LESSON TITLE: THE HUMAN ORGANISM Some Organs: bones, associated cartilages,

ligaments, joints.
Anatomy – the study of the structures of the
body. 3. Muscular
Physiology – the study of the processes and Function: Produces body movements,
functions of the body. maintains posture, produces body heat.
Some Organs: muscles attached to the
6 Levels of Organization for Human Body skeleton by tendons.
1. Chemical – involves how atoms
interact and combine into molecules. 4. Nervous
2. Cell – basic structural and functional Function: Major regulatory system that
units of organisms. detects sensations and controls movements,
3. Tissue – a group of similar cells and physiological processes, intellectual
the material surrounding them. functions.
4. Organ – composed of two or more Some Organs: brain, spinal cord, nerves,
tissue types that together perform sensory receptors.
one or more common functions.
5. Organ System – a group of organs 5. Endocrine
classified as a unit because of a Function: Major regulatory system that
common function or set of functions. influences metabolism, growth,
6. Organism – a complex of organ reproduction.
systems that are mutually dependent Some Organs: endocrine glands, such as
upon one another. pituitary, that secrete hormones.

11 Organ Systems of Human Body 6. Cardiovascular

Function: Transports nutrients, waste
products, gases, and hormones throughout
the body, plays a role in the immune
response and regulation of body
temperature.
Some Organs: heart, blood vessels, and
blood.

7. Lymphatic
Function: Removes foreign substances from
the blood and lymph, combats disease,
maintains tissue fluid balance, absorbs
1. Integumentary dietary fats from digestive tract .
Function: Provides protection, regulates Some Organs: lymphatic vessels, lymph
temperature, prevents water loss, helps nodes, and other lymphatic organs.
produce vitamin D.
Some Organs: skin, hair, nails, sebaceous 8. Respiratory
glands, sweat glands. Function: Exchanges oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the blood and air, regulates
2. Skeletal blood pH.
Function: Provides protection and support, Some Organs: lungs and respiratory
allows body movements, produces blood passages.
cells, stores mineral and adipose tissue.
 ●Negative Feedback Mechanism – regulates
most systems of the body; occurs when any
deviation from the set point is made smaller
9. Digestive or is resisted.
Function: Performs the mechanical and ●Positive Feedback Mechanism – occurs
chemical processes of digestion, absorption when the initial stimulus further stimulates
of nutrients, elimination of wastes. the response.
Some Organs: mouth, esophagus, stomach,
intestines, and accessory organs. Anatomical Position – refers to a person
standing upright with the face directed
10. Urinary forward, the upper limbs hanging to the
Function: Removes waste products from the sides, and the palms of the hands facing
blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, forward.
water balance.
Some Organs: kidneys, urinary bladder, Directional terms always refer to the
ureters anatomical position, regardless of the body’s
actual position.
11. Reproductive
Function: Produces oocytes for females and
sperm cells for males for reproduction and
hormones that influence sexual functions
and behaviors.
Some Organs: female (ovaries, uterus,
vagina) male (testes, ducts, penis).

6 Essential Characteristics of Life

Organization – refers to a specific Planes:
relationship of the many individual parts of ▪ Sagittal Plane – runs vertically through the
an organism. body and separates it into right and left parts
Metabolism – the ability to use energy to ▪ Median Plane – a sagittal plane that passes
perform vital functions, such as growth, through the midline of body, dividing it into
equal right & left halves
movement, and reproduction.
Responsiveness – the ability of an organism ▪ Transverse / Horizontal Plane – runs
to sense changes in the environment and parallel to the surface of ground, dividing the
make the adjustments that help maintain its body into superior and inferior parts
life. ▪ Frontal / Coronal Plane – runs vertically
from right to left & divides the body into
Growth – refers to an increase in size of all or
part of the organism anterior and posterior parts
Development – includes the changes an
organism undergoes through time Sections:
Reproduction – the formation of new cells or ▪ Longitudinal – a cut along the length of the
organ
new organisms.
▪ Transverse / Cross Section – cuts
Homeostasis – the condition in which body completely through an organ, similar to
functions, body fluids, and other factors of cutting a hot dog into round pieces
the internal environment are maintained ▪ Oblique – a cut is made diagonally across
within a range of values suitable to support the long axis
life.
Trunk Cavities: 1. Polar Region – “heads”, exposed to H2O
▪ Thoracic Cavity – surrounded by rib cage & (hydrophilic)
is separated from the abdominal cavity by 2. Nonpolar Region – “tails”, away from H2O
the muscular diaphragm (hydrophobic)
▪ Abdominal Cavity – bounded primarily by - Protein
abdominal muscles; contains stomach, Definition/Function(s):
intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas & kidneys ▪ Float among the phospholipid molecules
▪ Pelvic Cavity – a small space enclosed by and in some, extend from inner to the outer
the bones of the pelvis; contains the urinary surface of cell membrane
bladder, part of the large intestine, and the ▪ Function as membrane channels, carrier
internal reproductive organs. molecules, receptor molecules, enzymes, or
structural supports in membrane
Serous Membranes:
▪ Visceral – membranes that are in contact Other Components
with the organ/s - Cholesterol
▪ Parietal – membranes that are in contact Definition/Function(s):
with the walls of the cavity ▪ Provide added strength & stability by
limiting the amount of movement of
LESSON TITLE: CELL STRUCTURES AND phospholipids.
THEIR FUNCTIONS
- Carbohydrates
Cells – the basic living unit of all organisms; Definition/Function(s):
each cell is a highly organized unit. ▪ May be bound to some CHON molecules,
Organelles – specialized structures in cells modifying their functions.
that perform specific functions.
Cytoplasm – jelly-like substance that holds Organelles and Their Functions:
organelles and is enclosed by cell membrane
(aka plasma membrane). Nucleus - contains genetic material of cell
(DNA) and nucleoli.
Functions of the Cell: - Site of RNA synthesis & ribosomal subunit
1. Cell metabolism and energy use assembly.
2. Synthesis of molecules
3. Communication Ribosomes - site of protein synthesis.
4. Reproduction and inheritance
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - has may
Cell Membrane / Plasma Membrane ribosomes attached.
▪ It is the outermost component of the cell - Site of protein synthesis
that forms a selective barrier between
intracellular (materials inside the cell) and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - site of lipid
extracellular substances (materials outside synthesis.
the cells). - Participates in detoxification

Molecular Structure: Golgi Apparatus - modifies CHON structure &

packages CHON in secretory vesicles.
Major Molecules
- Phospholipids Secretory Vesicle - contains materials
Definition/Function(s): Form a double layer produced in cell.
that contains 2 regions: - Formed by the Golgi Apparatus
- Secreted by exocytosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a
Lysosome - contains enzymes that digest selectively permeable membrane. Osmotic
material taken into the cell. pressure is the force required to prevent
Peroxisome - breaks down fatty acids, amino movement of water across a selectively
acids, and hydrogen peroxide. permeable membrane.

Mitochondria - site of aerobic respiration Facilitated Diffusion – this moves substances

and the major site of ATP synthesis. from a higher to lower concentration and
does not require energy in the form of ATP.
Microtubule - supports cytoplasm
- Assists in cell division and forms Carrier-Mediated Transport – the movement
components of cilia & flagella. of a substance across a membrane by means
of a carrier molecule. The substances
Centrioles - facilitate the movement of transported tend to be large, water-soluble
chromosomes during cell division. molecules or ions.

Cilia - Located on cell surface that move Active Transport – moves substances from a
substances over surfaces of certain cells. lower to a higher concentration and requires
ATP.
Flagella - proper sperm cells.
Secondary Active Transport – uses the
Microvilli - increase surface area of certain energy of one substance moving down its
cells. concentration gradient to move another
substance across the cell membrane. In co-
Movement through the cell membrane may transport, both substances move in the same
be passive or active. direction; in counter-transport, they move in
▪ Passive Membrane Transport – does opposite directions.
not require the cell to expend energy. This
includes Endocytosis – movement of materials into
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion. cells by the formation of a vesicle.
▪ Active Membrane Transport – does ▪ Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis – involves
require the cell to expend energy, usually in cell receptors attaching to molecules.
the form of ATP. This includes active ▪ Phagocytosis – movement of solid material
transport, secondary active transport, into cells (cell-eating).
endocytosis, and exocytosis. ▪ Pinocytosis – the materials ingested is
much smaller and is in solution (cell-
Diffusion is the movement of a solute from drinking).
an area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration within a solvent. At Exocytosis – the secretion of materials from
equilibrium, the distribution of molecules is cells by vesicle formation.
uniform.
Cytoskeleton is a cell’s framework. This is
Concentration gradient is the concentration vital for providing support, holding organelles
of a solute at one point in a solvent minus in place and enabling the cell to change
the concentration of that solute at another shape.
point in the solvent divided by the distance
between the points. Types of Cytoskeleton:
1. Microtubules – largest diameter; provide Cell Cycle: This consists of a series of events
structural support, assist in cell division, that produce new cells for growth & tissue
forming essential components of certain repair. This has two phases:
organelles (cilia and flagella).
2. Intermediate Filaments – medium 1. Interphase – the non-dividing phase in
diameter; maintain cell shape. which the DNA replicates.
3. Microfilaments – smallest diameter; 2. Cell Division – the formation of two
determine cell shape and involved in cell daughter cells from a single parent cell. Each
movement. cell contains 46 chromosomes (diploid),
except sperm & egg cells which contain
Whole-Cell Activity 23 chromosomes.
A cell’s characteristics are ultimately
determined by the type of proteins This process occurs through mitosis, which is
produced, which are determined by the divided into four stages: (PMAT)
genetic information in the nucleus. a. Prophase: Each chromosome consists of
Information in DNA provides the cell with a two chromatids joined at the centromere.
code for its cellular processes. b. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the
center of the cell.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – a double c. Anaphase: Chromatids separate at the
helix nucleus, composed of nucleotides, and centromere and migrate to opposite poles.
contains five carbon sugars (deoxyribose), d. Telophase: The two nuclei assume their
nitrogen base, & phosphate. normal structure, and cell division is
▪ Cytosine Guanine completed, producing two new daughter
Nucleotide Pairs cells.
▪ Thymine Adenine

Gene Expression: A process in which the

information in DNA directs protein synthesis.
This has two stages:

1. Transcription – process by which DNA is

“read”
The sequence of nucleotides in DNA
determines the sequence of nucleotides in
mRNA; the mRNA moves through the nuclear
pores to ribosomes.
ex: thymine of DNA to adenine of RNA

2. Translation – process by mRNA is

converted into amino acids (polypeptides)
The sequence of codons in mRNA is used at
ribosomes to produce proteins. Anticodons
of tRNA bind to the codons of mRNA, and the
amino acids carried by tRNA are joined to
form protein.
ex: UUU codon of mRNA binds to AAA
anticodon of tRNA.
Differentiation – the process by which cells 3. Distinct cell surfaces.
develop specialized structures and functions, ▪ Free / Apical Surface – exposed & not
results from the selective activation and attached to other cells
inactivation of DNA sections. Ex: the ▪ Lateral Surface – cells attached to other
functioning of bone cells is different from the epithelial cells
muscle cells. ▪ Basal Surface – attached to a basement
Apoptosis – also known as programmed cell membrane (a specialized type of extracellular
death, is a normal process by which cell material that helps attach the epithelial cells
numbers within various tissues are adjusted to the underlying tissues, and plays an
and controlled. important role in supporting & guiding cell
migration during tissue repair.)
Cellular Aspects of Aging: It is estimated that 4. Cell and matrix connections.
at least 35% of the factors affecting aging are 5. Nonvascular. All gases & nutrients carried
genetic. in the blood reach the epithelium by diffusing
1. Cellular clock from blood vessels across the basement
2. Death genes membrane.
3. DNA damage 6. Capable of regeneration.
4. Free radicals
Mitochondrial damage Major Functions of Epithelia:
1. Protecting underlying structures
LESSON TITLE: TISSUES 2. Acting as a barrier
Tissue – a group of cells with similar 3. Permitting the passage of substances
structure and function, along with 4. Secreting substances
extracellular substances located between 5. Absorbing substances
cells. Changes in tissues can result in
development, growth, aging, trauma, or Classification of Epithelium:
disease. Simple – single layer of cells.
Histology – the microscopic study of tissue Shapes of cells: Squamous, Cuboidal and
structure. Columnar.

Four Basic Types of Tissues: Stratified – more than one layer of cells.
1. Epithelium – covers and protects surfaces, Shapes of cells:
both outside and inside the body. Squamous:
2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type Nonkeratinized (moist)
that makes up part of every organ in the Keratinized
body. Cuboidal and Columnar.
3. Muscle – makes movement possible by
contracting or shortening. Pseudostratified – special type of simple
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating epithelium; appears to be stratified but is
and controlling many body activities. not.
Shapes of cells: Columnar.
General Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue:
1. Mostly composed of cells with very little Transitional – modification of stratified
extracellular matrix between them. epithelium that can be greatly stretched.
2. Covers body surfaces that include the Shapes of cells: Roughly cuboidal to
exterior surface, lining of digestive, urinary, columnar when not stretched and squamous-
reproductive, & respiratory tracts, heart & like when stretched.
blood vessels, and linings of body cavities.
Types of Epithelium (based on idealized
shapes of epithelial cells):
1. Squamous cells are flat or scale-like.
2. Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped – about as
wide as they are tall.
3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than they
are wide.

TYPE STRUCTURE FUNCTION LOCATION

Simple 1 layer of flat, tile-like blood vessels, heart, lymphatic
Squamous cells, often hexagonal diffusion & filtration vessels, alveoli, kidney tubules,
cells serous membranes
1 layer of square-shaped kidney tubules, glands, choroid
Simple Cuboidal cells secretion & absorption plexuses, terminal bronchioles,
ovaries
Simple 1 layer of tall, narrow secrete mucus & bronchioles, auditory tubes,
Columnar cells absorption uterus, fallopian tubes, stomach,
intestines, gallbladder, bile ducts,
TYPE STRUCTURE FUNCTION LOCATION
ventricles of brain
many layers of flat, tile-like
Pseudostratified 1 layer of tall, narrow secrete mucus & nasal cavity, nasal sinuses,
Columnar cells stratified protect
cells, appears propel&debris out of auditory
acts as a barrier tubes, pharynx, trachea,
Stratified Nonkeratinized – moist,
but isn’t, almost always against
respiratory tract
infection; reduces mouth, throat, larynx,
bronchi
Squamous the surfaceciliated
cells retain a loss of water from the body esophagus, anus, vagina,
nucleus & cytoplasm inferior urethra, corneas
Keratinized – cytoplasm of
cells at the surface is outer layer of the skin
replaced by a protein
called keratin, and the
cells are dead
Stratified many layers, cube-shaped; absorption, secretion, & sweat glands, ovarian
Cuboidal relatively rare protection follicular cells, salivary glands
many layers, but only the
Stratified surface cells are columnar; secretion, protection, & mammary gland ducts,
Columnar deeper layers are irregular some absorption larynx, portion of male
or cuboidal in shape; urethra
relatively rare
special type that changes hold fluids & protects urinary bladder, ureters,
Transitional shape against the caustic effects superior urethra
stretched: squamous of urine
not stretched: cuboidal
Types of Simple Epithelium:

Types of Stratified Epithelium:

Structural and Functional Relationships:

1. Simple epithelium is involved with b. Classification according to Shape of
diffusion, secretion, or absorption. Stratified Secretory Regions
epithelium serves a protective role.
Tubular shaped as tubules (small
Squamous cells function in diffusion or
tubes); can be straight or
filtration. Cuboidal or columnar cells, which
coiled
contain more organelles, secrete or absorb.
Acinar / Alveolar sac-like structure
2. A smooth, free surface reduces friction.
▪ Microvilli – increase cell’s surface area (ex: Tubuloacinar / glands with combination
small intestines) Tubuloalveolar of the tubular and acinar /
▪ Cilia – move materials across cell’s surface alveolar
(ex: trachea)
▪ Goblet Cells – produce mucus (ex: stomach) c. Classification according to Type of
3. Cell connections are vital to hold one cell Secretion
to one another or to the basement
membrane. These structures are: Merocrine most common; involves the
▪ Tight Junctions – bind adjacent cell Secretion release of secretory products by
together exocytosis
▪ Desmosomes – mechanical links that bind ex: water-producing sweat
cells glands, pancreas
▪ Hemidesmosomes – bind cells to basement Apocrine release of secretory products as
membrane Secretion pinched-off fragments of gland
▪ Gap Junctions – most common; small cells
channels that allow molecules to pass ex: milk-producing mammary
between cells & allow cells to communicate glands (combination with
merocrine)
Glands – structures that secrete substances Holocrine involves the shedding of entire
onto a surface, into a cavity, or into blood; Secretion cells
primarily composed of epithelium, with a ex: sebaceous glands of skin
supporting network of connective tissue.
2. Endocrine – no ducts (directly into
Two Types of Glands: bloodstream); cellular products are called
1. Exocrine – with ducts (ex: sweat & oil hormones (ex:
glands) pituitary glands)
a. Classification according to Structure of
Ducts Connective Tissue – distinguished by its
Simple single, non-branched duct (ex: extracellular matrix which results from the
Glands glands in stomach & colon) activity of specialized connective tissue cells,
Compound multiple, branched ducts (ex: which are:
Glands mucous glands of duodenum) ▪ blast cells: form the matrix (osteoblasts
form bone, chondroblasts form cartilage)
▪ clast cells: break down the matrix
(osteoclasts break down bone)
▪ cyte cells: maintain the matrix (osteocytes
maintain the bone)
Major Components of Extracellular Matrix: ▪ Areolar
Structure: Fine network of fibers (mostly
1. Protein Fibers collagen with a few elastic fibers) with spaces
a. Collagen Fibers – very flexible but resist in between;
stretching Function: loose packing, support, &
b. Reticular Fibers – very fine, short collagen nourishment
fibers that branch to form a supporting Location: packing between glands, muscles,
network & nerves; attaches the skin to underlying
c. Elastic Fibers – have the ability to return to tissues
their original shape after being stretched
▪ Adipose
2. Ground Substance – consists of non- Structure: Little extracellular matrix;
fibrous molecules and has the following adipocytes are full of lipid
major components: Function: packing material, thermal
a. Hyaluronic Acid – makes fluid slippery insulator, energy storage, & protect organs
b. Proteoglycan Aggregates – trap water against injury from being jarred
which gives tissues the capacity to recoil Location: subcutaneous areas, mesenteries,
when deformed renal pelvis, around kidney, surface of colon,
c. Adhesive Molecules – hold proteoglycans mammary glands
together & to plasma membrane
▪ Reticular
3. Fluid – the matrix is liquid that enables Structure: Fine network of reticular fibers
blood to flow rapidly through the body irregularly arranged
Function: provides a superstructure for
Functions of Connective Tissue: lymphatic & hematopoietic tissues
1. Enclosing & separating other tissues (ex: Location: within lymph nodes, spleen, bone
sheets around organs and muscles) marrow
2. Connecting tissues to one another (ex:
tendons: bone to muscle, ligaments: bone to
bone)
3. Supporting & moving parts of body (ex:
bones)
4. Storing compound (ex: bones store
calcium & phosphate)
5. Cushioning & insulating (ex: adipose tissue
protects organs & helps conserve heat)
6. Transporting (ex: blood transports gases,
nutrients, enzymes, & hormones)
7. Protecting (ex: immune cells)

Classification of Connective Tissues:

1. Connective Tissue Proper
a. Loose Connective Tissue – consists of
relatively few protein fibers that form a lacy
network, with numerous spaces filled with
ground substance & fluid.
 vessels; therefore, heals slowly after an
injury.
b. Dense Connective Tissue – has relatively
large number of protein fibers that form
thick bundles & fill nearly all of the
Structure Function Location
Regular Collagen fibers running in withstand great pulling forces tendons,
Collagenous same direction exerted in direction of fiber ligaments
Collagen fibers run in orientation due to great tensile dermis of skin,
Irregular several directions strength & stretch resistance organ capsules,
Collagenous outer layer of
blood vessels
Matrix composed of capable of stretching and elastic ligaments
collagen fibers & elastin recoiling like a rubber band with between
Regular Elastic fibers running the same strength in direction of fiber vertebrae & along
direction in elastic orientation dorsal aspect of
ligaments neck, vocal cords
Matrix composed of
Irregular Elastic collagen fibers & elastin capable of stretching and walls of blood
fibers oriented in many recoiling in many different vessels
different directions directions
extracellular space.

2. Supporting Connective Tissue

a. Cartilage – is composed of chondrocytes
(cartilage cells); resilient, relatively rigid &
enables to spring back after being
compressed; not penetrated by blood
Structure Function Location
Collagen fibers are allows growth, provides rigidity growing long bones,
Hyaline small & evenly with some flexibility, forms cartilage rings of
dispersed making it strong, smooth, yet somewhat respiratory system,
transparent flexible articulating surfaces, costal cartilage of ribs,
forms the embryonic skeleton nasal cartilages,
articulating surfaces of
bones
Fibers are more somewhat flexible & capable of intervertebral disks,
Fibrocartilage numerous than in withstanding considerable pubic symphysis,
others; arranged in pressure; connects structures articular disks (knees,
thick bundles subjected to great pressure temporomandibular
joints)
Similar to hyaline, provides rigidity with even more external ears, epiglottis,
Elastic but matrix contains flexibility; recoil after being auditory tubes
elastic fibers stretched
b. Bone – hard connective tissue that
consists of living cells & mineralized matrix;
composed
of osteocytes (bone cells) which are located
within lacunae; the matrix is organized into
layers called lamellae.
▪ Compact Bone – more solid, with almost no
space between thin layers of mineralized
matrix
▪ Spongy Bone – has spaces between
trabeculae of bone
Function: Provides great strength & support;
protects internal organs, provides
attachment of muscles & ligaments; allow
movements.

3. Fluid Connective Tissue

a. Blood – composed of formed elements & a
fluid matrix
Function: Transport gases, hormones,
nutrients, waste products; protect body from
infections; temperature regulation
Location: Erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets

b. Hemopoietic Tissue – composed of red

and yellow marrow
Muscle Tissue – main function is to contract,

Type Structure Function Location Image

cells are large, long,

cylindrical
attached to bone or
Nucleus: many, located other connective
Skeletal movement of body Refer to Table
peripherally tissue
Muscle under voluntary 4.10a, page 85
Striated: YES control

cells are cylindrical; branched

& connected to one another
by intercalated disks (contain
Cardiac gap pumps blood under Refer to Table
Muscle involuntary control 4.10b, page 85
junctions) heart
Nucleus: one, located
centrally

Striated: YES

cells are tapered at each end

Nucleus: one, located regulates size of

centrally organs, forces fluids
in hollow organs
through tubes,
Striated: NO such as stomach &
Smooth controls the amount Refer to Table
intestines; skin &
Muscle of light entering the 4.10c, page 86
eyes
eye, produces
“goose bumps” in
skin; under
involuntary control

or shorten, making movement possible;

length is greater than its diameter.
 2. Serous
Structure: consist of three components: a
Nervous Tissue – specialized to conduct layer of simple squamous epithelium, its
action potentials (electrical signals); located basement membrane, & a delicate layer of
in the brain, spinal cord & ganglia loose connective tissue; do not contain
glands but secrete serous fluid
▪ Neurons (nerve cell) – transmit information Function & Location:
in form of action potentials, store ✔ line cavities that don’t open to exterior of
information, & integrate & evaluate data body (pericardial, pleural, & peritoneal)
lubricate & protect internal organs from
Three Major Parts: friction
1. Cell Body – site of general cell functions; ✔ help hold organs in place
contains nucleus ✔ act as selectively permeable barrier
2. Dendrites – receive stimuli leading to
electrical changes 3. Synovial
3. Axon – send action potential to another Structure: made up of only connective tissue
neuron & consist of modified connective tissue cells;
either continuous with dense connective
▪ Glia (support cells) – surround the neurons; tissue of joint capsule or separated from
function to protect, nourish & form capsule by areolar or adipose tissue
specialized sheaths around axons Function & Location:
✔ line cavities of freely movable joints
Tissue Membrane – a thin sheet or layer of ✔ synovial fluid to make joints slippery,
tissue that covers a structure or lines a thereby reducing friction & allow smooth
cavity. The body is composed of four movement
membranes, one external and 3 internal.
Inflammation
▪ Cutaneous Membrane / Skin – external ☐ occurs when tissues are damaged
tissue membrane; compose of stratified ☐ can result from the immediate & painful
squamous epithelium & dense connective events that follow trauma
tissue.
☐ mobilizes the body’s defenses & isolates
and destroys microorganisms, foreign
Major Categories of Internal Tissue
materials, and damaged cells.
Membranes:
Chronic Inflammation – results when the
1. Mucous
agent responsible for an injury is not
Structure: consist of epithelial cells, their
removed or something else interferes with
basement membrane, & a thick layer of loose
the healing process.
connective tissue; some contain a layer of
smooth muscle cells; many contain goblet
Inflammatory Response is an unpleasant but
cells to secrete mucus
beneficial occurrence in the human body
Function & Location:
when tissues are damaged.
✔ line cavities to outside of body (digestive,
respiratory, & reproductive tracts) protection Classic Signs of Inflammation:
(oral cavity) 1. Redness / Rubor
✔ protection (oral cavity) 2. Heat / Calor
✔ absorption & secretion (intestine) 3. Swelling / Tumor
4. Pain / Dolor 2. Fibrosis / Replacement – a new type of
5. Disturbance of function tissue develops that eventually causes scar
Chemical Mediators – are substances that production and the loss of some tissue
are released or activated in the injured function. (ex: brain, heart, skeletal muscles)
tissues and adjacent blood vessels.
Tissue Repair Process:
▪ Histamine – released from the mast cells In the process that repairs tissue damage, a
and causes vasodilation clot is first formed. Next, new epithelial cells
▪ Prostaglandin – sensitizes the pain grow into the wound, followed by the
receptors and enhances the effects of formation of granulation tissue. Finally,
histamine. granulation tissue is replaced with new
connective tissue.
Neutrophil – a type of phagocytic white
blood cell that enters the tissues and fights Definition of Terms:
infections by ingesting bacteria. It dies after ▪ Clot – contains the threadlike protein fibrin,
ingesting a small number of bacteria; the which binds the edges of the wound together
mixture of dead neutrophils, other cells, & and stops the bleeding.
fluid that can accumulate is called pus. ▪ Scab – dried clot; seals the wound and
helps prevent infection.
Process of Inflammatory Response: ▪ Macrophage – a second type of phagocytic
cells that removes the dead neutrophils,
cellular debris, & the decomposing clot.
▪ Fibroblast – produces collagen and other
extracellular matrix components.
▪ Granulation Tissue – a delicate, granular-
appearing connective tissue that consists of
fibroblasts, collagen, and capillaries.

Wound Contracture – a result of contraction

of fibroblasts in granulation tissue; pulls the
edges of wound closer together.
Tissue Repair is the substitution of viable ▪ Advantage: reduces the size of the wound
cells for dead cells. The type of tissue repair and speeds healing
is determined by: ▪ Disadvantage: may lead to disfiguring and
✔ tissues involved debilitating scars
✔ severity of wound
Effects of Aging in Tissues:
Two Types of Tissue Repair: 1. Cells divide more slowly as people age.
1. Regeneration – the new cells are the same Injuries heal more slowly.
type as those that were destroyed, and 2. Extracellular matrix containing collagen
normal function is usually restored; no scar and elastic fibers become less flexible and
formation. less elastic. Consequently, skin wrinkles,
▪ Stem Cells – primarily used in this type; elasticity in arteries is reduced, and bones
self-renewing, undifferentiated cells that break more easily.
continue to divide throughout life. (ex: liver,
pancreas) LESSON TITLE: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Integumentary System – consists of the skin 1. Exposure to enough UV light can produce
and its accessory structures (hair, nails, and all the vitamin D needed by humans.
glands); one of the more familiar systems of However, people need to ingest vitamin D as
the body because it covers the outside of the well.
body and is easily observed Integument – 2. Adequate levels of vitamin D are necessary
this means covering. because active vitamin D stimulates the small
intestine to absorb calcium and phosphate.
Major Functions of Integumentary System: (essentials for bone growth and muscle
1. Protection: These are the protective function)
functions of the integumentary system: 3. Fatty fish (and fish oils) and vitamin D-
- The intact skin plays an important role in fortified milk are the best sources of vitamin
reducing water loss and acts as a barrier from D.
the microorganisms and foreign substances
entering the body. 4. Temperature Regulation
- The stratified squamous epithelium of the Body temperature normally is maintained at
skin protects underlying structures against about 37°C (98.6°F). The rate of chemical
abrasion. reactions
- Melanin absorbs UV light and protects (metabolism) is altered by the changes in
underlying structures from its damaging temperature.
effects. ▪ Too heat body: Blood vessels constrict to
- Hair on the head acts as a heat insulator. reduce blood flow to skin and heat is
Eyebrows keep sweat out of the eyes. retained.
Eyelashes protect the eyes from foreign ▪ To cool the body: Blood vessels in dermis
objects. Hair in the nose and ears prevents dilate and heat is transferred from deep in
the entry of dust and other materials. tissues to skin and sweat is produced.
- The nails protect the ends of the fingers and
toes from damage and can be used in Types of Heat Loss:
defense. 1. Radiation – heat is lost through infrared
energy.
2. Sensation: The skin contains sensory 2. Convection – through air movement.
receptors for pain, heat, cold, and pressure. 3. Conduction – through direct contact with
Sensory receptors around the hair follicle can an object.
detect the movement of a hair.
5. Excretion
3. Vitamin D Production Skin glands can remove large amounts of
UV light causes skin to produce a precursor sweat, but only a small amount of waste
molecule of vitamin D (7- products (urea, uric acid, and ammonia).
Dehydrocholesterol) They do not play a significant role in the
▼ excretion of waste products.
Precursor is carried by blood to be modified
in the liver (Vitamin D3) Skin – made up of two major tissue layers:
▼ epidermis and dermis.
Carried by blood to the kidney for further - This is used to determine the body fat.
modification - Skin weighs approximately 9 lbs.
▼ - Skin is usually referred to as “thin skin”.
Formation of active Vitamin D “Thick skin” is found only on the palms of the
hands and soles of feet.
Facts about Vitamin D:
Epidermis – the most superficial layer of the Keratinization – a process in which new cells
skin; made up of stratified squamous (with keratin) is pushing old cells to the
epithelium. surface. It takes 40 to 56 days for the new
Function: prevents water loss and resists cells to reach the surface.
abrasions. New cells form and push older cells to the
surface
Strata – distinct layers of epidermis. ▼
Cells slough, or flake off
Five Epidermal Strata: ▼
1. Stratum Basale / Stratum Germinativum – Epithelial cells eventually die
deepest layer; consists of cuboidal or ▼
columnar cells that Formation of outer layer of dead, rigid cells
undergo mitotic divisions about every 19 (resist abrasion and acts as permeability
days. This stratum is a single layer of cells barrier)
and firmly attached to dermis.
2. Stratum Spinosum –spiny in appearance Dermis – the 2nd major skin region;
due to the protruding cell processing that composed of dense collagenous connective
join the cells; composed of 8 to 10 layers of tissue containing fibroblasts, adipocytes,
keratinocytes (cells that manufacture & store macrophages, nerves, hair follicles, smooth
the protein keratin) muscles, glands, and lymphatic vessels.
3. Stratum Granulosum – has grainy Structure: made up of collagen and elastic
appearance due to further changes to the fibers; collagen fibers are oriented in many
keratinocytes as they are pushed from the different directions Function: supplies
spinosum; generate large amounts of keratin, nutrients & removes waste products to the
which is fibrous overlying epidermis; helps regulate body
4. Stratum Lucidum – a smooth, seemingly temperature
translucent layer that is found only on thick
skin of palms, soles, & digits Cleavage Lines / Tension Lines – these are
5. Stratum Corneum - outermost layer of areas where skin is most resistant to
epidermis; 20 to 30 layers of dead squamous stretching; caused by orientation of collagen
cells filled with keratin & accounts for 75% of fibers; vital in scarring.
epidermal thickness; joined by desmosomes.
This layer is also coated and surrounded by Stretch Marks – visible lines through the
lipid, which acts as waterproofing material. epidermis that result from overstretched
skin, for any reason, damaging the dermis;
Common Conditions associated usually common when a person increases in
with Stratum Corneum: size quite rapidly.
▪ Dandruff – excessive sloughing of corneum
from the surface of the scalp. Layers of Dermis:
▪ Callus – hard skin; forms when the skin has 1. Papillary Layer - thin connective tissue
been exposed to frequent friction resulting in layer that contains blood vessels.
increased layers of corneum and thickened ▪ Dermal Papillae
area. projections that extend up into epidermis
▪ Corn – occurs when the corneum thickens blood flow through these vessels supplies the
to form a cone-shaped structure over a bony overlying epidermis arranged in parallel,
prominence. curving ridges that shape into fingerprints,
footprints, & palm lines; these ridges
increase friction and improve the grip of
hands & feet
the pattern is genetically determined ▪ UV light causes elastic fibers to clump and
become leathery.
2. Reticular Layer - deepest layer of dermis; ▪ UV light can alter DNA in cells causing them
accounts for 80% of dermis. to mutate (skin cancer).
▪ A sunburn is the skin reacting to UV
Factors affecting Skin Color: exposure.
▪ Pigments in skin
▪ Blood circulating through the skin 3. Hormones: certain hormones, such as
▪ Thickness of stratum corneum estrogen & melanocyte-stimulating hormone
▪ Genetics (MSH), increase the melanin production
Melanocytes – irregularly shaped cells with during pregnancy.
many long processes that extend between Areas with More Areas with Less
the epithelial cells of the deep part of Melanin Melanin
epidermis; responsible for production of ✔ Freckles ✔ Lips
melanin. ✔ Moles ✔ Palms of hands
▪ Melanocytes of darker skinned people ✔ Darkened areas in ✔ Soles of feet
produce more and darker melanin than fairer genitalia
skinned people.
✔ Areola & nipples
▪ All races have the same number of
melanocytes.
Subcutaneous Tissue / Hypodermis
Melanosomes – these are melanin-
► attaches the skin to underlying bone and
containing vesicles which move into the cell
muscle; below the dermis
processes of melanocytes.
► supplies the area with blood vessels and
nerves
Melanin – the group of pigments primarily
► not part of the skin; made up of loose
responsible for skin, hair, and eye color.
connective tissue, including adipose tissue;
▪ Pigments of most molecules are brown to
contains about ½ of the body’s stored lipids
black, some are yellowish or reddish.
► the amount and location of adipose tissue
▪ Racial variations in skin color are
vary with age, sex, and diet.
determined by the amount, kind, &
► Functions:
distribution of melanin.
1. Serves as padding and insulator
▪ Function: Provides protection against
2. Responsible for some of the differences in
ultraviolet light from sunlight.
appearance between men and women total
body fat)
Determinants of Melanin Production:
3. Used to estimate total body fat (the
thicker the fold, the greater the amount of
1. Genetic factors: responsible for the
► acceptable body fat varies from 21%-30%
amounts of melanin produced
for females and from 13%-25% for males
in different races.
▪ Albinism – a recessive genetic trait that
Accessory Skin Structures: these include the
causes a deficiency or an absence of melanin
hair, glands, and nails.
(have fair skin, white hair, and unpigmented
irises in eyes)
Hair – is found everywhere on the skin,
except on the palms, the soles, lips, nipples,
2. Exposure to UV light: stimulates
parts of genitalia, and the distal segments of
melanocytes to increase melanin production
fingers and toes.
to help protect the skin resulting in a suntan.
Hair Components: ✔ Scalp hair grows for 3 years and rests for 1
▪ Hair Shaft – flexible strands of keratinized year
cells; protrudes above the surface of the skin. ✔ Eyelashes grow for 30 days and rest for
▪ Hair Root – protrudes below the surface. 105 days
▪ Hair Bulb – base of hair root; where the ✔ Normally, we lose about 90 scalp hairs per
hair is produced. day.
▪ Hair Follicle – an invagination of the
✔ Hair color is determined by varying
epidermis that extends deep into the dermis;
amounts and types of melanin. Grey hair is
a group of cells that surround the root and
the loss or fading of melanin.
bulb and responsible for giving different
✔ Male pattern baldness is from the loss of
shapes to the hair.
the hair follicle.
▪ Hair Cortex – a hard covering of hair that is
surrounded by the cuticle, a single layer of
Glands: there are two major glands of the
overlapping cells that holds the hair in the
skin, the sebaceous and sweat glands.
hair follicle.
▪ Hair Medulla – the softer center that is
1. Sebaceous Glands – are simple, branched
surrounded by the cortex.
acinar glands; most are connected by a duct
▪ Hair Papilla – an extension of the dermis
to the hair follicle.
that protrudes into the hair bulb; the blood
– secrete sebum, released by holocrine
vessels
secretion, an oily substance rich in lipids that
within supply the hair bulb with the
lubricates hair and skin to prevent drying.
nourishment needed to produce hair.
▪ Arrector Pili – made up of smooth muscle
2. Sweat Glands have two types:
that surrounds each hair follicle; its
a. Eccrine Sweat Glands – release sweat by
contraction causes the hair to become more
merocrine secretion that is made mostly of
perpendicular to the skin’s surface called
water with a few salts; located in almost
“goose bumps”.
every part of the skin but most numerous in
palms and soles; open into the sweat pores
Cycle of Hair Production:
b. Apocrine Sweat Glands – produce a thick
Old hair falls out; formation of new hair
secretion rich in organic substances by
▼
merocrine secretion, though some glands
Hair is formed by epithelial cells within the
demonstrate holocrine secretion; located
hair bulb (Growth Stage)
only in armpits and genitalia; open into the
▼
These cells divide and undergo keratinization hair follicles and become active during
▼ puberty, causing body odor.
Hair grows longer as cells are added to the
base of the hair within the hair bulb Nail – a thin plate with layers of dead
▼ stratum corneum cells with a very hard type
Hair root & shaft consist of columns of dead of keratin.
keratinized epithelial cells
▼ Nail Structure:
Growth stops & hair is held in the hair follicle ▪ Nail Body – the visible part of the nail.
until it falls out (Resting Stage) ▪ Nail Root – the covered part by the skin.
▪ Cuticle / Eponychium – a stratum corneum
Facts about the Hair: that extends onto the nail body.
✔ Testosterone and good nutrition promote ▪ Nail Matrix – made up of epithelial cells
hair growth with a stratum basale that gives rises to most
of the nail; continuation of nail roots and is of stratum corneum & in the adipocytes of
thicker than nail bed. dermis and subcutaneous.
▪ Nail Bed – located distally to the nail matrix ▪ Bronzing – a darkened skin pigmentation
& attaches to nail; made up of epithelial cells usually caused by stimulant effect of excess
with a stratum basale adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) on the
▪ Lunula – a small part of the nail matrix that melanocytes.
can be seen through the nail body as a * Associated with Addison’s disease
whitish, crescent-shaped area at the base of ▪ Bruising – a blue to purple discoloration
the nail. caused by broken blood vessels.
* Associated with trauma, blood disorders
Process of Nail Growth: Production of
epithelial cells within the nail matrix causes Burn – is an injury to a tissue caused by heat,
the nail to grow. Unlike hair, the nail grows cold, friction, chemicals, electricity, or
continuously and does not have a resting radiation.
stage.
Classification of Burns:
Integumentary System as a Diagnostic Aid: 1. Partial-Thickness Burn – the part of the
▪ Sandpaper texture (skin) – associated with stratum basale remains viable, and
vitamin A deficiency in which the skin regeneration of the epidermis occurs from
produces excess keratin. within the burn area, as well as from the
▪ Spoon-Shaped (nails) – associated with edges of the burn.
iron-deficiency anemia in which the nails lose a. First-Degree Burn
their normal contour and become flat or ✔ this involves only the epidermis
concave. ✔ presence of redness, slight swelling, pain.
✔ heals within 2 to 3 days or about a week
Variations in Skin Color: with no scarring.
▪ Redness / Blushing – caused by increased
✔ usually caused by sunburn or brief
blood flowing through the skin.
exposure to very hot or very cold objects.
* Associated with fever, hypertension,
b. Second-Degree Burn
inflammation, and allergies
✔ damages both the epidermis and dermis.
* Scarlet Fever – bacterial infection that
causes reddish rash on the skin. ✔ symptoms may include redness, pain,
▪ Pallor / Paleness – caused by decreased swelling, and blisters.
blood flow. ✔ if minimal dermal damage, heals about 2
* Associated with anemia, low blood weeks with no scarring.
pressure, shock ✔ if burn goes deep into the dermis, the
▪ Cyanosis – a bluish color of skin caused by a wound appears red, tan, or white and heals
decrease in the blood oxygen content. for several months with some scarring.
* Associated with impaired circulation or
respiratory functions. 2. Full-Thickness Burn / Third-Degree Burn
▪ Jaundice – a yellowish discoloration of the ✔ the epidermis & dermis are completely
skin. destroyed.
* Associated with liver disorder, too much ✔ usually painless as the sensory receptors
consumption of carotene have been destroyed.
* Carotene – a yellow pigment found in ✔ the burned areas appear white, tan,
plants (squash & carrots); normally used as a brown, black, or deep cherry red
source of vitamin A and accumulates in lipids ✔ recovery occurs from the edges of the
burn wound.
✔ skin graft may be necessary. spreading lesion or as a deeply pigmented
nodule; metastasis is common and often
Burn Treatments: fatal.
▪ Split Skin Graft – a burn
treatment procedure in which the epidermis Effects of Aging:
and part of the dermis are removed from ▪ Blood flow to the skin is reduced. Skin
another part of the body and placed over becomes thinner, and elasticity is lost. It
the burn area. begins to sag and wrinkle.
▪ Debridement – a procedure that involves ▪ Sweat and sebaceous glands are less active
removal of dead tissue from the burn area resulting in reduced ability for
that helps prevent infections by cleaning the thermoregulation. The number of
wound. melanocytes decreases, but some areas
develop age spots.
▪ Gray or white hair is evident.

Skin Diseases and Disorders:

Ringworm, Eczema & Dermatitis, Psoriasis,
Impetigo, Decubitus Ulcers, Rubeola
(Measles), Rubella (German Measles),
Chicken Pox, Shingles, Cold Sores (Fever
Blisters), Genital Herpes and Acne

Skin Cancer
✔ Most common type of cancer and mainly
caused by UV light exposure from the sun.
✔ Common to develop in fair-skinned people
or older than 50 years old.
✔ Prevented by limiting sun exposure and
using sunscreens that should block UVA and
UVB rays.
* UVA rays can cause tanning of the skin;
associated with malignant melanomas.
* UVB rays can cause burning of the skin
associated with basal cell & squamous cell
carcinomas.

Types of Skin Cancer:

1. Basal Cell Carcinoma – most frequent type
that affects the cells in stratum basale and
extends into dermis to produce an open
wound; readily treatable with surgery.
2. Squamous Cell Carcinoma – develops from
cells immediately superficial to the stratum
basale; if untreated, can metastasize and
lead to death.
3. Malignant Melanoma – a rare form that
arises from melanocytes, usually in pre-
existing mole; appear as a large, flat,