7.

1 Peak Flow Estimation: Rational Method

7.2 Hydrograph Estimation: Rational Hydrograph Method &

Time-Area Methods

7.3 Modeling approach: Concept and processes

7.4 Example: Drainage design application

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 2

 RATIONAL METHOD
GENERAL
Rational Method is the most simplest and commonly used method of
determining peak discharge from small drainage areas.

Peak discharge is the greatest rate of runoff coming out of the watershed at
any one time.

Experience has shown that the Rational Method can provide satisfactory
estimates of peak discharge on small catchments. For larger catchments,
storage and timing effects become significant, and a hydrograph method is
needed.

The method is typically used to determine the size of storm sewers, channels,
and other drainage structures and is one of the most frequently used in urban
hydrology in Malaysia.

Primary attraction of the method is its simplicity

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 3

LIMITATIONS

When used correctly, the Rational Method can be a very effective tool at
estimating runoff. However, several limitations should be considered before
using this method.

The Rational Method assumes that the drainage basin characteristics are
fairly homogeneous

The Rational Method is most effective in urban areas with drainage areas of
less than 80 Ha (200 acres)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 4

ASSUMPTIONS used in the Rational Method are as follows:

1. In this method, it is assumed that a rainfall duration equal to the time of

concentration results in the greatest peak discharge.

2. The peak flow occurs when the entire catchment is contributing to the flow.

3. The rainfall intensity is the same over the entire catchment area.

4. The rainfall intensity is uniform over a time duration equal to the time of
concentration, tc.

5. The ARI of the computed peak flow is the same as that of the rainfall
intensity, i.e., a 5 year ARI rainfall intensity will produce a 5 year ARI peak
flow.

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 5

 Most
distant
point outlet

The time of concentration is the time required for runoff to travel from the most
distant point of the watershed to the outlet. Intuitively, once a rainfall event
begins the amount of water flowing out of the watershed will begin to increase
until the entire watershed is contributing water, at the time of concentration. If
this assumption is not valid for a watershed, then the Rational Method's
estimate of peak runoff will not be accurate.

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 6

Average Recurrence Interval (ARI)

Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) or return

period is the average length of time between rain
events that exceeds the same magnitude, volume
or duration (Chow, 1964)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 7

Type of Development Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) (year)
Minor System Major System
Residential
Bungalow and Semi-D 5 50
Link house/apt 10 100

Commercial and Business 10 100

Center
Industry 10 100
Sport Field, park, agric land 2 20
Infrastructure/ utility 5 100
Institutional building/ 10 100
complex

Table 1.1 Quantity Design Storm ARIs (MSMA 2nd Edition)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 8

How the Rational Method Works

The Rational Method is based on empirical data (data collected from the site
being studied) and on hypothetical rainfall-runoff events.
events The hypothetical
portion of the Rational Method is assumed to model what would happen during
natural storm events.

During an actual storm event, the peak discharge is dependent upon many factors,
including:

Antecedent moisture conditions. (If the ground is already saturated from a

previous rain, then more runoff will result than would be expected if the ground was
drier.)
Rainfall magnitude. (The total amount of rainfall, in mm)
Rainfall intensity. (The amount of rainfall over a certain period of time, in mm/hr)
Rainfall duration. (Length of time over which rainfall occurs, in hrs.)
Rainfall distribution. (The rain may fall over only a certain portion of the drainage
area or over the entire drainage area.)

The Rational Model is very simple and depends on the user to compensate for
most of the variables listed above. Thus the accuracy of the Rational Method is
highly dependent upon the judgment and experience of the user.
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 9
THE FORMULA

C . y It . A
Qy =
360
where,
Qy = y year ARI peak flow (m3/s)
C = dimensionless runoff coefficient
yI = y year ARI average rainfall intensity over time of
t
concentration, tc , (mm/hr)
A = drainage area (ha)
Or
Q=CiA
i = average rainfall intensity (in/hr) equals to tc
A = catchment area ( acre)
Q = Peak flow ( cusecs)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 10

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 11
GENERAL PROCEDURE

Step 1: Determine the drainage area (in ha.)

Step 2: Determine the runoff coefficient (C).

Step 3: Determine the hydraulic length or flow path that will be used to
determine the time of concentration.

Step 4: Determine the types of flow (or flow regimes) that occur along
the flow path.

Step 5: Determine the time of concentration (tc) for the drainage area.

Step 6: Use the tc to determine the intensity.

Step 7: Input the drainage area, C value, and intensity into the formula to
determine the peak rate of runoff.

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 12

DRAINAGE AREA

Catchment Area

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 13

RUNOFF COEFFICIENT

o The runoff coefficient, C, is a function of the ground cover and

a host of other hydrologic abstractions.

o The runoff coefficient accounts for the integrated effects of

rainfall interception, infiltration, depression storage, and
temporary storage in transit of the peak rate of runoff.

o The runoff coefficient depends on rainfall intensity and

duration as well as on the catchment characteristics. During
a rainstorm the actual runoff coefficient increases as the soil
become saturated. The greater the rainfall intensity, the
lesser the relative effect of rainfall losses on the peak
discharge, and therefore the greater the runoff coefficient.

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 14

RUNOFF COEFFICIENT

Segments of different landuses or surface slope within a sub-catchment can be

combined to produce an average runoff coefficient (weighted). For example, if a
sub-catchment consists of segments with different landuse or surface slope
denoted by i = 1, 2,……, m; the average runoff coefficient is:

m
∑ C i Ai
C avg = i =1m
∑ Ai
i =1

where,
Cavg = average runoff coefficient
Ci = runoff coefficient of segment i
Ai = area of segment i (ha)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 15

 1.0 URBAN CATCHMENT 1.0
RURAL CATCHMENT

0.9 1 0.9 A

0.8 0.8

B
3

C
0.7 0.7

4
D

0.6 0.6
Runoff Coefficient, C

Runoff Coefficient, C
5

0.5 0.5

E
6

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3 F
Impervious Roofs, Concrete
8 1
City Areas Full and Solidly Built Up
Surface Clay, Poor Paving, Sandstone Rock
2
Commercial & City Areas Closely Built Up Steep Rocky Slopes
A
Clay Soil - Open Crop, Close Crop or Forest
0.2 3 Semi Detached Houses on Bare Earth 0.2
B Medium Soil - Open Crop
Bare Earth, Earth with Sandstone Outcrops
4
Urban Residential Fully Built Up with Limited Gardens
C Medium Soil - Close Crop
5 Bare Loam, Suburban Residential with Gardens
Medium Soil - Forest
D
Widely Detached Houses on Ordinary Loam Sandy Soil - Open Crop
0.1 6
Suburban Fully Built Upon Sand Strata 0.1
E Sandy Soil - Close Crop
7 Park Lawns and Meadows
F Sandy Soil - Forest
Cultivated Fields with Good Growth
8
Sand Strata

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200

Rainfall Intensity, I (mm/hr) Rainfall Intensity, I (mm/hr)

C
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 16
 Runoff Coefficient (C)
Landuse For Minor System For Major System
(10 year ARI) (> 10 year ARI)
Residential
Bungalow 0.65 0.70
Semi-detached Bungalow 0.70 0.75
Link and Terrace House 0.80 0.90
Flat and Apartment 0.80 0.85
Condominium 0.75 0.80
Commercial and Business Centres 0.90 0.95
Industrial 0.90 0.95
Sport Fields, Park and Agriculture 0.30 0.40
Open Spaces
Bare Soil (No Cover) 0.50 0.60
Grass Cover 0.40 0.50
Bush Cover 0.35 0.45
Forest Cover 0.30 0.40
Roads and Highways 0.95 0.95
Water Body (Pond)
Detention Pond (with outlet) 0.95 0.95
Retention Pond (no outlet) 0.00 0.00

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 17

TIME OF CONCENTRATION

The time of concentration tc is the flow travel time from the most
hydraulically remote point in the contributing catchment area to the point
of interest within the watershed

tc = to + t g + t d
td = drain flow

tg = curb gutter flow

to = overland flow

Time of concentration

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 18

 Overland Flow

Friend’s Equation Kinematic Wave Equation

( )
1
* 0.6
107n L* 3 6.94 Ln
to = to =
1
5
I 0.4 S 0.3
S
t°=Overland sheet flow travel time (minutes) L = overland sheet flow path length (m)
L = Overland sheet flow path length (m) n* = surface roughness/retardance
for Steep Slope (>10%), L 50 m coefficient
for Moderate Slope (<5%), L 100 m I = rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
for Mild Slope (<1%), L 200 m S = slope of surface (m/m)
n = Horton's roughness value for the
surface (Table 2.2)
S = Slope of overland surface (%)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 19

 Horton Roughness n* in Friend’s Equation

Land Surface Horton's Roughness n*

Paved 0.015
Bare Soil 0.0275
Poorly Grassed 0.035
Average Grassed 0.045
Densely Grassed 0.060

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 20

 Surface roughness, n* in Kinematic Wave Equation

Typical values for n* are:

(i) As quoted by Argue (1986) p.28.
– Paved surfaces = 0.015
– Lawns = 0.25
– Thickly grassed surfaces = 0.50

(ii) As derived from ARR (1998), Book 8, Table 1.4.

(Table 4.06.4 Surface roughness or retardance factors)

Surface Type Horton’s Roughness
Coefficient n*
Concrete or Asphalt 0.010 – 0.013
Bare Sand 0.010 – 0.016
Gravelled Surface 0.012 – 0.030
Bare Clay-Loam Soil (eroded) 0.012 – 0.033
Sparse Vegetation 0.053 – 0.130
Short Grass Paddock 0.100 – 0.200
Lawns 0.170 – 0.480
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 21
 Nomograph for Estimating Overland Sheet Flow Times, to (Source: AR&R, 1977)
(Overland Sheet Flow Times - Shallow Sheet Flow Only)
Friend’s Equation

s
lope %
2
eS 0. %
B a o rl y e G r

c 5
r fa
Pa
0.
Po
re

u
ve
1%
Av

S
S o as s

e
d
g 2%
er

il S
De

ra
Su
Gr
ag

Av
e 5% %
ns

ur

rf a

10 0%
f a Surf rfac
ely

ce
ed d S
ce

2
as e d
Gr

(n
(n
s
as

=
=
s

0.0
ac
0.0 = 0 0.04 0)
u
e(

15
27
Su

)
5) 35) )
rfa

e(
ce

n = 0.0
.0
(n
=

5
6

60 50 40 30 20 10 5 4 3 2 1 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000

Time of Travel Over Surface (min.) Length of Overland Flow (m)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 22

 Gutter Flow

L
tg =
40 s

tg = Curb gutter flow time (minutes)

L = Length of curb gutter flow (m)
S = Longitudinal slope of the curb gutter (%)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 23

 Drain flow
2 1
3 2
R S
V=
n
L nL
td = = 2 1
60V
60 R 3 S 2
n = Manning's roughness coefficient (Table 2.3)
R = Hydraulic radius (m)
S = Friction slope (m/m)
L = Length of reach (m)
td = Travel time in the drain (minutes)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 24

 Drain/Pipe Manning Roughness n

Table 2.3: Values of Manning's Roughness Coefficient (n) for Open Drains and Pipes
Grassed Drain
Short Grass Cover (< 150 mm) 0.035
Tall Grass Cover150 mm) 0.050
Lined Drain
(Chow, 1959; DID, 2000 and French, 1985)

Concrete
Smooth Finish 0.015
Rough Finish 0.018
Stone Pitching
Dressed Stone in Mortar 0.017
Random Stones in Mortar or Rubble Masonry 0.035
Rock Riprap 0.030
Brickwork 0.020
Pipe Material
Vitrified Clay 0.012
Spun Precast Concrete 0.013
Fibre Reinforced Cement 0.013
UPVC | Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 0.011 25
 tc for Rural Catchment

Bransby Williams’ Modified Friend’s

800 L
Fc . L
tc = 1 / 10 1 / 5 tc = 0.4
A Se Ch A0.1S e
tc = time of concentration (min)
L = Length (km) of flow path from catchment divide to
tc = the time of concentration outlet
(min) Ch = Chezy’s coefficient at the site = R 1/6/n
L = length (km) of flow path from R = hydraulic radius = 0.75RS where stream slope is
catchment divide to outlet fairly uniform
A = catchment area (ha) = 0.65RS where stream slope varies appreciably along
Se = equal area slope of stream the stream
flow path (%) as defined in RS = hydraulic radius at the initially assumed flood level
Figure 4.12. at the site
n = average Manning roughness coefficient for the
entire stream length
A = catchment area (ha )
Se = equal area slope of stream flow path (%) as
defined in Figure 4.12. 26
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM |
 RAINFALL INTENSITY

Finding the intensity based on the calculated time of concentration requires us

to use an I-D-F curve which specifies the rainfall intensity for a certain region

1. Develop from historical rainfall

2. Empirical IDF Curve

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 27

 RAINFALL INTENSITY

κ
λT
i=
(d + θ )
1
η

i = Average rainfall intensity (mm/hr);

T = Average recurrence interval - ARI (0.5 ≤ T ≤ 12 month and 2 ≤ T ≤ 100 year);
d = Storm duration (hours), 0.0833 ≤ d ≤ 72; and
λ, κ, θ, and η = Fitting constants dependent on the raingauge location (Table
2.B1 in Appendix 2.B).

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 28

 Station Constants
State No. ID Station Name
λ κ θ η
Johor 1 1437116 Stor JPS Johor Bahru 59.972 0.163 0.121 0.793
IDF CONSTANTS (Part of Table 2B1)

Pusat Kem. Pekan

2 1534002 54.265 0.179 0.100 0.756
Nenas

3 1541139 Johor Silica 59.060 0.202 0.128 0.660

4 1636001 Balai Polis Kg Seelong 50.115 0.191 0.099 0.763

5 1737001 SM Bukit Besar 50.554 0.193 0.117 0.722

6 1829002 Setor JPS Batu Pahat 64.099 0.174 0.201 0.826

7 1834124 Ladang Ulu Remis 55.864 0.166 0.174 0.810

8 1839196 Simpang Masai K. Sedili 61.562 0.191 0.103 0.701

9 1931003 Emp. Semberong 60.568 0.163 0.159 0.821

10 2025001 Pintu Kaw. Tg. Agas 80.936 0.187 0.258 0.890

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 29
RAINFALL INTENSITY

POLYNOMIAL EQN (EQN 13.2 – MaSMA)

ln( RI t ) = a + b ln( t ) + c (ln( t )) 2 + d (ln( t )) 3

RI = the average rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for ARI and duration t
t

R = average return interval (years)

t = duration (minutes)
a to d are fitting constants dependent on ARI

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 30

Polynomial Eqn Constant a to d for Various ARI

CONSTANT a TO d FOR JOHOR BAHRU

ARI
(yr) a b c d
2 3.8645 1.1150 -0.3272 0.0182
5 4.3251 1.0147 -0.3308 0.0205
10 4.4896 0.9971 -0.3279 0.0205
20 4.7656 0.8922 -0.3060 0.0192
50 4.5463 1.1612 -0.3768 0.0249
100 5.0532 0.8998 -0.3222 0.0215
COEFF FOR OTHER LOCATIONS

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 31

ln( RI t ) = a + b ln( t ) + c (ln( t )) 2 + d (ln( t )) 3

ln(5I 0.5 ) = 4.3251 + 1.0147 ln(30) − 0.3308(ln(30)) + 0.0205(ln(30))

2 3

( 5 I 0.5 ) = 116 .3 mm / hr

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 32

Design ARI
Storm Duration (hr)
(yr)
0.5 1.0 1.5
2 98.3 66 50
5 116.3 77 58
10 133.3 88 67
20 150.8 100 76
50 166.8 109 82
100 187.2 123 93

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 33

 ESTIMATING PEAK RUNOFF

Now we have all of the information we need to estimate peak runoff

in our watershed using the Rational Method.

The formula is;

C . y It . A
Qy =
360
where,
Qy = y year ARI peak flow (m3/s)
C = dimensionless runoff coefficient
yI = y year ARI average rainfall intensity over time of
t
concentration, tc , (mm/hr)
A = drainage area (ha)
OR
Q=CiA
i = average rainfall intensity (in/hr) equals to tc
A = catchment area ( acre)
Q = Peak flow ( cusecs)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 34

Estimate the maximum rate of runoff at the inlet to
a proposed culvert for 10 ARI at Johor Bahru

Site Data

Catchment area = 15Ha

Average overland slope = 2%
Length of overland flow = 15m
Length of main channel = 930m
Channel slope = 0.018m/m = 1.8%
Estimated channel roughness coeff = 0.06
Landuse of the drainage basin: Residential (Link and terrace house)
= 80%
Open space (Bush cover) = 20%

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 35

 Runoff Coefficient

Landuse % of total land area C Weighted C

Residential 80 0.8 0.64

Open Space 20 0.35 0.07

Total weighted C = 0.71

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 36

 Rainfall Intensity
Time of Concentration

a) Overland flow time

1 1
107 n* L 3
107 x 0 .019 x15 3
to = 1
= 1
= 4 min
5 5
S 2
a) Travel time in channel

From site visit Î depth of channel, channel shape channel slope

Hydraulic radius, R = 0.5

td =
nL
=
(0.06)(930) = 11 min
2 1 2 1
3 2 3 2
60 R S 60 x0.5 x0.018

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 37

tc = to + t d = 4 + 11 = 15 min

i=
λT κ
=
(59.972)(10 )
0.163
= 191 mm / hr
(d + θ ) ⎛ 15
η
⎞
0.793

⎜ + 0.121⎟
⎝ 60 ⎠
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 38
 C . yI t . A (0.71)(191)(15)
Qy = = 5.65 m3 / s
360 360

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 39

?
Rational HM

Time- Area
Modeling

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 40