Document No: A54-24-031 Issue: A1

AMEC ONSHORE ENGINEERING

Process Engineering Desk Manual

Document Title:

Prediction of Line Pressure Drop for Non-Newtonian Fluids

A1 Approved Issue. Derived GW 23/2/99 RHM 23/2/99 NJP 2/3/99

from BKW SM-V1-213 Rev.0
Issue Issue or revision description Origin Date Check Date App'd Date Auth. Date
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Issued by: AMEC ONSHORE ENGINEERING

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Contents

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Bingham Plastics

3.0 Pseudoplastic and Dilatent

4.0 Generalised Bingham Plastics

5.0 Pressure Losses Through Pipe

6.0 References

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

A non-Newtonian fluid is one whose viscosity is a function of the shear stress (or
equivalently of the shear rate) as well as temperature and pressure. Non-Newtonian fluids
with properties independent of time under shear are:

Bingham Plastic
Pseudoplastic
Dilatent
Generalised Bingham Plastic.

Characteristics are shown in Fig. 1.

This Standard Method provides methods of calculating the pressure drop through a pipeline
for each of these four material types. Wherever possible, Client and/or test data should be
sought to back up calculations based on viscometric measurements.

Section 5.0 provides methods of determining pressure losses through pipe fittings. These
losses are particularly significant for laminar flow at very low Reynold's numbers
frequently encountered when handling non-Newtonian fluids. Note that Section 5.0 also
applies to Newtonian fluids.

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This Standard Method does not provide design methods for Thixotropic and Rheopectic
fluids whose properties are dependent on the duration of shear or Viscoelastic materials
which exhibit many characteristics of a solid. Little guidance for predicting pressure losses
of these materials has been identified in the literature and as a consequence reliance must be
placed on Client experience and test data.

2.0 BINGHAM PLASTICS

A Bingham plastic is a fluid which requires a yield stress (τ0) to initiate flow - see Fig. 1.

Examples of Bingham plastics are:

Printing ink
Suspensions of coal, rock or grains
Molten chocolate
Sewage sludge.

Line pressure drops can be calculated using equations in A54-24-061, Section 1.2 using a
Moody friction factor ƒ determined by the method below (based on Ref. 1).

Bingham Reynolds number (Nre) = 353.6 W / (dµ L ) (1)

Hedstrom number (Nhe) = d2 ρ τ0 / µL2 (2)

Where W = flow rate kg/h

d = pipe internal diameter mm
µ L = limiting viscosity cP (see Fig. 1)
τ0 = Bingham yield stress N/m2 (see Fig. 1)
ρ = fluid density kg/m3

Use Fig. 2 to determine the Moody friction factor ƒ

For Bingham plastics ƒ is not sensitive to pipe roughness (Ref. 1).

For laminar flow, use the equation:

ƒ = (64 / Nre) [1 + Nhe / (6Nre )] (3)

or ƒ = (64 / Nre) [1 + τ0 / (6ρV2)] (4)

Where V = mean velocity m/sec.

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Example 1

400 m3/h coal slurry pumped through 450mm sch 20 pipeline (i.d. = 441.3 mm)

Physical Properties of coal slurry at pumping temperature :

ρ = 1500 kg/m3
µ L= 30 cP
τ0 = 2 N/m2

Nre = 353.6 x 400 x 1500 / (441.3 x 30) = 16,030 (eq'n. 1)

Nhe = 441.32 x 1500 x 2 / 302 = 649,200 (eq'n. 2)

From Fig. 2:

ƒ = 0.032

Example 2

9500 kg/h printing ink pumped through 80 mm NB sch 40 pipeline (i.d. 77.9 mm)

Physical Properties of printing ink at pumping temperature

ρ = 950 kg/m3
µ L = 2300 cP
τ0 = 130 N/m2

Nre = 353.6 x 9500 / (77.9 x 2300) = 18.75 (eq'n. 1)

Nhe = 77.92 x 950 x 130 / 23002 = 141.7 (eq'n. 2)

Flow is laminar, hence :

ƒ = (64 / 18.75) [1 + 141.7 / (6 x 18.75)] (eq'n. 3)

i.e. ƒ = 7.71

3.0 PSEUDOPLASTIC AND DILATENT MATERIALS

A pseudoplastic material is one which exhibits a reduction in apparent viscosity with

increasing shear rate. Dilatent materials behave opposite to pseudoplastics in that the
apparent viscosity increases with increasing shear rate. See Fig. 1.

Examples of pseudoplastic materials are:

Polymeric solutions and melts

Suspensions of paper pulp or pigments.
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Examples of Dilatent materials are:

Very high concentrated suspensions.

Pseudoplastic and dilatent materials generally follow a "power-law" equation (Ref. 2,

Chapter 7)

τ = K γn (5)

over a range of shear rates.

where τ = shear stress N/m2

γ = shear rate sec-1
K and n are constants
n < 1 for pseudoplastics
n > 1 for dilatent materials
n = 1 for Newtonian fluids.

Hence a logarithmic plot of shear stress versus shear rate is a straight line, enabling K and n
to be determined.

Note that this equation may apply to only a limited range of shear rates. See example 3 for
flow curve of 30% by volume TiO2 suspension which exhibits pseudoplastic behaviour at
low shear rates and dilatency at higher shear rates.

The Moody friction factor may be determined from Fig. 3 using the modified Reynolds
number N're:

N're = Dn V(2-n) ρ / (gc K' 8(n-1) (6)

where K' = K [(3n + 1) / (4n)]n (7)

ρ = fluid density kg/m3
D = pipe internal diameter m
V = mean velocity m/s
n = index in power law model.
gc = conversion factor = 1 kgm/Ns2

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Fig. 3 applies to smooth pipes. For a rough pipe, the friction factor should be corrected by
multiplying by the ratio of friction factor for rough and smooth pipe assuming Newtonian
flow at the Reynolds number determined above.

For laminar flow (N're < 2000)

ƒ = 64 / N're (8)

The pressure drop for laminar flow through round tubes may also be determined from the
expressions:

D∆P / (4L) = K [2V (3n + 1) / (Dn)]n (9)

or D∆P / (4L) = K [8Q (3n + 1) / (πnD3)]n (10)

where D = pipe diameter m

L = pipe length m
∆P = pressure drop N/m2
K = coefficient in power law model Nsn/m2
n = index in power law model
V = mean velocity m/s
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Q = volumetric flow rate m3/s

It should be noted that if capillary tube or pipeline measurements of the flow properties are
available, they may be used directly in design of larger pipes using the equation for the
shear stress at the wall:

τw = D∆P / (4L) = K (8V / D) n (11)

Example 3

50 m3/h of 30% vol. titanium dioxide suspension pumped through 150 mm Sch 40 pipeline
(i.e. = 154.1mm).

Physical properties at pumping temperature:

ρ = 1250 kg/m3
Shear stress versus shear rate data from viscometer measurements as curve below:

Curve identifies two regions where the power law applies:

For shear rates 20 - 200 sec-1, n = 0.78, K = 0.59 Nsn m-2

For shear rates 500 - 1000 sec-1, n = 1.54, K = 0.0077 Nsn m-2

Mean line velocity, V = 353.6 x 50 / 154.12 m/s = 0.745 m/s (A54-24-061)

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Shear rate at wall = 8V / D = 8 x 0.745 / 0.1541 = 38.7 sec-1

Hence we are operating in the region where:

n = 0.78
K = 0.59 Nsn m-2

K' = 0.59 [(3 x 0.78 + 1) / (4 x 0.78)] 0.78 (Eq'n 7)

i.e K' = 0.622

N're = 0.15410.78 x 0.745(2-0.78) x 1250 / (0.622 x 80.78-1) = 516 (Eq'n 6)

N're < 2000 Hence flow is laminar

Therefore Friction factor, ƒ = 64 / 516 = 0.124

Example 4

Sewage sludge pumped at a mean velocity of 2.5 m/s through a cast iron 0.1043m dia.
pipeline.

Physical properties at pumping temperature

ρ = 1000 kg/m3

Shear stress and shear rate related by a power law

τ = 0.20 γ0.71

i.e. n = 0.71
K = 0.20 Nsn/m2

Hence:

K' = 0.20 [(3 x 0.71 + 1) / (4 x 0.71)]0.71 = 0.21 (Eq'n 7)

N're = 0.10430.71 x 2.5(2-0.71) x 1000 / (0.21 x 8(0.71-1)) = 5700 (Eq'n 6)

From Fig. 3

ƒ = 0.030

This needs to be corrected for the cast iron pipe.

For Newtonian fluids :

For cast iron pipe E/D = 0.0025 (A54-24-061)

At Nre = 5700, ƒ = 0.039
For smooth pipe ƒ = 0.035

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Therefore, corrected ƒ = 0.030 x 0.039 / 0.035 = 0.033

4.0 GENERALISED BINGHAM PLASTICS

These materials behave as pseudoplastic or dilatent fluids but the flow curve does not pass
through the origin. See Fig. 1. The general form of the flow curve is :

τ = τ0 + K γ n (12)

Where τ = shear stress N/m2

τ0 = yield stress N/m2
γ = shear rate sec-1
K, n are constants.

Examples are:

Paints
Foodstuffs
Activated Sewage Sludge.

For laminar flow, the Moody friction factor is determined by iteration using equation below
from Ref. 3:

ƒ = (64 / N're) (1 - Y) {1 – Y [1 + 2n Y (1 + nY) / (n + 1)] / (2 n + 1)} (13)

where: N're is as defined in Section 3.0

Y = 8 N'he / (ƒ N're2) (14)

N'he = D2 (ρ / τ0) (τ0 / K)(2 / n) (15)

For turbulent flow, the effect of the yield stress can be ignored (Ref. 3). Hence the
correlation shown in Fig. 3 in Section 3.0 may be used.

Example 5

4 L/s polyvinyl acetate emulsion paint pumped through 80mm Sch. 40 pipeline (i.d. =
77.9mm). Physical properties at pumping temperature :

ρ = 1400 kg/m3

Viscometric measurements yield the following :

τ0 = 1.0 N/m2

K = 0.15 Nsn m-2

n = 0.82

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Mean velocity, V = 353.6 x 4x10-3 x 3600 / 77.92 = 0.839 m/s (A54-24-061)

K' = 0.15 [(3 x 0.82 + 1) / (4 x 0.82)]0.82 = 0.157 (Eq'n 7)

Therefore N're = 0.07790.82 x 0.839(2-0.82) x 1400 / (0.157 x 8(0.82-1)) = 1300 (Eq'n 6)

Since N're < 2000, flow is laminar

N'he = 0.07792 x 1400 (1.0 / 0.15)(2/0.82) / 1.0 = 868 (Eq'n 15)

Y = 8 x 868 / (ƒ 13002) = 4.11 x 10-3 / ƒ (Eq'n 14)

From equation 13 :

ƒ = (64 / 1300) (1 - Y){1 – Y [1 + 2 x 0.82Y(1 + 0.82Y) / (0.82 + 1)] / (2 x 0.82 + 1)}

By a process of simple iteration :

ƒ = 0.043

5.0 PRESSURE LOSSES THROUGH PIPE FITTINGS

Turbulent Flow

Use resistance coefficients (K) for Newtonian flow. See A54-24-061.

Laminar Flow

Correlations for Newtonian flow can be used provided the non-Newtonian Reynolds number
is used. Suitable correlations are given below (Refs. 5 and 6).

Pipe Fittings (2-K Method)

K = K1 / Nre + K2(1 + 25.4 / d)

where K1 and K2 are obtained from table below

d = internal diameter of attached pipe mm.

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Pipe Fitting K1 K2
Elbows (R/D = 1.5):
90° 800 0.20
45° 500 0.15
Tees:
Flow through branch 1000 1.00
Flow through run 100 0
Valves:
Gate / ball / plug:
ß = 1.0 300 0.10
ß = 0.9 500 0.15
ß = 0.8 1000 0.25
Globe 1500 4.00
Diaphragm 1000 2.00
Butterfly 800 0.25
Check Valves:
Lift 2000 10.00
Swing 1500 1.50
Tilting Disc 1000 0.50

Entrances / Exits:

K = K1 / Nre + K2

Pipe entrance K1 = 160

K2 = 0.5 for flush fitting

K2 = 1.0 for inward projecting fitting

Pipe exit K1 = 0

K2 = 1.0

Reducers / Expansions (Based on Inlet Velocity Head)

Pipe reducers K = [0.1 + 50 / Nre1] [(D1 / D2)4 - 1]

Pipe expansion K = 2[1 - (D1 / D2)4]

Where subscript1 refers to pipe inlet

2 refers to pipe outlet

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6.0 REFERENCES

1. Darby R and Melson J. How to Predict the Friction Factor for Flow of Bingham
Plastics. Chemical Engineering, December 28 1981.
2. Streeter. Handbook of Fluid Dynamics. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961. See Note 1.
3. Heywood N I. Pipeline Design for Non-Settling Slurries.Lecture No. 2, Slurry
Handling Seminar, Warren Spring Laboratory, March 1989. See Note 2.
4. Perry R H, Green D. Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook. Sixth Edition. See Note 3.
5. Hooper W B. The Two-K Method Predicts Head Losses in Pipe Fittings. Chemical
Engineering, August 24 1981.
6. Hooper W B. Calculate Head Loss Caused by Change in Pipe Size. Chemical
Engineering, November 7 1988.
7. Govier G W, Aziz K. The Flow of Complex Mixtures in Pipes. Van Nostrand
Reinhold. London 1972. See Note 5.

NOTES

1. Chapter 7 of Streeter's Handbook is a useful general reference.

2. Papers presented at this Slurry Handling Seminar contain guidelines on transport of
slurries. Papers held in Technical Files - Section 19-6. Topics include:

• Measurement of flow properties of slurries for use in pipeline design.

• Pipeline design for settling and non-settling slurries.
• Effect of wall slippage.
• Problems of scale up.
• Thixotropic slurries.
• Stabilised slurries.
• Design, selection and sizing of slurry pumps.

3. Relevant sections of Perry are pages 5-4, 5-5, 5-26, 5-27.

4. A number of papers on non-Newtonian flow and slurries are available in the Technical
Files - Section 19-6.
5. Chapter 5 : The Flow of Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids in Pipes. Includes
recommended design methods and a discussion on viscoelastic fluids.
6. Chapter 6 : The Flow of Time-Dependent Non-Newtonian Fluids in Pipes. Includes
recommended design methods for thixotropic fluids.

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