© CHSPJ Sinfonietta Music Department

CHSPJ
SINFONIETTA
MUSIC THEORY
BOOK
ABRSM Syllabus Grade 1-3

Name :

Class :

Ensemble :

Section :

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Content Page
No. Topic Page
Number
1 Time Names and Time Values 3

2 Bar Lines and Time Signatures 3

3 Writing on a Stave 4

4 Clefs 5

5 Letter Names 5

6 Transposition 5

7 Dotted Notes, Slurs and Ties 7

8 Semitones & Tones, Accidentals 8

9 Scales & Key Signatures 9

10 Scale Degrees 12

11 Intervals 12

12 Tonic Triads 13

13 Triplets and Duplets 14

14 Simple and Compound Time 15

15 Beaming and Grouping 16

16 Articulations 21

17 Bowing Terms 22

18 Plucking Terms 24

19 Performance Directions 25

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Time Names and Time Values

 Every note and rest has a time value. Time values are measured in beats.

Time Name Note Rest Time Value

Semibreve
(whole note)
4

Minim
(half note)
2

Crotchet
(quarter note)
1

Quaver 1
(eighth note) 2
Semiquaver 1
(16th note) 4
Demisemiquaver 1
(32nd note) 8
*A semibreve rest / whole bar rest is used in a complete silence bar. 

 This is an example of how all the time values of notes are correlated.

Bar Lines and Time Signatures

 This is what you’ll commonly see in a standard music score:

Time Signatures
 Time signatures contain 2 numbers:
- Top number : Number of beats in a bar.
- Bottom number : Kind of beats in a bar.

 Bottom number: 2 = Count in Minims 

4 = Count in Crotchets
8 = Count in Quavers

The top number is 3, so it represents 3 beats in the bar.

The bottom number is 8, so we count the beats in quavers.

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 Here’s some of the most common time signatures:

* is sometimes written as (alla breve)

* is sometimes written as (common time)

Bar Lines
 There are different types of bar lines:


 Repeat: This is commonly seen as a pair. When encountered, either:

1. Repeat back from the most recent start repeat.
2. Repeat back from the beginning if a start repeat isn’t present.

 Final : You’ve reached the end! Stop playing!

Writing on a Stave
 Notes are written on the lines and spaces of the stave.

 Direction of the stem depends on the distance of the note from the middle line.

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Clefs

Treble Alto Bass

(violin) (viola) (cello &
double bass)

Letter Names
A. Treble clef notes (FACE)

B. Alto clef notes (GBDF)

C. Bass clef notes (ACEG)

Transposition
 Transposing from treble clef to bass clef.

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 When you transpose a melody, you refer to the middle C and count down the
notes from the middle C.

 Same with Alto clef (red box = middle C) 

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Dotted Notes, Slurs and Ties

A. Dotted Notes
- A dot after a note makes it longer by half its value.

B. Slurs
- Connects 2 or more notes of different pitches.
- The notes are played smoothly. (String instrument: notes are played in a bow)

C. Ties
- A tie connects 2 or more notes of the same pitch.
- The 1st note is played and held for the length of the tied notes.

 You can’t tie the notes in the same bar except for a certain rhythm. Instead change
the time value of the note.

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Note Lasting Over Bar Lines:

 We use ties when we want a note to last for more than one bar or over a bar line.

Exp. 1:

Exp. 2:

Semitones & Tones, Accidentals

The keyboard is made up of semitones.
- A semitone is the distance from one key to the next. (1 step)
- A tone is 2 semitones. (2 steps)

Semitones Tones

An accidental sign changes the pitch of a note.

- A sharp (#) raises a note by one semitone.

- A flat (♭) lowers a note by one semitone.
- A natural (♮) cancels out a sharp or a flat.

- Exp: D# is a semitone higher than D♮; D♮ is a semitone higher than D♭.

*An accidental lasts until the bar ends.

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Major Scales
 Scales: Consists of 8 notes.
 For major scales, the semitones occur between notes 3-4 and 7-8 (ascending order)
 Pattern: T - T - S - T - T - T – S
* T= Tone, S= Semitones
 Example: C major

Therefore, there’s no accidentals and key signature in C major.

 Example: G major

Therefore, G major consist of F# and its key signature is F#.

 Here is a table of accidentals that each major scale contains.

Major A♭ E♭ B♭ F C G D A E
Flats/ B♭, E♭, B♭, E♭, F#, C#, F#, C#,
B♭, E♭ B♭ - F# F#, C#
Sharps A♭, D♭ A♭ G# G#, D#

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Key Signatures
 The key signature comes right after the clef symbol on the staff.
 E.g. Here is an extract in D major with key signature.

How does it work?

 When there is a key signature, you have to play the sharp or flat written throughout
the piece unless there is a natural sign beside the note to cancel the note for a bar.

Circle of Fifths
 Is used to build key signatures for keys that contain sharp / flat notes.
 The circle of fifths is a way of organizing the 12 pitches as a sequence of perfect
fifth. (eg, C  G, 5 pitches up, therefore you need to add a sharp to it)

 Here is the order of sharps and flats:

o F#, C#, G#, D#, A#, E#, B#
o B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭, F♭

“Father Can Go Down” Chart

 You can remember the order of sharps and flats using this sentence:
Father Can Go Down After Eating Breakfast
 Sharps are in ascending order, while flats are in descending order.

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Minor Scales
 Every major scale has a relative minor scale, which uses the same notes and key
signature as the major scale but starts on the 6th degree of the major 

 The relative minor scale of a major scale can be found by going down 3
semitones from the tonic (1st note) of the major scale (or vice versa).

Relation between minor Major
Minor (3 semitones from Key Signature
and major minor)

A Minor C Major

E Minor G Major

D Minor F Major

Minor A Minor E Minor B Minor F# Minor

Relative Major C Major G Major D Major A Major
Key Signature - F# F#, C# F#, C#, G#

Minor D Minor G Minor C Minor F Minor

Relative Major F Major B♭ Major E♭ Major A♭ Major
Key Signature B♭ B♭, E♭ B♭, E♭, A♭ B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭

Types of Minor scales:

A. Natural Minor
- Uses the exactly same notes as its relative major scale but starting on 6th degree of
the major scale.
- Eg: C major -CDEFGABC
A natural minor -ABCDEFGA
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B. Harmonic Minor
- Uses same notes as relative major scale, but raise the 7th degree scale degree.
- Eg: C major -CDEFGABC
A harmonic minor - A B C D E F G# A
C. Melodic Minor
- Raise the 6th & 7th scale degree when ascending,
- Return to natural minor (no need to raise 6th and 7th ) when descending.
- Eg: C major -CDEFGABC
A harmonic minor - A B C D E F# G# A (ascending)
- A B C D E F G A (descending)

Scale Degrees
 Scale degrees refer to the 7 positions of the notes.
 The technical names of the degrees of the scale, in ascending order, are:

Degree 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th

Technical Leading
Tonic Supertonic Mediant Subdominant Dominant Submediant
Name note

Intervals
An interval is the distance between 2 notes.
 In harmonic intervals the notes are played together.
 In melodic intervals the notes are played separately.

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Tonic Triads
A tonic triad consists of 3 notes: the 1st, 3rd and 5th degrees of the scale.

Note: C major and A minor have

no sharps or flats.

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Triplets and Duplets

A. Triplets
 A group of 3 notes played in the time of 2. 
 It includes rests and notes of different values as long as the total up in the time of 3.

 Example:

B. Duplets
 A group of 2 notes played in the time of 3.

 Example:

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Simple & Compound Time

 Duple has 2 beats in a bar; triple has 3 beats in bar; quadruple has 4 beats in a bar.
 Simple time is grouped in crotchet or minim beat; Compound time is grouped in
dotted crotchet.

A. Simple  Compound
- Multiply the top number by 3 & the bottom number by 2.
- Change undotted beats to dotted beats.
- Change triplets to normal (Remove “3”).
- Change beats divided into 2 to duplets (Add “2”).

Simple

Compound

B. Compound  Simple
- Divide the top number by 3 & the bottom number by 2.
- Change dotted beats to undotted beats.
- Change duplets to normal (Remove “2”).
- Change beats divided into 3 to triplets (Add “3”).

Compound

Simple

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Beaming and Grouping

 Notes should be beamed or grouped according to the bottom number of the time
signature.
!Recap!

Grouping of notes

A. Simple Time
 In time signature with bottom number 4 (2/4, 3/4 and 4/4), beam notes in crotchet
beats.

 In time signature with bottom number 2 (2/2, 3/2 and 4/2), beam notes in minim
beats.

 In 3/8, beam all the quavers/semiquavers to form a bar.

Beaming quavers
 In 2/4 and 3/4, if everything is quaver, beam a complete bar of quavers.

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 In 4/4, beam 4 quavers across beats 1 and 2, or 3 and 4, but not across beats 2 and 3.


 In 4/4 time, beats 2 and 3 should always be separated.


 Quaver and demisemiquaver notes should be grouped by beat.

 In 4/4 time, this means that there will be a maximum of 4 semiquaver notes in
a beat,and a maximum of 8 demisemiquaver notes in a beat.

 E.g. correct and incorrect beaming in 4/4 time.


Groupings of Rests in Simple Time:
 Use a rest for every beat.

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 In a 4-beat bar, use a 2-beat rest for the first/last 2 beats, not a 2-beat rest in the

middle.

 When a silence is less than a beat, use a rest for every subdivision of the beat.

 When a silence is more than a beat, use as few rests as possible.


B. Compound Time
 For compound time, notes should be beamed in dotted crotchet beats.
 eg. 6/8 = 2 dotted crotchet beats in a bar

 Use ties to show the beats.

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Examples (6/8 Time):

 For compound time signatures, the beats are counted in dotted crotchet, thus
the beats are divided into 3 equal parts.
 In 6/8 time, there are 6 quavers per measure, but it is counted in 2 dotted crotchet
beats.

 Keep the 3 rd and 4th quaver separated. (1 dotted crotchet as 1 group)

 Maximum 6 semiquaver notes per beat, and 12 demisemiquaver notes per beat.

 E.g. Correct and incorrect groupings

 Example groupings:

Groupings of Rests in Compound Time:

 When a silence is equal to 1 beat, use a rest for every beat.


 When a silence is less than 1 beat, use a rest for every subdivision of the beat.

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 When a silence is greater than 1 beat, use as few rests as possible.

 In 12/8, use a 2-beat rest for the first/last 2 beats.


Stem Direction
3 beamed notes
Find the direction by:
 The furthest note from the middle.


4 or more beamed notes
Find the direction by:
 The majority of notes above/below the middle.

 The furthest note from the middle if there is an equal number of notes above
and below themiddle.

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Articulations
Articulations in music is the way a specific note or group of notes should be performed.

SYMBOL NAME DESCRIPTION

Fermata (Pause) Pause on the note

Accent Play accented

Marcato Play strongly accented

Staccato Play detached

Semi-staccato Play slightly detached

(portato)

Super-staccato Play as short as possible

(staccatissimo)

Tenuto Play with slight pressure

Dot Increase by half note value

Tie Play as one note

Slur Play smoothly

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Bowing Terms
String players apply bowing marks to indicate whether the bow is to move up or down.
An "up-bow" is marked with a V, while "down-bow" is marked with a
"Up" means start at the tip. "Down" means start at the frog which is where your right hand
is.

For modern stringed instruments, the "down-bow" is commonly stronger than the "up-
bow", this mainly due to the greater weight or downward force the player can apply
with the bow to the string with the heel (near the frog) as opposed to the tip.

The freedom to bow without a change in direction, for example on long sustained
notes, is more limited on the cello and double-bass than on the violin or viola because
the bows of cellos and double-bass are shorter. In recent times, a performer naturally
plays an upbeat with an "up-bow" unless indicated otherwise.

BOWING TERMS DESCRIPTION

arco Bowing as opposed to pizzicato
down-bow Where the bow moves from the frog to the point
up-bow Where the bow moved from the point to the frog
middle-bow Where most of the playing takes place
legato A group of notes played smoothly in one bow
Alternate bows, full length- In some situations, the player might
tenuto give a slight push at the beginning of each note to apply more
pressure to the notes

Played with a single bow but with a slight break between the
portato notes - Notated as a series of notes each bearing a staccato dot,
(articulated legato) placed under a slur

Short and detached bows (notes are half length)

staccato
- Notated with dots placed over/under the note

separate bow A type of staccato in which the notes are played separated and
staccato with separated bows for each note
A type of staccato in which consecutive notes are played
slurred staccato separated, but with the bow only moving in one direction (Notes
not as detached as regular staccato)

A type of staccato with a bouncing/jumping bow, usually used

spiccato/saltando in fast passages or to make the piece more upbeat
A type of spiccato, usually in slow passages, where the player
deliberate spiccato bounces the bow in a deliberate manner to give a special effect

A type of spiccato where the speed of the passage causes the

spontaneous player to instinctively create a bouncing motion with the bow.
spiccato/sautillé Sometimes also described as an uncontrolled spiccato

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BOWING TERMS DESCRIPTION

Similar to slurred staccato, except the bow bounces on the string
slurred spiccato to create the separation of pitches. Instead of reversing the
staccato volante direction of each note as in ordinary spiccato, the bow picks up
flying staccato a series of short notes, usually on an up-bow
A single bow stroke per note, with successive notes played as
seamlessly as possible, more legato than staccato (although
détaché some writers do use the term when referring to non-stringed
instruments, to mean separated or detached)
au talon Bow near the frog, for loud effect
punta d’arco Bow at the point, for delicate effect
A succession of notes played slightly separately using the same
bow, that is, it is performed with several notes in one bow
louré, piqué direction. Each note receives a gentle push to separate it-
indicated in the same way as détaché but with a slur

marcato Heavy, separate bows with a pressed accent played near the frog
martelé or martellato Hammered notes, a strong staccato
Bouncing the bow to play repeated notes in one bow
- Indicated by slurred staccato
jeté, ricochet This is usually with a downward bow motion, although up-bows
are occasionally used as well. Cellos and double bass generally
can only execute about 3 to 4 consecutive notes in a bow, due to
the shorter bow being used.
volante Bouncing on the string, similar to ricochet
Small but very rapidly played notes- may sound dramatic,
tremolo ethereal or cliché if overdone- measured (e.g. semiquavers or
16th notes) written with two slashes, unmeasured with three

fingered tremolo Similar to a trill but with an interval larger than a whole tone
col legno Using the bow upside down (Bow hair facing away)
Scratchy noise achieved on bowed string instruments by putting
ecrasé more pressure (also called a “scratch tone” or “scratch note”)
sul ponticello Play near the bridge to produce a thin sound
sul tasto Play over the fingerboard- sounds hazy
flautando Play near the fingerboard- sounds flute-like
glissando//portamento Sliding from one note to another
- Indicated by a line between the notes
sul G, etc. This means all the notes of that section are played on the G
string, can apply to any other string as requested (e.g. sul A)

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Plucking Terms
In addition to the many different types of bowing, stringed instrument players may also use
avariety of plucking actions when articulating notes on their instruments.
PLUCKING TERMS DESCRIPTION
Plucking the string with the tip of the finger or thumb. After a
pizzicato passage of pizzicato a composer should write arco beneath the
music to tell the players to return to bowing.
arraché, anreissen A particularly forceful pizzicato.
A damped pizzicato, where immediately after plucking the
pizzicato secco
note the finger returns to the string to damp the vibration.
snap (or 'Bartok') Pulling the string upwards and allowing it to 'snap' sharply
pizzicato against the fingerboard.
After a pizzicato note is plucked, and while the sound is
slurred pizzicato still ringing, further notes can be played by adding or
removing fingers of the left hand.
Plucking with This effect can be painful for the player especially with thicker
the fingernail strings on the cello and bass.
pizzicato tremolo Rapid motion of the finger against the string after plucked.
When chords appear in pizzicato passages they’re usually
strummed. Chords will be strummed from the lowest note
upwards unless indicated otherwise (by a downward arrow
'strumming' or 'chords' beside the chord).
Violin and viola players use the index finger, whereas cello and
bass players will use the thumb. When cellos and basses strum
downwards they will pull the index finger across the strings.
Two or more notes plucked together. If the composer wishes
pizzicato chords -
the notes to be plucked simultaneously, a square bracket beside
not strummed
the chord and the words non arpegg. pizz. should be used.
(Literally 'like a guitar') violins and violas can be held sideways
against the body and strummed.
quasi guitar
To indicate the direction of strums, either arrows can be used or
the symbols for up and down bows
The strings are plucked with left rather than bowing (right) hand.
left hand pizzicato This effect can be combined with arco so that players produce
both plucked and bowed notes simultaneously.
After a note is plucked the left hand finger slides up or down
the string. The destination note of the glissando can be left
pizzicato glissando
unspecified. The result is quieter compared to the plucking
sound initially.

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Performance Directions
Grade 1 Theory Musical Terms and their Definitions
Term Alternatives Definition Language Notes

accelerando accel. gradually Italian

getting
quicker

adagio slow Italian

allegretto fairly quick Italian

(but not as
quick as
allegro)

allegro quick Italian

(literally
"cheerful")

andante at a medium Italian

("walking")
speed

cantabile in a singing Italian

style

crescendo cresc. gradually Italian

getting louder

da capo D.C. repeat from Italian

the beginning

dal segno D.S. repeat from Italian

the sign

decrescendo decresc. gradually Italian

getting
quieter

diminuendo dim. gradually Italian

getting
quieter

fine the end Italian

f forte loud Italian

ff fortissimo very loud Italian

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legato smoothly Italian

lento slow Italian

mezzo half Italian

mf mezzo forte moderately Italian

loud ("half
loud")

mp mezzo piano moderately Italian

quiet ("half
quiet")

moderato moderately Italian

(allegro
moderato:
moderately
quick)

p piano quiet Italian

pp pianissimo very quiet Italian

poco a little Italian

rallentando rall. gradually Italian

getting
slower

ritardando ritard., rit. gradually Italian

getting
slower

ritenuto riten., rit. held back, Italian The difference between ritenuto and
slower ritardando is that ritenuto means to
(immediately, immediately, not gradually become
not gradually) slower. However, confusingly, both
are frequently abbreviated to rit..
staccato stacc. detached Italian

tempo speed, time Italian

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Grade 2 Theory Musical Terms and their Definitions

Term Alternatives Definition Language Notes

a to / at / in / by / Italian Used in combination with

for, etc. other terms, e.g. a tempo: in
time

alla all', al to the / at the / Italian Used in combination with

in the manner other terms, e.g. alla marcia:
of in the manner of a march

allargando broadening Italian

(getting slower,
louder)

andantino slightly faster Italian In the 18th century, andantino

than andante usually meant slightly slower
than andante

assai very (allegro Italian

assai: very
quick)

con col with Italian

dolce sweet, soft Italian

e ed and Italian

espressivo espress., espr. expressive Italian

fp fortepiano loud, then Italian

immediately
quiet

giocoso playful, merry, Italian

humourous

grave very slow, Italian

solemn, serious

grazioso graceful Italian

larghetto rather slow Italian
(not as slow as
largo)
largo slow, stately Italian

ma but Italian

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maestoso majestic Italian

meno less Italian

molto very, much Italian

mosso moto movement Italian Usually used with modifiers

meno, con, etc., e.g. meno
mosso: less movement
(slower), con moto: with
movement, più mosso: more
movement (faster)

presto fast (faster than Italian

allegro)

senza without Italian

sf sfz, forced, Italian

sforzando, accented
sforzato

simile sim. in the same Italian

way
("similarly")

sostenuto sustained Italian

tenuto ten. held (sustain to Italian

the note's full
value)

troppo too much (non Italian

troppo: not too
much)

vivace vivo lively, quick Italian

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Grade 3 Theory Musical Terms and their Definitions

Term Alternatives Definition Languag Notes
e
adagietto rather slow (faster Italian
than adagio)

ad libitum ad lib. the marked passage Italian

can be played freely
("at choice")

agitato agitated Italian

alla breve with a minim beat, Italian This term implies "double
for example in cut- the speed", so a passage in
common or 2/2 time 4/4 (with four beats in the
bar) would be performed as
if it had two beats in thebar,
with the crotchets would be
"felt" as quavers.

amore love Italian

amoroso loving Italian

anima soul, spirit (con Italian

anima: with feeling
/ spirited)

animato animated, lively Italian

animando becoming more Italian

lively

ben well Italian

brio vigour (con brio: Italian

with vigour, i.e.
lively)

comodo convenient (tempo Italian

comodo: at a
comfortable speed)

deciso "decided", with Italian

resolution,
determined
delicato delicate Italian

energico energetic Italian

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Forza force Italian

largamente broadly Italian

leggiero light, (as in not Italian

heavy), nimble

marcato marc. emphatic, accented Italian

marziale "martial", in a Italian

military style

mesto sad Italian

pesante heavy Italian

prima primo first Italian

risoluto bold, strong Italian

ritmico rhythmically Italian

rubato "robbed"; tempo Italian The translation

rubato. "robbed "robbed" suggests
time"; disregarding taking time from one
strict time for note to add to another.
expressive effect

scherzando scherzoso playful, joking Italian

seconda secondo second Italian

semplice simple, plain Italian

sempre always Italian

stringendo gradually getting Italian

faster

subito suddenly Italian

tanto as / so much (non Italian

tanto: not so much)

tranquillo tranquil, calm Italian

triste tristamente sad, sorrowful Italian

volta time (e.g. prima Italian

volta: first time)

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