Q.

1) What do you mean by individual differences and also

explain major areas of individual differences?

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Understanding differences among people is very important because it makes us realize that
we cannot treat two human beings in the same manner.
Individual differences may be described as those differences that distinguish one person from
another person and makes that person a unique individual in oneself. People differ from each
other in their physical, mental, emotional and behavioural characteristics.

MAJOR AREAS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

(1) Differences in physique

Differences in physical characteristics is the most obvious and visible difference among
people. The differences between people with regard to their height, weight, color are all
examples of physical differences among people. For instance, some people are tall while
others are short, some are fat while others are thin, some are fair while others are dark and so
on.

(2) Differences in Intelligence: Intelligence is the ability to reason with symbols. In simple
words, intelligence refers to our ability to learn and to utilize what has been learned.
Intelligence also includes our ability to adjust to new situations and solve new problems.

People differ from each other in intelligence. While some are high in intelligence, there are
others who are average or low in intelligence. People are classified into different categories
based on their levels of intelligence.

(3) Differences in Ability: Ability is defined as what a person can do now and what he can
learn to do in the future. It is the total of all that an individual has acquired and all that he is
capable of acquiring.
There are wide differences in the abilities of people. One person may be very good in cricket
while another person may be very good in acting.

(4) Differences in Aptitudes: Aptitude is the ability of an individual to benefit from a certain
type of training. It is the potential of an individual to acquire with training some specified
knowledge, skill or set of responses such as the ability to speak a language, to learn music
etc.

(5) Differences in Interests: Interests refer to a person's liking for something. When we say
a person is interested in something, it means that the person likes that thing.
Different people have interest in different things. For example, one boy may be interested in
cars, another boy may be interested in films, while a third boy may be interested in young
girls!

(6) Differences in Achievement: While aptitude refers to what a person can do, achievement
refers to what a person has done.
Achievement is often an outcome of an individual's intelligence, aptitude, interest and the
availability of opportunities.
(7) Differences in Personality: An individual's personality refers to a person's characteristic
way of thinking, feeling and behaving. For instance, some people are generally quiet and shy
while others are talkative and outgoing.

Q. 2) What are the different stages of human life span?

PRENATAL STAGE (CONCEPTION TO BIRTH)

The prenatal stage basically refers to the nine months that a human being spends in the
mother's womb. The notable characteristics of this stage are:
(1) Physical growth takes place at a very rapid rate. This rate of development is not seen later
in the life span.
(2 Intake of certain kind of drugs and alcohol can do a lot of damage to the new life.
(3) Great care needs to be taken during the first three months of pregnancy.

INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD (BIRTH TO AGE 3)

The major changes and developments during this stage are:
(1) There is rapid physical growth.
(27 Motor control, the ability to move deliberately and accurately develops rapidly and
continuously during the first three years of life.
(3) Babies develop attachment toward their parents and others toward the end of the first
year.
(4) Speech and comprehension develops rapidly. Self-awareness develops in the second year.
EARLY CHILDHOOD (AGE 3 TO 6)
The important features of early childhood are:
(1) Children lose their chubbiness and begin to look more slender and athletic in their
appearance.
(2) Most children stop bed wetting by the age of 3 to 5.
(3) The ability to use symbolic function develops. It is the ability to use symbols that have
meanings such as - words, numbers etc.

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (AGE 6 TO AGE 12)

The notable characteristics of this stage are:
(1) Physical growth slows down but strength and athletic skills improve. Injuries due to
accidents increase as children are more active physically and there is less supervision.
(2) Egocentrism diminishes and children begin to think logically.
(3) Children understand the concept of shame and pride between the age of 7 and 8.
(4) During middle childhood children spend most of their time away from home. Friends
assume greater importance in children's lives.

ADOLESCENCE (AGE 12 TO AGE 20)

The major changes and developments during adolescence are:

(1) Boys and girls attain sexual maturity. They are now capable of reproduction. Girls start
having periods. Boys have nocturnal emission.
(2) There is a growth spurt - a rapid increase in height and weight.
(3) Alcohol and drugs are other common causes of health problems.

YOUNG ADULTHOOD (AGE 20 TO AGE 40)

The important features of young adulthood are:

(1) Most young adults are in their peak health. They are full of strength, energy and stamina.
(2) Ability to think and reason morally becomes more complex.
3) Love and work are central themes of life. Work is not just about accumulating money but
it provides an opportunity to relate to other people and creates a sense of self-worth.
(4) Most people marry and become parents for the first time during this stage of the lifespan.
(5) Conflict between the demands of family and work life is often the cause of stress.
MIDDLE AGE (AGE 40 TO 65)
The major changes and development during this stage are:
(1) There is a gradual decline in sensory capacity, health and
stamina.
(2) Women experience menopause - they stop menstruating.
(3) In middle-age wisdom, expertise and practical problem-solving skills are at its peak.
However ability to soive novel problems declines.

LATE ADULTHOOD (AGE 65 YEARS ONWARDS)

The important features of late adulthood are:
(1) Reaction time slows down affecting functioning in many areas.
(2) There is a sharp loss in strength and stamina.
(3) Memory is affected by aging. Difficulty in recalling names is an indication of this.
(4) Elderly people review the life they have lived.
(5) Retirement from work allows more leisure time but hurts economically.

Q. 3 Diagrammatically explain various quadrants of Johari

Window.

THE JOHARI WINDOW

The Johari Window is a simple tool for making sense of wh we are. Developed by Joseph
Luft and Harry Ingram (thus th name Johari Window), this model is highly useful
understanding ourselves and people around us.
Luft and Ingram were researching human personality at the University of California in the
1950's when they devised the Johari Window. Rather than measuring personality, the Windo
offers a way of looking at how personality is expressed.

(1) Open Self: The open self refers to those aspects of our life that is known to oneself as
well as to others. It is also known as the free area. For example, a person's gender, height,
approximate weight and so on.
It includes not only factual information, but also information on a person's feelings, motives,
behaviors, wants, needs and desires or any other information that a person intentionally
conveys to people.
This is our basic public personality. The public area contains things that are openly known
and talked about - and which may be seen as strengths or weaknesses. This is the self that we
choose to share with others.

(2) Hidden Self: This part of the window is also known as the private area or facade. It
contains aspects of our self that we know about but are kept hidden from others. The hidden
pane of the window is a collection of those things that we keep to ourselves. For example, our
secret desires, the girl or boy whom you love, something bad that one has done.
These are those parts of ourselves that we choose not to share with others because we
consider them private. Our hidden self cannot be known to others unless we disclose it.
(3) Blind Self:

The blind self represents things that others know about us, but we are unaware of. It includes
things that others have observed in us but we don't know about. They could be positive or
negative behaviors, and they affect the way that others act towards us. For example, a
manager may be rude in the way he talks to his subordinates without being aware about it.
The blind area includes things about ourselves which we do not know but others can see, it
also includes things that we imagine to be true for ourselves for a variety of reasons but that
others do not see at all.

(4) Unknown Self: The unknown area contains things that nobody knows about us -
including ourselves. It includes those aspects of our personality that are hidden from others as
well from ou selves. For example, when we are placed in new situations we often learn new
information that was previously not known to self or others. This may be because we've
never exposed those areas of our personality, or because they're buried deep in the
unconscious.

Q. 4 Define attitude and describe functions of attitude.

DEFINITIONS
Stephen Robbins describes attitudes as evaluative statements- either favorable or unfavorable
- concerning objects, people or events. They reflect how one feels about something.
Baron and Greenberg have defined attitudes as "relatively stable clusters of feelings, beliefs
and behavioral intentions towards specific objects, people, or institutions.
"FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE
Besides categorizing things as positive or negative, attitudes also serve several other
functions:

(1) Self-identity or self-expression function:

Attitudes are an expression of our central values and beliefs. When we express our attitudes
we are in fact expressing those beliefs and values of ours which give us a unique self-identity.

(2) Self-esteem function:

Attitudes maintain or increase our feelings of self worth. We hold views that we believe are
right. Hence, when we express these views, we sometimes feel superior to others. Thus,
attitudes help to increase our self-esteem.

(3) Ego-defensive function:

Attitudes also serve as an ego-defensive mechanism. They protect us from unwanted

information about ourselves.

(4) Knowledge function:

Attitudes influence our perception and thoughts about everything. They provide a frame of
reference within which an individual judges people and events. They help us to organize and
interpret social information. Thus, attitudes serve the knowledge function.
The knowledge function of attitudes is seen in the behavior of consumers. Information that
supports our attitude is viewed as more accurate and convincing than information that is not
supportive of our attitude.

5) Impression management function:

Another function served by attitudes is that of impression management. We always want to

make a very good impression on others and therefore express "the right views".
Research has found that that people generate arguments that support their ideas. The stronger
the need for impression motivation, the more arguments they will generate. This is also one
of the reasons why it is so difficult to change attitudes.
Q.5 DESCRIBE SIX THINKING HATS.

THE SIX THINKING HATS

The six thinking hats is a technique developed by de Bono to enhance lateral thinking. It is
Edward De Bono's greatest gift to he world. The six thinking hats is a technique to conjure
creative and effective solutions. It helps in creative problem solving.
The six hats represent six modes of thinking and are directions think rather than labels for
thinking. That is, the hats are used proactively rather than reactively. The main purpose of
using the six thinking hats is to:
(1) Encourage parallel thinking
(2) Encourage full-spectrum thinking
(3) Separate ego from performance
In the six thinking hats technique, by wearing the different hats people are encouraged to
switch from their usual way of thinking to thinking differently about the matter at hand. The
six hats provide an opportunity to people involved, to express thoughts which they may not
have otherwise done.

The 6 hats are:

(1) The White Hat: The white hat is the information hat. It covers facts, figures, information
needs and gaps. A person using the white hat will say "What are the facts about this?" or
"Let's drop the arguments and proposals, and look at the data base."
The white hat is used to direct attention to available or missing information

(2) The Red Hat: The red hat represents emotions. It covers intuition, feelings and emotions.
When the red hat is put on, people express how they feel emotionally: scared, threatened,
excited, energized, etc. A person using the red hat will say "I love this proposal" or "I feel
this is a terrible idea."
Sometimes we like or dislike something without knowing the reasons. The red hat provides
an opportunity to put forward feelings without any explanations. Expression of feelings is
important as it is often the hidden reason as to why people oppose or support a proposal.

(3) The Black Hat: This is the hat of judgment and caution. A person wearing this hat has to
find a fault with an idea even It his own. A person using the black hat will say "Where are the
facts to back this proposal?" or "I foresee problems in the following areas."
This hat is vital as it points out the risks involved and why a plan may not work out. It point
out the disadvantages o drawbacks. This hat stops us from doing something harmful.

(4) The Yellow Hat: The Yellow Hat is the hat of optimism. It is logically positive. It looks
at the benefits and the reasons as to why an idea will work.
With the yellow hat put on, a person has to find some positive points or good aspects in an
idea even if he think the idea stinks.

(5) The Green Hat: The green hat is the hat of growth and possibilities. It is the hat of
creativity that looks at alternatives, provocations and changes. A person wearing a green hat
has to suggest ways in which the idea could be adapted or improved to make it work better.
According to de Bono "The green thinking hat is concerned with new ideas and new ways of
looking at things.
Green hat thinking is concerned with escaping from the old ideas in order to find better ones.
Green hat thinking is concerned with change."

(6) The Blue Hat: The blue hat is the process hat. This is the overview or process control hat.
It looks not at the subject itself but at the 'thinking' about the subject. It is used to check if the
process is working well and in the most effective way.
This hat is used to guide the course of the discussion. It used to decide the sequence in which
the different hats will be used or look at a type of thinking that has been overlooked.

Q. 6 DEFINE MANAGEMENT AND MANAGERIAL SKILLS

WITH HELP OF SUITABLE DIAGRAM.

MANAGEMENT / MANAGERIAL SKILLS

The key to being an effective and successful leader lies in the display of appropriate behavior,
skills and actions. According to Robert Katz, managers need to have three broad management
skills:

(a) Technical skill: Technical skill refers to "the ability to apply specialized knowledge or
expertise" (Robbins and Judge,
2009). It is a person's knowledge and ability of any particular type of process or technique.
For example, the skills learned by engineers, surgeons, accountants etc. Technical skills
involve things.
Technical skills may be acquired through formal education and training universities or
through direct experiences on the job.
(b) Human skill: Human skill refers "to the ability to work with, understand and motivate
other people, both individually and in groups" (Robbins and Judge, 2009). It is the ability to
deal effectively with people and build teamwork. Human skills are concerned with people.
Since managers get things done through other people, they must have good human skills.
Unfortunately, managers are very good with technical skills but lack good human skills.
They may be poor listeners or insensitive to the needs of others or cannot resolve conflicts
among people or cannot delegate or motivate etc.

(c) Conceptual skill: Conceptual skill "is the ability to analvze and diagnose complex
situations" (Robbins and Judge,
2009). It is the ability to logically process and interpret information. Conceptual skills deal
with ideas.
Conceptual skills are important in decision-making.
Managers need to spot problems, identify solutions that can correct them, evaluate those
solutions and select the best one.
A manager who has good technical and interpersonal skills may still fail if he does not have
conceptual skills.
As people rise up the organizational ladder, technical skills become less important and human
and conceptual skills assume greater importance.

SHORT NOTES

1. INFORMAL GROUPS
An informal group is "a group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally
determined; such a group appears in response to the need for social contact" (Robbins and
Judge, 2009).
Informal groups are groups that develop naturally among people, without any direction from
the organization. They are an outcome of people's need to stay in contact with each other. For
example, four employees from different department of an organization who meet after work
hours for a drink.
Informal groups have few rules and procedures and members enjoy greater freedom of
thought and action.
2. GOAL SETTING
"It is easier to get somewhere when you know where you wan to go."
Goals are targets and objectives to be achieved in the future They are a measure of future
performance.

Goal setting has several benefits. The benefits of goal setting are:
(1) They indicate what has to be done and how much effor should be exerted.
(2) They help in focusing attention on tasks and activities of importance.
(3) Goals encourage better planning and utilization of resources such as time, money,
materials etc.
(4) Goal setting create a sense of excitement and encourage people to prepare a plan of action
for the attainment of the goal.
(5) The goals setting process makes us focus on our SWAN-Strengths, Weaknesses, Assets
and Needs. We can thus work to exploiting our strengths and minimizing our weaknesses.
(6) Attainment of goals contributes to our sense of achievement and self-worth. Attainment of
goals satisfies the individuals

(3) Intra-individual differences: Intra-

Individual differences are within the individual. They are differences among the various
characteristics possessed by the same person.
No individual is good or bad in everything. We are good on certain characteristics and
average or bad on certain characteristics. There are vast differences in the abilities possessed
by the same individual. Different abilities exist in different amounts within the same person.
For example, a person may be very good in studies but average in sports.