subjects of
scientific studies or clinical trials, even when the participants did not receive any meaningful treatment.
The participants’ belief effects the “treatment” that they experience.

This effect was discovered during clinical trials and can be so strong that new measures were put in
place to account for its impact on an experiment’s findings. Research on the placebo effect has proven
that belief can be a very powerful thing.

 Read these paragraphs carefully as they are a hint of the answer. This question is related to self-
fulfilling prophecy. You can take help from Google for further details.
33. How can you as a teacher eliminate that bias from your role?

1. The first step in that direction is to accept that tendency towards gender bias. Research shows that
teachers pay more attention and demand more input from their male students than from their female
students.

2. Teachers, after becoming aware of this tendency, must consciously curb and correct this tendency in
their classroom practices

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34. How a teacher can hold the attention of his / her students?

Here are some points for that:

 Develop a signal that tells students to stop doing what they are doing and focus on you as a teacher.
 Avoid behavior that may distract your students, self-touching and grooming etc.
 Make your presentation/talk/lecture clear for students.
 Include variety and surprise in your talk/lecture.
 Asking questions of the students frequently during your talk.
35. Engaged time:

This refers to the time period specifically spent in actively learning.

36. Instructional objectives:

Educational psychologists define instructional objectives or the goal of instruction as the “intended
learning outcomes, or the types of performance that students are expected to demonstrate at the end
of instruction to show that they have learned what they were expected to learn”. Instructional
objectives are a clear statement of what students are intended to learn through instruction: For instance
they should learn and recite the table of 7 or the alphabets.

37. Academic learning time:

Academic learning time refers to the time students spend on really learning and understanding. One
research undertaken by Weinstein and Mignano shows that of the one thousand and one hundred hours
of class time, about one thousand are spent on attended time; about five hundred are spent on actual
academic time, about four hundred hours are spent on engaged time and about only three hundred
hours are spent on academic learning time, when students actually succeed in learning a task. Class
management in possible and improves when school and class rules and producers are clearly stated by
administration. And when these procedures and rules are conveyed to students and are understood by
them. This is western countries’ research, in Pakistan it has observed that less than the mentioned time
is spend in our schools for learning.

38. Time on task:

You may also become familiar with what educational psychologists call “time on task”, this is the time
period that is spent on actively engaged in learning a specific task at hand. Time spent on various ways
in learning may or may not lead to real learning.

39. Summarizing the Material:

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It is an important technique in learning strategies, to decide what is important that should be learnt, and
what is less important that may require less attention. Once these important and less important
elements have been identified then the learnt materials should be made into summaries. Summaries
involve the following important steps and procedures a. It should be short and easy to learn. b. It should
identify and clearly state the big ideas or the central ideas of the material. c. It should not contain
redundant information. Redundant information may be related to the topic but is indirectly related to
the central idea.

Long Questions:
1. What do you know about differential method? Explain with reference to educational psychology.

Differential psychology studies the ways in which individuals differ in their behavior and the processes
that underlie it. This is a discipline that develops classifications (taxonomies) of psychological individual
differences. This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although psychology is
ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists often study groups, or attempt to discover
general psychological processes that apply to all individuals. This particular area of psychology has been
named first named “differential psychology” at Breslau University and kept the name as Vidkunn
Coucheron Jarl quotes William Stern when he calls this field “a new and fast growing off-shoot of
experimental psychology,”

While prominent psychologists, including Stern, have been widely credited for the concept of individual
differences, historical records show that it was Charles Darwin (1859) who first spurred the scientific
interest in the study of individual differences. His interest was further pursued by his half-cousin Francis
Galton in his attempt to quantify individual differences among people.

For example, in evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy, the mean performance of the therapy in
one treatment group might be compared to the mean effectiveness of a placebo (or a well-known
therapy) in a second, control group. In this context, differences between individuals in their reaction to
the experimental and control manipulations are actually treated as errors rather than as interesting
phenomena to study. This approach is applied because psychological research depends upon statistical
controls that are only defined upon groups of people.

2. The self-concept evolves through constant self evaluation in different situations. Write a
comprehensive note on development of self concept.

An important thing to know at the stage of child development is the idea of self-concept; self-concept
refers to what a person thinks of himself. His perceptions about himself; “I am strong, I am a weak man,
I am a good student, I am bad at learning mathematics” etc. are all examples of self-concept. A student’s
self- concept influences his choice of subjects, his performance in those subjects and his labor or input in

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learning and mastering those subjects. Self concept affects a student’s learning and motivation in
general and to learn in particular. A student with high positive self-concept would tend to put in greater
effort in learning and mastering subjects as compared to one who has low or negative self-concept.

3. Difference between self-management and class-management?

Self-management:

Self-Management is another concept that is very important. To know yourself and to manage yourself is
self-management. If you are aware of your weaknesses you can learn how to overcome them. Self-
management may be understood keeping in mind the following three points:

a) Goal setting is most important ingredient of self-management. Teachers should set goals of his
teaching before undertaking a task. The goals must be clearly defined as these are easy to achieve.
b) The second point is monitoring and evaluating yourself while you are teaching or moving towards
your goal. It must be done continually.
c) The third point is self-reinforcement: Rewarding you as a teacher. Human beings learn best if they
are rewarded.

Class-management:

Classroom management refers to maintain a positive and productive learning environment. These are
the techniques that you as a teacher may rise to create a healthy learning environment, free of
behavioral problems. This is done by the teacher or a administration. Self-management on the other
hand is the management of one’s own behavior and to accept responsibility for one’s actions. In class
room management, the teacher demands obedience and regulation of behavior from students. In self-
management the student himself controls and directs his behavior.

4. How would you differentiate between psychological constructivism and social constructivism?
1) Psychological Constructivism: Psychological constructivists are concurred about an individual builds
up his cognitive and emotional apparatus. They are interested in looking attain individual, how he
gains knowledge, his beliefs, expectations and self-concept. This approach is also called “first-wave
constructivism”, associated with the names of such psychologists as Piaget and others.
2) Social Constructivism Social constructivism, also sometimes called “second wave constructivism” is
associated with the name of Vygotsky and others. They emphasize social interaction and cultural
context of the learner as some of the factors that influence learning of a person. For example,
during fasting if you start teaching student, it would be difficult to learn so it may hinders
performance and learning. These factors should keep in mind to facilitate learning. As you can see
now psychologists have considered both the individual/psychological as well as social/cultural
factors playing their roles in a person’s learning. A teacher who keeps both of these categories of

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factors in mind while dealing and teaching his students will prove to be more successful than other
teachers, research tells us.
5. Any five important things that a teacher should keep in mind while communicating result grades
to the students.
 Not sure about the answer.
1) The student’s files/report cards must be appropriate.
2) The reports cards must be accurate.
3) The report cards must be supported by evidence.
4) The report cards must be appropriate, such that the result must be communicated in non-technical
easy terms for parents to understand.
5) Notes attached to report cards.
6) Phone calls that may convey important news and views to parents and guardians.
7) The result may be put on school or class web pages for parents/guardians.
8) Student portfolios may be exhibited for parents/guardians to see.
9) Result can be conveyed through open houses.
10) And finally in special cases school teachers may carry out home visits to student’s houses, when
some disability may prevent parents/guardian to meet with teachers.
6. Define will power. Write any event from your life when will power played a prominent role in
your self-regulation?

Will Power:

Self-regulated students are people who apply high level of will power or volition to keep focused at the
task at hand and gain maximum benefits from their effort. They know how to protect them from
distraction and keep them focused on the task at hand.

Part B:

 You can write these examples as your own self-regulation events.

 A cashier who stays polite and calm when an angry customer is berating him for something he has
no control over.
 A child who refrains from throwing a tantrum when she is told she cannot have the toy she
desperately wants
 A couple who’s in a heated argument about something that is important to both of them deciding to
take some time to cool off before continuing their discussion, instead of devolving into yelling and
name-calling.
 A student who is tempted to join her friends for a fun night out but instead decides to stay in to
study for tomorrow’s exam.
 A man trying to lose weight meets a friend at a restaurant and sticks with the “healthy options”
menu instead of ordering one of his favorite high-calorie dishes.

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7. Describe any five ways in which teacher can curtail cheating habits of their students?

In order to discourage cheating teachers may make sure that students are well prepared for
tests/exams. This is the responsibility of a teacher that they should not put students in high pressure to
perform well, which we know encourages cheating. They should make extra help available specially to
low scoring students. Teaching is, infect, a two way process; supervisor must ensure strict control during
exams. They should monitor carefully when students are tested and enforce monitoring standards
diligently.

8. Explain Bottom up process and Top down process with two examples of each.

Bottom up Process:

In bottom up processing, the stimulus must be analyzed into features or components are assembled into
a meaningful pattern.

Examples:

 If you see an image of an individual letter on your screen, your eyes transmit the information to your
brain, and your brain puts all of this information together.
 Have you ever seen someone do a blind taste test? Maybe they were a judge in a cook-off or they
were on a game show and had to guess what they were eating. They can probably guess that they
are eating food or have other clues about what they are going to put in their mouth. But they must
use bottom-up processing to assess what they are eating. The taste buds help the brain with this -
they send sensory information to the brain with little or no context. From there, the brain has to do
the work to figure out what the person just ate.

Top up Process:

Top down processing, is based on knowledge and expectation. To recognize patterns rapidly in addition
to noting features we use what we already know about the situation.

Examples:

 Understanding difficult handwriting is easier when reading complete sentences than when reading
single and isolated words. This is because the meaning of the surrounding words provides a context
to aid understanding.
 The Stroop Effect: Let’s say we see a list of colors: red, black, etc. Each of the words is written in a
different color that doesn’t match the word. “Red” might be written in black, etc. When asked to
identify the colors of the words rather than the word itself, people may have a hard time. It’s easy
for the brain to read the word.
9. Mention the contribution of Edward Thorndike.

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The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that:

"Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in
that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in
that situation.”

Thorndike studied learning in animals (usually cats). He devised a classic experiment in which he used a
puzzle box to empirically test the laws of learning. He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was
encouraged to escape to reach a scrap of fish placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box
and time how long it took to escape. The cats experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle
box and reach the fish. Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When it
had escaped it was put in again, and once more the time it took to escape was noted. In successive
trials the cats would learn that pressing the lever would have favorable consequences and they would
adopt this behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever.

Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect” which stated that any behavior that is followed by
pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences
is likely to be stopped.

10. Zara's parents got divorced. How can the teachers help her get through this?
 Here is an explanation for this question. You can adjust this explanation according to the given
condition.

Our study showed teachers were firstly concerned with children’s social and emotional well-being. They
believed when children felt safe and secure they could learn. Importantly, the support teachers in our
study provided varied depending on the different needs of children and their families, as it should.

Teachers and schools can help children make positive adjustments. Teachers see these children the
most each day apart from their parents. They’re in an ideal position to provide support when needed.
But they may not know how to help in these situations. Our study provides some helpful strategies that
have proven to be successful for teachers.

Useful and effective actions teachers in our study took included:

 Developing an understanding of children’s reactions to their parents and divorce by reflecting on

their observations and conversations with children.
 Developing an understanding of the type and effect of parents’ stress.
 Having private conversations with children, asking if they are OK, being a good listener, letting
children talk, and providing reassurance.
 Arranging one-on-one time with a teacher aide to provide emotional support or to help them settle
into the day.

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 Being available for children and parents to speak to.
 Creating a safe, friendly environment where children feel free to talk.
 Developing friendships with children and families so they can feel safe and secure to talk to them.
 Communicating with parents about how their child is going emotionally, socially and academically at
school.
 Referring children to the student welfare coordinator when necessary for additional support.
 Talking about catastrophic scales to help children put their problems into perspective on a scale
from zero to ten where zero is no problem and ten is the worst problem ever.
 Being consistent with school routines, rules and expectations.
 Making sure the child is included in supportive friendship groups, both in the classroom and
playground.
 Making activities and communication inclusive – for example, not always saying “tell mum” but
instead saying “tell the person who packs your lunch” or “does your homework with you”.
 Having flexible expectations with the child’s school work.
 Arranging tutoring for the child with the teacher, other parents, peers, and teacher aides.
 Getting financial support through the school welfare budget or community organizations for
resources, food and to help pay for school excursions and camps.
 Providing encouragement for children to make good decisions and to manage their own behavior.
11. Significance of attention in vicarious learning:

In vicarious learning, learning takes place by observation, when people and animals learn by an
observation that is an example of vicarious learning.

In order to learn through observation, we have to pay attention. In teaching, you will have to ensure
students’ attention to the critical features of the lesson by making clear presentations and highlighting
important points.

If an organism is going to learn anything from a model, he or she must be paying attention to it and the
behavior it exhibits. Many conditions can affect the observer’s attention. For instance, if the observer is
sleepy, ill, or distracted, he or she will be less likely to learn the modeled behavior and imitate it at a
later date. In addition, the characteristics of the model have an influence on the observer’s attention.
Bandura and others have shown that humans pay more attention to models that are attractive, similar
to them, or prestigious and are rewarded for their behaviors. This explains the appeal that athletes have
on the behavior of young children and that successful adults have on college students. Unfortunately,
this aspect of modeling can also be used in detrimental ways. For example, if young children witness
gang members gaining status or money, they may imitate those behaviors in an effort to gain similar
rewards.

12. How to maintain discipline in class?

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The key to maintain disciple in the class is to know what is happening in the class and then prevent it
before it blows out of proportion. Some educational psychologists have suggested the following ways
for teachers to get the students to finish their work on time and maintain discipline:

 Remind the students of the work plan, and the importance of getting it done on time.
 Remind them of negative effects that will follow if the work is not done or completed.
 Give them verbal hints to complete the task.
 Clearly direct those not attentive to attend to work, showing them the procedure of how to do it.
 Clearly but calmly ask about their disruptive behavior and show them how to get involved in
finishing the planned work.
 Make eye contact with all students, especially those who may not work or may indulge in wayward
activities, and make sure they desist from non productive activities in the class.
 Teacher must show respect.
 If someone still persists, offer him/her a choice, either he/she stops or will have to talk to the
teacher after the class.
13. Skinner behavior theory:

An American psychologist B. F. Skinner conducted his own experiments further to elaborate the process
of learning. He began with the belief that many human behaviors are operants, not respondents.
Classical conditioning describes only how existing behaviors might be paired with new stimuli; it does
not explain how new operant behaviors are acquired. Behavior, like response or action is simply a word
for what a person does in a particular situation. Conceptually we may think of a behavior as sandwiched
between two sets of environmental influences, those that precede it (its antecedents) and those that
follow it (its consequences). This relationship can be shown very simply as antecedent-behavior-
consequence, or A-B-C. As behavior is ongoing, a given consequence becomes an antecedent for the
next ABC sequence. Consequences determine to a great extent whether a person will repeat the
behavior that led to the consequences. The type and timing of consequences can strengthen or weaken
behaviors. Skinner identified four conditions of learning; namely continuous reinforcement schedule,
intermittent reinforcement schedule, interval schedule and ratio schedule.

14. Dewey theory:

Dewey believed that human beings learn through a 'hands-on' approach. This places Dewey in the
educational philosophy of pragmatism. Pragmatists believe that reality must be experienced.
From Dewey's educational point of view, this means that students must interact with their environment
in order to adapt and learn.

15. Evaluation process:

The fifth factor in this context that increase /influences student motivation to learn is the evaluation
process carried on by the teacher. If the evaluation and grading is carried out in objective and

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standardized manner, that motivates students as opposed to grading and evaluation based up teachers
or evaluators subjective judgment and haphazard marking standard. When students are encouraged to
set up and participate in the evaluation process, this practice motivates students to learn better than
before. So evaluation must not only be standardized but should also have input by the students.

16. Effective feedback:

There are some strategies of effective feedback. Feedback should

1- Be provided in written comments.

2- Be personalized rather than impersonal.
3- Include constructive criticism, should not criticize for the sake of criticism, but with the purpose of
effecting improvement in the performance of a student.
4- Contain specific comments on errors committed by the student.
5- Point out and comment upon faulty strategies adopted by students for writing the answers.
6- Contain suggestions on how to improve.
7- Include comments on positive aspects must also be a part of the feedback.
17. Learning strategies:

Learning strategies are the overall plans for learning. And learning tactics are the specific techniques of
putting the overall plan into operation. Teachers should also provide additional information to their
students to become expert students. One should keep in mind that not only words are transferring
information but information can also be provided non-verbally. As information is a continuous process.

 Additional knowledge and Motivation

 Summarizing the Material
 Highlighting the Selective Material
 Notes Taking

For details go through handouts. (Page no. 41-42)

18. Fear of failure affects our motivations discuss in context to Pakistani society.

Research shows that high grades may encourage students where as low grades discourage them to put
in extra effort at work. Research also shows that fear of failure affects motivation and student input, but
fear of failure can have both negative and positive effects, depending upon the personality of students
and situational factors. Fear of failure can motivate students to put in extra effort to avoid failure and it
can also, in some cases, be counterproductive and de-motivate students to work harder.

19. Humanistic Approach and Motivation:

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Understanding behavior is what called the Humanistic Approach. This approach suggests that human
needs exist in the form of a hierarchy such that there are lower level needs, essential for survival; and
higher level needs for intellectual achievement; and finally the need for giving expression to one’s
highest level of self; or self-actualization. According to this theory, motivation comes from fulfilling
lower level needs and when the lower level needs is satisfied then one is motivated to fulfill higher level
needs.

 Please take a look on other approaches also. (Page no. 51-52)

20. Central tendency type and explain:

A mean is simply the arithmetical average of a group of scores. To calculate mean, all the scores are
added and divided by the number of people who were tested. This procedure yields a single figure, the
mean of the group. The mean offers one way of measuring central tendency, the score that is typical or
representative of the whole distribution of scores. When you have a large number of scores, there is the
middle point or middle score of those large numbers of scores. The middle score in a series of score is
called the median. In that large number of scores, there might be some scores that occur more
frequently than others. The score that occurs most frequently in a series of scores is called the mode.
The standard deviation is a measure of how widely the scores vary from the mean. The larger the
standard deviation, the more spread out the scores in the distribution.

21. Kohlberg’s conventional reasoning:

The second level, called the Conventional Moral Reasoning, is when a person’s judgment is based upon
other’s approval and other people’s principles. It is based upon conventional wisdom; wisdom of others
around him. Its first stage is becoming a “good” boy or a “good” girl to get other’s approval. It second
stage is when the child sees that laws are absolute and that they must be obeyed. He adopt the rules
that he observers in his/her surroundings.

 Page no. 13 (for other moral reasoning)

22. Modeling:
In the Bandura’s view of learning modeling is a special term. It is used in the present context to
describe, changes in behavior, thinking or emotions that occur through observing another person,
called a model. Modeling has been used in the past to teach a variety of subjects and skills. For
example, it has been applied and used in teaching of sports, dancing, cooking and other skills. They
watch models and they learn by these models. Skillful, knowledgeable teachers know that students
look up to their teachers as models; therefore some teachers use their own persons as models to
teach students in the classrooms. Teachers can use their own behaviors as models for students for
learning. Take the example of enthusiasm; those teachers who are themselves enthusiastic about
their school subjects present a good model for their students to be enthusiastic about those
subjects. On the other hand those teachers, who are not so enthusiastic about their own subjects of

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teaching, present a bad model for students to copy and imitate. Research has shown that modeling
can be effective way learning when “good” models are copied and reinforced. Research also shows
that practicing the role of a good model helps learning, such that the more the practice the higher
the learning of a good model. It has been shown by research that teaching of new behaviors can be
easily done by presenting a role model. New behaviors are easily leaned by someone if he sees,
observes, and models his behaviors in accordance with the behavior of the model. For example, if
we see in everyday life, a daughter learns a new recipe by watching her mother’s cooking who is the
role model for her.
23. Example to choose between Deductive or Inductive Reasoning:

Let's take a look at a few examples of inductive reasoning. After we examine the inductive reasoning,
we'll flip it and see what it looks like in the form of deductive reasoning.

 Inductive Reasoning: The first lipstick I pulled from my bag is red. The second lipstick I pulled from
my bag is red. Therefore, all the lipsticks in my bag are red.

Deductive Reasoning: The first lipstick I pulled from my bag is red. All lipsticks in my bag are red.
Therefore, the second lipstick I pull from my bag will be red, too.

 Inductive Reasoning: My mother is Irish. She has blond hair. Therefore, everyone from Ireland has
blond hair.

Deductive Reasoning: My mother is Irish. Everyone from Ireland has blond hair. Therefore, my mother
has blond hair.

 Inductive Reasoning: Most of our snowstorms come from the north. It's starting to snow. This
snowstorm must be coming from the north.

Deductive Reasoning: All of our snowstorms come from the north. It's starting to snow. Therefore, the
storm is coming from the north.

 Inductive Reasoning: Max is a shelter dog. He is happy. All shelter dogs are happy.

Deductive Reasoning: Max is a shelter dog. All shelter dogs are happy. Therefore, he is happy.

Notice how each example of deductive reasoning is sounder (assuming the first two premises are true)?
In each instance, the inductive reasoning may be true. But, they're lacking enough evidence to be
universally true. Further samplings would be required.

24. Define and explain reliability and validity with the help of example.

Reliability:

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Reliability refers to a high positive correlation in test and retest scores. This may simply be understood in
the following manner: -

Suppose you weigh yourself on a weighing machine on Monday morning and your weight comes out to
be 120 pounds. Then you weigh yourself again on the same machine on Tuesday at the same place and
in the same manner: And your weight comes out to be 400 pounds. Is your weighing machine reliable?
Of course not, because a person cannot gain 300 pounds in twenty four hours. However if you weigh
yourself on a machine on Monday and your weight is shown to be 100 pounds and then on Tuesday it
also shows your weight to be 100 pounds, the weighing machine is reliable because it is showing
consistent scores. Reliability refers therefore to the consistency in test scores. Reliability of a measuring
device can also be tested by another method. You may weigh yourself on one weighing machine; your
weight comes out to be 100 pounds. Now you might weigh yourself on another weighing machine which
has already been tested and found to be reliable. On the second machine your weight comes out to be
the same as on the first machine that is 100 pounds. Now because the second machine has proven to be
reliable, and your weight on both the machines is same, therefore the first machine is also reliable. This
procedure is called alternate form reliability. When you compare and contrast one measuring device
with another already proven to be reliable measuring device. In educational testing, experts also use
another method of testing reliability of a test. Let us assume that a test has one hundred items in it.
Experts may administer the test to person and then compare his score on first fifty items with his score
on the last fifty items. If the scores on first fifty items and the score on later fifty items are very close, or
similar, the measuring device is considered reliable.

Validity:

Another criterion of a good measuring device is its validity. Validity refers to the degree to which a test
measures what it is supposed to measure. If test items are relevant, the test is valid. Experts usually talk
about content related validity, criterion related validity, and construct related validity. These are
different ways that experts adopt to check the validity of a measuring instrument.

25. Explain 2 milestones which children achieve at concrete operational stage as given by Piaget.
The concrete operational stage comes around by about the 7th year and continues through the 11th
year of a child’s age. One important thing at this stage is that child learns to solve concrete problems in a
logical fashion. He can, during this stage, classify objects, experiences and can understand the two sides
of an object or an experience. He can understand both black and white side, such as he can understand
bad and good qualities of a friend etc. This stage is called concrete because now he is strong and logical,
things are more clear for a child. At this stage, children show logical thinking, involving “if- than” pattern
of thinking; and show the ability to arrange objects in a serial order. For example, at this stage, a child
can understand that if he will not get up early in the morning than he will be late.

26. Differentiate b/w objective testing & essay testing.

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Objective testing in relation to teaching in class means that the testing material is not open to many
interpretations. It is therefore not subjective, or open to different kinds of answers. Multiple choice
questions, matching exercises, true/false, short answers and fill in the blanks are all kinds of objective
testing. Scoring of these tests is relatively straightforward compared to the scoring of essay questions
because the answers are more clear-cut than essay answers.

Multiple Choice Tests:

Multiple choice tests can assess not only recall or recognition, but they also require a student to apply
what he/she has learned. When writing a multiple choice test the aim of the teacher is to measure a
student’s achievement, and not his test taking or guessing skills.

Prerequisites for Objective Test Construction:

Teachers must keep the following in mind when making up multiple choice exams.

1. Students should not be tested for their guessing skills.

2. Questions should be simple and clear.

3. The problem in the questions should be stated in positive terms and not in negative terms.

4. Students should not be expected to make very fine choices and distinctions in answer choices.

5. A teacher should avoid exact wording as found in the text book.

6. Categorical words such as always, only, never, should be avoided.

7. The teacher should avoid the over use of such phrases as “all of the above”, “none of the above”.

Essay Testing:

The other choice in testing available to the teacher is using the essay type exam. Essay type exam
requires a student to create his/her own answers. However this kind of testing poses a difficulty to the
examiner that involves judging the quality of the answer.

Prerequisites for Essay-Type Test Construction:

In essay type question, the student should be clearly known what elements he is expected to cover in
the answer. The student should know how extensive their answer should be and about how much time
they should spend on each question. Time factor in an essay type exam is of crucial importance. Thus
students should be given ample time to write the answer. However teachers must keep in mind that

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time pressure increases a student’s anxiety. Therefore adequate time with frequent reminders during an
exam must be given to the students. Educational experts agree that combining essay type with short
answer, objective type materials may help students to do well in exams.

Evaluating Essay Tests:

One problem with essay type exam is the problem of subjectivity in scoring. It was found in various
researches that this problem of subjectivity in scoring was not confined to some subjects, but various
subjects. The main difficulties were the individual standards of the grader and the unreliability of scoring
procedures.

Subjectivity in scoring can be avoided by: -

• Constructing a proper, good answer.

• Remembering that a good, model answer is one that contains clear statements.

• Marks may be given to good organization of the answer.

• A teacher can have the exam double checked by another teacher without telling him the grades/marks
already assigned by him.

• A teacher should make sure that while checking the papers he does not know to whom the paper
being checked belongs. Anonymity of the examinee ensures fairness in marking on the part of the
teacher.

27. What role modeling plays in a moral development of a child, Explain with the help of two real life
examples?

In this regard, modeling is an important factor. Children particularly learn from the role models as they
see and observe them. They can learn from models presented on media, teacher, parents can be a
model for a child.

 It is common observation that children imitate parent’s behaviors. If he observes helping behavior,
there are chances that he/she will learn that positive behaviors so models play very significant in
child’s moral development.
 If a parent is assertive, he/she may learn these behaviors. And those children who observe violence
at home tend to become more aggressive than others.
28. The student will be able to draw, Multi view drawing of assigned machine parts with 90%
accuracy, this is an example of which instructional objective (behavioral or cognitive). Identify and
justify your selection?

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This is an example of behavioral objective. As behavioral objectives are lists of acts or behavior that students
are supposed to show at the end of instructions. Like in this case, students’ work in the form of drawings
is observable.

A statement or a training goal is a behavioral objective if it meets all to the following conditions.

 A behavioral objective describes what the trainee should be able to DO at the end of the training.
 A behavioral objective contains an action verb describing observable, measurable behavior.
 In a behavioral objective, the trainee is the subject of the sentence.
29. Enlist any five prerequisites for objective type of test construction.

Prerequisites for Objective Test Construction:

Teachers must keep the following in mind when making up multiple choice exams.

 Students should not be tested for their guessing skills.

 Questions should be simple and clear.
 The problem in the questions should be stated in positive terms and not in negative terms.
 Students should not be expected to make very fine choices and distinctions in answer choices.
 A teacher should avoid exact wording as found in the text book.
 Categorical words such as always, only, never, should be avoided.
 The teacher should avoid the over use of such phrases as “all of the above”, “none of the above”.
30. During the process of information storage Human mind and computer perform six main
functions in the same manners; enlist any five of them in your own words.
 The human mind takes in information.
 It performs operation on it to change its form and content.
 It then stores the information that is has taken in.
 It then retrieves this information that it has taken in, when retrieval is required.
 And finally it generates a response to the taken in information.
31. Identify any five factors that facilitate social learning in individual.
Bandura had emphasized that there are four factors which facilitate and are operative in observational
or social learning:

1- Paying attention: Social learning is not possible unless a person pay attention to the phenomenon.
2- Retaining information: After paying complete attention, retaining the information is the second
factor that is another important factor.
3- Producing behaviors: Relevant behavior is produced based upon attention and retention of the
information.
4- Being motivated: If a student is not motivated they cannot learn. So it is one of the imperative
factors to enhance learning process.

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32. Children intimate behavior with their parents. Do you agree or not? Justify your stance with
logical argument?
The intimate relationship between parents and children is one that nurtures the physical, emotional and
social development of the child. It is a unique bond that every child and parent will can enjoy and
nurture. This relationship lays the foundation for the child’s personality, life choices and overall
behavior. It can also affect the strength of their social, physical, mental and emotional health.

Some benefits of intimacy:

 Young children who grow with a secure and healthy attachment to their parents stand a better chance
of developing happy and content relationships with others in their life.
 A child who has a secure relationship with parent learns to regulate emotions under stress and in
difficult situations.
 Promotes the child’s mental, linguistic and emotional development.
 Helps the child exhibit optimistic and confident social behaviors.
 Healthy parent involvement and intervention in the child’s day-to-day life lay the foundation for better
social and academic skills.
 A secure attachment leads to a healthy social, emotional, cognitive, and motivational
development. Children also gain strong problem-solving skills when they have a positive relationship
with their parents.

Example: Could not find.

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