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By
Keith D. Johnson
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A dissertation submitted to the faculty of
Doctor of Education
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In
Wilmington University
by
Keith D. Johnson
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The Impact of Adult Education and Learning Programs Post-Release
By
Keith D. Johnson
I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and
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Doctor of Education.
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Dr. Annie Kingcade, Ed. D; Chairperson of Dissertation Committee
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Dedication
First, I would like to thank my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ for guiding me through this
journey. He strengthened me and provided the perseverance to overcome all of the challenges
along the way. Secondly, I dedicate my work to my mother Ms. Caroline Robinson who I
promised that I would complete my doctorate degree. As I reflect back on this moment I
remember your teachings, discipline, and “never say never” attitude. You inspired me to work
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hard, stand strong and believe in my spirituality. I miss and love you to infinity. To my beautiful
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wife Wanda Witherspoon-Johnson you have been my rock, my sounding board, and stabilizer.
You walked in step with me during this entire journey. You have supported me and have been my
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right hand. I would not have taken this journey with anyone else. You are my heart and I love
you. Thank you for taking this journey with me. To my family and friends, I thank you for your
support and prayers. To my brothers and sister, Jeffrey, Kevin, Timothy, and Jaime your
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encouragement and support along the way has been invaluable. I appreciate your understanding
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Acknowledgements
I want to thank Dr. Annie Kingcade for understanding my situation and taking the time
out of her busy schedule to oversee my dissertation process. Not only are you an awesome and
inspiring instructor, and my committee chair, but I also consider you a friend and mentor. You
have been supportive, provided encouragement, and have kept me on track, which enabled me to
reach my goal. Your expertise and knowledge guided me through the difficulties of the
dissertation process. Thank you, I am profoundly grateful. Thank you, Dr. Ingraham, and Dr.
Kocher, for your support, guidance and understanding. Your expertise has been invaluable. Thank
you, Dr. Brown, Dr. Svenning, and Ms. Ann Gibason for your support and guidance throughout
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this process. Thank you, Dr. Horowitz, for your guidance, support, and APA expertise during this
journey.
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I want to thank Partnership in Reentry Coalition of Delaware, (PIRCOD) especially Ms.
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Lori Alberts the founder and chairperson of the organization, and Ms. Terri Townsend for her
continuous support and encouragement throughout my journey. I also want to thank Ms. Priscilla
Turgon the founder and Executive Director of Project New Start and Deputy Director Mr. Brain
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Alleyne for their understanding and support. I also want to thank my children, Jason, Gerrard, and
Keyhanna and my grandchildren for your love and support throughout my journey. I love you all.
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Abstract
Numerous offenders are incarcerated in the United States. Many of these offenders will
eventually be released without receiving any additional education or vocational training. The
purpose of this mixed-method research study was to explore the lived experiences of (31)
who did not complete a GED/Vocational correctional education program, while incarcerated in a
correctional institution in the State of Delaware. The theoretical foundation of this research study
was grounded in Banduras Social Learning Theory. The narrative data was extracted from
returning citizens perceptions and lived experiences of past education, correctional education, and
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their perceived impact of adult education and learning programs post-release.
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Quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS version (21.0). Qualitative data was analyzed using
inductive coding processes to categorize the returning citizens perceptions of the impact of adult
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education and learning programs post-release. According to the findings of the study,
incarcerated, provided the tools, and supports for returning citizens to successfully transition into
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society. Program participation and completion provided an opportunity for returning citizens to
overcome barriers to employment, education and improve their quality of life. This research study
will contribute to social justice and systemic change by providing data to the Department of
Corrections and community stakeholders regarding the practicality of adult education and
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Table of Contents
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... v
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Crime and Incarceration in the State of Delaware .......................................................................... 3
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Overview of The Delaware Department of Corrections ................................................................. 5
Learning and Mental Health Disabilities Within the Prison Population ....................................... 12
Continuing Education................................................................................................................ 18
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Correctional Education .............................................................................................................. 18
Decision-making ....................................................................................................................... 19
Jail ............................................................................................................................................. 19
Level V ...................................................................................................................................... 20
Prison ......................................................................................................................................... 20
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Prisoner...................................................................................................................................... 20
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Reentry ...................................................................................................................................... 21
Recidivism ................................................................................................................................. 21
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Returning Citizen ...................................................................................................................... 21
Self-esteem ................................................................................................................................ 21
Wellbeing .................................................................................................................................. 22
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 22
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Aggression ................................................................................................................................. 28
Decision-Making ....................................................................................................................... 34
Self-esteem ................................................................................................................................ 35
Wellbeing .................................................................................................................................. 36
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Employability ............................................................................................................................ 37
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Recidivism .................................................................................................................................... 42
Funding Opportunities............................................................................................................... 49
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 61
Research Design............................................................................................................................ 63
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Limitations, Delimitations and Assumptions ................................................................................ 64
Participants.................................................................................................................................... 65
Instrumentation ............................................................................................................................. 66
Validity ...................................................................................................................................... 67
Reliability .................................................................................................................................. 68
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Data Management and Storage ..................................................................................................... 73
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Ethical Issues ................................................................................................................................ 73
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 75
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Chapter IV - Results...................................................................................................................... 76
Well-Being............................................................................................................................. 78
Quantitative Summary............................................................................................................... 79
Qualitative Summary................................................................................................................. 79
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Non-GED/Vocational Training Completers .............................................................................. 93
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Quantitative Data Analysis Summary ..................................................................................... 117
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Qualitative Data Analysis Summary ....................................................................................... 117
Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 126
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Appendix C - Survey Information Sheet .................................................................................... 147
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List of Tables
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Table 9. Probation or Parole Status............................................................................................... 86
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Table 10. Program Completion Status .......................................................................................... 87
Table 13. Cross-Tabulation Table Between Ethic Group and Program ....................................... 88
Table 14. Cross-Tabulation Table Between Marital Status and Program .................................... 89
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Table 15. Cross-Tabulation Table Between Previous Incarceration and Program ....................... 89
Table 16. Cross-Tabulation Table Between Employment Status Before Incarceration and Program
............................................................................................................................................... 90
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Table 22. ANOVA by Marital Status ......................................................................................... 102
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List of Figures
Figure 4. The Distribution of Respondents Based on Their Age and Ethnic Group .................... 83
Figure 5. The Distribution of Respondents Based on Their Age and Marital Satus ..………….. 83
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Chapter I
Introduction
Research shows that participation in education programs can have a positive impact on
academic and vocational learning, employment, and recidivism (Davis et al., 2013). However,
many individuals entering and leaving correctional institutions are uneducated, under educated,
and are not prepared to navigate the challenges of reintegrating into society upon release. Among
federal and state prison populations, approximately 37% have not acquired a high school
diploma or GED, compared to 19% of the general population (Vera Institute, 2013).
Approximately 78% of the prison population has not participated or received postsecondary
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educational programming compared to 49% of the general population (Vera Institute, 2013).
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Prison populations trail the general population not only in formal educational
than the general population (Crayton & Neusteter, 2008). Adults returning from prison and jail as
well as those on community supervision are also undereducated compared to the general
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population, specifically in terms of formal educational attainment and basic literacy (Crayton &
Neusteter, 2008).
A lack of a high school diploma closes doors to higher education, training, and
employment opportunities (Bender, 2018). Returning citizens with low levels of education often
find themselves without financial resources and social support systems upon their release from
prison (Bender, 2018). This increases the likelihood that returning citizens will commit criminal
acts, rather than appropriately integrate into society (Bender, 2018). Criminality negatively
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impacts families and communities and diverts money and resources that should be spent on
According to Brazzell et al. (2009), many discussions have been centered around the
intersection of prisoner reentry and problems with workforce development, housing, health, and
public safety. Inadequate attention has been given to the role that in-prison and post-prison
In the United States, education is recognized as a pathway for assimilation and economic
mobility for immigrants and other marginalized populations (Haskins et al., 2008). Education
can provide an opportunity for academic and vocational success, increased employment, reduced
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recidivism, and improved quality of life, especially for individuals involved in the criminal
society, many others will commit new crimes and will be rearrested. Despite a plethora of factors
for why some returning citizens succeed and some do not, we know that a lack of education and
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skills is one key reason (Davis et al., 2013). Both academically and vocationally focused adult
prison education programs are key to preparing returning citizens for release (Davis et al., 2013).
Former South African President, Nelson Mandela, stated that “Education is the most
powerful weapon which you can use to change the world” (as cited in Duncan, 2013, para. 1). In
a knowledge economy, education is the new currency by which nations maintain economic
ambitions and global prosperity. Education is an investment, and one of the most critical
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Overview of U.S. Incarceration
Prison populations in the U.S. have increased dramatically over the last two decades.
More than 2.3 million individuals are incarcerated in the United States (Solomon et al., 2008).
Approximately 700,000 individuals return from state and federal prisons annually (West &
Sabol, 2009). Nine million individuals filter in and out of local jails (Solomon et al., 2008). One
out of every 100 adults are incarcerated in jails and prisons (The Pew Center on the States,
2008). According to Lewis and Lockwood (2019), prison cost taxpayers approximately $80
The Sentencing Project (2014) argues that the “war on drugs” in the U.S. ushered in a
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new environmental epidemic that resulted in new policies and harsher sentencing for drug
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offenses. Mandatory minimum sentences were designed to keep returning citizens incarcerated
for longer periods of time, which dramatically increased the prison population. Many of the
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returning citizens were low-level dealers without a previous criminal record (The Sentencing
Project, 2014). Black and Latinx individuals are disproportionately impacted by poverty, have
the highest rates of incarceration, and account for more than half of all incarcerated returning
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The State of Delaware’s crime rate is higher than the national average, with violent crime
occurring at a rate of 4.2 incidents per 1,000 incidents, and property crime at 23.2 incidents per
1,000 incidents. (Edwards, 2020). National rates are 3.7 per 1,000 for violent crime and 22.0 per
1,000 for property crime (Edwards, 2020). In 2018 Delaware’s crime rate was approximately
15% higher than the national average in violent crime averaging 4.24 per 1,000 (National
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Council for Home Safety and Security, 2020). The national violent and property crime rate
dropped 26% from 2005 through 2015 (Gelb & Velazquez, 2018).
is approximately 46% over the national average, and its ratio of incarcerated adults is
Warehousing returning citizens in Delaware has increased each year. For 2017 returning
citizens, the cost totaled $43,881.57 (Delaware Department of Corrections, 2017), for 2018
returning citizens the cost was $47,052.88 (Delaware Department of Corrections, 2018), and for
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2019 returning citizens cost totaled $56,354.97 (Delaware Department of Corrections, 2019).
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The Delaware Criminal Justice Council Statistical Analysis Center (2019) conducted an
analysis of prisoners released from 2013 through 2015. The study collected data on the following
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recidivism components: return to prison, recommitment, reconviction, and rearrest rate
(Delaware Criminal Justice Council, 2019). Table 1 highlights the one, two and three-year
recidivism rates for each variable (The Delaware Criminal Justice Council Statistical Analysis
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Center, 2019).
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Table 1
One, Two, and Three-Year Series Recidivism Rates
Recidivism
2013 release cohort 2014 release cohort 2015 release cohort
components
1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year
Return to 7.0% 15.9% 15.9% 6.3% 14.5% 19.2% 7.5% 14.2% 19.2%
Prison
Recommitment 45.9% 60.4% 60.4% 43.0% 57.6% 63.5% 45.3% 56.1% 62.2%
Reconviction 47.2% 62.4% 62.4% 46.5% 62.3% 67.6% 48.4% 58.3% 63.4%
Rearrest 53.1% 68.8% 68.8% 49.5% 66.6% 72.8% 52.9% 63.9% 70.3%
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The Delaware Department of Corrections (DOC) is the largest law enforcement
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organization in the State of Delaware. Its mission is to protect the public by supervising adult
returning citizens through safe and human services programs, and facilities (Delaware
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Department of Corrections, 2019). DOC employs approximately 1,753 correctional officers, 302
probation officers, numerous administrators, and 357 support staff (Delaware Department of
Corrections, 2019).
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within correctional institutions and approximately 15,000 individuals on probation within the
correctional institutions: four prisons, four community correctional centers, two violation of
probation centers, and six probation and parole offices through the State of Delaware (Delaware
Department of Corrections, 2017). DOC General Fund Operating Budget has increased each
year. The 2017 fiscal year totaled $295.4 million (Delaware Department of Corrections, 2017),
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the 2018 fiscal year totaled $308.1 million (Delaware Department of Corrections, 2018), and the
2019 fiscal year totaled $328.4 million (Delaware Department of Corrections, 2019).
According to the Delaware Criminal Justice Council (2013), Delaware is one of six states
utilizing a Unified Correctional System and all correctional institutions in the state are
municipal, county prisons, or jails; and the DOC is solely responsible for the custody and
justice Council, 2013). The Delaware Department of Corrections (2017) provides Delaware’s
five-level system of supervision for returning citizens: (a) Level I: Administrative Probation
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Supervision; (b) Level II: Standard Probation; (c) Level III: Intensive Probation Supervision; (d)
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Level IV: Work Release Centers, Home Confinement (i.e., electronic monitoring), Residential
Drug Treatment and Violation of Probation centers; and (e) Level V: 24-Hour Incarceration (i.e.,
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jail/prison). The supervision and management of Delaware’s returning citizens are awarded to
state custody by order of the court (Delaware Department of Corrections, 2017). DOC’s
decisions are determined by a variety of data, which are influenced by the DOC, the judicial
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The DOC operates and supervises three male and one female Level V facilities
(Delaware Department of Corrections, 2017). As of June 30, 2019, the total population housed in
Delaware’s Level V facilities was 4,436 (Delaware Department of Corrections, 2019). Returning
citizens sentenced or those in prison sentenced to more than one year, totaled approximately 63%
of the population (Delaware Department of Corrections, 2019). Eight percent of the population
were returning citizens serving one year or less or jail sentences (Delaware Department of
Corrections, 2019). The remaining 29% of the population consisted of detainees; 18% of these
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individuals were awaiting trial or sentencing, 10% were serving life sentences, 0.1% were
serving indefinite sentences, and 0.15% were serving other sentences (Delaware Department of
Corrections, 2019).
for adult education (DOE Annual Report, 2017). The mission of the DOE is to offer quality
prison adult education programs that will provide an educational foundation to enable returning
citizens to be productive employees, family members, and citizens while incarcerated and upon
release from prison (DOE Annual Report, 2017). Returning citizens are provided an opportunity
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to engage in a variety of prison adult education programs that focus on academics, vocational
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training, and life skills to prepare them to transition into their perspective communities upon
passing the GED Test (DOE Annual Report, 2018). All participants are pre-tested to gauge their
current educational aptitude in math, reading, and writing (DOE Annual Report, 2018).
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Participants are then placed in the proper Educational Functioning Level (EFL) and advance
(COAs) (DOE Annual Report, 2018). Table 2 highlights prison education successful completions
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Table 2
Prison Education Successful Completions
High School 47 33 31 34 33
Note. Data were modified on August 15, 2020. Adapted from “Delaware Department of Education, Adult
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Prison Education Department,” by the Delaware Department of Corrections, 2018
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(https://doc.delaware.gov/assets/documents/annual_report/DOC_2018AnnualReport.pdf).
The ABE section of the program follows the U.S. Department of Education/Office of
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Career, Technical, and Adult Education performance targets and reporting stipulations (DOE
Annual Report, 2017). Table 3 outlines post-release employment opportunity courses offered at
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Table 3
Post Release Employment Opportunity Courses Offered in DE Correctional Institutions
Courses offered DE correctional institution
Baylor Women’s Howard R. Young James T. Vaugh Sussex
Correctional Correctional Correctional Correctional
Institution Institution Institution Institution
Auto Tech X
Computers X X X
(Microsoft
Word, Excel,
PowerPoint, and
Publisher
Culinary Arts X
Instruction
Flagger X X X X
Certifications
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HVAC X
Network writing X
Serv Safe X X X X
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Returning citizens who have acquired a secondary credential, or a high number of high
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school credits are qualified to attend James H. Groves Adult High School (DOE Annual Report,
2017). The Adult High School educational program at James H. Grove Adult High School is
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accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Elementary
and Secondary School (DOE Annual Report, 2017). Graduates receive their high school diploma
upon completion of the State of Delaware’s graduation requirements (DOE Annual Report,
2017).
The program staff assist correctional students who are enrolled in nationally or regionally
partnership between the institution and the student (e.g., use of computers, proctoring test, and
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