CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS WAYS OF CLASSIFYING ORGANISMS

Classification is defined as the grouping of Artificial classification: this is based on one or a few
organisms together basing on the features they have easily observable characteristics for simplicity and
in common. convenience.

Taxonomy is defined as the science of classification. Natural classification: this considers natural
relationships between organisms e.g. internal and
Braches of taxonomy external features. The features considered include;

Nomenclature is the giving of names to organisms. • Embryology

• Physiology
Systematics is the placing of organisms into groups
• Biochemistry
basing on their similarities and differences.
• Cell structure
Binomial nomenclature is the assigning of two • Behavior
Latin names to each organism. The first name/word is
Phylogenetic classification: this is based on
the generic name and the second name/word is the
evolutionary history (phylogeny) of organisms.
specific name.
Organisms belonging to the same group are believed
In binomial nomenclature, the following rules are to share a common ancestor. It bases so much on
observed; fossil evidence.

i. The generic name starts with the upper case Phonetic classification: this is based only on
(capital letter) while the species name starts observable characteristics and all characters are
with a lower case (small letter). considered to be of importance. A lot of data is
ii. Unless written in italics, the two words must collected and the degree of similarity between
be underlined separately e.g. Homo sapiens/ different organisms is usually calculated by
Homo sapiens. computers.

THE TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY NOTE: classification today is mostly natural and

phylogenetic.
This is the descending order in size of the taxonomic
group is Kingdom, Phylum (division in plants), SPECIMEN IDENTIFICATION AND
Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species. KEYS

Each taxonomic group is called a taxon or taxa A specimen key involves listing observable
(plural). Each taxon posses a diagnostic feature i.e. characteristics of organisms and matching with those
features which are unique (peculiar) to that group e.g. features which are diagnostic in a particular group.
presence of vertebral column is a diagnostic feature
for phylum Chordata. Fur is a diagnostic feature for The characteristics used in keys should be readily
class mammalia and feathers are peculiar to birds. observable morphological characters. They may be
qualitative e.g. shape or quantitave e.g. number of
What is a species? This is a group of organisms segments. The characteristics must be constant for
having many common physical and other features that species and not subject to variations as a result of
and if sexually reproducing, they can breed to environmental influence, colour and size are highly
produce fertile offsprings. discouraged.

Dichotomous key

This is a simple diagnostic key in which pairs of

statements called leads, each dealing with a

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 particular characteristic is numbered e.g. 1, 2, 3, e.t.c. Reasons why viruses are considered to
The paired statements of each lead should be be living things
contrasting and mutually exclusive. Such that by
considering them in order, a large group of organisms a. They posses genetic material
are broken down into progressively smaller groups b. They can mutate and hence evolve
until the unknown organism is identified. An c. They carry out protein synthesis in host cells
example of a dichotomous key for indentifying d. They are capable self replication when
arthropods is shown below, inside host cells
e. They can transmit characteristics to the next
generation
1 a)b) Has 8 legs… ............................. W
Has 6 legs… ............................... 2
f.

Reasons why viruses are considered to

be non-living things
2 a) Has long antennae ..................... X
b) Has short antennae......................3
a. They can be crystallised
b. They lack enzyme systems
3 a)b) Has proboscis… ........................ Y
Has mandibles… ....................... Z
c. They cannot metabolise unless they are
inside host cells
d.
THE FIVE KINGDOMS
Generalised structure of a virus
A. Prokaryotae
B. Protoctista
C. Fungi
D. Plantae
E. Animalia

VIRUSES

Viruses do not fit in any of the above kingdoms

because they are on the border of living and non-
living things. Viruses have a simple structure
consisting of a small piece of nucleic acid either
DNA or RNA which in most viruses is surrounded by
a protein or a lipoprotein.

Characteristics of viruses

i. They lack a cellular structure i.e. they are Core This is the inner region in which the
acellular genetic material (DNA or RNA) is found.
ii. They are the smallest living things 20-300nm in The DNA or RNA may be single
diameter stranded or double stranded
iii. They are obligate endoparasites i.e. they can Capsid This is the protective coat of protein
only live parasitically inside other cells. surrounding the core.
iv. They depend on host cells for reproduction The Capsid is made up of subunits called
v. Viruses are highly specific i.e. each virus capsomeres.
recognises and infects a particular host. Envelop This is found only in some large viruses
vi. Most viruses enter their hosts by phagocytosis
and pinocytosis

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Structure of the HIV virus KINGDOM PROKARYOTAE

Prokaryotes are organisms whose genetic material is

not bound by a nuclear membrane.

All members are unicellular and they belong to two

main groups;

a. Archaea
This group contains organisms that grow
under extreme conditions e.g. halophiles
which grow under extremely high salt
concentration
The HIV virus is spherical and about 1000nm in b. Hyperthermophiles
diameter. The core region contains 2 molecules of
This group contains organisms that grow
single stranded RNA and reverse transcriptase
under very high temperatures.
enzyme surrounded by a cone shaped protein capsid.
The capsid is enclosed by an envelope composed of a
BACTERIA
lipid and glycoprotein.
They are the smallest unicellular organisms and they
The reverse transcriptase enzyme converts single are the most abundant.
stranded RNA into double stranded DNA copies.HIV
is referred to as a retrovirus because the enzyme Generalised structure of a bacteria
reverse transcriptase, found in retroviruses, catalyses
the conversion of viral RNA into DNA i.e. reverse
transcription. The viral DNA made is then inserted
into the host’s DNA where it directs the production
of more viral properties.

The envelope contains glycoproteins which bind

specifically to helper T-cell receptors, enabling the
virus to enter the helper T-lymphocytes.

Examples of viral diseases;

CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA
a. In plants
i. Cassava mosaic disease This is based on structural and metabolic features.
ii. Tobacco mosaic disease
iii. Tomato bush stunt disease Classification by shape
iv. Southern bean mosaic disease
v. There are four main shapes of bacteria and they are
b. In animals as follows;
i. Small pox
a. Spherical shape (cocci, singular = coccus)
ii. The Acquired Immuno Deficiency
They may be clusters e.g. Staphylococcus
Syndrome (AIDS)
aureus which causes boils and food
iii. Rabies
poisoning.
iv. Measles
v. New castle disease
vi.
They may occur in pairs enclosed by a
capsule, diplococci e.g. Diplococcus

Page 3 of 27
 pneumoniae which causes pneumonia. They respire without oxygen and obligate
anaerobes are killed in the presence of
oxygen. Facultative anaerobic bacteria can
use oxygen but can respire without it.
They may occur in chains, streptococci e.g.
Streptococcus thermopiles which gives Classification by methods of nutrition
yoghurt the creamy flavor
a. Autotrophic bacteria
These bacteria manufacture their own
organic food from carbon dioxide.
b. Rod shaped (bacilli, singular = bacillus) Photoautotrophic (photosynthetic) bacteria
They may occur as single rods e.g. use energy of sun light to convert carbon
Escherichia coli which lives in the guts of dioxide into carbohydrates. Examples
humans and Bacillus anthrax which causes include; the blue-green bacteria, sulphur
anthrax. bacteria and cyano bacteria.
Chemoautotrophic (chemosynthetic)
bacteria use energy from chemical reactions
to convert carbon dioxide into
They may occur in chains e.g. Azotobacter
carbohydrates. Inorganic substances such as
which fixes nitrogen in the soil.
ammonia, methane and hydrogen sulphide
are oxidized to release energy.
c. Curved or spiral shaped Examples include; +
Nitrosomonas NH NO - + Energy
4 2
Spiral shaped bacteria include Spirillum
species Nitrobacter O2+NO2- NO3 + Energy
O2

b. Heterotrophic bacteria
This feeds on already made organic food but
Curved shaped bacteria include the coma
in different ways.
shaped (vibrios) bacteria such as Vibrio
Chemo-heterotrophic bacteria obtain
cholera which causes cholera.
energy from chemicals in food.
Saptrotrophic bacteria obtain their food
from dead and decayed organic matter.
Such bacteria secrete enzymes into the food,
d. Filamentous bacteria and absorb the soluble products of extra
This group includes Actinomyces which cellular digestion with the saptrotrophic
occur in the mouth and may cause dental body for assimilation.
caries. Parasitic bacteria live on other organisms
(hosts) from which they obtain food as the
Classification by method of respiration host suffers harms.
Mutualistic bacteria live in close
a. Aerobic bacteria associations with legumes in the root
These bacteria require oxygen for nodules
respiration. Obligate aerobes cannot survive Note: Escherichia coli contribute vitamins
without oxygen but facultative aerobic B and K groups. Rhizobium fixes nitrogen
bacteria can survive in the absence of into the plants as it is provided with a
oxygen. shelter.
b. Anaerobic bacteria

Page 4 of 27
Classification by staining reaction ii. Depletion of oxygen (reduction of oxygen)
iii. Accumulation of toxic wastes from
Gram positive bacteria; they stain purple with a metabolism
gram stain. The cell wall lacks an extra outer
membrane. Phase of decline (F). The population declines slowly
because the cells stop multiplying due to exhaustion
Gram negative bacteria; they stain pink with a of oxygen, accumulation of wastes and exhaustion of
gram stain. Their cell wall lacks an extra outer nutrients.
membrane which is made out of lipids and
polysaccharides. The outer membrane gives them FACTORS WHICH AFFECT BACTERIAL
protection against penicillin and lysozymes. GROWTH

POPULATION GROWTH CURVE OF 1. Nutrient availability

BACTERIA 2. Oxygen availability
3. Temperature
i.High temperature speeds up bacterial
population growth up to 400C after which it
declines
ii. Very low temperatures slow down bacterial
growth because the enzymes become
inactivated.
4. Availability of moisture
5. Accumulation of toxic waste products (carbon
dioxide). Low pH results from the reaction
between carbon dioxide, from respiration with
water to form the weak carbonic acid.
i.e.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3

Low pH inhibits bacterial population growth while

high pH favours bacterial population growth.
Lag phase (A). The population increases gradually
as the bacteria are still adapting to their new
environment and growth has not yet achieved the
Log (number of

maximum rate. The bacteria also synthesises new

bacteria)

substances.
pH

Log phase (B). The population increases rapidly with

time. The bacteria have adapted to the environment
and enzymes have been synthesised to digest food
which is in abundance so as to support the rapidly
Time
increasing population.

Decelerating phase (D) There is slow population ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA

growth because food has reduced.
1. They are cultured for research purposes
Stationary phase (E) The population remains 2. They facilitate the making of foods like yoghurt,
constant with time because the death rate equals to cheese and vinegar
the rate of formation of new cells due to; 3. They are used for making antibiotics, amino
acids and enzymes.
i. Stiff competition for decreasing food

Page 5 of 27
4. In humans, vitamin K and B complex are Functions of the parts
produced by the symbiotic bacteria (E. Coli)
while in animals it is used to break down The mitochondria is used in the production of
cellulose. energy for the contractile vacuole
5. They cause decomposition of dead organic
The cytoplasm is the place where all the important
matter, hence enabling their disposal.
chemical reactions take place.
6. They take part in nutrient recycling e.g. the
nitrogen cycle, carbon cycle and the phosphorous The contractile vacuole is used for osmoregulation
cycle.
7. On the other hand, bacteria cause food to get The nucleus is essential for directing activities
spoilt
8. Bacteria like Thiobacillus and Disulphovibrio PHYLUM CILIOPHORA (CILIATES)
produces sulphuric acid which destroys
underground metal pipes. Examples include Paramecium, Stentor, Vorticella,
Didinia e.t.c.

Characteristics
KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA • They are unicellular
• They feed heterotrophically
Protists are eukaryotes and they may be unicellular or
multicellular. They are placed under several phyla • Their cilia has a 9+2 tubule arrangement
but those of much importance at this level include the • The cilia collects food and enable locomotion in
following. water
• Their habitat is fresh water and marine water
PHYLUM RHIZOPODA • They have two types of nuclei, the larger macro
nucleus which controls all cell metabolic
Examples include; activities and the micro nucleus which controls
sexual reproduction called conjugation.
i. Amoeba proteus which lives in fresh water
• The macro nucleus is polyploid i.e. it has more
ii. Entamoeba histolytica which causes
than two sets of chromosomes and the micro
amoebic dysentery
nucleus is diploid i.e. it has two sets of
chromosomes.
Characteristics
Diagram of a paramecium
• They are unicellular and bear pseudopodia
(false feet) which enables movement and
phagocytosis
• They reproduce asexually
• They feed heterotrophically

Diagram of Amoeba

Page 6 of 27
PHYLUM ZOOMASTIGINA Characteristics
(Flagellates)
• they are unicellular
Examples include trypanasoma which causes • they are heterotrophic
trypanasomiasis (sleeping sickness), trychomonas • they lack locomotory structures
• they are spore producing parasites of
Characteristics animals
• they reproduce sexually and asexually
• They bear flagella for locomotion
• their lifecycles are complex involving
• They are heterotrophic
several animal hosts
• They are unicellular
• The reproduce both asexually and sexually Life cycle of plasmodium
• They bear a 9+2 tubule arrangement
An infected anopheles mosquito bites a person,
PHYLUM EUGLENOPHYTA injecting plasmodium sporozoites in its saliva. The
sporozoites enter the person’s liver cells. After
The only member is euglena which lives in an aquatic several days, the sporozoites undergo multiple
environment. divisions and become merozoites, which use the
apical complex to penetrate red blood cells. The
Characteristics
merozoites divide asexually inside the red blood
cells. At intervals of 48 or 72 hours (depending on
• They are mostly unicellular
the species), large numbers of merozoites break out
• They reproduce asexually
of the blood cells, causing periodic chills and fever.
• They move by flagella
Some of the merozoites infect other red blood cells.
• Some are photosynthetic while others are
Some merozoites form gametophytes. Another
heterotrophic or autotrophic
anopheles mosquito bites the infected person and
picks up plasmodium gametophytes along with
blood.

Gametes form from the gametophytes; each male

gametophyte produces several slender male gametes.
Fertilisation occurs in the mosquito’s digestive tract,
and a zygote forms. An oocyst develops from the
zygote in the wall of the mosquito’s gut. The oocyst
releases thousands of sporozoites, which migrate to
the mosquito’s salivary glands.

PHYLUM OOMYCOTA

Includes peronospora which grows on grapes and

pythium which causes late potato blight and tomato
rot

They are characterized by production of spores that

bear flagella. Such spores are produced both sexually
and asexually.
PHYLUM APICOMPLEXA (sporozoans)

Members include plasmodium which causes malaria

in humans

Page 7 of 27
PHYLUM CHLOROPHYTA (green
algae)

The members include volvox, chlorella and spirogyra

Chlorella which is a unicellular non filamentous alga

that lives in fresh water ponds

Chlamydominas which is a motile unicellular algae

Characteristics

• They contain chlorophyll and therefore they

are photosynthetic
• Their cell walls contain cellulose
• They store starch
• They reproduce sexually and asexually Spirogyra is a filamentous algae that lives in fresh
• Spirogyra is a filamentous algae that lives in water ponds
fresh water ponds
PHYLUM PHAEOPHYTA

These are the brown algae. The members include

Fucus, Laminaria and Ascophyllum.

Characteristics

• They posses chlorophyll and therefore

carryout photosynthesis
• They are multicellular
• They are marine and are therefore called the
sea weed
• They contain a brown pigment called
fucoxanithin which gives them a brown
colour

PHYLUM RHODOPHYTA

These are red algae and members include chodris.

Characteristics

• It is marine
• It contains chlorophyll hence it carries out
photosynthesis
• It contains a red pigment called
phycoerythin
• It also contains a blue pigment called
phycocyanin
• It produces agar which is extracted from
them for laboratory purposes

Page 8 of 27
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ALGAE PHYLUM ZYGOMYCOTA
1. They can be used as fertilisers in farms Members include mucor and rhizopus (bread mould).
2. The carry out photosynthesis in oceans They live in damp organic matter e.g. bread
which:
• Provide food for other organisms
• Release oxygen
• Reduce carbon dioxide which
would cause acidity in water
3. Some of their products are useful in various
industrial processes
4. Algae blooms result in severe pollution of
water bodies.
5. Chlorella can be cultivated to provide Single
Cell Protein (SCP) for humans and animal
consumption

Note;

KINGDOM FUNGI a. The sporangium is black when ripe and

colour less when immature. It produces
Characteristics that distinguish them spores for asexual reproduction
from plants b. The sporagiophore is a vertically growing
hypha that bears the sporangium.
• Carbohydrates are stored as glycogen but c. Rhizoids which are root like structures
not as starch
• Their cell walls contain chitin but not
PHYLUM ASCOMYCOTA
cellulose
• They have no chlorophyll hence they don’t Members include Penicillium, Aspergillus and Yeast
carry out photosynthesis sacchromycetes.
• They reproduce by spores that lack flagella
• They carry out heterotrophic nutrition as Characteristics
parasites and saprophytes on
microorganisms. • Penicillium species form blue; some are
green or sometimes yellow moulds on bread,
• Their bodies are usually made up of a
decaying fruit e.t.c.
mycelium of thread like multi nucleate
hyphae without distinct cell bodies • Their hyphae have cross walls called septa,
(aseptate) or they may have cross walls therefore Penicillium is septate
(septate) • It reproduces asexually by means of spores
called conidia formed at the tip of special
• They undergo nuclear mitosis i.e. their
cytoplasm, nuclear membrane and cell hyphae called conidiophores.
membrane never divided • Penicillium produces penicillin which is an
• Fungal mitochondria have flattened cristae antibiotic, during aerobic respiration.
(whereas plants have tubular ones)

Page 9 of 27
 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

1. They cause decomposition of sewage and

organic material in soil
2. Penicillium and Aspergillus form antibiotics
during aerobic respiration
3. Yeast forms alcohol during anaerobic respiration
4. Yeast is used in bread production
5. Fermentation of Aspergillus forms citric acid
used in lemonade formation
6. Used for experimental purposes especially in
genetic investigations
7. Fungi causes decomposition of stored food and
deterioration of natural materials like leather
8. Some fungi cause plant diseases e.g. powdery
mildew caused by Erysphie graminae
9. Some are poisonous to man
10. They cause skin irritations e.g. ringworms
11. They are eaten as food e.g. mushrooms

KINGDOM PLANTAE (plants)

Characteristics

• Their cell walls contain cellulose

• They reproduce both sexually and asexually
• They are multi cellular
• They are photosynthetic except for some
parasites that lack chlorophyll
• They have alternation of generations i.e. the
haploid and diploid generations alternate in the
Characteristics of the yeast cell lifecycle.

• It has oval shaped cells PHYLUM BRYOPHYTA (bryophytes)

• It is unicellular
• Reproduces by budding The members include mosses and liverworts. The
• Yeast produces ethanol during anaerobic members live in damp shady soils or tree logs.
respiration
Bryophytes are the smallest land plants and they are
PHYLUM BASIDIOMYCOTA thought to have evolved from green algae.

Members include mushrooms, toad stools, puff balls Characteristics

and rusts. Rusts attack cereal crops
• They lack vascular tissues
Characteristics • They lack true roots, stems or leaves
• Their body is a thallus which is differentiated
• They reproduce asexually by sporulation into simple “leaves and stems”
• They have septate hyphae • Alternation of generation occurs and the
gametophyte generation is dominant

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• The gametophyte is anchored by thallus rhizoids A moss consists of two distinct forms in its lifecycle
which grow from the stem. i.e. the haploid gametophyte which is dominant and
the diploid sporophyte
NOTE: Water and mineral salts are absorbed by the
whole plant surface because the plant surface lacks a The antheridia (sperm producing organ) and
cuticle; therefore water uptake occurs by osmosis. archegonia (egg producing organ) may be located on
the same plant or different plants.
Phylum bryophyta contains two main classes;
When mature, the antheridia shade their sperms
1. Class hepaticae (liverworts) (antherozoids) into the archegonia aided by the rain-
2. Class Musci (mosses) splash.

EXTERNAL FEAUTRES OF A MOSS The haploid biflagellate sperms fuse with haploid
eggs (ospheres) to form a diploid zygote (oospheres)

The zygote develops into sporophytes which attach

and survive on the gametophyte

When mature, the sporophyte produces haploid

spores by meiosis. The spores are released by
splitting of the spore capsule when dry.

When the spores land on moisten soils, they

germinate into a protonema which later develops into
a new diploid gametophyte

ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

This is the occurancy of two or more generations

within the lifecycle of an organism, a haploid
gametophyte and a diploid saprophyte.

Generalised life cycle p.g. 39 in BIOLOGICAL

PHYLUM PTERIDOPHYTA
SCIENCE (Filicinophyta or the ferns)

Description of alternation of Members include; Pteridium and Dryopteris

generation in a bryophyte like a Characteristics
moss
• The vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) are
present.

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• The leaves are relatively large and are called • The spores germinate into a heart-shaped
fronds. The large surface area of the leaves prothallus which is the gametophyte
increases the photosynthetic surface of the plant • Prothallus bears antheridia which produces
• Spores are produced in sporangia (singular; haploid sperms and archegonia which
sporangium), usually in clusters called sori produces eggs by mitosis
(sorus, singular) • On rupturing, the ciliated sperms from the
• Alternation of generation occurs and the antheridia swim towards the fertile eggs in
sporophyte is dominant the archegonia
• The gametophyte is reduced to a small simple • The zygotes develops into sporophytes
prothallus
• The sporophyte generation posses true roots,
stems and leaves.
The roots penetrate the soil to absorb water
and dissolved mineral salts

COMPARISON BETWEEN A MOSS

AND A FERN
ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS IN
A FERN (Pteridophyte/filicinophyte) Similarities

A fern consists of two distinct forms in its life. The • Both form spores
diploid sporophyte, which is the dominant stage and • Both grow in damp soils/ organic matter
the haploid gametophyte • Alternation of generation occurs in both
• In both the gametophyte is anchored by the
• The diploid spore (mother cell) inside the rhizoids
sporangia divide
• When mature, the protecting covering Differences
(indusium), shrinks and catapults the spores
of the sporangia Moss Fern
No vascular tissue Vascular tissue present

Page 12 of 27
No sorus Sorus present at leaf transfer gamete transfer and
underside spore germination
Spore capsule present No spore capsule Gametophytes may or may Gametophytes always
Saprophyte is attached to Gametophyte is attached not bear both sexual bears both sexual
gametophyte to sporophyte reproductive organs reproductive organs
It lacks true roots, leaves True roots, stems and
and stems leaves are present
No rhizoids Rhizoid present SIGNIFICANCE OF ALTERNATION OF
Gametophyte not heart Gametophyte is heart GENERATION
shaped shaped
Leaves are simple and Leaves are relatively 1. Spores cause rapid multiplication of species
2. Different habitats of the ecosystem are exploited
small large
by the different generations
3. It enables plants to cope with adverse
COMPARISON OF ALTERNATION OF environmental conditions
4. Reduces chances of extinction
GENERATION BETWEEN MOSSES
5. Gametes are formed by meiosis which brings
AND FERNS
about genetic variations
Similarities
PHYLUM CONIFEROPHYTA
• Spore formation occurs in spore bearing Members include Cedars, Horches and Christmas
sporangia tress i.e. Firs and Spruce
• Sporophytes are diploid while gametophytes are
haploid Characteristics
• Spores form by meiosis whereas gametes are
formed by mitosis • They bear cones in which spore producing
• Sexual and asexual reproduction occurs sporangia and seeds develop
• They lack fruits and flowers
• Male gametes are motile while eggs are non
motile • The seed is naked i.e. it is not enclosed by the
ovary wall.
• In both there’s only one dominant stage
• Leaves are usually needle-like with a thick waxy
• The gametophyte bears the archegonia
cuticle
• Sperms formed in the antheridia are brought into
contact with the eggs by some mechanism Economic importance

Differences 1. A source of soft wood for timber

2. Pine nuts are used in cooking
Moss Ferns 3. Spruce and firs are used as Christmas trees
The sperms are biflagellate The sperms are ciliated
Sporophytes grow on the Sporophyte is self
gametophyte supporting PHYLUM ANGIOSPERMOPHYTA
Spores germinate into a Spores germinate
protonema first and then directly into a This phylum includes all flowering plants
into a gametophyte gametophyte
Characteristics
Gametophyte is a Saprophyte is a
dominant generation dominant generation
• They flowers in which sporangia, spores and
There is much dependency There is less
seeds develop
on water for growth, spore dependency on water,
• The seeds are enclosed in an ovary
dispersal and gamete only being used for

Page 13 of 27
 • After fertilisation, the ovary develops into a 6. Fertilisation is not dependent on water therefore
fruit reduces necessity for water inside the sporophyte
• There are two classes of which is well adapted for terrestrial life.
Angiospermatophyta
 Monocotyledon The adaptations above may also be considered as the
 Dicotyledon advantages of seed bearing plants over mosses and
ferns
Monocots Dicots
Embryo sac has one seed Embryo sac has two seed KINGDOM ANIMALIA
leaf (cotyledon) leaves (cotyledons)
General characteristics
Have scattered vascular Have a ring of vascular
bundles in the stem bundles in the stem • Their cell walls lack cell walls
Flower parts are usually Flower parts are usually • Most can move from one place to another
in 3’s or multiples of 3 in 4’s or 5’s or multiples i.e. they are motile
of 4 or 5
• They are multicellular eukaryotes
Calyx and corolla are not Calyx and corolla are
• They have a nervous common system except
usually easily easily distinguishable
the sponges
distinguishable
They are usually wind They are often insect Definition of terms
pollinated pollinated
Have narrow leaves with Have broad leaves with 1. Tissue
parallel venation network venation This is a group of cells, often similar in structure and
origin, operating together to perform a specific
function
Challenges or problems faced by plants 2. Tissue differentiation
This is the specialisation of tissue for different
1. Desiccation/ dry out
functions
2. Support in air/ on land
3. An organ
3. Obtaining nutrients
This is the structural distinct part of the body which
4. Obtaining gases for respiration
usually performs a particular function.
5. Movement of the reproductive gametes
An organ is made up of similar types of tissue which
6. Environmental variables such as light
are highly organised and have structural relationship
intensity, temperature, pH e.t.c.
with each other.
Summary of adaptations of seed bearing 4. Organism
plants to life on land This is the interrelationship of different organ
systems which together perform a specific function
1. Leaves possess stomata for gaseous exchange 5. Symmetrical body
2. Leaves and stems are covered by a waxy cuticle This is the body which when cut, may produce halves
which minimises water loss which are mirror (identical) images of each other.
3. They possess true roots which enable water and Bilateral symmetrical body
dissolved mineral salts to be absorbed This is the body which can be divided into two
4. They undergo secondary growth which enable identical halves along one plane only.
seed bearing plants to compete effectively for Radial symmetrical body
light and other resources This is the body which can be cut along more than
5. The fertilised ovule (seed) is retained for one plane to produce halves that are identical to each
sometime on the parent plant (sporophyte) from other.
which it obtains protection and food before 6. Asymmetrical body
dispersal.

Page 14 of 27
This is a body which cannot produce halves that are since simple diffusion combines with their large
mirror images of each other if cut along any plane. surface area to volume ratio
5. There’s no need for development of complex
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION support systems like cartilage, bones, xylem
e.t.c.
Four levels of organisation are recognised;
Disadvantages
1. Unicellular level (single cell
organisation) 1. Predators
Protists have all the functions which are carried out
by an organ system being performed by a single Advantages and disadvantages of
organelle in the cell. Such organisms include multicellular level of organisation
paramecium, amoeba plasmodium e.t.c.
2. Tissue level of organisation Advantages
These are primitive multicellular animals in which
physiological processes are carried out mainly by 1. Worn out cells are easily replaced by cell
isolated cells and tissues. Apart from reproductive division
organs, there are no structures that can be regarded as 2. Multicellularity allows tissue specialisation
organs but most of the cells are integrated to form which increases efficiency in performing body
tissues. functions
Such animals represent a stage in evolution preceding 3. They have complex physiological mechanisms
the development of organs and organisms which are which enable the maintenance of a relative
the characteristics of higher forms. constant internal environment
Tissue level is considered to be between the colonial 4. They have a larger complex support system
and unicellular levels of organisation. which increase the chances of catching prey but
Tissue level of organisation includes animals such as also reduces chances of predation
hydra. 5. They have an efficient sensory system due to
3. Colonial level of organisation tissue specialisation which enables animals to
These organisms have different types of cells each escape from predators quickly.
carrying out a different function. They are therefore
Disadvantages
regarded as colonies of single cells rather than
multicellular individuals e.g. sponges 1. They require large quantities of food
4. Organ level of organisation 2. They require specialised locomotory structures to
Plants, mammals and the majority of animals have enable motion
their functions carried out mostly by organ and 3. They produce a large quantity of waste products
organs systems hence a necessity for development of complex
excretory systems
Advantages and disadvantages of 4. They have a small surface area to volume ratio
unicellular level of organisation that requires development of transport systems
since simple diffusion cannot supply enough
Advantages
nutrients to the animal
1. Their small size enables living in a variety of
PHYLUM CNIDARIA (Cnidarians)
habitats
2. There is less food intake Members include Hydra, Obelia, sea anemone,
3. There is no need for the development of complex Portuguese man of war and Jelly fish.
excretory organs since they take in less food.
4. No necessity for development of complex Characteristics
circulatory and gaseous exchange structures

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• They are diploblastic animals i.e. they have two The structure of a body wall of hydra
cell layers separated by the mesogloea (a Jelly-
like non-cellular layer)

The mesogloea may contain cells that have migrated

from other layers.

Transverse section through the body of

Cnidarians

Hydra belongs to the tissue level of organisation

• They have nematoblasts (stinging cells) which which enables cells to act together in a relatively
when touched (stimulated) release a chemical coordinated manner so as to carry out various
which can be used to capture prey or used to functions effectively.
defend against predators
PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
Nematoblasts occur in the ectoderm and when
touched, can inject toxins into the prey/ predator Members include tapeworm (taenia), blood fluke
which results into paralysis of the small animals. (Schistosoma), liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) and
planaria
• They are radially symmetrical i.e. the body can
be divided into equal halves by more than one Characteristics
straight line/plane which passes through the
• They are Triploblastic i.e. the body is composed
central body
of three layers, the outer ectoderm and the inner
• They exhibit polymorphism i.e. individual cells
endoderm and between these two is the
have specialised shapes with different functions
mesoderm
Polymorphism is the existence of the cell organisms
in a number of morphologically distinct forms.

• They have tentacles which bear stinging cells

called nematoblasts

• They have bilateral symmetry i.e. The body can

only give two equal and opposite halves if cut
along one plane.
• They have an un-segmented body

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• Their bodies are dorsal ventrally flattened Class Trematoda (flukes)
• They are hermaphrodites, often with elaborate
precautions to minimise self fertilisation Members include Fasciola (lever fluke) and
• They have flame cells for excretion and Schistosoma (blood fluke) which causes
osmoregulation Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) in tropical countries.

Significance or importance of possessing Characteristics

a mesoderm in the body
• They have a leaf-like shape
1. It allows triploblastic organisms to increase in • They bear suckers for attachment to the host
size and thus results into the considerable • They have a thick outer cuticle
separation of the alimentary canal from the body • The enteron is present
wall • They are endoparasites (live inside the body)
2. Used in forming a variety of organs which may or ecto parasites (live on the outer surface of
combine together and contribute towards an the host)
organ system of organisation
3. It enables the improvement of muscular activity
by triploblastic organisms. It’s necessary because
of their increased size which renders the use of
flagella or cilia inappropriate.

There are three classes in phylum platyhelminthes

Class Turbellaria

Members in this class include planaria which lives

under stones in fresh water streams.
Class Cestoda (tapeworms)
Characteristics
Examples include Taenia solium and Taenia
• The cuticle is absent
• The enteron is present Saginata
• They have delicate soft bodies
Characteristics
• They have sense organs in the adult stage
• Cephalization occurs • They are endoparasites.
• They have flattened elongated bodies with a
distinct head called scolex which bears
hooks and suckers for attachment to the
host.
• The body is divided into proglotidds which
are able to break off.
• They have no mouth/gut (enteron).
• They use the host digested food by
absorbing it directly through the integument.
• There is a thick cuticle for protection against
the host’s enzyme digestion.
• They lack cilia.

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ADAPTATIONS OF PLATYHELMITHES TO • Their alimentary canal is straight from the mouth
A PARASITIC MODE OF LIFE to the anus.
• Their sexes are separate
1. They have a special way of gaining entry into the • They lack cilia
body of the host but locomotory structures are
• A cuticle of protein is present
generally reduced or absent.
• Some are free living plant and animal parasites
2. They have structures which anchor them onto
• They are elongated and round in cross-section
their host. Liver flukes have suckers; tapeworms
with pointed ends
have both hooks and suckers.
3. They protect themselves against the internal
environment. Flatworms produce inhibitory PHYLUM ANNELIDA (segmented
substances to prevent their being digested by
worms)
host enzymes.
4. They have complex lifecycles. Fasciola and General characteristics
Taenia have a secondary host which transfers
one parasite from the primary host to another. • They are coelomate and triploblastic
5. They have a very high reproductive output. • They have no Chitineous cuticle
Adults devote much of their energy and body • They possess Chitineous bristles called chaetae
space to sexual reproduction. • They exhibit metameric segmentation i.e. their
segments are repeated and are of the same age
and size
• They have bilateral symmetry

The main classes of phylum annelida include;

Class Polychaeta (marine worms)

Members include the rag worm (Nereis) and lug

worm

Characteristics

• The sexes are separate

• Most are marine
PHYLUM NEMATODA (round worms) • Most of them have a distinct head
• The chaetae are numerous and occur on later
Members include; projections of the body called parapodia
• They lack the clitellum
a. Ascaris Lumbricoides, which is an intestinal
parasite
b. Wucheriria bancroft, which infects the human
lymphatic system and causes elephantiasis
c. Thread worms which are endoparasites of dogs
and cats plus humans, mainly children.

Characteristic features

• They are triploblastic

Class Oligochaetae (earthworms)
• They have bilateral symmetry
• They have an un-segmented cylindrical body • They possess relatively few chaetae

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• No larval form
• They have a less distinct head
• They lack parapodia
• They are hermaphrodites
• They live in fresh water or soil
• Clitellum is present. The clitellum is a saddle-
like region of oligochaetae which is prominent in
sexually mature animals. Contains mucus glands
which secrete a sheath around copulating worms
binding them together, the resultant cocoons
houses the fertilised eggs during their THE COELOM
development
This is the main (secondary) body cavity of many
Examples include Lumbricus triploblastic animals, in which the gut is suspended.
The principal mode of origin is by separation of the
mesoderm from the endoderm. It contains a fluid
(coelomic fluid) which receives excretory wastes
and/ gametes, which reach the exterior via ciliated
funnels and ducts.

Biological significance of the coelom

1. It provides space in which internal organs can

Biological importance of earthworms grow, develop and function independently of
each other
1. They mix soil layers 2. It contains coelomic fluid which bathes the
2. They burrow tunnels which improves aeration organs and can act as a hydrostatic skeleton
and drainage of the soil 3. It allows the animal’s internal organs to move
3. They add organic matter to soil by excretion and independent of each other and move independent
death of the whole body e.g. the gut can perform
4. Secretions of the gut neutralise acidic soils peristalsis without causing the body wall to
5. Dead vegetation is pulled into the soil where move into waves of contraction
decay takes place 4. Coelomic fluid may be used to circulate food,
waste materials and respiratory gases although
Class Hirudinea
these functions are mainly carried out by the
Members include Hirudo the medicinal leech body vascular system.

• Free living carnivores Problems caused by the coelom

• No chaetae or parapodia
i. It separates the body wall from the gut,
• No distinct head causing difficulty in transporting digested
• No clitellum food and respiratory gases resulting into the
• Some are ecto-parasites with anterior and development of transport system
posterior suckers ii. Increased size and complexity requires a
more complex coordination system,
therefore a more elaborate nervous system

PHYLUM MOLLUSCA

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Characteristics • Their skin bears spines hence the name of the
phylum
• These are triploblastic coelomate animals • Adults show penta-radiate symmetry (5-way
• They have soft bodies which are covered by a symmetry) but their larval forms show bilateral
calcareous shell i.e. shell containing calcium. symmetry
These shells are produced by special epidermal • The mouth generally occurs on the lower side
tissue called mantle (oral side) while the anus occurs on the upper
• They have an un-segmented body with a head, side (literal side)
foot with a visceral hump is a central mass of • They lack a proper circulatory system
internal organs • They are exclusively marine inhabitants
• They have bilateral symmetry • They have a calcareous skeleton
• They move slowly by the concerted action of
The classes of phylum mollusca include;
numerous suctorial tube feet
Class Gatropoda

Members include slugs and Helix (the garden snail)

Characteristics

• They have a distinct head with eyes and sense

tentacles
• The shell when present is single and often coiled
• They have a radula (a tongue-like organ) armed
with rows of teeth, with which they feed

Class Pelycopoda PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

Examples include mussels, oysters and clams.
Arthropods contain more species than any other
phyla. Insects in particular, account for more than
Characteristics
half of all known arthropods. Insects have been
• No tentacles successful in exploiting every type of habitat because
• Head reduced they have undergone adaptive radiation i.e. they
• The shells have two halves suited for flying, burrowing, living in aquatic areas,
• They are filter feeders parasitism e.t.c.

Diagnostic features of arthropods

Class Cephalopoda
Possession of jointed appendages for feeding,
Examples include squids, octopus and cat fish. locomotion and sensory purposes

They possess a head like structure i.e. false head Possession of an exoskeleton comprising of a
chitineous cuticle and sometimes calcareous matter
which makes it rigid and stiff at the mouth parts but
flexible at the joints
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
Other characteristic features
Examples include starfish, sea cucumbers, sea lilies,
brittle stars and sea urchins. • Triploblastic coelomate
• Bilateral symmetry
Characteristics • Metameric segmentation

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• The coelom is much reduced and the main body This class has Lithobius, (the centipede)
cavity is a haemocoel i.e. the coelom is almost
completely displaced during devolvement by • Terrestrial and mainly carnivorous
another cavity called the haemocoel which is • Have a clearly defined head, but all other body
filled with blood parts are similar
• They possess one pair of antennae
NOTE • They possess one pair of mouth parts (jaws)
• Eyes, either simple or compound, are absent
• Arthropods are at a high danger of blood loss
• Numerous identical legs i.e. one pair per segment
from injury because they have the open blood
• No larval form
system
• Gaseous exchange occurs by the trachea
• The high blood volume in arthropods enables
them to maintain a high metabolic rate allowing Class Diplopoda
them to be very active animals
The only member of this class is the millipede.
Disadvantages associated with the
presence of an exoskeleton Characteristics

1. It’s weight to strength ratio decreases with the • Mainly terrestrial

size of the animal making it less efficient as the • Mainly herbivorous
animals becomes larger • The head is distinct but all other body segments
2. It resists growth and therefore periodical are similar
moulting (ecdysis) is required if the animal is to • One pair of mouth parts
grow • One pair of antennae
3. During moulting, the body of the arthropod is • Eyes, either simple or compound, are absent
soft and very vulnerable to attack by predators • Numerous identical legs with two pairs per
and pathogens segment
The groups of arthropods include; • They lack a larval form
• Gaseous exchange is by the trachea
Class Crustacea/ crustaceans
Class Arachnida
Members in this phylum include; Lobsters,
Barnacles, Water fleas, Daphnia, and Astacus Members include mites, ticks, scorpions, spiders
(Epeira, the web spinning spiders) e.t.c.
Barnacles are sessile and remain attached to rocks by
the head. Wood lice are the only terrestrial Characteristics
crustacean.
• Mainly terrestrial
Characteristics • Mainly carnivorous
• Two major body divisions present i.e. a
• Two pairs of antennae cephalothorax and abdomen
• A pair of compound eyes • No antennae
• Gaseous exchange occurs by gills • No true mouth parts but a pair of
• Three pairs of mouth parts (jaws) appendages are used for capturing prey and
• They are mainly aquatic the second pair is used as sensory palps.
• Head and thorax are not distinctively • Simple eyes present but no compound eyes
separate i.e. they possess a cephalothorax • Four pairs of walking legs
• No larval form
Class Chilopoda

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 • Gaseous exchange is by lungs or gill books Examples include;
or trachea • Pieris (butterfly)
• Apis (honey bee)
Class Insecta • Musca (housefly)
Diagnostic features Some orders of class insecta
a. Three main body divisions i.e. head, thorax and Order Orthoptera
abdomen
b. Three pairs of legs on the thorax, one pair per Examples include crickets, grasshoppers and walking
segment sticks.
c. Three thoracic segments i.e. prothorax,
mesothorax and metathorax. Characteristics

Other characteristic features • Chewing mouth parts

• Straight wings
• Mainly terrestrial • Complete metamorphosis
• No gills in adults • Two pairs of wings with the front wings
• They have simple eyes being narrow and leathery. The hind wings
• Usually three pairs of mouth parts are broad, membranous and folded when at
• Gaseous exchange occurs by trachea rest
• Lifecycles commonly involves
metamorphosis Order Dictyoptera

Subclass Apterygota, these are wingless insects and Examples include cockroaches and mantids and their
they include Lepisma (silverfish) a common characteristics include;
inhabitant of bathrooms and kitchens
• They are dorso ventrally flattened
Subclass Pterygota, these are winged insects which • They undergo incomplete metamorphosis
are further divided into two; • Two pairs of wings with the front wings being
narrow and leathery. The hind wings are broad,
a. Exopterygota membranous and folded when at rest.
This is whereby the wings develop externally.
They undergo incomplete metarmorphosis i.e. Order Isoptera
Hemimetabolus
Examples include; Members include termites and their characteristics
include;
• Locusta (the long horned grass hopper)
• Periplaneta (cockroach) • Chewing mouth parts
• Dragon flies • Workers and soldiers are wingless
b. Endopterygota
• They undergo incomplete metamorphosis
The wings develop internally.
• Reproductive termites possess two pairs of
They undergo complete metamorphosis i.e.
similar membranous wings which are held
holometabolus
out flat when at rest and the wings are shed
Egg larva pupa adult off after the mating

The larval stage is specialised for eating and growing. Order Hemiptera
They are known by such names as caterpillars and
grab It includes all the bugs, and their characteristics
The adult is specialised for dispersal and include;
reproduction

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 • Piercing and sucking mouthparts which serve as balancing organs during
• Two pairs of membranous wings flight

Order Homoptera Order Siphnoptera

It includes aphids and cicadas. Their characteristics This order includes the fleas and their characteristics
include the following; include;

• They have piercing and sucking mouth parts • They are wingless
• Incomplete or complete metarmorphosis • They lack eyes
• Some species can reproduce without mating • They exhibit incomplete metarmorphosis
• Some are wingless, others possess one or two • They possess piercing mouthparts
pairs of membranous wings
Order Odonata
Order Hymenoptera
Members include dragon flies and damsel flies. Their
Members include ants, wasps, bees and sawflies. adult characteristics include;
Their characteristics include;
• Chewing mouthparts
• Chewing and lapping mouth parts • Two pairs of equal sized transparent
• Worker ants and few others are wingless membranous wings that cannot be folded.
• Two pairs of small stiff and membranous wings • They have huge eyes
that interlock during flight • They possess very small antennae
• The front wings are larger than the hind wings • Legs cannot walk but are used to capture prey in
• They undergo complete metamorphosis air
• They mate in flight
Order Lepidoptera • They exhibit incomplete metarmorphosis

Members include butterflies and moth.

• Long antennae PHYLUM CHORDATA

• Complete metamorphosis
• Sucking mouth parts shaped like a coiled tube During their lifetime, all chordates possess the
when at rest following structures;
• The front wings are usually larger than the hind
wings 1. Notochord
This is a rigid but flexible dorsal rod which consists
• Possess to pairs of usually broad wings which
of vacuolated cells surrounded by a tough outer coat.
possess scales
In primitive chordates, a notochord prevents
Order Diptera shortening of the body so that most of the force of
muscle contractions is transmitted into bending
Members include houseflies, mosquitoes and midges. movements, which are useful for swimming.
Their adult characteristics include; 2. Hollow dorsal nerve cord (central nervous
system)
• Two large compound eyes This is formed by invaginations from the outer wall
• Piercing mouth parts layer (ectoderm) of the embryo and develops as a
• Complete metarmorphosis group of cells which is later closed off at the top.
• The two front wings are transparent and the 3. Pharyngeal gill slits (visceral clefts)
two hind wings are reduced to halteres These are perforations on either side of the pharynx
which occurs in all chordate embryos.

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 In vertebrates, the number of slits is greatly They have a well-developed central nervous
reduced and may be modified for different system
purposes. For example, in fish and larval Vertebrates are subdivided into the
amphibians, their walls are lined with feathery following taxa.
gills which are used for gaseous exchange. In
fish and larval amphibians, their walls are lined Subphylum Agnatha i.e. craniates without jaws or
with feathery gills which are used for gaseous jawless fishes
exchange. In reptiles, birds and mammals, the
Class cyclostomata
only opening which remains is the Eustachian
tube in the ear. In primitive chordates, visceral Members include Hampreys and Hag fish. Their
clefts are retained for straining food particles characteristics include;
from water.
• No paired fins
Other features possessed by my most but not all • Semi ectoparasites i.e. they attach onto the body
chordates include; of fish, sucking on the fish’s blood.
4. Post anal tail i.e. a post anal extension of the • They have numerous gills
body or a true tail • They have round suctorial mouthparts and a
5. Segmented muscle blocks (myotomes) which rasping tongue
are considered as a secondary adaptation for • They have a well-developed notochord in adults.
swimming.
Subphylum Gnathosotomata i.e. craniates with
6. Closed circulatory system in which blood flows
jaws. It includes all the following classes.
forward ventrally and backwards dorsally
Class chondrichtyes
Phylum Chordata is divided into two main groups
Examples of members of this phylum include dog
a. Acraniata
fish, skates, rays and sharks. Their characteristics
These are chordates without a skull and the
include;
notochord remains i.e. it is not replaced by a vertebral
column. • The skin bears placid scales (tooth-like scales)
Acraniates are sub-divided into two; • The skin contains dermal dentricles i.e. tooth-
Tunicata (urochordata) like structures with a central pulp cavity
Members of this subphylum include the sea squid and surrounded by an outer covering of enamel
its characteristics include;
• Pectoral and pelvic fins are paired
• The notochord is present
• Visceral clefts are present as separate gill
• The adult tunicates are sessile filter feeders openings (5 pairs)
which are enclosed in a tunic.
• The anus is ventrally positioned
Cephalochordata
• They are poikilothermic
Members of this phylum include amphioxus and its
• They are marine dwellers.
characteristics include;
• The tail is heterocercal i.e. the dorsal lobe of the
• The larvae are free swimming
tail fin is usually larger than the ventral lobe and
• The adults possess a pharynx which is
this enables balancing since a swim bladder is
modified for filter feeding
lacking
• The notochord persists
• They have a cartilaginous skeleton
b. Craniata (vertebrata)
These are chordates with a cranium (skull) enclosing Class osteichthyes
the brain. The notochord is replaced by a vertebral
column made of cartilage/bone. Members include tilapia, perch and the herring.
They have two pairs of limbs/fins. Their characteristics include;

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• Bony endo skeleton • They are poikilothermic
• Mouth is terminal • They have soft shelled eggs
• Visceral clefts present i.e. separate gill openings • They are mostly terrestrial
(4 pairs) but covered by a bony flap called • Gaseous exchange occurs by lungs
operculum • They lay a cleidoic (shelled egg)
• The skin bears a cycloid and others ctenoid
scales Class aves
• Fertilisation is external
This class includes all birds and their characteristics
• The tail is hormocercal
include;
• They are poikilothermic
• The swim bladder is present • The skin bears feathers
• Some are marine while others are fresh water • Their legs bear scales
dwellers • Fore limbs modified into wings
• They exhibit internal fertilisation
Class crossopterygota
• They lay well developed cleidoic eggs
It includes the lung fish. • They are homeothermic
• They possess lungs for gaseous exchange
• They have paired fins
• They are mostly predators Class mammalia
• They live mostly in fresh water
The characteristics for the members of this class
Class amphibia include;

Members include Bufo (toad), Rana (frog), newts and • Having mammary glands
salamanders. Their characteristics include; • Possession of a pinna (external ear)
• They are endothermic or homeothermic
• Partly aquatic and partly terrestrial • Fertilisation is internal
• Have simple sac-like lungs • The skin bears fur with two types of glands i.e.
• Have a soft moist skin used as a supplementary the sebaceous glands and the mammary glands
gaseous exchange surface • They are mostly viviparous i.e. they give birth to
• They have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs active young ones rather than laying eggs
• Breeding occurs in water i.e. fertilisation is
external Subclass prototheria
• They are poikilothermic
It includes all egg laying mammals e.g. the spiny
• Visceral clefts (gills) are present in aquatic
anteater and the duck billed platypus. They lay large
larvae and gills are present in adults
yoked eggs but like other mammals, their young ones
• Newts and salamanders possess tails in adults
suckle.
and in the larva stage but frogs and toads possess
the tail in the larva form only. Subclass theria
Class reptilia These are non-egg laying mammals which are
divided into groups;
Members of this class include alligators, crocodiles,
snakes and reptiles. a. Meta-theria/marsupial mammals
These are mammals which have porches in
• They exhibit internal fertilisation
which the young ones are located and suckle for
• They have a bony endo skeleton
most of their development, having been born in a
• They have a dry scaly skin with horny scales
very immature state e.g. kangaroo

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b. Eutheria/placental mammals to overcome the problem of reproducing on land
These are mammals whose young ones develop as they keep reverting to water for egg laying to
to mature ones while in the womb or placenta prevent them from drying.
before they are born. Examples include humans 4. Air provides very little supply to terrestrial
animals because of its low density as compared
Some orders of class mammalia include; with water which has a high density. These
animals have developed skeletons for support in
1. Order insectivora which includes moles and
air and muscular mechanisms for locomotion.
shrews
2. Order carnivora which includes cats and dogs. Amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals have strong
3. Order cetacea which includes dolphins and muscles and they are tetrapods (four limbed animals)
whales with limbs built on the pentadactyl. This enables the
4. Order chiroptera which includes bats body to be lifted off the ground and propel the animal
5. Order rodentia which includes rats forward.
6. Order primate which includes chimpanzee,
humans, monkeys, apes and lemurs. 5. A variation in environmental conditions, most
7. Order proboscidea which includes the elephant especially temperature has been overcome
8. Order ungulate which includes cattle, sheep, completely only by birds and mammals by
horses and goats. evolving homeothermy i.e. they generate heat
within their tissues physiologically and maintain
Problems faced by animals living on a constant body temperature independent or
land external conditions. This provides optimum
conditions for enzyme reaction and proper brain
i. Obtaining support development. All other remaining terrestrial
ii. Water loss animals are poikilothermic and regulate their
iii. Gaseous exchange body temperature by bathing in the sun e.g.
iv. Homeostasis reptiles
v. How to reproduce without water

Adaptations of animals to live on land

1. Oxygen being less soluble and more plentiful in

air than in water has led to the animals
developing moist gaseous exchange surface
coupled with breathing mechanisms e.g. lungs in
invertebrates
2. To avoid desiccation, various animals have
developed different mechanisms e.g. amphibians
are restricted to damp habitats. Reptiles, birds,
mammals and insects have a water tight surface
layer which enables them to inhabit dry areas.
Reptiles and birds produce a semi-solid
nitrogenous waste containing uric acid which
requires less water.
3. Internal fertilisation and production of shelled
eggs in reptiles and internal development in
mammals enables them to conserve water and
become fully terrestrial. Amphibians have failed

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