1.

0 Basic Communication System

Communication is the exchange of information between two points. Electronic communication is

the transmission, reception and processing of information between two or more locations using
electronic circuits, for example making a phone call, video conferencing, etc. Communication
systems are designed to send messages or information from a source that generates the messages
to one or more destinations. In general, a communication system can be represented by the
functional block diagram shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Block Diagram of Communication System

There are numerous forms of communication. We have wired communication, wherein examples
are telephone, broadband internet at home, local area networks at office, just to name a few. We
also have wireless communication such as mobile, WiFi, Bluetooth, radio broadcast, TV
broadcast, and many others. It seems that our lives could not function properly without
communication.

The elements of Figure 1.1 are explained in the following sections

1.1 The Transducer

A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. For example, a
microphone converts an acoustic speech signal into an electrical signal, and a video camera
converts an image into an electrical signal. In a communication system, an input and output
transducer are required from end to end.

1.1.1 Microphone (Input Sound Transducer)

The audio or sound to electrical energy transducer is the microphone or simply

called as MIC. A microphone produces electrical analog signals that are
proportional to the sound waves acting on its diaphragm.
The sensitivity of a microphone is expressed as mV of electrical output per unit
intensity of sound wave while its impedance is give in ohms. A microphone with
high impedance has a high electrical output while the one with low impedance is
associated with low output.
Directionality of the microphone is also an important factor. A microphone is
Omni – directional if it picks up sound arriving from any direction. While a
microphone is directional if it responds to the velocity and direction of the sound
waves from a particular direction.

Some of the most common types of microphones are: Carbon microphone,

Moving Iron microphone, Moving Coil microphone, Ribbon microphone,
piezoelectric microphone and electret capacitor microphone.

a. Carbon Microphone

The carbon microphone was the first type of microphone to be developed for usage
in telephones. Now they are replaced by electret capacitor microphones. Carbon
microphone uses granules of carbon held between a diaphragm and a back plate.
When the granules are compressed, the resistance between the diaphragm and the
back plate drops considerably. The vibrations of the diaphragm, which are the
result of the sound wave incident on it, can be converted into variations of
resistance of granules. The microphone requires an external power supply as it
does not generate voltage.
The main and only advantage of carbon microphone is that it produces an
output that is huge by microphone standards. The disadvantages include poor
linearity, poor structure that causes multiple resonances in the audio range and
high noise level as the resistance of the granules alter even in the absence of sound.

b. Moving Iron Microphone

Moving iron microphones are also called as Variable Reluctance Microphones. They
use a powerful magnet. The magnetic circuit contains an armature made of soft
iron, which in turn is connected to a diaphragm. As the armature moves, the
magnetic reluctance of the circuit alters and this in turn changes the total magnetic
flux in the circuit. The magnetic circuit in this type of microphone makes the
instrument heavier.
c. Moving Coil Microphone or Dynamic Microphone
Moving coil (Dynamic) microphones use a constant flux magnetic circuit. In this
circuit, the electrical output is generated by moving a coil of wire in the circuit which
is attached to a diaphragm. This whole arrangement is in a capsule form which makes
this a pressure operated microphone rather than velocity operated.

The coil moves in response to movement of the diaphragm as the sound waves hit
the diaphragm. By applying Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, a voltage is
induced in the coil due to the movement of the coil in the magnetic field.
Maximum output occurs when the coil reaches maximum velocity between the

peaks of sound wave so the output is 900 out of phase with the sound.

The internal view of a Dynamic Microphone is shown below.

The range of the movement of the coil is very small as the size of the coil is small.
Hence the linearity of moving coil type microphones is excellent. Due to the low
impedance of the coil, the output is considerably low and hence amplification of
the signal is required. The inductance of the coil in moving coil microphones is
less and therefore they are less susceptible to hum pick up from mains. The
construction of moving coil microphone resembles that of a loudspeaker in
reverse.

d. Ribbon Microphone

The principle of operation of a ribbon microphone is derived from moving coil

microphone and the change is that the coil has been reduced to a strip of
conducting ribbon. The signal is taken from the ends of the ribbon.

An intense magnetic field is used so that the movement of the ribbon cut across
the maximum possible magnetic flux is possible. This generates an output with its

peak value at 900 out of phase to the sound wave.

The internal view of ribbon microphone is shown below.

Ribbon microphone is a velocity operated microphone. Ribbon microphones are

used in situations where directional response is important. The main application
of this type of microphone is ii voice commentary in noisy surroundings.

The linearity of ribbon microphones is very good and its construction makes it
inevitably a low output device. In order to raise the voltage level and the
impedance level, ribbon microphones are usually equipped with transformer.
Good quality ribbon microphones are expensive items. The directional qualities
of this microphone are suitable for stereo broadcasting.

e. Piezoelectric Microphone
The advantage of Piezoelectric Microphone over other type of microphones is that
it is not confined to use in air but can be bonded to solid and also immersed in a
non – conducting liquid. Piezoelectric transducers can be used at ultrasonic
frequencies and some are used in the high MHz region.
Piezoelectric transducers consist of crystalline material. When the crystal is
strained by sound waves, the ions of the crystal are displaced asymmetrical way.
Originally, Rochelle Salt Crystal is used as crystalline material in piezoelectric
microphones and this crystal is coupled to a diaphragm.

The output voltage and impedance are high, but the linearity is poor. Now a day,
synthetic crystals are used over natural crystals. Barium Titanate is the synthetic
crystal used for frequencies up to hundreds of KHz.

The figure of piezoelectric microphone is shown below.

f. Capacitor Microphone
Capacitor microphone consists of two surfaces: one is a conductive diaphragm and
other is a back plate and the electric charge between the two surfaces is fixed. When
the sound wave hits the diaphragm, the vibrations cause a variation in
capacitance.

As the charge is fixed, the variation in capacitance causes a voltage wave. Output
depends on the spacing between the plates. Output is greater for given amplitude of
sound when the spacing between the surfaces is smaller.
The structure of a capacitor microphone is shown below

Capacitor microphone is pressure operated device. In order to provide the fixed ,

a voltage supply is needed. This voltage is called Polarizing voltage. The capacitor
microphones provide linearity in operation and also provide very good audio
signals. To avoid polarizing voltage, an electret is used. An electret is an insulating
material with permanent charge. It is electrostatic equivalent of a magnet. In
electret capacitor microphones, one of the plates of the capacitor is a slab of
electret and the other is a diaphragm. As the electret provides a fixed charge,
there is no need for voltage supply.

1.1.2 Speaker (Output Sound Transducer)

The use of microphone is little unless there is a transducer for opposite direction. The
transducer like speakers, buzzers and horns are output sound actuators that can
produce sound from an Input electrical signal. The function of a sound actuator is
to convert electrical signals into sound waves with a close resemblance to the
original input signal to a microphone.

Earphones are one of the simpler output sound transducers which have been used
long before than microphones were. Earphones were used with a Morse Key
machine in electric telegraphs. After the development of microphones, the
combination of input and output sound transducers leads to a numerous inventions
including telephone. The task of an earphone is simple and as it is placed near the
ear, the power requirements are also very less, generally in the order of few
milliwatts.
Loudspeakers are available in a variety of sizes, shapes and frequency ranges. The
transducer of a loudspeaker system is called as Pressure Unit as it transforms
complex electrical signals into air pressure.
For each type of microphone, there is a corresponding loudspeaker. Some of the
common types of speakers are: moving iron, moving coil, piezoelectric, isodynamic
and electrostatic.

a. Moving Coil Loudspeaker or Dynamic Loud Speaker

The moving coil principle is used in majority of loudspeakers and earphones. Moving coil
loudspeakers are also called as dynamic loudspeakers. The operating principle of a moving
coil loudspeaker is exactly the opposite to that of a moving coil microphone. It consists of a
coil of fine wire called the voice coil that is suspended in a very strong magnetic field.
This coil is attached to a diaphragm like paper or Mylar cone. The diaphragm is
suspended on its edges to a metal frame.
The internal structure of a moving coil loudspeaker is shown below.
 When the input electrical signal passes through the coil, an electromagnetic field
is produced. The strength of this field is determined by the current flowing
through the coil. The volume control setting of the driver amplifier determines
the current flowing through the voice coil. The magnetic field produced by the
permanent magnet is opposed by the electromagnetic force which is produced by
electromagnetic field.

This causes the coil to move in one direction or the other determined by the
interactions between north and south poles. The diaphragm, which is attached to
the coil, moves in tandem with the coil and this causes a disturbance in the air
around it. These disturbances produce a sound. The loudness of the sound is
determined by the velocity at which the cone or diaphragm moves.

b. Piezoelectric Loudspeakers

Generally, tweeters are manufactured using piezoelectric principle. The diaphragms

are made of piezoelectric plastic sheets. When a voltage is applied between the faces
of the diaphragm, it shrinks and expands according to the signal. By shaping the
diaphragm as a part of the surface of a sphere, the shrinking and expanding can be
converted into movement that will move the air.

c. Electrostatic Speakers

Electrostatic speakers consist of a conductive diaphragm placed between two

electrically conductive plates. The conductive plates are charged positive and negative
respectively. When an audio signal is connected, the diaphragm switches between
positive and negative charge. The diaphragm is drawn towards the oppositely charged
plate depending on its charge. This causes the air in front of it to vibrate.

1.2 The Transmitter

The transmitter converts the electrical signal into a form that is suitable for transmission through
the physical channel or transmission medium.

In general, the transmitter performs the matching of the message signal to the channel by the
process of modulation. Usually, modulation involves the use of the information signal to
systematically vary either the amplitude, frequency, or phase of a sinusoidal carrier.

In addition to modulation, other functions that are usually performed at the transmitter are
filtering of the information-bearing signal, amplification of the modulated signal, and in the case
of wireless transmission, radiation of the signal by means of a transmitting antenna.

1.3 The Channel

The communications channel is the physical medium that is used to send the signal from the
transmitter to the receiver. In wireless transmission, the channel is usually the atmosphere (free
space). On the other hand, telephone channels usually employ a variety of physical media,
including wire lines, optical fiber cables, and wireless (microwave radio). Whatever the physical
medium for signal transmission, the essential feature is that the transmitted signal is corrupted in
a random manner by a variety of possible mechanisms. The most common form of signal
degradation comes in the form of additive noise, which is generated at the front end of the
receiver, where signal amplification is performed. Automobile ignition noise is an example of
man-made noise, and electrical lightning discharges from thunderstorms is an example of
atmospheric noise. Interference from other users of the channel is another form of additive noise
that often arises in both wireless and wire line communication systems.

1.4 The Receiver

The function of the receiver is to recover the message signal contained in the received signal. If
the message signal is transmitted by carrier modulation, the receiver performs carrier
demodulation in order to extract the message from the sinusoidal carrier. Since the signal
demodulation is performed in the presence of additive noise and possibly other signal distortion,
the demodulated message signal is generally degraded to some extent by the presence of these
distortions in the received signal. The fidelity of the received message signal is a function of the
type of modulation, the strength of the additive noise, the type and strength of any other additive
interference, and the type of any non-additive interference. Besides performing the primary
function of signal demodulation, the receiver also performs a number of peripheral functions,
including signal filtering and noise suppression.

1.5 Important events in development of communication systems

1838: Telegraph (Cooke and Wheatstone)

1871: Telephone “Caveat” Some believe Antonio Meucci (not A.G. Bell) was

the inventor of the talking telegraph or telephone.

1900: Marconi sends wireless signal across atlantic.

1920: Beginning of radio broadcasting.

1936: First public B/W TV broadcast.

1951: First public color TV broadcast

1957: First earth satellite, Sputnik I.

1962: First communication satellite, Telstar I.

1966: Principles of fibre optic communications published (Kao and Hockham).

1973: Birth of Internet.

1979: First-generation cellular phone service.

1985: Fax machines gain popularity.

1990’s: HDTV, second-generation cellular systems.

2000’s: Third-generation cellular systems, satellite radio, “anytime, anywhere,
multimedia communications”.

2010’s: Online social networks, smart phones, LTE, wireless sensor networks
(WSNs)