Chapter From A Book On Building Material

Building
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Materials
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Testing and Sustainability
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N. SubramaNiaN
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Consulting Engineer
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Maryland, USA
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PREFACE
Ancient civilization lived in caves. After fire and tools were discovered, they started to use natural
products such as stones, bricks, and wood to build habitats, which provided protection from the nat-
ural environment. Bricks have been found in Egypt as early as 14,000 BC. By 200 BC, the Romans
successfully used concrete in the majority of their construction (though the present day concrete
construction is much different from theirs). In the industrial age (between the mid-1700s and 1840),
several manufacturing processes to produce cement (Joseph Aspdin, 1824), concrete, macadam roads
(John Loudon McAdam, c. 1815), mass production of steel from molten pig iron by the Bessemer
Process (Henry Bessemer, 1856), method of converting pig iron into wrought iron (Henry Cort, 1784),
etc., were invented, resulting in the extensive use of concrete and steel. Now, concrete is the most widely
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used substance on earth, after water. We now use a variety of materials in our buildings and construc-
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tions ranging from stones, bricks, cement, reinforced concrete, steel, stainless steel, wood and wood
products, glass, fibreglass, aluminium, plastics, ceramics, gypsum, paints and varnishes, bitumen, to
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copper, zinc, and aluminium alloys.
The exploding population growth (3 billion in 1960 to an estimated 7.7 billion in 2019) and the re-
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sulting urbanization has resulted in greater energy use [according to BP’s Statistical Review of World
Energy, world primary energy consumption reached 157 terawatt-hour (TWh) in 2017]; it has to be
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noted that materials such as cement and steel require large amounts of energy as their production
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requires them to be heated to temperatures exceeding 1300°C in kilns. This causes emission of huge
quantities of greenhouse gases like CO2 and also large amounts of industrial waste by-products like fly
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ash, which are harmful to the environment. In addition, indiscriminant mining of natural resources for
the production of building materials has resulted in severe adverse effects on the environment, includ-
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ing loss of biodiversity, erosion, contamination of surface and ground water, and soil. Several (rocky)
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mountains are disappearing and river beds and even beaches (which took numerous years to form) are
being denuded of sands. As these natural resources are limited, there is a shortage of coarse aggregates
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and sand in several parts of the world, necessitating the use of alternate materials or recycling of used
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materials and even the use of industrial wastes like fly ash. Several other materials such as plastics
and lead are harmful to the environment or to the heath of human beings and have to be handled
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carefully. In addition, some materials like paints, varnishes, or wood impregnated with preservative
chemicals may off-gas volatile organic compounds (VOC), which may affect the health of people
living in air-conditioned interiors.
Almost all materials that are used in the construction have to follow the norms stipulated in the
national codes (Bureau of Indian Standards has numerous codes on building materials). In addition,
as buildings account for about one-third of worldwide energy consumption and are one of the larg-
est contributors to GCG emissions, several countries including India have recently developed Energy
Conservation Building Codes. They usually contain mandatory and voluntary provisions on insulation,
thermal and solar properties of the building envelope, heating, ventilation and air conditioning, and also
hot water supply systems, lighting, and electrical power.
From the above discussions, it is clear that all those engaged in the design and construction of
buildings should have a sound knowledge about the manufacture, energy required in the manufac-
ture, properties, effect on health, environmental friendliness, recyclability, sustainability, etc., of the
materials they are using and also the norms prescribed for these materials. This book has been written

vi Preface
to fulfill these needs. This text is based on several latest Indian Standard codes on building materials.
SI units have been used throughout the book.
About the Book

Building Materials, Testing, and Sustainability is a comprehensive text book designed to meet the re-
quirements of the undergraduate students of civil engineering, based on the recent AICTE syllabus on
Materials, Testing & Evaluation. This book will also be useful to students of architecture (who usually
specify the materials), students of diploma courses in civil engineering and will serve as an invaluable
reference to postgraduate students and practising engineers, as well as researchers.
Each chapter starts with an introduction about the origin and development of the material discussed
in that chapter, the manufacture, properties, uses, advantages and disadvantages, and sustainability of
that material. After presenting the subject, multiple-choice questions (MCQ) and review questions are
provided at the end of each chapter, which will help the students assimilate the topics presented in the
chapters. Answers to the MCQ are given at the end of each chapter, so that the students can check their
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answers. Several interesting case studies are also included as part of every chapter.
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Key Features
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The following features in the book make it stand out among the other books in this area:
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• It covers traditional materials to the most modern materials such as plastics, gypsum, and ceramics.
• Each chapter covers a brief history, composition, classification, manufacture, properties, advantages
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and disadvantages, use in buildings, environmental effects, sustainability, etc., of the material dis-
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cussed in that chapter.

• Several Indian codes are available which stipulate norms for these materials. Most of these codes
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are cited in the book and important extracts are provided. The list of several codes, which are not
cited, are also included in the references of each chapter and included in the online resource centre
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(ORC). In addition, a bibliography is provided in the book which lists the important references, for
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further study and research.

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• Several topics, which are normally not found in other books, such as different types of brick kilns,
substitutes for bricks, green cement, industrial by-products that can be used to replace cement,
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green substitutes for coarse aggregates and sand, green mortars, green and special concrete, mix
design of concrete, controlled permeability formwork (CPF), industrial timber products, various
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reinforcing bars, structural insulated panel (SIP), sustainability of various materials, green building
rating systems, bamboo, nano-materials, composite materials and concrete canvas, health effects
and precautions to be taken while handling certain materials, etc., are discussed.
• 30 interesting practical case studies are provided.
• Students and engineers will find the separate chapter on testing and evaluation of these materials to
be useful.
• A rich pedagogy provides the required rigour for students to excel in this subject in the
examinations: Over 750 review questions and 440 multiple-choice questions (with answers) to
test the understanding of the students; over 300 illustrative figures and photographs and 200 tables
to supplement the text; more than 1440 references, which include relevant Indian and American
codes.
• Provides most updated information in this subject covering the state-of-the-art trends and develop-
ments.

Preface vii
Online Resources
The following resources are available to support the faculty and students using this text:
For faculty For students

• Lecture PPTs • List of references
Using the Book

The text is divided into 25 chapters and completely covers the undergraduate (UG) curriculum of most
of the universities. The teacher adopting this book is requested to exercise discretion to select portions
of the text to be presented for a particular course. It is suggested that portions of Chapters 2–8, 11–13,
15–18, and 25 may be taught and Chapters 1, 9–10, 14, and 19–24 may be left for self-study.
Although relevant information from some important codes of practice has been included in the text,
readers are advised to buy and refer to the latest codes published by the Bureau of Indian Standards,
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New Delhi. It is recommended that readers should use the book along with the latest codes/publications
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released by the Bureau of Indian Standards, for better clarity.
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Contents and Coverage
The text is divided into 25 chapters. it y
Chapter 1 deals with the general information on physical, mechanical, thermal, and other properties of
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materials. It also gives some indications on sustainable (healthy and ecological) materials. Introduction
to various green building systems is given and a comparison of structural steel, reinforced and pre-
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stressed concrete, and wood, which are the major materials used in construction, is provided. A discus-
sion on Alternative Building Materials and building codes is also included.
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Various aspects of stone including durability, deterioration, preservation, selection and uses of stones
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are discussed in Chapter 2. It also has brief introduction to stone masonry and a comparison of stone
and brick masonry.
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Bricks, which are usually used for constructing the walls of buildings, are the subject of Chapter 3.
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In India, the current brick manufacturing is through the use of highly polluting, energy inefficient, and
uneconomical kilns. Hence various types of kilns are discussed and the vertical shaft brick kiln/tunnel
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kiln is suggested. Qualities of good bricks, properties, characteristics, etc., of bricks are provided. Several
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substitutes for bricks are also suggested.

Chapter 4 deals with lime, which is a green material, and was used in olden days; this chapter discusses
its manufacture, types, classifications, uses, and precautions while handling it. The manufacture, chem-
ical composition, properties, and hydration of various types of cement, which is an important ingredient
of concrete, are explained in Chapter 5 along with the various pozzolana/green cement replacement
materials. Chapter 6 deals with the characteristics and properties of coarse and fine aggregates, which
are mainly used in concrete, and include topics on grading of aggregates, alkali–aggregate reaction, and
green substitutes for coarse aggregates and sand. Chapter 7 is concerned with mortars and plasters, which
are used in building masonry and providing protective coating on walls and ceilings, respectively.
Various aspects of concrete and RCC, which is used extensively in India in buildings, bridges, dams,
etc., are covered in Chapter 8. Various special concretes such as ready mixed concrete, high-strength/
high-performance concrete, self-compacting concrete (which is the material of the future), structural
light weight concrete, foamed concrete, fibre reinforced concrete, ultra-high performance concrete, poly-
mer concrete, geoploymer concrete, prestressed concrete, precast concrete, decorative concrete, etc., are
discussed in Chapter 9. As concrete contributes to about 5–6% of global emissions of greenhouse gases,

viii Preface
the methods to reduce these emissions by the use of industrial by-products such as fly ash, GGBS, etc.,
(which also improve the properties of concrete) are also described in Chapter 9.
Chapter 10 describes gypsum, a fire retardant and sustainable material, requiring low energy in its
production, and mostly used in wall panels. The technology developed at IITM, using glass fibre rein-
forced gypsum panels, could reduce the cost and time required to build houses.
Wood is the most sustainable and renewable building material having a low level of embodied energy,
and wood products can be carbon negative. In order to use it we should maintain sustainable forestry.
Chapter 11 explains the classifications, defects, conservation, seasoning and preservation, properties,
selection and testing of timber. Several wood products such as layered timber composites, parallel
laminates, particle composites, fibre composites, and timber-concrete composites are now available;
their use and properties are briefly explained along with cork and linoleum.
Chapter 12 deals with the various forms of iron (pig, wrought, cast) and Chapter 13 describes steel,
which is the second most used structural material. Steel could be alloyed with other elements (mainly
with carbon) to improve the properties. It has equal strength in tension and compression, but its main
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drawback is its corrosion. Steel is used in various forms from structural sections to bolts, nuts, and
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nails. Hot rolled and cold-formed steel sections are available. Rebars used in concrete and prestressed
concrete are usually made of high strength steel. Several techniques have been developed to mitigate
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the corrosion problem including the development of stainless steel and weathering steel. The produc-
tion of steel is also energy intensive and requires high temperatures (up to 1650°C), but is considered
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sustainable due to its 100% recyclability. Chapter 14 is concerned with non-ferrous materials such as
aluminium, copper, zinc, lead, etc., and its alloys like brass and bronze. Steel is galvanized using zinc.
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Glass, which is obtained from silica sand, lime, soda, and alumina, and mainly used in windows and
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curtain walls of multi-storey buildings, is discussed in Chapter 15. Common types (sheet, plate, float,
and extra clear) and special types of glass (safety, translucent, etched, tinted, reflective/coated, insulated,
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double-glazed, glass blocks) are described. Clay roofing tiles of various types and ceramic products are
discussed in Chapter 16. Chapter 17 discusses plastics, which were invented in the 1800s and have rev-
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olutionized the construction industry and being used in a variety of applications. This chapter describes
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its classification, methods of production, properties, and uses. Most of the plastics are not recyclable and
are not bio-degradable and hence have to be used with caution.
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Details about paints and varnishes are provided in Chapter 18 and asphalt, bitumen, and tar in
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Chapter 19. Chapters 20–22 deal with thermal and sound insulating materials and waterproof-
ing materials, respectively. Miscellaneous and recent materials are discussed in Chapter 23. A brief
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description of deformation and fracture of materials is provided in Chapter 24. Chapter 25 describes the
various tests that are performed on some of the important materials, in order to evaluate them.
Though care has been taken to present error-free material, some errors might have crept in inadvert-
ently. I would highly appreciate if these errors are brought to the attention of publishers. Any sugges-
tions for improvement are also welcome.
Acknowledgements
I was greatly influenced during the preparation of this book by several books, papers, and websites on
building materials, sustainability and testing. Although sufficient effort was taken to acknowledge the
source of images, tables, etc., I wish to apologize for the use of any phrase, image, or illustrations used
in this book inadvertently without acknowledgement.
I thank the following organizations/publishers for permitting to reproduce material from their
publications: Ms Angela R. Matthews of American Concrete Institute (ACI), Ms Rachel Jordan of

Preface ix
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Mr Toru Kawai, Executive Director of Japan Concrete
Institute (JCI), The US Green Building Council, Dr Steven H. Kosmatka, former Vice President, and
Guiyun Wang of Portland Cement Association (PCA), USA, Mr Chris Shaw of UK, The Indian Concrete
Journal, Mr Craig Donnelly of the Scottish Government, Er Robert Jackson of Fast+Epp, of Vancouver,
BC, Canada, Dr Warren South, Director – Research and Technical Services of Cement Concrete &
Aggregates, Australia, Ms Rousalina Barkhamatova, Secretary, Industrial Minerals Association Europe
(IMA-Europe), Brussels, Belgium, Mr Opinder Saggi of Allied Concrete Ltd and AML Ltd, Auckland,
New Zealand, Dr Mohammed Nadeem of Ambuja Cements, Mr Drew Burns, Executive Director of Slag
Cement Association, Dr M.C. Nataraja, Professor of JSS Science and Technology University, Mysore,
Prof. Devdas Menon of IITM, Er Alok Bhowmick of B&S Engineering Consultants Pvt. Ltd, Mr Samuel
Sundar Singh of The Indian Green Building Council (IGBC), and M/s Tata Steel.
I thank the following organizations/persons for gi ving permission to use photographs of testing
equipment/buildings/materials: Er Dar Adil of IITD, Mr Mohammed Razal of Bangalore Tile Company,
Bangalore, Prof. Manu Santhanam of IITM, Mr Robin Bailey of Humboldt Mfg Co., Elgin, IL, Prof. Jake
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Hiller of Michigan Technological University, USA, Dr Ajoy Kumar Mullick, former Director General of
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the National Council for Cement & Building Materials and Consultant, New Delhi, Mr Garry Watkins of
Concrete Canvas Ltd, UK, Mr Giorgio Maestroni and Ms Elena Agazzi of Matest S.P.A. Unipersonale,
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Italy, Ms Sadia Parveen of ELE International, UK, Ms Aarti Bhargava of Aimil Ltd, New Delhi, Mr Jean
Pol Grandmont (Flickr), Er Sebastian Kaminski of Arup, UK, Prof. M. Sekar of Anna University, Mr Lori
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Maloney of JC Steele & Sons, Inc., Mr John Lamond (Controls USA, Inc.) and Ms Paola Bettinelli
(Controls S.p.A.) of Controls Group, Milan, Italy, M/s Elsevier (Fig. 5.4), Mr Nemish Sheth, Director
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of Asona India Pvt. Ltd Mumbai, Ms Sara DeWaay of the University of Oregon Libraries, Ms Alison of
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Findlay–Evans Waterproofing & Liquid Rubber Melbourne, Australia, Dr Narayan V. Nayak, Advisor,
Gammon India Ltd, Dr V.S. Parameswaran, Former Director of SERC, Dr G. Mohan Ganesh of Vellore
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Institute of Technology, Vellore, Er S.H. Gajendra n, Er E.S. Jayakumar, Superintending Engineer

(Civil), BSNL Civil Wing, Kerala, Er Rahul Leslie , Deputy Director of Kerala PWD, Cochin, and
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Er M. Karthik.
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I thank all those who assisted me in the preparation of this book. First and foremost I thank Dr Col.
Nallathambi, Managing Director, Sakthi Civil & Structural Consultancy Pvt. Ltd, Chennai for his help
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in writing Chapters 20–22. My sincere thanks are due to Prof. B. Vijaya Rangan, Emeritus Professor of
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Civil Engineering, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia, Prof. Dr P. Suryanarayana, Professor
& Former Dean (Retd), Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, Dr Ch. T. Madhavi,
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Professor & Head, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Ramapuram Campus, Dr Abdul Rashid Dar,
Professor and former Director, National Institute of Technology Srinagar, J&K, India, and Dr G. Mohan
Ganesh, of VIT, for going through the chapters patiently and offering useful comments, and Er Hemal
Mistry and Er Dar Adil of IITM for their help in locating the literature. Finally I express my gratitude
to Er Kumar Abhishek Singh of New Delhi, Er Vivek Abhyankar of L&T Mumbai, Er Siddique, and
Er Ganesh of Nagpur for their encouragement.
I will be failing in my duty if I do not acknowledge the help and wonderful assistance I received from
Ms S. Chithra at all the stages of this book-writing project. Lastly, I acknowledge the excellent support
and coordination provided by the editorial team of Oxford University Press India.
N. Subramanian

BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface v
Detailed Contents xi
List of Acronyms xxii
1. Properties of Building Materials 1
2. Building Stones 23
3. Bricks and Brick Substitutes 53
4. Building Lime 92
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5. Cement and Cementitious Materials 115
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6. Aggregates 145
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7. Mortars and Plasters 183
8. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete 208
9. Special Structural Concrete
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10. Gypsum 301
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11. Wood and Wood Products 317

12. Ferrous Metals other than Steel 368
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13. Steel 386

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14. Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys 440

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15. Glass 467

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16. Clay and Ceramic Products 489

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17. Plastics and Rubbers 511

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18. Paints and Varnishes 540

19. Asphalt, Bitumen, and Tar 570
20. Thermal Insulating Materials 590
21. Sound Insulating Materials 614
22. Waterproofing and Damp-proofing Materials 636
23. Miscellaneous Materials 656
24. Deformation and Fracture of Materials 674
25. Testing and Evaluation of Building Materials 688
Bibliography 777
Index 782

DETAILED CONTENTS
Preface v 2.9 Selection and Applications
Brief Contents x of Stones 40
List of Acronyms xxii 2.10 Stone Masonry 43
2.10.1 Rubble Masonry 43
2.10.2 Ashlar Masonry 44
1. Properties of Building Materials 1 2.10.3 Stone Veneers 45
1.1 Introduction 1 2.10.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of
1.2 Functions of a Building 2 Stone Masonry 45
1.3 Choosing Materials for Construction 2 2.11 Stone Masonry vs Brick Masonry 46
1.4 Physical Properties 3 2.12 Artificial Stones 47
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1.5 Mechanical Properties 5 2.13 Stone Flooring 48
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1.6 Thermal Properties 6
1.7 Other Properties 7 3. Bricks and Brick Substitutes 53
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1.8 Sustainable Materials 9 3.1 Introduction 53
1.8.1 Healthy Materials 10 3.2 Properties of Brick Clay 54
1.8.2 Ecological Materials 10
1.9 Green Building Rating Systems 10
it y 3.2.1 Types of Clay 55
3.2.2 Composition of Good Brick
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Clay 55
1.9.1 LEED-NC 11
3.2.3 Harmful Ingredients in
1.10 Embodied Energy and Energy
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Brick Clay 56
Efficiency 15
3.3 Manufacture of Bricks 57
1.11 Comparison of some Major
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3.4 Different Types of Brick Kilns 62

Building Materials 17 3.4.1 Classification of Brick
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1.12 Alternative Building Materials 19 Kilns 62

1.13 Building Codes and By-Laws 20 3.4.2 Clamp Kiln 63
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3.4.3 Down-draught Kiln 64

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2. Building Stones 23 3.4.4 Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln 65

2.1 Introduction 23 3.4.5 Tunnel Kiln 68
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2.2 Classification of Rocks 24 3.5 Classification of Bricks 70

2.2.1 Igneous Rocks 26
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3.6 Qualities of Good Bricks 71

2.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks 26 3.7 Architectural Characteristics
2.2.3 Metamorphic Rocks 27 of Bricks 71
2.3 Common Stones used in India 27 3.7.1 Shape and Types of Bricks 71
2.4 Quarrying, Seasoning, and 3.7.2 Size and Weight of Bricks 75
Dressing of Stones 29 3.7.3 Colour and Texture of Bricks 76
2.4.1 Quarrying Methods 30 3.8 Defects in Burnt Clay Bricks 76
2.4.2 Seasoning of Stones 32 3.9 Advantages and Uses of Bricks 77
2.4.3 Dressing of Stones 33 3.10 Substitutes for Bricks 78
2.5 Requirements of Good 3.10.1 Fly Ash Bricks 79
Building Stones 33 3.10.2 Sand-lime Bricks and Calcium
2.6 Durability of Stones 36 Silicate Bricks 80
2.7 Deterioration of Stones 37 3.10.3 Compressed Earth Blocks 81
2.8 Preservation of Stones 39 3.10.4 Concrete Blocks 82
2.8.1 Precautions During 3.10.5 Plastic Blocks 86
Construction 39 3.11 Sustainability and Brick 87
2.8.2 Preservation of Completed
Stonework 39

xii Detailed Contents
4. Building Lime 92 5.5 Chemical Compounds of Cement

4.1 Introduction 92 Clinker 120
4.2 Constituents of Limestone or 5.6 Physical Properties of
Varieties of Lime 93 Portland Cement 122
4.3 Lime Cycle 93 5.7 Chemical Properties of
4.4 Manufacture of Lime 94 Portland Cement 123
4.4.1 Preparation of Raw Materials 95 5.8 Hydration of Cement 124
4.4.2 Calcination of Limestone 5.8.1 Heat of Hydration 126
in Kilns 95 5.8.2 Rate of Hydration 127
4.4.3 Method of Storage of Lime 97 5.8.3 Water-Cement Ratio 128
4.4.4 Chemical Reaction that occurs 5.9 Green Cement Replacement
during Manufacturing 97 Materials (Pozzolana) 128
4.4.5 Estimating the Quantity 5.9.1 Surkhi 129
of Lime 98 5.9.2 Fly Ash 129
4.4.6 Effect of Impurities in 5.9.3 Ground Granulated Blast
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Limestone 98 Furnace Slag (GGBS) 131
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4.4.7 Hydrators used 5.9.4 Silica Fume 132
in Lime Production 99 5.9.5 Metakaolin 132
4.5 Different Types of Limes 99
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5.9.6 Rice Husk Ash 133
4.5.1 Quicklime or Lime Putty 99 5.10 Types of Cements Produced
4.5.2 Hydrated or Slaked Lime 100 in India 133
4.5.3 Equipment used for
Slaking Process 100
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5.10.2
Portland Pozzolana Cement 133
Portland Slag Cement 134
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4.5.4 Hydraulic Lime or Natural 5.10.3 Blended Cements 135
Hydraulic Lime (NHL) 102 5.10.4 Special-purpose Cements 136
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4.6 Cementing Action of Lime 103 5.10.5 Portland Limestone Cement 138
4.7 Classification of Lime 103 5.11 Novel, Resource-efficient
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4.8 Storing of Lime 104 Cements 138

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4.9 Precautions to be Taken while 5.11.1 Alkali-activated/Geopolymer

Handling Lime 105 Cement 138
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4.10 Uses and Products of Lime in 5.11.2 Self-cleaning Cement 139

5.12 Storage and Handling of Cement 140
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Construction 105
4.10.1 Lime Putty 106 5.13 Uses of Cement 140
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4.10.2 Lime Mortar and Plaster 106

4.10.3 Limewash 106 6. Aggregates 145
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4.10.4 FaL-G Technology 108 6.1 Introduction 145

4.10.5 Hempcrete and Limecrete 109 6.2 Classification of Aggregates 145
4.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of 6.2.1 According to Geological
using Lime 109 Origin 146
4.11.1 Advantages of Lime 109 6.2.2 According to Size 147
4.11.2 Disadvantages of Lime 110 6.2.3 According to Shape 148
4.12 Lime vs Cement 111 6.2.4 According to Unit Weight 150
4.13 Use of Lime as Green Building 6.3 Characteristics of Coarse
Material 111 Aggregates 150
6.3.1 Particle Size, Shape, and
5. Cement and Cementitious Materials 115 Texture 151
5.1 Introduction 115 6.3.2 Crushing or Impact Strength 152
5.2 Portland Cement 116 6.3.3 Relative Density 152
5.2.1 Grades of Cements in India 117 6.3.4 Bulk Density 152
6.3.5 Voids 153
5.3 Manufacture of Portland Cement 117
6.3.6 Porosity 153
5.4 Chemical Composition of Raw 6.3.7 Moisture Content 153
Materials of Portland Cement 119

Detailed Contents xiii
6.4 Deleterious Substances and 7.8.3 Rules for application 196

Organic Impurities 154 7.8.4 Precautions to be taken 196
6.5 Soundness of Aggregate 155 7.9 Special Mortars 196
6.6 Alkali–Aggregate Reaction 155 7.10 Green Mortars 197
6.7 Thermal Properties of 7.10.1 Lime Mortar 198
Aggregates 157 7.10.2 Lime-Pozzolana Mixture 198
7.10.3 Cement-Fly Ash-Sand
6.8 Fineness Modulus and Sieve
Mortar 199
Analysis 158 7.10.4 Masonry Cement Mortar 199
6.9 Maximum Size of Aggregates 162 7.11 Selection of Mortar 200
6.10 Grading of Aggregates 163 7.12 Plasters 201
6.10.1 Grading Limits 165 7.12.1 Cement or Lime Plasters 202
6.11 Green Substitutes for Coarse 7.12.2 Polymer-based Plaster
Aggregates 167 Systems 202
6.11.1 Recycled Aggregates 168 7.12.3 Stucco Plasters for Exterior
6.11.2 Iron and Steel Slags 169 Walls 203
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6.11.3 Sintered Fly Ash Lightweight 7.13 Grout 204
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Aggregates 170
6.12 Fine Aggregates (Natural Sand) 170 8. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete 208
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6.12.1 Sources of Sand 171 8.1 Introduction 208
6.12.2 Classification of Sand 171 8.1.1 Brief History 209
6.12.3
6.12.4
Bulking of Sand 172
Uses of Sand 173
it y 8.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Concrete 210
6.13 Green Substitutes for Sand 174
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8.2 Ingredients of Concrete 212
6.13.1 Manufactured Sand 175 8.2.1 Water and Water-Cement
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6.13.2 Copper Slag 176 Ratio 212

6.13.3 Granulated Blast Furnace Slag 8.2.2 Concrete Chemicals 213
(GBFS) 177
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8.3 Classification of Concrete 215

6.13.4 Foundry Waste Sand 177
8.4 Mixing the Materials for Concrete 216
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6.14 Storing and Handling 8.4.1 Batching Plants 217

of Aggregates 178 8.5 Transporting and Placing
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Concrete 218
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7. Mortars and Plasters 183

8.6 Consolidation of Concrete 218
7.1 Introduction 183
8.6.1 Hand Consolidation 219
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7.2 Characteristics of Good Mortar 184 8.6.2 Compaction by Vibration 219

7.2.1 Ingredients of Mortar 185
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8.6.3 Bleeding of Concrete 223

7.3 Classification of Mortars 186 8.6.4 Revibration 225
7.4 Cement Mortar 187 8.7 Curing of Concrete 225
7.4.1 Preparation 187 8.7.1 Internal Curing of Concrete 228
7.4.2 Precautions to be Taken 188 8.7.2 Removal of Forms 229
7.4.3 Properties 188 8.8 Properties of Fresh and Hardened
7.4.4 Applications 189
Concrete 229
7.5 Lime Mortar 189 8.8.1 Workability 229
7.5.1 Preparation 190 8.8.2 Compressive Strength 230
7.5.2 Hydraulic Lime Mortars 192 8.8.3 Stress-Strain Characteristics 232
7.5.3 Advantages and 8.8.4 Tensile Strength and Shear
Disadvantages 192 Strength 233
7.5.4 Precautions to Be Taken 193 8.8.5 Bearing Strength 234
7.6 Composite (Lime-Cement) Mortar 193 8.8.6 Modulus of Elasticity and
7.7 Surkhi Mortar 194 Poisson’s Ratio 234
7.8 Mud Mortar 195 8.8.7 Shrinkage and Temperature
7.8.1 Preparation 195 Effects 236
7.8.2 Limitations 195 8.8.8 Creep of Concrete 237

xiv Detailed Contents
8.9 Mix Design of Ordinary Grade 10.5 Gypsum Wall Plasters 304
Concrete 238 10.5.1 Characteristics of
8.10 Reinforced Cement Concrete Wet-plastered Walls 307
(RCC) 247 10.6 Gypsum Plaster Boards 307
8.10.1 Corrosion Problem of Reinforced 10.6.1 Types of Gypsum
Concrete 248 Boards 308
8.10.2 Cover for Steel 10.6.2 Characteristics of Drywall
Reinforcement 249
Construction 311
8.10.3 Controlled Permeability
Formwork (CPF) Systems 253
10.7 Non-load Bearing Gypsum Partition
8.10.4 Vacuum Dewatering of Blocks 313
Concrete 255 10.8 Sustainability of Gypsum 314
8.11 Durability of Concrete 255
8.12 Defects in Concrete 256 11. Wood and Wood Products 317
8.13 Formwork 258 11.1 Introduction 317
11.2 Classification of Trees 318
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9. Special Structural Concrete 263 11.3 Parts of the Stem of a Tree 318
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9.1 Introduction 263 11.4 Classification of Wood/Timber 320
9.2 Ready Mixed Concrete 264 11.4.1 Commercial/Hardness
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9.3 Green Concrete (with Supplementary Classification 320
Cementitious Materials) 266 11.4.2 On the Basis of Grading 320
9.3.1 Fly Ash Concrete 267
9.3.2 Silica Fume and RHA
it y 11.4.3 According to Availability 321
11.4.4 According to Durability 321
rs
Concrete 271 11.4.5 Based on Modulus of
9.3.3 Slag Cement Concrete 273
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Elasticity 322
9.3.4 Concrete with Recycled 11.4.6 Based on Treatability 322
Aggregates 274
11.4.7 Based on Refractoriness to
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9.4 High Strength/High Performance Air-Seasoning 322

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Concrete 276 11.5 Defects in Wood/Timber 322

9.5 Self-compacting Concrete 279 11.5.1 Defects due to Natural
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9.6 Structural Lightweight Concrete 281 Forces 323

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9.6.1 Autoclaved Aerated

Concrete 284
11.5.2 Defects that Develop after
Felling Trees 324
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9.6.2 Lightweight Foamed

Concrete 288 11.6 Rot and Decay of Timber 325
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9.7 Fibre Reinforced Concrete 289 11.6.1 Dry Rot 326

9.7.1 Ultra-high Performance 11.6.2 Wet Rot 326
Concrete 290 11.6.3 Damage due to Insects 327
9.8 Polymer Concrete 293 11.7 Moisture Content of Timber 329
9.9 Precast Concrete 295 11.7.1 Shrinkage of Timber 331
9.10 Decorative Concrete 295 11.8 Conversion and Seasoning
9.11 Ferrocement 295 of Timber 331
9.12 Geopolymer Concrete 296 11.8.1 Conversion and Market
9.13 Prestressed Concrete 296 Forms of Timber 332
9.14 Shotcrete 296 11.8.2 Seasoning of Timber 333
9.15 Other Types of Concrete 297 11.8.3 Seasoning Degrade 336
11.9 Preservation of Timber 336
10. Gypsum 301
11.9.1 Prophylactic Treatment 338
11.9.2 Precautions to be taken while
10.2 Effect of Heat and Moisture 302
Handling Chemically Treated
10.3 Classification 303
Wood 338
10.4 Plaster of Paris 304

Detailed Contents xv
11.9.3 Thermal or Heat 12. Ferrous Metals other than Steel 368
Treatment 339 12.1 Introduction 368
11.9.4 Wood-Polymer 12.2 Pig Iron 369
Composites 339 12.2.1 Production of Pig Iron 369
11.9.5 Protective Coating 339 12.2.2 Properties and Uses of Pig
11.10 Storage of Timber 340 Iron 371
11.11 Qualities of Good Timber 340 12.3 Wrought Iron 372
11.12 Selection of Timber 341 12.3.1 Manufacture 373
11.13 Fire Proofing of Timber 342 12.3.2 Properties 374
11.14 Structural Properties of Timber 342 12.3.3 Uses of Wrought Iron 374
11.15 Advantages and Problems 12.4 Cast Iron 374
of Timber 344 12.4.1 Manufacture 375
11.16 Industrial Timber Products 345 12.4.2 Classification 377
11.17 Layered Timber Composites 346 12.4.3 Grey Cast Iron 378
11.17.1 Veneers and Veneer Plywood 12.4.4 White Cast iron 379
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(Cross-laminate) 346
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12.4.5 Malleable Cast Iron 379
11.17.2 Cross-laminated Timber 12.4.6 Spheroidal Graphite Iron
(CLT) 348
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(Ductile Iron) 380
11.17.3 Nail-laminated Timber 12.4.7 Alloyed Iron 380
(NLT) 349
11.18 Parallel Laminates 349it y 12.4.8 Corrosion Resistance of Cast
Iron 381
11.18.1 Glued Laminated Timber
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12.5 Steel 381
(GLT or Glulam) 349 12.6 Environmental Effects of Iron/
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11.18.2 Laminated Veneer Lumber Steel Production 382

(LVL) 350
13. Steel 386
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11.18.3 Block Board, Lamin Board,

and Sandwich Panels 351 13.1 Introduction 386
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11.18.4 Flush Doors 352 13.2 Steel Making 387

11.19 Particle Composites 352 13.2.1 Integrated Steel Plants 387
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11.19.1 Particle Boards 352 13.2.2 Mini Steel Plants 389

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11.19.2 Parallel Strand Lumber 13.2.3 Hot Rolling Process 390

(PSL) 355 13.3 Production of Steel in India 390
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11.19.3 Oriented Strand Board 13.4 Metallurgy of Steel 391

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(OSB) 355 13.4.1 Crystalline Structure of

11.19.4 Laminated Strand Lumber Metals 391
(LSL) 355 13.4.2 Structure of Steel 392
11.20 Fibre Composites 356 13.5 Heat Treatment of Steel 394
11.20.1 Fibreboards 356 13.5.1 Annealing 394
11.20.2 Hardboard 357 13.5.2 Normalizing 394
11.21 Timber-concrete Composites 13.5.3 Quenching and
(TCC) 358 Tampering 395
11.22 Advantages and Drawbacks of Wooden 13.5.4 Stress Relieving 395
Composites 358 13.5.5 Case Hardening 395
11.23 Applications of Wood and Wood 13.6 Alloying Elements in Steel 396
Products 359 13.6.1 Weldability of Steel 397
11.23.1 Tall Buildings in Wood 361 13.7 Chemical Composition of Steel 398
11.24 Cork and Linoleum 361 13.8 Types of Structural Steel 398
11.25 Timber: The Ultimate Green Building 13.9 Mechanical Properties of Steel 399
Material 362

xvi Detailed Contents
13.9.1 Tensile Strength/Yield 13.16.1 High-strength Low-alloy

Strength 400 (HSLA) Steel 433
13.9.2 Characteristic Strength 403 13.17 Storage and Handling of Steel 434
13.9.3 Ductility 404 13.18 Advantages and Disadvantages
13.9.4 Low Temperature and of Steel 434
Toughness (Brittle 13.19 Steel and Sustainability 436
Fracture) 404
13.9.5 Lamellar Tearing 405 14. Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys 440
13.9.6 High Temperature 14.1 Introduction 440
Effects 406 14.2 Aluminium and its Alloys 440
13.9.7 Hardness 407 14.2.1 Manufacture of
13.9.8 Fatigue Resistance 407 Aluminium 440
13.10 Residual Stresses 407 14.2.2 Properties of
13.11 Mechanical Working of Metals 409 Aluminium 442
13.11.1 Hot Working 409 14.2.3 Aluminium Alloys 444
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13.11.2 Cold Working 410 14.2.4 Anodizing of
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13.12 Structural Steel Products 412 Aluminium 447
13.12.1 Hot-rolled Steel Sections 14.2.5 Available Forms of
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(IS 808) 412 Aluminium 447
13.12.2 Wide Flange Sections 14.2.6 Uses of Aluminium 448
(IS 12778:2004) 413 it y 14.2.7 Advantages of using
Aluminium 450
13.12.3 Welded and Hybrid
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Sections 414 14.3 Copper and its Alloys 451
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13.12.4 Hollow Steel Sections 14.3.1 Manufacture of Copper 451

(HSS) 416 14.3.2 Properties of Copper 453
14.3.3 Uses of Copper 453
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13.12.5 Light-gauge Cold-formed

Steel Sections 417 14.3.4 Copper Alloys (Brass and
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13.12.6 Steel Wires and Ropes 418 Bronze) 454

13.12.7 Steel Fasteners 419 14.4 Zinc and its Alloys 456
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13.12.8 Other Products 420 14.4.1 Zinc Galvanizing 457

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13.13 Reinforcing Steel Bars 421 14.5 Lead 458

13.13.1 Hot-rolled Bars 421 14.6 Chromium 459
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13.13.2 Cold Twisted Deformed 14.7 Nickel 459

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(CTD) Bars (Torsteel 14.8 Magnesium 461

Bars) 421 14.9 Vanadium 461
13.13.3 Thermo-mechanically Treated 14.10 Problems with Non-ferrous
(TMT) Bars 422 Metals 462
13.13.4 Welded Wire Fabrics 14.11 Sustainability of Non-ferrous Materials
(WWF) 424 463
13.13.5 Steel for Prestressed
Concrete 424 15. Glass 467
13.13.6 Corrosion of Rebars and 15.1 Introduction 467
Mitigation Methods 425 15.2 Composition and Classification 468
13.14 Protection of Structural Steel from 15.3 Manufacture of Glass 469
Corrosion 427 15.3.1 Fourcault System of Sheet
13.14.1 Weathering Steel 429 Glass Manufacture 469
13.15 Stainless Steel 429 15.3.2 The Float-glass
13.5.1 Surface Finish 432 Process 470
13.16 High-performance Steel 432 15.3.3 Rolled Glass Process to make
Plate Glass 470

Detailed Contents xvii
15.4 Treatments given to Glass 471 16.3.7 Solar Roof Tiles 497
15.5 Properties of Glass 472 16.4 Clay Flooring Tiles 497
15.5.1 Physical Properties 472 16.4.1 Clay vs Concrete Roof
15.5.2 Engineering and Mechanical Tiles 498
Properties 472 16.5 Ceramics 498
15.6 Uses of Glass in Buildings 473 16.5.1 Manufacturing of Ceramic
15.7 Common Types 474 Products 499
15.7.1 Sheet Glass 474 16.5.2 Properties of Ceramics 501
15.7.2 Plate Glass 474 16.5.3 Ceramic Tiles 501
15.7.3 Float Glass 475 16.5.4 Vitrified Tiles 502
15.7.4 Extra Clear Glass 475 16.5.5 Fixing of Floor Tiles 503
15.8 Special Types 475 16.6 Porcelain 504
15.8.1 Safety Glass 475 16.6.1 Porcelain Tiles 504
15.8.2 Translucent Glass 477 16.7 Choosing Tiles 505
15.8.3 Etched Glass 477 16.8 Terracotta 506
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15.8.4 Tinted Glass 478 16.9 Earthenware 507
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15.8.5 Coated/Reflective Glass 478 16.10 Stoneware Pipes and Fittings 507
15.8.6 Insulated Glass/Double- 16.11 Ceramic Sanitary Appliances 507
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glazed Window Units 479 16.12 Burnt Clay Jallies 508
15.8.7 Glass Blocks 481 16.13 Environmental Effects of Ceramics 508
15.8.8 Heat-absorbing and it y
17. Plastics and Rubbers 511
Glare-reducing Glass 482
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15.8.9 Self-cleaning Glass 482 17.1 Introduction 511
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15.8.10 Associated Glazing 17.2 Brief History of Plastics

Materials 482 and Polymers 512
17.3 Composition of Plastics 512
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15.8.11 Types of Window

Frames 483 17.4 Classification of Plastics 513
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15.9 Fibreglass 483 17.4.1 Thermoplastics 513

15.10 Plastic Sheets for Glazing 483 17.4.2 Thermosetting Plastics 513
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15.11 Characteristics and Performance 17.5 Polymerization 513

or
of Glass 484 17.6 Fabrication of Plastic Products 514

15.11.1 Solar Control 484 17.6.1 Additives/Moulding
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15.11.2 Wind Loading 484 Compounds 515

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15.11.3 Sound Insulation 485 17.6.2 Solvents 515

15.12 Advantages and Disadvantages 485 17.6.3 Fabrication Methods 515
17.7 Properties of Some Plastics in
16. Clay and Ceramic Products 489 Common Use 518
16.1 Introduction 489 17.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of
16.2 Clay Tiles 489 Plastics 518
16.3 Clay Roofing Tiles 490 17.9 Common Plastics and their Use 519
16.3.1 Flat Plain Tiles 490 17.10 Use of Plastics In Buildings 522
16.3.2 Pan Tiles 491 17.10.1 PVC Pipes in Buildings 522
16.3.3 Mangalore Pattern Roofing 17.10.2 Polyethylene Water
Tiles 492 Tanks 524
16.3.4 Clay Half-Round Country Tiles 17.10.3 Doors and Windows 524
(Spanish Tiles) 494 17.10.4 Polycarbonate or PVC
16.3.5 Allahabad Tiles (Italian Roofing Sheets 524
Tiles) 495 17.10.5 Vinyl Flooring Sheets/Tiles/
16.3.6 Ridge and Ceiling Tiles 495 Planks 525

xviii Detailed Contents
17.10.6 Plastic Insulation 525 18.11 Exterior Paints 554

17.10.7 Structural Insulated 18.12 Whitewash and Colour Wash 554
Panel 526 18.13 Painting on Different Substrates 555
17.10.8 Use of Plastic Fabrics in 18.14 Varnishes 557
Tensile Structures 527 18.14.1 Ingredients of Varnish 557
17.10.9 Geosynthetic Materials 529 18.14.2 Types of Varnishes 558
17.11 Bioplastics 529 18.14.3 Application and
17.12 Fibre Reinforced Plastics 530 Recoating 559
17.13 Thermocol/Geofoam 531 18.15 Industrial Paints 560
17.14 Environmental Effects of Plastics 532 18.15.1 Innovations in Industrial
17.15 Rubber 534 Paint Industry 561
17.15.1 Types of Rubber 534 18.16 Covering Capacity of Paints 562
17.15.2 Vulcanization of 18.17 Defects in Painting 564
Rubber 535 18.18 Harmful Effects of Paints 566
17.15.3 Properties of Rubber 535
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17.15.4 Uses of Rubber in 19. Asphalt, Bitumen, and Tar 570
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Buildings 536 19.1 Introduction 570
19.2 Asphalt 570
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18. Paints and Varnishes 540 19.2.1 Types of Asphalt 571
18.1 Introduction 540 19.2.2 Uses of Asphalt 571
18.2 Components of Paints
18.3 Manufacture of Paints
540
543
it y 19.2.3 Forms of Asphalt-Paving
Materials 571
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18.3.1 Packaging of Paints 543 19.2.4 Mixture Formulations 572
18.4 Classification and Types of Paints 544
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19.3 Bitumen 575

18.4.1 Water-based Latex 19.3.1 Types of Bitumen 575
Paints 544 19.3.2 Specifications of Paving
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18.4.2 Oil-based Alkyd Paints 544 Bitumen 578

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18.4.3 Application Methods 546 19.3.3 Tar Paper and Bitumen

18.4.4 Characteristics of Good Felts 579
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Quality Paint 546 19.3.4 Commercial Roofing

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18.5 Considerations in Choosing Paints 546 Systems 580

18.5.1 Pigment Volume 19.3.5 Health, Safety, and
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Concentration 548 Environmental Aspects of

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18.6 Paint Primers 548 Bitumen 583

18.7 Cement Paints 549 19.3.6 OtherBituminousProducts 584
18.7.1 Procedure for Applying 19.4 Tar/Pitch 584
Cement Paint 550 19.5 General Properties
18.7.2 Advantages and of Bituminous Products 585
Disadvantages of Cement 19.6 Sustainability of Bituminous
Paint 550 Materials 586
18.8 Distempers 551
18.8.1 Soft Distempers 551 20. Thermal Insulating Materials 590
18.8.2 Oil-bound Distemper 552 20.1 Introduction 590
18.9 Plastic Emulsion Paints 552 20.1.1 General Principles of
18.9.1 Latex (Acrylic) Emulsion Thermal Insulation 591
Paint 552 20.1.2 Choice of Insulating
18.9.2 Vinyl Emulsion Paint 553 Materials 591
18.10 Solvent or Oil-based Paints 553 20.2 Importance of Thermal Insulation
18.10.1 Enamel Paints 553 in Buildings 591
18.10.2 Synthetic Enamel Paints 554 20.3 Heat Transfer Fundamentals 592

Detailed Contents xix
20.3.1 Conduction 593 21.7.4 Sound Insulation

20.3.2 Convection 593 of Doors 631
20.3.3 Radiation 593 21.7.5 Sound Insulation of Floors
20.4 Thermal Properties of Insulating and Ceilings 631
Materials 594 21.8 Barriers and Noise Reduction
20.5 Criteria for Selection of Insulation at Source 633
Materials 599
20.5.1 Thermal Bridging 600 22. Waterproofing and Damp-proofing
20.5.2 Convection and Air Materials 636
Leakage 601 22.1 Introduction 636
20.6 Common Insulation Materials 602 22.2 Causes and Effects of Dampness
20.6.1 Inorganic Materials 602 in Building 636
20.6.2 Organic Materials 604 22.2.1 Requirements of
20.7 Plastic Insulation Products 606 Waterproofing
20.7.1 Rigid Foam Boards 606 Systems 637
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20.7.2 Sprayed In-place Plastic 22.3 Waterproofing Systems and their
es
Foams 607 Applications 638
20.8 Vapour Barriers 609 22.3.1 Bitumen Primer
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20.9 Low-E™ Reflective Insulation 610 (IS 3384:1986) 638
20.10 Other Products 610 22.4 Sheet Membranes 638
20.11 Fenestration 610it y 22.4.1 Bituminous Materials and
Membranes 639
20.12 Insulation and Ventilation 611
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22.4.2 Thermoplastic
21. Sound Insulating Materials 614
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Membranes 642
21.1 Introduction 614 22.4.3 Elastomeric
21.1.1 Brief History 615
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Membranes 642
21.2 Fundamentals of Acoustics 615 22.4.4 Liquid Applied
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21.2.1 Sound and Noise 615 Membranes 643

21.2.2 Speed of Sound 616 22.5 Waterproofing Coatings 645
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21.2.3 Frequency (Pitch) 616 22.5.1 Bitumen-based Waterproof

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21.2.4 Wavelength 617 Coating 646

21.2.5 Amplitude (Loudness) 617 22.5.2 Bitumen-based Polymer
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21.2.6 Sound Pressure Level 618 Coating 646

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21.2.7 Airborne and Structure-borne 22.5.3 Elastomeric Coating 646

Sound 619 22.5.4 Impregnating Polymer
21.2.8 Transmission Loss 621 Coatings 647
21.3 Maximum Acceptable Noise Levels 621 22.5.5 Epoxy Coating 647
21.4 Principles of Soundproofing 621 22.5.6 Testing to Evaluate
21.5 Sound Transmission Class and Waterproof Coatings 648
Sound Reduction Index 624 22.6 Cementitious Waterproofing 648
21.6 Sound-absorbing Materials 624 22.6.1 Integral Waterproofing 648
21.7 Techniques used in Noise 22.6.2 Crystalline Admixtures 649
Reduction/Mitigation 628 22.6.3 Repellent Type
21.7.1 Planning of Buildings 628 Admixtures 649
21.7.2 Sound Insulation 22.6.4 Polymeric Modifiers 649
of Walls 628 22.6.5 Redispersible Polymer
21.7.3 Sound Insulation Powders 650
of Windows 630 22.6.6 Water-soluble Polymers 650

xx Detailed Contents
22.7 Bentonite Membrane Systems 650 25. Testing and Evaluation of

22.8 Brickbat Coba with Lime 651 Building Materials 688
22.9 Damp-proofing of Walls and 25.1 Introduction 688
Basements 651 25.2 Sampling of Specimen 689
25.3 Tests Conducted on Stones 689
23. Miscellaneous Materials 656 25.3.1 Simple Field Tests 690
23.1 Introduction 656 25.3.2 Laboratory Tests 691
23.2 Adhesives 656 25.4 Tests for Burnt Clay Bricks 692
23.2.1 Adhesives used in Timber 25.4.1 Compressive Strength 692
Constructions 657 25.4.2 Water Absorption 692
23.2.2 Adhesives for Fixing Ceramic 25.4.3 Potential to
Tiles and Mosaics 658 Efflorescence 693
23.2.3 Adhesives for Joining 25.4.4 Warpage 693
Concrete 658 25.4.5 Dimensional Tolerance 693
23.3 Caulks and Sealants 658
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25.4.6 Hardness, Soundness, and
23.4 Bamboo 660
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Structure 694
23.5 Composite Materials 663 25.5 Tests for Concrete Blocks 694
23.5.1 Concrete Canvas 665
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25.6 Tests for Building Limes 694
23.6 Asbestos Cement Products 666 25.6.1 Field Tests 695
23.7 Nanomaterials 667
23.7.1 Graphene 669
23.8 Smart Materials 669
it y 25.6.2 Laboratory Tests 696
25.7 Sampling and Testing of Cement 697
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25.7.1 Methods of Sampling 698
23.8.1 Shape-Memory Alloys 670 25.7.2 Test for Fineness 698
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23.8.2 3D Printing of 25.7.3 Tests for Soundness 701

Materials 670 25.7.4 Test for Consistency 704
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24. Deformation and 25.7.5 Test for Initial and

Final Setting using
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Fracture of Materials 674

Vicat Apparatus 705
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25.7.6 Test for Compressive

24.2 Types of Material Failures 674
Strength 706
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24.2.1 Elastic and Plastic

25.7.7 Test for Tensile Strength 707
Deformation 674
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25.7.8 Test for Heat of

24.2.2 Tension Tests 676
Hydration 707
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24.2.3 Bending Test 678

25.7.9 Specific Gravity Test 710
24.2.4 Torsion Test 679
25.7.10 Test Certificate from
24.2.5 Quasi-brittle Fracture 680
Cement Manufacturer 711
24.3 Creep Deformation 680
25.8 Field Tests on Cement 711
24.3.1 Creep Testing 681
25.9 Chemical Tests on Cement 712
24.4 Fatigue under Cyclic Loading 682
25.9.1 Loss on Ignition 712
24.5 Background to Fracture
25.9.2 Silica 713
Mechanics 683
25.9.3 Sulphuric Anhydride 713
24.5.1 Fracture Toughness Testing
25.9.4 Insoluble Residue 714
– Different Materials 685
25.9.5 X-Ray Fluorescence
24.5.2 Structural Integrity
Spectrometer Test 714
Assessment Procedure and
25.9.6 Atomic Absorption
Fracture Mechanics 686
Spectrophotometer
Method 714
25.9.7 Calorimetric Analysis 715

Detailed Contents xxi
25.10 Tests for Aggregates 715 25.13.4 Testing for Elastic

25.10.1 Flakiness and Elongation Modulus 740
Index 715 25.14 Non-destructive Testing 742
25.10.2 Limits of Deleterious 25.14.1 Rebound Hammer Test 743
Materials 716 25.14.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
25.10.3 Specific Gravity, Density, Test 745
Voids, Absorption, and 25.14.3 Impact-echo Test 747
Bulking 718 25.14.4 Maturity Method 748
25.10.4 Mechanical Properties: 25.14.5 Permeability Test 751
Aggregate Crushing Value, 25.15 Partial Destructive Tests 753
Impact Value, and Abrasion 25.15.1 Penetration Resistance
Value 719 Method (Windsor
25.10.5 Soundness of Aggregate 722 Probe) 753
25.10.6 Mortar-making Properties of 25.15.2 The Pullout Test 754
Fine Aggregates 723 25.16 Sampling and Acceptance Criteria of
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25.10.7 Alkali Aggregate Concrete 755
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Reactivity 724 25.17 Tests on Self-Compacting Concrete 757
25.10.8 Petrographic 25.18 Testing of Gypsum Products 759
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Examination 725 25.19 Testing of Timber and Timber Products
25.11 Tests for Mortars 725 759
25.11.1 Compression Strength 725 it y 25.19.1 Determination of Moisture
25.11.2 Consistency 726 Content 759
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25.11.3 Water Retention Test 726 25.20 Tests on Metals/Steel 760
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25.11.4 Tensile Strength 728 25.20.1 Tension Test 760

25.11.5 Test for Adhesion 729 25.20.2 The Charpy Impact test 763
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25.11.6 Test for Brickwork in 25.20.3 Tests to Determine

Compression 730 Hardness 764
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25.12 Tests on Fresh Concrete 731 25.21 Testing for Quality of Glass 765
25.12.1 Slump Test 731 25.22 Testing of Clay Tiles 765
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25.12.2 Compacting 25.22.1 Water Absorption Test 765

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Factor Test 732 25.22.2 Permeability Test 766

25.12.3 Vee-Bee Consistometer 25.22.3 Test for Flexural
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Test 733 strength 766

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25.12.4 Flow Table Test 734 25.22.4 Test for Breaking

25.12.5 Kelly Ball Test 736 Strength 766
25.12.6 Other Tests on Freshly Mixed 25.22.5 Test for Impact
Concrete 737 Resistance 767
25.13 Tests on Hardened Concrete 737 25.22.6 Tests for Ceramic Tiles 767
25.13.1 Compression Tests (on 25.23 Testing of Bitumen and Bitumen
Cylinder/Cube or Core Emulsions 768
Samples) 737 25.23.1 Viscosity Test 768
25.13.2 Flexure Test (Equivalent 25.23.2 Penetration Test 769
Cube Method) 738 25.23.3 Softening Point Test 770
25.13.3 Split Tensile Strength 25.23.4 Ductility Test 770
Test 740 25.24 Testing of Polymers 771
25.25 Tests on Composites 772
Bibliography 777
Index 782

CHAPTER 1
PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS
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1.1 Introduction
In the early societies, human beings lived in caves and almost certainly rested in the shade of trees.
Pr
Gradually, they learnt to use naturally occurring materials such as stone, timber, mud, and biomass
(e.g., leaves, grasses, and natural fibres) to construct houses, which was then followed by brick mak-
it y
ing, rope making, and glass and metal work (see Table 1.1). From these early beginnings, the modern
rs
materials–manufacturing industries developed.
The principal modern building materials are bricks, cement, concrete (e.g., mass, reinforced, and pre-
ve
stressed), timber, structural steel (in rolled and fabricated sections), aluminium, glass, paints, plastics,
and ceramic products. All these materials have particular advantages in certain applications and hence
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the construction of a building may include various materials; for example, a commercial multi-storey
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Table 1.1 Historical developments in building materials

d
Material Period
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Mud, stones, and thatch 400,000 BC

Sun-dried bricks 7500 BC
xf
Timber 5000 BC
O
Fired bricks 2000 BC (First appeared in the Middle East)

Lime 3000 BC
Glass 2500 BC (The Egyptians provided the first examples with silica and calcium.)
Iron 1350 BC
Lime–pozzolana cement 300 BC–AD 476 (Romans and Greeks)
Aluminium In 1808, it was discovered by English chemist Sir Humphrey Davy. In addition, the
smelting process was discovered by Charles Martin Hall of the USA in 1886.
Portland cement Invented by Joseph Aspdin in 1824
Natural rubber A method of processing invented by Charles Goodyear in 1839
Steel In 1855, Sir Henry Bessemer invents the Bessemer process for the mass production of steel
Plastics In 1862, by Alexander Parkes at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London
Stainless steel Invented by Henry Brearly in 1913

2 Building Materials, Testing, and Sustainability
building may have concrete/steel frame, infilled, and partition walls made of bricks or concrete blocks,
wooden doors, and double-glazed windows of aluminium. The architect or design engineer has to think
about the various alternatives and suggest a suitable material, which will satisfy economic, aesthetic,
functional, and ecological/sustainability requirements.
Since construction is the largest consumer of natural materials, India was one of the first few coun-
tries in the world to add a specific provision on environment protection in its Constitution, through the
42nd Amendment, during 1976. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 was introduced as an umbrella
legislation that provides a holistic framework for the protection and improvement to the environment.
1.2 Functions of a Building

The major requirement of any building is to shelter its occupants from the environmental conditions and
offer a pleasant, comfortable, and healthy indoor environment. Thus, a well-designed building will pro-
vide good weather resistance (adequate resistance to rain and wind penetration), ample lighting, proper
ventilation, adequate thermal insulation (to prevent heat loss to the environment in cool areas and heat
s
gain in hot areas), low noise levels (to prevent airborne sound and impact sound from outside and pre-
es
vent the passage of sound from one inner space to another inner space), have adequate strength and
stability, privacy, security, and fire resistance (for the occupants to exit safely in the case of major fires),
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proper ingress and egress, good appearance, durability, and have reasonable cost. These requirements
can be achieved by the proper selection of building materials and products. Proper site location, shape,
it y
orientation, and vegetation around the building may also help in obtaining better lighting and thermal
rs
performance (Reid, 1984).
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1.3 Choosing Materials for Construction

Building materials may be categorized based on the source of availability as natural and manufactured.
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They may also be classified as traditional and modern. The traditional building materials are generally
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the naturally occurring substances such as earth (e.g., clay, sand), stone and rocks, lime, and wood
logs. Whereas, modern building materials include many artificial or manufactured synthetic and com-
d
posite products such as bricks, lightweight concrete blocks, concrete, metals, glass, ceramics, plastics,
or
and petroleum-based paints. The manufacture of building materials is an established industry, and the
use of these materials is generally segmented into specific specialty trades such as concrete, masonry,
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carpentry, plumbing, roofing, electrical, mechanical, insulation, and HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air
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conditioning). In the countries like the USA, in order to work in these trades, one has to get certified by
passing the Law and Business and the Trade Examinations.
For a material to be considered suitable for construction, it should have some essential engineering
properties. These properties are broadly classified as follows:
1. Physical properties 5. Optical properties
2. Mechanical properties 6. Acoustical properties
3. Thermal properties 7. Physiochemical properties
4. Chemical properties 8. Metallurgical properties
These properties of building materials are responsible for its quality and capacity and will be useful
while deciding the use of the material in different applications. Physical and mechanical properties,
such as strength, porosity, etc., are generally considered while selecting a material for a particular use.
Chemical properties are considered when the material is used in aggressive environments. Some of these
properties are discussed in Sections 1.4–1.7. Before using the materials, they should be tested and eval-
uated to ascertain whether the properties assumed in the design are actually available. For this purpose,

Properties of Building Materials 3
samples are taken randomly (the number of samples tested is based on statistical analysis) and tested.
The test methods, required equipment, and selection criteria are discussed in Chapter 25.
1.4 Physical Properties

The physical properties generally include the shape, size, density/bulk density, specific gravity, and
porosity of the material.
Density (r) Density of a homogeneous material is defined as the mass per unit volume and expressed
in kg/m3. Density is also called the unit weight of substance.
m
r= (1.1)
V
where m = mass (kg) and V = volume (m3).
Bulk density (rb) This is defined as the mass per unit volume of material in its natural state (including
s
pores and voids), and expressed in kg/m3. It is calculated as:
es
m
rb = (1.2)
Pr
Vb
where m = mass of specimen (kg) and Vb = volume of specimen in its natural state (m3).
it y
For most of the materials, bulk density will be less than their densities; however, for liquids and
materials like glass and dense stone materials, density and bulk density will not differ much. Bulk density
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represents the degree of compactness of material. Bulk density of a material depends upon the packing
of particles, particle shape and size, moisture content, and grading. For example, in coarse aggregates,
ve
a higher bulk density indicates fewer voids that are to be filled by sand and cement in concrete.
Properties like strength and heat conductivity are greatly affected by their bulk density. Density and
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bulk density of some building materials are compared in Table 1.2.

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Table 1.2 Comparison of density and bulk density of some building materials
d
or
Material Density (kg/m3) Bulk density (kg/m3)

Brick 1920–2400 1600–1800
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Granite 2600–2900 2500–2700

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Wood (teak) 1500–1600 630–720

Steel 7750–8050 7850
Concrete 2400 2080–2400
Density index (r0) This is the ratio of bulk density of a material to its density and is expressed as:
Bulk density rb
r0 = = (1.3)
density r
It indicates the degree to which the volume of a material is filled with solid matter. For natural building
materials, r0 will be less than 1.0 because natural materials are not absolutely dense.
Specific weight (γ) This is also called unit weigh. This is the weight per unit volume of material in
kN/m3, and is expressed as:
γ = rg (1.4)

where, r = density of the material (kg/m3) and g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2).
Unit weight is used to determine the dead load of a structure in structural design. The unit weight of
water is 9.81 kN/m3 at 4°C.
Specific gravity or relative density (Gs) This is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density
of a reference substance, and is a dimensionless quantity. The reference substance is usually specified as
water at 4°C. At this temperature, the density of water will be the highest at 981 kg/m3 (approximately
taken as 1000 kg/m3). Hence, the specific gravity may be expressed as:
g s rs g rs
Gs = = = (1.5)
g w rw g rw
True or absolute specific gravity (Ga) When both the permeable and impermeable voids are excluded
to determine the true volume of solids, the specific gravity is called true or absolute specific gravity and
can be expressed as:
s
( r s )a
es
Ga = (1.6)
rw
Pr
The absolute specific gravity is not much used in practical applications.
Porosity (n) This is a measure of the void or empty spaces in a material, and is expressed as a ratio of
it y
the volume of voids (Vv) to the total volume (V), between 0 and 1, or as a percentage between 0 and 100%.
rs
Vv
n= (1.7)
V
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Porous materials absorb more moisture. Porosity influences many properties like thermal conductivity,
strength, bulk density, and durability. Porosity reduces the resistance to freezing, thawing, and abrasion.
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Rocks usually have porosity of less than 20%. Dense materials, which have low porosity, have to be
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used when high mechanical strength is required, whereas walls of buildings are commonly built with
materials like bricks, which have considerable porosity.
d
or
Void ratio (e) This is defined as the ratio of volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of solids (Vs) in the
material.
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Vv
e= (1.8)
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Vs
The following relationship exists between void ratio and the porosity.
e
n= (1.9)
1+ e
Durability This is the ability of a material to perform its required function over a lengthy period under
normal conditions of use without excessive expenditure on maintenance or repair.
It has to be noted that the strength and durability are two separate aspects: neither guarantees the
other. Durability may be affected by a number of parameters. For example, the durability of reinforced
concrete is affected by the following (Subramanian, 2013):
1. Environment 4. Permeability of concrete to the ingress of
2. Temperature or humidity gradients water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, chloride,
3. Abrasion and chemical attack sulphate and other deleterious substances

5. Alkali-aggregate reaction (chemical attack 9. The quality and type of constituent materials
within the concrete) 10. Cement content and water/cement ratio
6. Chemical decomposition of hydrated cement 11. Degree of compaction and curing of concrete
7. Corrosion of reinforcement 12. Shape and size of member
8. Concrete cover to the embedded steel 13. The presence of cracks
1.5 Mechanical Properties

The important mechanical properties of building materials are strength (compressive, tensile, bending,
and impact), elasticity, plasticity, ductility, hardness, toughness, malleability, brittleness, fatigue, impact
strength, abrasion resistance, creep resistance, and stiffness/flexibility.
Strength This is the ability of a material to resist stresses caused by the external forces (i.e., tension,
compression, bending, torsion, and impact), without failure or fracture. It is of importance to note that
materials such as stones and concrete have high compressive strength but low tensile, bending, and
s
impact strengths (about 1/5 to 1/50th of compressive strength).
es
Ultimate strength This is the minimum guaranteed ultimate tensile strength at which a metal would
fail, is obtained from a tensile test on a standard specimen, as described in Section 25.20.1 of Chapter 25.
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The stress–strain curve obtained from this test for various materials is shown in Fig. 1.1.
it y
Compressive strength Compressive strength of concrete is found by testing standard cylinders
(150 mm diameter and 300 mm long) or cubes (150 mm size) in compression testing machines, usually
rs
on the 28th day of casting them—cylinders have lower resistance than cubes of the same cross-sectional
area. Properties such as modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, shear strength, and bond strength are
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usually expressed in terms of the compressive strength (see Subramanian, 2013, for more details).
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Bending strength Tests of building strength on concrete are performed on small beams supported at
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their ends and subjected to one or two concentrated loads, which are gradually increased until failure
takes place.
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Hardness This is a measure of the resistance of the material to indentations and scratching. Several
or
methods are available to determine the hardness of steel and other metals. In all these methods, an
‘indenter’ is forced on the surface of the specimen. On removal, the size of indentation is measured
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using a microscope. Based on the size of the indentation, the hardness of the specimen is determined.
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Elasticity This is the ability of a material to regain its original shape and size after removal of the
external load. Ideally, elastic materials obey the Hooke’s law, which states that, within elastic limits,
stress is directly proportional to strain. The ratio of unit stress to unit deformation is termed as the
modulus of elasticity. A large value of it represents a material with very small deformation.
Plasticity This is the ability of a material to change its shape under load without cracking and retain
its shape after the load is removed. Some of the examples of plastic materials are steel, copper, and hot
bitumen.
Ductility This is the ability of a material (such as a metal or reinforced concrete) to undergo plastic
deformation without fracture and is required for materials to resist earthquake loads. The lack of ductil-
ity is often termed as brittleness. Cast iron, stone, and brick and plain concrete are comparatively brittle
materials. Malleability is a similar property, and is the ability of material to deform under pressure
(compressive stress), without rupture. If malleable, a material may be flattened by hammering or rolling.
Copper is the most malleable building material.

Creep This is defined as the deformation 1000 Ultimate tensile strength

of structure under sustained load. More ma-
terials will creep or flow to some extent and High strength steel
eventually fail under a sustained stress less 800
than the short-time ultimate strength. For
example, when load is applied on a con-
600
Stress (MPa)
crete specimen, it shows an instantaneous
Ultimate tensile strength Mild steel
deformation followed by a slow increase of
deformation over a period of time. Creep 400 Upper yield
and long-time strength, at atmospheric strength
Aluminium alloy
temperatures, must sometimes be taken
Unloading behaviour
into account while designing the members 200
of nonferrous metals and while selecting Cast iron Timber
allowable stresses for wood, plastics, and
0
s
concrete. 0
es
5 10 15 20 25 30
Stiffness This is a measure of the resist- Strain (%)
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ance offered by a member to deformation Fig. 1.1 Typical tensile stress–strain curves
(k = F/d), and has a unit of Newton per me- for some structural materials
ter (N/m). Stiff materials have high modulus it y
of elasticity, hence, will result in small deformations for a given load. Stiffness is the reverse of flexibility.
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Fatigue strength This is the highest stress that a material can withstand for a given number of cycles
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without breaking. A material has a tendency to fail at a lesser stress level when subjected to repeated load-
ing, such as those occurring in steel bridges and cranes. Welding details also affect the fatigue strength.
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Impact strength This is the capacity of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load, and
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expressed in terms of energy. It is often measured with the Izod impact strength test or the Charpy
impact test, both of which measure the impact energy required to fracture a sample. It thus indicates the
d
toughness of the material, which is the ability of a material to absorb energy when impacted. Stainless
or
steels and titanium alloys are tough, whereas glass and ceramics are very fragile (opposite of tough).
Hardness and toughness have an inverse relationship. For a particular solid, the toughness decreases
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when hardness increases.

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1.6 Thermal Properties

The important thermal properties are thermal conductivity, thermal capacity, and fire resistance.
Thermal conductivity This is also called heat conductivity. This is the ability of a material to conduct
heat, and is measured in Watts per metre-Kelvin [W/(m·K)]. It is influenced by the nature of material, its
structure, porosity, character of pores, moisture content, and mean temperature at which heat exchange
takes place. Higher the thermal conductivity, faster will be the heat transfer—it is usually measured by
the U-value. Materials with large size pores have high heat conductivity because the air inside the pores
enhances heat transfer. Moist materials have higher heat conductivity than dry materials. The lower
the U-value of a material, the better will be its ability to resist heat conduction. This property is impor-
tant while selecting insulating materials for walls of heated buildings, which should have negligible
thermal conductivity. The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is called thermal resistivity. Designated as
R (R-value), thermal resistance indicates how effective any material is as an insulator. A higher R-value
indicates a better insulating performance. It has to be noted that U = 1/R and R = 1/U.

Thermal capacity This may be defined as the ability of a material to store heat per unit volume, and
is measured by the product of density and specific heat, with units of Joule per Kelvin (J/K). When a
material shows greater thermal capacity, it shows that it can store more heat in a given volume for every
degree of increase in temperature. Specific heat is a measure of the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of given mass of material by 1° [measured in J/(kg.K)]. It takes less energy input to raise
the temperature of a low specific heat material than that of a high specific heat material. For example, it
requires one calorie of heat energy to increase the temperature of water by 1°C. As water has a high heat
capacity, it is sometimes used as thermal mass in buildings. Generally, materials with higher thermal
capacity can reduce heat flow from the outside to the inside of buildings by storing the heat within the
material. Thus, by using a material of adequate thermal capacity, the heat (produced by the Sun) entering
a wall during the daytime could be stored within the wall itself for several hours, and conveniently made
to flow out during the cool night hours. Table 1.3 shows the typical thermal properties of some building
materials.
s
Table 1.3 Thermal properties of some building materials
es
Material Modulus of Poisson’s Coefficient of thermal Thermal Specific heat
expansion, α
Pr
elasticity, ratio conductivity, λa capacity, ca
E (GPa) (×10−6/°C) (W/mK) (J/kg · K)
Aluminium alloys
Concrete (M30)
72
27.4
0.33
0.15–0.25 11
it y
23.5 56–205
0.8–1.40
900
840–880
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Copper 118 0.33 17.6 385 386
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Glass 70 0.24 9.0 0.8–1.0 840

Iron (grey cast) 90 0.26 12.1 79.5 448
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Structural steel 200–207 0.30 11–12 54 425

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Stainless steel 193 0.30 16 14.6 450

d
Fire resistance This is the ability of a material to resist the action of high temperature without any
or
appreciable deformation and loss of strength. While a fire-resistant material is one that is designed to
resist burning and withstand heat, fire-retardant materials are designed to burn slowly. Some exam-
xf
ples of fire-retardant materials are: fire-retardant treated wood, brick, concrete, mineral wool, gypsum
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boards, and intumescent paint. Steel suffers considerable deformation and loss of strength under the
action of high temperature. Refractoriness denotes the ability of a material to withstand the prolonged
action of high temperature of about 1580°C without melting or losing shape.
1.7 Other Properties

Chemical properties include corrosion resistance, chemical composition, acidity, or alkalinity. Optical
properties include the colour, light reflection, and light transmission. Acoustical properties comprise
sound absorption, transmission, and reflection. Physiochemical properties include hygroscopicity and
water absorption. Useful in construction, metallurgical properties are metal fusibility, weldability,
hardening, and tempering. Some of these properties are briefly described here.
Chemical resistance This is the capacity of any material to resist the deteriorating action of substance
such as harmful acids, alkalis, seawater, and gases. For example, natural stones such as limestone,
marble, and dolomite are affected even by weak acids, wood has low resistance to acids and alkalis, and
bitumen disintegrates due to alkaline liquids.

Hygroscopicity It is the property of a material to absorb water vapour from air, resulting in volume
change (shrinkage or swelling). It is influenced by air temperature and relative humidity, and types,
number and size of pores. Wood, concrete, brick, plaster, and several engineering polymers are
hygroscopic, including nylon, polycarbonate, cellulose, and poly (methyl methacrylate). Hydrophobic
materials are the opposites of hygroscopic materials and repel water; their typical examples include glass,
metals, and plastics.
Water absorption This denotes the ability of the material to absorb and retain water. It is expressed
as percentage in weight or of the volume of dry material:
M -M
Ww = 1 ¥ 100 (1.10a)
M
M1 - M
Wv = ¥ 100 (1.10b)
V
where M1 = mass of saturated material (g), M = mass of dry material (g), and V = volume of material
s
es
including the pores (mm3). Water absorption by volume is always less than 100%, whereas that by the
weight of porous material may exceed 100%.
Pr
The properties of building materials can change considerably when saturated. The water resistance
of a material is expressed by the coefficient of softening, which is the ratio of compressive strength in
it y
water-saturated condition to that in dry condition. For example, the coefficient of softening for clay is
zero, as it soaks readily in water. However, for materials like glass and metals, which are not affected by
rs
water, it is taken as one. In locations exposed to moisture (like roofing or foundations), materials with
the coefficient of softening less than 0.8 should not be used.
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Corrosion resistance Formation of rust (iron oxide) in metals, when they are subjected to atmos-
ni
phere, is called corrosion, and is a recurring problem in steel structures and steel reinforcements. To mit-
igate corrosion in steel structures, several methods are applied such as treatment of the environment to
U
render it non-corrosive, coating/painting systems (surface preparation, such as sand blasting, plays an
d
important role in the durability), galvanizing, thermal (metal) spraying, cathodic protection, and use
or
of corrosion-resistant structural steels (e.g., weathering steel and stainless steel). For reinforcements
in concrete, cathodic protection, corrosion-inhibiting admixtures, or the use of thermo-mechanically
xf
treated corrosion-resistant steel bars (TMT-CRS bars), fusion-bonded epoxy-coated rebars, galvanized
rebars, stainless steel rebars, fibre-reinforced polymer bars, and basalt bars may be used.
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Metallurgical, acoustical, and optical properties are discussed in detail in the relevant chapters.
Properties of some materials used in building construction are given in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4 Properties of some materials used in building construction
Material Density, Stiffness (E), Poisson’s Strength1, Fracture

kg/m3 GPa ratio MPa toughness,
MN/m3/2
Clay bricks 1480–2400 14–18 – 5–110 (compression) 0.6
Timber2 170–980 (dry) 3–21 0.25–0.49 10–80 (tension) 7–13
15–90 (compression)
Structural steel 7850 195–205 0.3 235–960 50–100
Cast iron 6900–7800 170 0.26 220–1000 20–50
High strength steel 7850 205 0.3 500–1900 50–125
Aluminium alloys 2700 70 0.33 80–505 25–35
(Contd)
Table 1.4 (Contd)
Material Density, Stiffness (E), Poisson’s Strength1, Fracture

kg/m3 GPa ratio MPa toughness,
MN/m3/2
Concrete (M20–M100) 1800–2500 22–50 0.15–0.25 2–12 (tension) 0.8–1.2
20–100 (compression)
Glass 2500 70 0.24 40–703 0.8
Rubber 830–910 0.1–1 0.5 15–30 –
Polyethylene (high- 960 1.1 0.4–0.45 20–30 2.5
density)
Glass fibre composite 1400–2000 6–50 – 40–12504 7–23
Carbon fibre composite 1500–1600 70–200 – 600–20004 6–80
Epoxy resin 1100–1400 2.6–3 – 30–100 0.5–1
s
1. In tension unless stated, yield or proof strength for metals, ultimate strength for other materials
es
2. Based on tests on small specimens, loaded parallel to grain
3. Modulus of rupture
Pr
4. In the longitudinal direction
1.8 Sustainable Materials it y

The definition of sustainability, suggested by the then Prime Minister of Norway, Gro Bruntland, in
rs
1987, is meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their needs. Sustainability is thus is a realization that today’s population is merely borrowing resources
ve
and environmental conditions from future generations. The greatest threats to the sustainable develop-
ment on earth are as follows:
ni
1. Population growth and urbanization

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2. Energy use and global warming

d
3. Excessive waste generation and the subsequent pollution of soil, air, and water
or
4. Transportation in cities
5. Limited supply of resources
xf
Many of them are interrelated and discussed in the work of Subramanian (2016).
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The materials we use for construction affect the environment. Their production and transportation
deplete natural resources, consume considerable energy, and pollute the environment. Several building
materials, and the energy needed to produce them, are becoming scarce. If the present trends continue,
some of the common raw materials and energy sources (like oil and natural gas) will be exhausted with-
in about the next century. As per www.msci.org, the grades of mined copper and iron ore are declining
and the natural reserves of lead, molybdenum, chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, tin, and radium are
depleting. There is an urgent need to use alternate materials—for example, using M-sand in the place of
natural sand—to preserve natural resources.
A reclassification of all building materials and products based on sustainability, and to meet cri-
teria pertaining to personal health and health of environment, is necessary. Traditional materials like
clay, lime, and stone are still abound, and timber (especially softwoods) can be replenished by prop-
erly managed forestation. In addition, these materials can be easily reused or recycled; they produce
little or no pollution and are reabsorbed into the natural cycles of environment, when they are dis-
carded. Recycling materials like steel and aluminium also preserves the natural resources and saves
considerable energy.

1.8.1 Healthy Materials

In order to satisfy the criteria of being healthy to human beings, Pearson (1998) has suggested the following:
1. The materials should be clean and should not contain pollutants or toxins, emit no biologically
harmful vapours, dust, particles or be odours either during manufacture or usage. They should also
be resistant to bacteria, viruses, moulds, and other harmful microorganisms.
2. They should not be radioactive and must not emit any harmful levels of radiation.
3. They should not be electromagnetic and should not allow the conduction or built-up of static
electricity or emit harmful electric fields of any type.
4. They should have good sound-reduction properties and should not themselves produce any noise.
1.8.2 Ecological Materials

For materials to be environment friendly, they should satisfy the following criteria (Pearson, 1998):
1. They should be renewable and abundant, and coming from diverse natural sources. Their production
s
es
should have a low impact on the environment.
2. They should be non-polluting and should not emit harmful vapours, particles, or toxins into the
Pr
environment, either during manufacture or usage.
3. They should be energy efficient, and use low energy in production, transport and should generally
be available locally (see also Section 1.8). it y
4. They should be durable and easy to maintain and repair—additionally, it is better if they are tried
rs
and tested over several generations, as in the case of natural materials.
5. They should produce less waste during production and be capable of being reused and recycled, so
ve
that the vast amount of energy spent on processing raw materials could be saved.
ni
Many countries now have a system of

labelling environment-friendly products. In
U
the USA, since 1989, a non-profit organi-

zation called Green Seal identifies prod-
d
ucts and services that have less impact on

or
our health and environment and awards a

xf
‘Green Seal’ as shown in Fig. 1.2 (www

.greenseal.org). Similar 28 international
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Fig 1.2 Green Seal and EU Ecolabel

eco-labelling programmes exist, including
Germany’s Blue Angel, the European Union’s Ecolabel, and the Nordic Swan, and all are members of
the Global Eco-labelling Network (GEN).
1.9 Green Building Rating Systems

To promote the design and construction practices that reduce the negative environmental impacts of
buildings and improve occupant health and well-being, the US Green Building Council (USGBC),
a Washington D.C.-based non-profit coalition of building industry leaders, developed the LEED® green
building rating system in 1993. In the USA and in a number of other countries around the world,
LEED® certification is the recognized standard for measuring building sustainability. Similar assess-
ment systems are available in other countries also. Some of these are
1. the British green building rating system developed by Building Research Establishment (BRE) in
1992 called the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM),
2. Griha in India ([email protected]),

3. the comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency (CASBEE) of Japan,
4. Green Star of Australia, and
5. Green Globes, which is a web-based, interactive learning tool developed from BREEAM to the
needs of US commercial buildings.
All these systems are designed to encourage the construction of green buildings, which will minimize
the disruption of local ecosystems; ensure the efficient use of water, energy, and other natural resources;
and ensure a healthy indoor environment. However, they differ in terminology, structure, assessment
of performance, points assigned to different performance criteria, and documentation required for the
certification. These systems, while voluntary in nature, continue to gain recognition. It is interesting
to note that adoption of these systems also results in economic incentives, as owners and renters are
increasingly demanding facilities with high green building ratings.
1.9.1 LEED-NC
From 1994 to 2009, LEED® grew from one standard for new construction to a comprehensive system of
s
es
six interrelated standards covering all aspects of the development and construction process: LEED-NC,
for New Construction; LEED-EB, for Existing Buildings; LEED-CI, for Commercial Interiors;
Pr
LEED-H, for Homes; LEED-CS, for Core and Shell projects; and LEED-ND for Neighbourhood
Development (Kibert, 2005). LEED-NC, which was originally developed for office buildings but is now
it y
being used for all types of buildings except single family homes, is briefly discussed here.
LEED-NC 2009 is structured with eight prerequisites and a maximum of 110 points. These points are
rs
divided into the following seven major categories:
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1. Energy and atmosphere (35 maximum points) 5. Water efficiency (10 points)
2. Indoor environmental quality (15 points) 6. Innovation and design process (6 points)
ni
3. Sustainable sites (26 points) 7. Regional priority (4 points)

4. Materials and resources (14 points)
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A building is LEED® certified if it obtains at least 40–49 points. Silver, gold, and platinum levels
d
are awarded for 50–59, 60–79, and greater than 80 points, respectively (see Table 1.5). Note that LEED
or
is continuously evolving and improving. The recent update to the rating system LEED-NC 4.0 was
launched in 2014. LEED-NC 4.0 has the following six main credit categories (Subramanian, 2017):
xf
1. Location & Transportation (LT) 5. Materials & Resources (MR)

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2. Sustainable Sites (SS) 6. Indoor Environmental Quality (EQ)

3. Water Efficiency (WE) 7. Innovation and Design Process
4. Energy & Atmosphere (EA) 8. Regional Priority
Table 1.5 Overview of LEED-V4 categories and credits

Integrative Process: 1 Possible Point
Location and Transportation: 16 Possible Points Required
Credit 1 Sensitive Land Protection 1
Credit 2 High Priority Site 2
Credit 3 Surrounding Density and Diverse Uses 5
Credit 4 Access to Quality Transit 5
Credit 5 Bicycle Facilities 1
Credit 6 Reduced Parking Footprint 1
Credit 7 Green Vehicles 1
(Contd)
Table 1.5 (Contd)
Sustainable Sites: 10 Possible Points

Prerequisite 1 Construction Activity: Pollution Prevention Required
Credit 1 Site Assessment 1
Credit 2 Site Development - Protect or Restore Habitat 2
Credit 3 Open Space 1
Credit 4 Rainwater Management 3
Credit 5 Heat Island Reduction 2
Credit 6 Light Pollution Reduction 1
Water Efficiency: 11 Possible Points
Prerequisite 1 Outdoor Water Use Reduction Required
Prerequisite 2 Indoor Water Use Reduction Required
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Prerequisite 3 Building-Level Water Metering Required
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Credit 1 Outdoor Water Use Reduction 2
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Credit 2 Indoor Water Use Reduction 6
Credit 3 Cooling Tower Water Use 2
Credit 4 Water Metering
Energy and Atmosphere: 33 Possible Points
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Prerequisite 1 Fundamental Commissioning and Verification Required
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Prerequisite 2 Minimum Energy Performance Required

Prerequisite 3 Building-level Energy Metering Required
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Prerequisite 4 Fundamental Refrigerant Management Required

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Credit 1 Enhanced Commissioning 6

Credit 2 Optimize Energy Performance 18
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Credit 3 Advanced Energy Metering 1

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Credit 4 Demand Response 2

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Credit 5 Renewable Energy Production 3

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Credit 6 Enhanced Refrigerant Management

Credit 6 Green Power and Carbon Offsets 2
Materials and Resources: 13 Possible Points
Prerequisite 1 Storage & Collection of Recyclables Required
Prerequisite 2 Construction & Demolition Waste Management Planning Required
Credit 1 Building Life-Cycle Impact Reduction 5
Credit 2 Building Product Disclosure & Optimization - Environmental Product Declarations 2
Credit 3 Building Product Disclosure and Optimization - Sourcing of Raw Materials 2
Credit 4 Building Product Disclosure & Optimization - Material Ingredients 2
Credit 5 Construction & Demolition Waste Management 2
Indoor Environmental Quality: 15 Possible Points
Prerequisite 1 Minimum IAQ Performance Required
Prerequisite 2 Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) Control Required
(Contd)

Table 1.5 (Contd)
Credit 1 Enhanced Indoor Air Quality Strategies 2

Credit 2 Low-emitting Materials 3
Credit 3 Construction Indoor Air Quality Management Plan 1
Credit 4 Indoor Air Quality Assessment 2
Credit 5 Thermal Comfort 1
Credit 6 Interior Lighting 2
Credit 7 Daylight 3
Credit 8 Quality Views 1
Credit 9 Acoustic Performance 1
Innovation and Design Process: 6 Possible Points
Credit 1 Innovation in Design 5
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®
Credit 2 LEED Accredited Professional 1
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Regional Priority: 4 Possible Points
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Credit 1 Regional Priority 1–4
Project Total: 100 base points; 6 possible Innovation in Design and 4 Regional Priority points
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Certified: 40–49 Points; Silver: 50–59 Points; Gold: 60–79 Points; Platinum: > 80 Points
(Source: www.usgbc.org)
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Figure 1.3 shows the views of a LEED Platinum certified building in Rockville, MD, USA.
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Fig. 1.3 Views of the LEED Platinum certified building in Rockville, MD, USA
A part of the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), the Indian Green Building Council’s (IGBC)
Green Building rating systems were launched in 2003. CII–Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre
building in Hyderabad was the first to receive the prestigious Platinum rated green building rating in
India (see Fig. 1.4). Since then, the rating systems have been successfully applied to more than 4025
buildings, with a foot-print of 4.50 billion square feet. It is given under the following 16 different
categories (https://igbc.in):
1. IGBC Green New Buildings 6. IGBC Green Schools
2. IGBC Existing Buildings 7. IGBC Green Factory Buildings
3. IGBC Green Homes 8. IGBC Green Data Centres
4. IGBC Green Residential Societies 9. IGBC Green Campus
5. IGBC Green Healthcare 10. IGBC Green Villages

11. IGBC Green Townships 15. IGBC Green Mass Rapid Transit
12. IGBC Green Cities System
13. IGBC Green SEZ 16. IGBC Green Existing Mass Rapid Transit
14. IGBC Green Landscapes System
The task of selecting building materials and products, for a high-performance green building, is the
most difficult and challenging task for any design team. Several tools are available for this process and
one best tool is the life-cycle assessment (LCA). LCA provides information about the resources, emis-
sions, and other impacts resulting from the life cycle of material use. Hence, one must consider the impact
of the material from extraction to disposal. One such LCA programme is Building for Environmental and
Economic Sustainability software (BEES-NIST). Ideally, the material cycle should be a closed looped
and waste free. Thus, the following rules apply while selecting the materials for green construction:
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Fig. 1.4 Platinum-rated CII–Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre, Hyderabad (Source: CII–IGBC)
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1. They should consume least energy to manufacture.

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2. They should not involve long-distance transportation (for the raw materials as well as finished
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product).
3. The natural resources and raw materials do not affect the environment.
4. They must be easy to recycle and safe to dispose in landfills.
5. Materials should be harmless in production and use.
6. Materials dissipated from recycling must be harmless.
7. They should have long life and durability.
8. Buildings must be de-constructible.
9. Building components must be easy to disassemble.
It may be difficult to identify a material that obeys all the aforementioned rules. Especially, the last
rule of disassembly has not been considered in traditional building materials, except prefabricated steel
structures. Disassembly also discourages the use of composite materials. It has been shown that by using
concrete, one can earn 37–62 LEED® points (see Table 1.6).

Table 1.6 Summary of possible points to increase LEED ratings of buildings
Category Total number of points Points earned using concrete

Sustainable sites 26 12
Water efficiency 10 10
Energy and atmosphere 35 1–19
Materials and resources 14 9
Indoor environmental quality 15 2
Innovation credits 6 2–6
Regional priority 4 1–4
Total 110 37–62
(Source: Adapted from RMC-Guide, 2010)
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Green buildings adopt various strategies for water management: using low flow or ultra-low flow
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plumbing fixtures, electronic controls and fixtures, substitution of alternative water sources (rain-
water, reclaimed water, and grey water) for potable water, rainwater harvesting, xeriscaping, and
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use of other technologies and approaches that result in the reduction of potable water consumption
(Kibert, 2005).
1.10 Embodied Energy and Energy Efficiency

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Energy from fossil fuels is becoming scarce and the amount used in the production and transportation is
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high. As mentioned earlier, the best materials are those which are energy efficient (using low energy in
production, transport, and use), need minimum processing and are available locally. Embodied energy
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refers to the total energy consumed in the acquisition and processing of materials, including manufac-
turing, transportation, and final installation. Products with greater embodied energy usually have higher
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environmental impact due to the greenhouse gas emissions associated with their energy consumption.
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However, a true indicator of environmental impact will be obtained, only when the embodied energy is
divided by the number of times the product is used or recycled. Thus, aluminium may have low embod-
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ied energy per time in use, as it is very durable. Similarly, recycled aluminium and steel have less than
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10–20% of embodied energy, compared to original steel or aluminium made from ores.
Typical embodied energy of some common building materials is shown in Table 1.7. From this, it is
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seen that the embodied energy of locally grown and reclaimed timber is low (Haseltine, 1975). Clay used
as adobe or unbaked brick is another example of material requiring low energy. In contrast, synthetic and
processed products such as plastics, aluminium, steel, glass, and oven-fired bricks and clay tiles, have
higher embodied energy (Pearson, 1998). In addition, the materials used should be good energy conserv-
ers with high insulation value that should retain heat in winter and keep the building cool in summer.
Table 1.7 Embodied energy of common building materials (http://www.yourhome.gov.au)
Material Embodied energy (MJ/kg)

Very high energy
Aluminium 227.0
Carpet (synthetic) 148.0
Polystyrene insulation 117.0
Synthetic rubber 110.0
(Contd)

Table 1.7 (Contd)
Material Embodied energy (MJ/kg)

Very high energy
Linoleum 116.0
Stainless steel 100+
Plastics (general) 90.0
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) 80.0
Copper 70–100
Acrylic paint 61.5
Zinc 51.0
High energy
Steel 32.0
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Galvanized steel 38.0
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Hardboard 24.2
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Glass 12.7
Glue-laminated timber 11.0
Plywood
Cement
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10.4
5.6
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Steel (recycled) 8.9
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Aluminium (recycled) 8.1

Particleboard 8.0
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Medium energy
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Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) 3.6

Kiln dried sawn softwood 3.4
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Lime 3-5
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Gypsum plaster 2.9

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Clay bricks and tiles 2.5

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Lumber 2.5
Kiln dried sawn hardwood 2.0
Precast steam-cured concrete 2.0
Concrete (30 MPa) 1.3
Concrete blocks 1.5
Low energy
Stabilized earth 0.7
Fly ash, rice husk ash (RHA), volcanic ash <0.5
Sand, aggregate 0.1
These figures should be used with caution because:
1. The actual embodied energy of a material manufactured and used in one location may be very different from the same
material transported by road to another location.
2. Though materials like stainless steel have high embodied energy value, they are recycled many times, reducing their
life cycle impact.

As discussed in Section 1.8, it is not enough to consider the energy requirement of material dur-
ing the production stage; a life-cycle assessment approach is necessary to determine its environmental
impact. Thus, all stages in the life of a product should be analysed, that is, raw material acquisition,
manufacture, transportation, installation, use, recycling, and waste management. There is also a Life-
cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA), which deals with the cost impact of a product or material, but does not
deal with the environmental impact. Both have important roles to play in sustainability assessment of a
material/product.
1.11 Comparison of some Major Building Materials

Though the various building materials are covered individually in the subsequent chapters, the four
major building materials, which are used extensively, are briefly discussed here.
Masonry Masonry may be defined as the work done by masons using individual units, which are
often laid in and bound together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves.
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The common materials of masonry construction are brick, stone, concrete block, glass block, and cob
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(made of soil, water, straw, and sometimes with lime).
Some important features include:
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1. Different types of bricks and concrete blocks exist (see Chapter 3). The process of manufacturing
of bricks from clay involves preparation of clay, moulding, and then drying and burning of bricks in
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kilns, at temperature of about 1100°C, to give them their final hardness and appearance.
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2. The vertical shaft brick kiln (VSBK) technology, which consumes less fuel and energy and emits
lower suspended particulate matter (SPM), as compared with Bull’s Trench Kiln (BTK), is suitable
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for medium sized kilns. VSBK technology was introduced during 1996; at present, there are more
than 40 operational VSBKs in India (www.teriin.org).
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3. Masonry is mainly used for load bearing walls and walls taking in-plane or transverse loads. It is
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durable, fire resistant, and aesthetically pleasing. It can be used for buildings with moderate heights,
that is, up to 20 storeys. (Unfortunately, the bricks produced in India do not have uniform quality
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and the bricks produced in south India have low strength. Hence, buildings with load-bearing brick
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masonry are built only up to three to four floors).

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Reinforced and prestressed concrete Concrete is a composite material made of two or more sizes
of aggregates (generally with gravel and sand), with a binding medium of Portland cement and water.
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After mixing, it is placed into moulds (called formwork) with proper compaction, and after proper
curing, the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material. The following are some
of its features:
1. As concrete is weak in tension, it is usually strengthened with steel bars (known as reinforcement
or rebars). This strengthened concrete is called as reinforced concrete or RCC.
2. Currently, concrete is the predominant building material in India and several other countries.
Reinforced concrete framed or shear wall construction, if properly poured and cured, is very dura-
ble and fire resistant.
3. Since reinforced concrete can be cast to any required shape, it is used for a variety of constructions
including tall buildings and floors and foundation of all types of buildings.
4. Substitution of cement by several wastes such as fly ash, ground-granulated blast furnace slag, silica
fume, reactive rice-husk ash, etc., can lead to significant reductions in the amount of cement needed
to make concrete, hence reduces emissions of CO2 and consumption of energy and raw materials,
and results in reduced landfill/disposal burdens.

5. Recent advancements such as self-compacting concrete (SCC), though having more binder content,
reduce manpower, as SCC is easier to place even in congested structural members, has reduced
noise level, and is environment friendly.
Prestressed concrete is a concrete in which high strength reinforcing steel bars are stretched and
anchored to compress it, thus increasing its resistance to stress. It is used for floor construction of large
span structures and in buildings, bridges, and towers.
Some of the shortcomings are as follows:
1. In India, though concrete is used extensively in all types of construction, except by a small number
of big companies, quality control is not exercised during mixing of concrete.
2. Moreover, the curing of concrete is mostly ignored or not done properly for the code prescribed
duration.
3. In addition, the steel reinforcements (especially the smaller diameter rods) available in the market
are produced by re-rollers and do not possess the required ductility and strength.
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4. Since concrete can be mixed and poured to any required shape, it is misused by several small con-
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tractors, who do not give much importance to design or detailing.
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The aforementioned factors have led to the deterioration of several concrete structures all over
the country and resulted in the failure of several concrete structures in the recent earthquakes. Since
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prestressed concrete is used in major constructions, as well as used by major contracting companies, the
quality of prestressed concrete in India is up to the standards.
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Structural steel Most metals used for construction purposes are alloys. For example, structural steel
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is a primary alloy of iron and carbon (0.10–0.25%). The properties of steel vary widely, depending on
its alloying elements. Some of its features are as follows:
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1. Steel is made using the basic oxygen steel making (BOS) process or the electric arc method.
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2. Raw materials such as iron ore, scrap steel, coke, limestone, and dolomite are charged in a blast
furnace, and heated up to 1600°C, and oxygen of greater than 99.5% purity is blown into the mix.
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3. The liquid steel is solidified into large blocks called ingots and then rolled into semi-finished prod-
or
ucts and then into plates, structural shapes, bars, etc.

4. The main advantages of steel are strength, speed of erection, prefabrication, and demountability.
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5. They are used in load-bearing frames in buildings, and as members in trusses, bridges, and space
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frames. Steel, however, requires fire and corrosion protection.

6. Steel is also used in conjunction with concrete in composite constructions and in combined frame
and shear-wall constructions.
7. In many cases, the fabrication of steel members is done in the workshop and the members are then
transported to the site and assembled.
8. Tolerances specified for steel fabrication and erections are small compared to reinforced concrete
structures.
9. Different steel sections are joined by welding or bolting. Welding or tightening of high strength
friction grip bolts requires proper training.
10. Due to these factors, steel structures are often handled by trained persons and assembled with
proper care, resulting in structures with better quality.
11. Compared with concrete, steel offers much better compressive and tensile strength, and enables
lighter constructions. Unlike masonry or reinforced concrete, steel can be easily recycled.
Wood This imparts natural, human warmth that steel and concrete lack. Due to this, wood has long
been used for housing (up to three floors) and for historical structures in western countries such as the

USA, the UK, Germany, France, and Japan where there is cold climate. However, with the development
of wood composites—thin, pressed sheets—combined with joints and steel frames have changed the
scene. Glued laminated wood has been used in a number of large span structures. Prominent wood com-
posite structures are Tacoma Dome and North Michigan University stadium in the United States and
Odate Jukai Dome in Japan. All these domes have diameters in the range of 160–180 m. Since wood
is a natural product, it is environment friendly, though the resins used in glued laminated wood many
contain harmful chemicals. However, not all woods can be used for constructions and quality wood is
in short supply in India and hence wood is used in India only for doors and windows. (Nowadays, even
they are replaced with aluminium, steel, ferrocement, or plastic doors and windows.)
Important structural properties of steel, concrete, and wood are compared in Table 1.8.
Table 1.8 Important properties of steel, concrete, and wood
Item Mild steel Concrete* Wood

M20 grade
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Unit mass, kg/m3 7850 (100) 2400 (31)# 290–900 (4–11)
Maximum stress in MPa
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Compression 250 (100) 20 (8) 5.2–23+ (2–9)
Tension 250 (100) 3.13 (1) 2.5–13.8 (1–5)
Shear
Young’s modulus, MPa
144 (100)
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2 × 105 (100)
2.8 (1.9)
22,360 (11)
0.6–2.6 (0.4–1.8)
4600–18,000 (2–9)
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Coefficient of linear expansion × 10 / C
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12 10 to 14 4.5
Poisson’s ratio 0.3 0.20 0.20
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* Characteristic compressive strength of 150 mm cubes at 28 days

+
Parallel to grain
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#
Relative value when compared to steel
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1.12 Alternative Building Materials

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A number of industrial, agricultural, and mining wastes are used in the production of alternative build-
or
ing materials (Venkatarama Reddy, 2004). The industrial wastes include: fly ash, phosphogypsum, blast
furnace slag, silica fume, alumina red mud, slate and marble waste, glass powder, paper-mill pulp,
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sludge, and discarded tires. Fly ash is used in the production of Portland-pozzolana cement, lime-fly
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ash bricks, fly ash-lime-gypsum (Fal-G) concrete, fly ash-lime cellular concrete, and sintered fly ash
lightweight aggregate. However, the response by the Indian building community to the use of fly ash is
poor, as only 5% of generated fly ash is used in India. It has to be noted that not all the available fly ash
is suitable for use in concrete and other products.
Calcium silicate bricks are manufactured from a mixture of sand and/or siliceous waste and a small
portion of lime, which is mechanically pressed and autoclaved. These bricks can also solve the problem
of waste disposal.
The agricultural wastes that could be used in building products such as roofing units, thermal insu-
lating materials, and walling boards are bagasse, jute stalks, groundnut hulls, hemp, flax, reed, natural
wool, expanded cork, and straw bales. Rice husk ash, saw dust, cork granules, and coconut kernel are
used as substitutes in concrete.
In addition, several substitutes for teak, rosewood, and white cedar, such as secondary species of
timber, poly-vinyl chloride (PVC), mild steel and galvanized steel, aluminium, precast concrete, fer-
rocement, particle boards, fibre boards, fibre glass, and glass reinforced gypsum composite boards,
have been tried. The use of some of these waste products and other substitutes as building materials are
discussed in the respective chapters (3, 5–7, 9, and 11).
1.13 Building Codes and By-Laws

A building code contains a set of rules that knowledgeable people recommend for others to follow.
It is not a law, but can be adopted into law. National building codes contain administrative regula-
tions, development control rules, and general building requirements; fire safety requirements, stipula-
tion regarding materials, structural design and construction, building and plumbing services, landscape
development, guidelines for sustainability, asset and facility management, and other aspects of build-
ings to ensure safety and health for people living in or around buildings (see SP 7-2016, SP 21:2005,
SP 41-1987, IS 3362:1977, IS 3792:1978, and IS 6060:1971). They are mandatory in nature and serve
to protect buildings against fire, earthquake, noise, structural failures, and other hazards (IS 1641:1988,
IS 1950:1962, and IS 2526:1963). Building by-laws usually contain provisions for parking, peripheral
open spaces including set-backs, disaster management, and fire safety. They may also contain green
building and sustainability provisions, rainwater harvesting, wastewater reuse, and recycle and instal-
lation of solar roof-top photovoltaic (PV) norms. Recent by-laws also have guidelines for mitigating
electromagnetic radiations (Model Building Bye-Laws, 2016).
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In addition, the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) was launched by the Ministry of Power,
Government of India in May 2007, as a first step towards promoting energy efficiency in the building
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sector (ECBC, 2006). The ECBC provides design norms for:
1. Building envelope, including thermal performance requirements for walls, roofs, and windows;
2.
3.
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Lighting system, including day lighting, and lamps and luminary performance requirements;
HVAC system, including energy performance of chillers and air distribution systems;
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4. Electrical system; and
5. Water heating and pumping systems, including requirements for solar hot-water systems.
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SUMMARY
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• The major requirement of any building is to shelter its occupants from the environment and offer a pleasant, comfort-
able, and healthy indoor environment.
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• Building materials are categorized based on the source of availability as natural (e.g., clay, sand, stone, lime, and wood
or
logs) and manufactured (e.g., concrete, metals, glass, ceramics, and plastics).
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• The different properties which are of concern are physical, mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical, acoustical, phys-
iochemical, and metallurgical.
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• The physical properties include the shape, size, density/bulk density, specific gravity, and porosity of the material.
• The important mechanical properties are strength, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, hardness, toughness, malleability,
brittleness, fatigue, impact strength, abrasion resistance, creep resistance, and stiffness/flexibility.
• Production and transportation of building materials deplete natural resources, consume considerable energy, and pol-
lute the environment. Several materials are also becoming scarce.
• In order to have sustainable development, it is important to preserve these materials, by reducing their use (by using
alternative materials), recycling them after use, or reusing them. In addition, the materials used should be environment
friendly and not affect the health of the occupants. A number of industrial, agricultural, and mining wastes are now
used to provide alternative building materials.
• Several rating systems have been developed, such as LEED, BREEAM, Green Globes, and CASBEE. For a building
to be LEED® certified, it should obtain at least 40–49 points.
• Embodied energy is the total energy consumed in the mining, manufacturing, transportation, and final installation.
Products with greater embodied energy have higher environmental impact.
• A building code, like the NBC of India, contains a set of rules that should be followed to have better functioning.

EXERCISES
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Density of concrete is about 6. To get a Gold rating in LEED-NC, one has to obtain
(a) 2000 kg/m3 (c) 3200 kg/m3 the following points:
(b) 2400 kg/m3 (d) 7000 kg/m3 (a) 40–49 (c) 60–79
2. The modulus of elasticity of steel is about (b) 50–59 (d) 80–100
(a) 150 GPa (c) 220 GPa 7. To get a Silver rating in LEED-NC, one has to obtain
(b) 200 GPa (d) 240 GPa the following points:
3. Match the following: (a) 40–49 (c) 60–79
(a) BREEAM (i) The USA (b) 50–59 (d) 80–100
(b) LEED (ii) India 8. Which of the following materials has the maximum
(c) CASBEE (iii) Australia
value of embodied energy?
(d) Green Star (iv) Japan
(a) Steel (c) Aluminium
(e) IGBC (v) The UK
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(b) Copper (d) Zinc
4. As per LEED-NC, the combination of energy and
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9. Which of the following materials has the lowest val-
atmosphere has the following possible points:
ue of embodied energy?
(a) 26 (c) 35
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(a) Recycled steel
(b) 10 (d) 5
(b) Concrete
5. As per LEED-NC, sustainable sites has the following (c) Recycled aluminium
possible points:
(a) 26 (c) 35
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(b) 10 (d) 5
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Review Questions
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1. What are the functions of a building?

2. How are building materials classified?
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3. How are the properties of building materials classified?

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4. List and define the different physical properties of building materials.

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5. Define the following:

(a) Density (c) Density index (e) Porosity
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(b) Bulk density (d) Specific weight (f) Void ratio

6. List the mechanical properties of building materials.
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7. What are the thermal properties of materials?

8. What are the chemical, optical, acoustical, physiochemical, and metallurgical properties of materials?
9. What are the factors influencing the choice of a building material?
10. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Ductility (d) Fire-resistant and fire-retarding materials
(b) Thermal conductivity (e) Corrosion resistance
(c) Selection of building materials (f) Durability
11. Define sustainability. Why is it important to consider sustainability while selecting a building material?
12. When is a product or material considered sustainable? Illustrate with an example.
13. What are healthy materials?
14. When are materials considered as ecological materials?
15. List any three green-labelling systems.
16. Name any three green building rating systems
17. Describe the LEED-NC rating system briefly.
18. What is embodied energy? Is it the true indicator of environmental impact?

19. Briefly describe four important building materials.

20. What are the alternative or substitute building materials. Name five such materials and describe two of them briefly.
21. Why is it important to have standards for building materials?
ANSWERS
Multiple-choice Questions
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a)–(v), (b)–(i), (c)–(iv), (d)–(iii), (e)–(ii)

4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c)
7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b)
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Building

© Oxford University Press 2019

The moral rights of the author/s have been asserted.

First published in 2019

Third-party website addresses mentioned in this book are provided

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

About the Book

cussed in that chapter.

further study and research.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

For faculty For students

Using the Book

substitutes for bricks are also suggested.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

Institute of Technology, Vellore, Er S.H. Gajendra n, Er E.S. Jayakumar, Superintending Engineer

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

11. Wood and Wood Products 317

13. Steel 386

14. Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys 440

15. Glass 467

16. Clay and Ceramic Products 489

17. Plastics and Rubbers 511

18. Paints and Varnishes 540

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

3.4 Different Types of Brick Kilns 62

1.12 Alternative Building Materials 19 Kilns 62

3.4.3 Down-draught Kiln 64

2. Building Stones 23 3.4.4 Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln 65

2.2 Classification of Rocks 24 3.5 Classification of Bricks 70

3.6 Qualities of Good Bricks 71

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

4. Building Lime 92 5.5 Chemical Compounds of Cement

4.8 Storing of Lime 104 Cements 138

4.9 Precautions to be Taken while 5.11.1 Alkali-activated/Geopolymer

4.10 Uses and Products of Lime in 5.11.2 Self-cleaning Cement 139

4.10.2 Lime Mortar and Plaster 106

4.10.4 FaL-G Technology 108 6.1 Introduction 145

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

6.4 Deleterious Substances and 7.8.3 Rules for application 196

6.13.2 Copper Slag 176 Ratio 212

8.3 Classification of Concrete 215

6.14 Storing and Handling 8.4.1 Batching Plants 217

7. Mortars and Plasters 183

7.2 Characteristics of Good Mortar 184 8.6.2 Compaction by Vibration 219

8.6.3 Bleeding of Concrete 223

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

9.4 High Strength/High Performance Air-Seasoning 322

Concrete 276 11.5 Defects in Wood/Timber 322

9.6 Structural Lightweight Concrete 281 Forces 323

9.6.1 Autoclaved Aerated

9.6.2 Lightweight Foamed

9.7 Fibre Reinforced Concrete 289 11.6.1 Dry Rot 326

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

11.18.2 Laminated Veneer Lumber Steel Production 382

11.18.3 Block Board, Lamin Board,

11.18.4 Flush Doors 352 13.2 Steel Making 387

11.19.1 Particle Boards 352 13.2.2 Mini Steel Plants 389