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 Provisional chapter
Chapter 12

Aroma Compounds
Aroma Compounds in
in Wine
Wine

Fengmei Zhu, Bin Du and Jun Li

Fengmei Zhu, Bin Du and Jun Li
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65102

Abstract

Volatile aroma compounds are very important to grape wine quality. In order to
understand the lavor of wine, a multitude of scientiic investigations was carried out
and a number of appropriate analytical tools for lavor study were developed in the past
few decades. This chapter deals with major achievements reported in wine aroma and
lavor. Firstly, we illustrate the existing knowledge on aroma compounds contributing
to wine lavor, as well as the types of wine aroma compounds. Furthermore, the main
factors afecting lavor quality in wine are discussed. Finally, the genomics and
biotechnology of wine lavor are also summarized. This chapter broadens the discussion
of wine aroma compounds to include more modern concepts of biotechnology and also
provides relevant background and ofers directions for future study.

Keywords: grape wine, aromatic compounds, terpenes, free volatile aroma com‐
pounds, bound volatile aroma compounds

. Introduction

Wine aroma can be perceived by nose or in the mouth via postnasal way [ ], and is a direct
function of the chemical composition of the wine. Perceived lavor is the result of complex
interactions between all the volatile and nonvolatile compounds present in wine [ ]. The aroma
of the wine consists of aroma compounds [ ]. The diversity of aromatic compounds in
wine is immense and ranges in concentration from several mg l− to a few ng l− [ ]. Wine lavor
can be divided into classes: varietal aroma, typical of grape variety prefermentative aroma,

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
274 Grape and Wine Biotechnology

originated during grape processing fermentative aroma, produced by yeast and bacteria
during alcoholic and malolactic fermentations (MLFs) postfermentative aroma, which is due
to transformations that occurred during conservation and aging of wine [ ]. This chapter will
provide an overview of wine aroma and lavor starting with occurrence. The main focus of
the review will describe the types of aroma compounds, as well as the main factors of wine
aroma compounds in wine. More detail will be given on genomics and biotechnology. The
sensory perception will also be discussed.

. Occurrence of aroma compounds contributing to wine lavor

Knowledge of the volatile composition of a wine is of great interest, since these compounds
are highly related to beverage lavor [ ]. “lthough hundreds of chemical compounds have
been identiied in grapes and wines, only a few compounds actually contribute to sensory
perception of wine lavor [ ]. The perception of wine lavor and aroma is the result of a
multitude of interactions between a large number of chemical compounds and sensory
receptors [ ]. Higher alcohols, acids and esters are quantitatively dominant in wine aroma and
are important in the sensory properties and quality of wine [ ]. Small amounts of higher
alcohols contribute positively to wine quality, while excessive amounts may detract from
quality [ ]. Esters contribute to wine odor and relatively concentrations of faty acids give an
appreciable strong odor [ ].

The main compounds responsible for the most intense aromas in Sauvignon ”lanc wines have
been assumed to be methoxypyrazines and varietal thiols in the Marlborough region [ ].

Darici et al. [ ] evaluated the aroma of a Turkey Çalkarası rosé wine by sensory evaluation
analysis, gas chromatography‐olfactometry (GC‐O) and four quantitative methods. The
volatile compounds of the wine were dominated by fresh fruit, loral and red fruit notes. “n
extract obtained using a dynamic headspace technique was subjected to GC‐O. The aroma
showed a complex proile with compounds determined above their odor threshold.

. Types of wine aroma compounds

“roma styles are particularly important for wine exports, and preferences in aroma proiles
can difer between markets in various countries [ ].

. . Wine aroma formed by yeast during fermentation

Wine quality is closely related to microbial ecology of fermentation. Yeasts contribute to wine
aroma by producing volatile metabolites with diferent lavor proiles. The aromatic proile of
wine has been studied in relation to the amount of assimilable nitrogen available from the yeast
present in the must [ ]. Gil et al. [ ] isolated and analyzed the aroma compounds of wines
inoculated with pure and mixed cultures of apiculate and Saccharomyces yeasts by gas chro‐
 Aroma Compounds in Wine 275
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65102

matography with lame ionization and mass spectrometry (MS). The indings showed that
samples fermented with mixed cultures produced a higher concentration of selected com‐
pounds and higher total amounts of alcohols and acids, by comparison, wines produced with
pure cultures of Saccharomyces spp. “piculate yeasts are essential in the chemical composition
and quality of wine.

The microlora, and especially the yeast, is related with fermentation, conduces to wine aroma
by mechanisms: irstly by utilizing grape juice constituents and biotransforming them into
aroma‐ or lavor‐impacting components secondly by bringing enzymes that transform neutral
grape compounds into lavor‐active compounds and lastly by the de novo synthesis of many
lavor‐active primary and secondary metabolites [ ]. Joseph et al. [ ] undertook a survey of
”retanomyces strains and identiied whether strains consistently give positive aroma
characteristics using a solid phase microextraction with gas chromatography (SPME GC‐MS)
analysis coupled with olfactory analysis. None of the strains yielded universally positive
aromas for the evaluators. The results showed that compounds were identiied as having
an impact on aroma, including the well‐known ethylphenols and vinylphenols, as well as
several faty acids, alcohols, esters, terpenes and an aldehyde.

. . Wine aroma formed during alcoholic fermentation

Spontaneous wine fermentations are often unpredictable, resulting in undesirable traits that
occasionally lead to spoilage [ ]. Zhang et al. [ ] studies the efects of three commercial
maceration enzymes on aroma compounds of Cabernet Sauvignon wine during alcohol
fermentation. The results showed that maceration enzymes could have a signiicant efect on
the formation of aroma compounds. Moreover, the presence of non‐Saccharomyces species at
the onset of alcoholic fermentation may have a greater potential to contribute to the liberation
of some aglycons (mainly terpenes) from the lavorless precursor glycoside during fermenta‐
tion [ ].

. . Wine aroma formed during amino acid metabolism

The most important lavor and aroma compounds formed from amino acids are higher
alcohols and their associated esters and volatile acids. These odd‐related products are pro‐
duced from valine, leucine and isoleucine. It has been shown that the varietal aroma character
of certain cultivars could be partially explained by the amino acid composition of the grape
must [ ]. “lthough yeast strains difer greatly in their ability to use nitrogen and amino acids,
various studies have shown that nitrogen supplementation in the form of assimilable nitrogen
and amino acids inluences the volatile aroma proile of the wine [ ].

There are diferent ways that amino acids can be metabolized into aroma compounds. The
irst way is Ehrlich reaction. In this process, amino acids are catabolized into higher alcohols.
The Ehrlich reaction also impacts directly or indirectly on the synthesis of other aroma
compounds [ ]. Secondly, the sulfur‐containing amino acids can have a positive impact on
the aroma of wine. For example, ‐mercaptohexanol can impart fruity lavors to a wine.
“nother way is called Maillard reaction. Cysteine can form various odor‐impacting com‐
276 Grape and Wine Biotechnology

pounds through this reaction, in which a chemical reaction between amino and carbonyl
groups takes place to form new compounds [ ].

. . Wine aroma formed during malolactic fermentation

The secondary malolactic fermentation (MLF) is principally a deacidiication step, which is

used to manicure the acidity of certain wine types and confer added microbial stability to
the product [ ]. This process is normally carried out by lactic acid bacteria isolated from
wine, including Oenococcus oeni, Lactobacillus spp., Leuconostoc spp. and Pediococcus spp.
[ ]. It has been shown that lactic acid bacteria can inluence the aroma by producing vola‐
tile metabolites and modifying aroma compounds derived from grapes and yeasts during
MLF. Moreover, MLF can enhance the fruity aroma and butery note but reduce vegetative,
green/grassy aroma of wine. In recent studies, lactic acid bacteria can also inluence wine
aroma by producing additional oak‐derived compounds [ ]. In addition, MLF is impor‐
tant in wines from warmer region because it changes the composition of the wine and im‐
proves its organoleptic quality.

. Main factors afecting lavor quality in wine

Wine aroma is generated through an immensely complex interaction of various classes of

aroma compounds and various environmental and biological factors.

. . Efect of weather on wine aroma compounds

There are many factors that can inluence lavor proile or wine style.

Mendez‐Costabel et al. [ ] evaluated the impact of winter rainfall on the main compounds
responsible for green aromas in grapes and wines during the and seasons in Cal‐
ifornia. Fruit and wine components were dramatically efected by the absence of rainfall in
both years. Wine descriptive analysis showed that the lack of rainfall produced wines per‐
ceived as less green and of more intense fruit atributes in the irst season. Due to the re‐
duction in vine growth, however, the same treatment produced wines less intense in fruit
aromas and of bad tannin quality in the following season. These results showed that if the
rainfall level is below normal, the positive efect on fruit and wine composition achieved.

. . Efect of soil type on wine aroma compounds

Soil type, though closely related to soil water status, has an independent efect on grape aro‐
ma quality [ ]. Falcao et al. [ ] assessed soil characteristics of the diferent four sites in
Santa Catarina State, ”razil. The results indicated that vineyard location had a strong inlu‐
ence on the volatile wine fraction. The varietal volatile compounds were a key factor in dif‐
ferentiating wines according to the sites. In addition, Ribereau‐Gayon et al. [ ] reported
that soil has a decisive inluence on methoxypyrazine concentrations due to its efect on veg‐
 Aroma Compounds in Wine 277
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65102

etative growth in Merlot, Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon wines of the ”ordeaux re‐
gion. The results showed that grapes grown on well‐drained gravelly soils have lower
concentrations than those grown on limestone or clay‐silt soils.

. . Efect of vineyard management practices on wine aroma compounds

. . . Efect of water on wine aroma compounds

”onada et al. [ ] assessed the sensory and compositional characteristics of grapes and
wines from a ield trial where water deicit factor was directly manipulated. The results
indicated that the efect of water deicit leading to colorful and lavorsome wines rich in
phenolic substances may not be held under high temperature.

. . . Efect of copper on wine aroma compounds

Martins et al. [ ] investigated the efect of the application of ”ordeaux mixture in the vineyard
on the copper concentration in the must, and the consequences for the volatile composition of
wine. The results showed that the concentration of copper decreased from . to . mg/L
during fermentation, as measured by atomic absorption spectrometry. Promoted copper
concentration caused a signiicant decrease in the concentration of higher alcohols, including
isoamyl alcohol, and of esters of organic acids, including ethyl lactate, as analyzed by liquid–
liquid microextraction gas chromatography (GC)‐lame ionization detection and solid phase
extraction GC‐ion trap‐mass spectrometry (MS) analysis. ”y contrast, the ethyl acetate and
linalool concentration rose dramatically.

. . . Efect of nitrogen fertilization on wine aroma compounds

For example, Mendez‐Costabel et al. [ ] investigated the efect of two irrigation levels and a
higher than standard nitrogen fertilization on the concentration of both ‐isobutyl‐ ‐methox‐
ypyrazine (I”MP) and six C compounds during fruit development. The results showed that
deicit irrigation increased fruit color, quercetin glycosides and phenol‐free glucose glycosides
(i.e., aroma precursors), decreased vine yield and increased concentration of I”MP during fruit
maturation.

. . Efect of aging and maturation on wine aroma compounds

The release of aroma precursors can occur during wine aging, under mild acidic condi‐
tions [ ]. Higher alcohols are important as precursors for ester formation during aging.
The lavor‐active metabolites that have an impact on wine perception are derived from
the grapes and from microorganisms during fermentation, as well as from chemical proc‐
esses during production and maturation [ ]. The inal aroma and lavor proile is further‐
more strongly dependent on all aspects of postfermentation treatments such as iltration
and maturation strategies, including aging in wooden containers [ ].
278 Grape and Wine Biotechnology

. Free and bound volatile aroma compound

“roma compounds in wine are typically found both as free and bound to a sugar moi‐
ety. In wine, a large proportion of aroma compounds are found in the bound form [ ].
Potentially volatile terpenes (PVTs) are more responsive to viticultural and oenological
practices than free volatile terpenes (FVTs). Many lactic acid bacteria possess catalytic en‐
zymes capable of liberating grape‐derived aroma compounds from their natural nonaro‐
matic glycosylated state [ ]. The classes of enzymes ( ‐glucosidase, proteases, esterases,
citrate lyases and phenolic acid decarboxylases) can possibly hydrolyze lavor precursors
and so inluence wine aroma [ – ]. The hydrolysis steps are shown in Figure .

Figure . The hydrolysis scheme of glycosidic aroma precursors.

. Genomics and biotechnology of wine lavor

In wine‐making industry, some biotechnological techniques have been of fundamental

importance [ ]. Colagre et al. [ ] illustrated the importance of the characteristics of wine
yeast and of a genetic improvement program for the wine industry, as well as the complexity
of the genetic modiications of commercial wine yeast strains. Moreover, commercial prepa‐
rations of glycosidases, usually sourced from Aspergillus sp., can be used to liberate more lavor
aglycons into the wine, but may not function well under key wine conditions of low pH,
ethanol content or residual sugar content [ ]. “n alternative approach to preparing a crude
or pure extract of glycosidases for addition to wine is to express the appropriate enzyme gene
in S. cerevisiae. For example, the rba“ gene ( ‐L‐rhamnosidase) from Aspergillus aculeatus has
been successfully expressed in conjunction with the Candida molischiana ‐D‐glucosidase in
an industrial wine yeast strain to increase the pool of linalool, nerol and ‐terpineol in Muscat
wine [ ].
 Aroma Compounds in Wine 279
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65102

. Aroma compounds and sensory perception

“roma compounds play an important role in the quality of wine because those compounds
produce an efect on sensory senses [ ].

The aroma of wines is the result of the contribution of some hundreds of volatile compounds
and it is an important factor to consider in their sensorial quality [ ]. Once the wine has been
made, the appreciation of wine requires various senses: irstly to observe the color and
appearance, secondly to judge the wine bouquet, thirdly to taste the wine itself and fourthly
to enjoy the mouthfeel and aftertaste [ ].

Quantitative descriptive analysis is one of the most comprehensive and informative tools used
in sensory analysis. Tomasino et al. [ ] identiied aroma compounds of major sensory
signiicance in New Zealand Pinot Noir wines using canonical correlation analysis and
addition/omission tests. There are some similar researches in Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon
wine. The efect of benzaldehyde, ethyl octanoate and ‐phenyl ethanol on the aroma of Pinot
Noir wine was investigated. The results showed that the contribution of these compounds is
similar in a range of red wines. ”oth ethyl decanoate and ethyl octanoate played an important
role acting as aroma enhancer compounds. Moreover, Welke et al. [ ] reported the quantita‐
tive determination of volatile compounds of Chardonnay wines using HS‐SPME‐GC × GC/
TOFMS along with the determination of odor activity value (O“V) and relative odor contri‐
bution (ROC) of volatiles.

On the other hand, sensory analysis involves the detection and description of qualitative and
quantitative sensory compounds of a product by a trained panel of judges [ ]. Wine tasting
and perception is therefore largely a subjective experience, and simple factors such as the
absence or presence of saliva greatly inluence the release of aroma compounds from both red
and white wines [ ].

. Conclusions and future prospectives

This review summarizes the aroma compounds contributing to wine lavor and the types of
these aroma compounds. The speciic compounds in wine are not clear. It is important to study
the chemical and biochemical changes during fermentation and storage. Nevertheless, further
research into the sensory impact of wine aroma compounds both alone and in mixtures will
be focused.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province, P.R. China
(C and ) Natural Science Foundation of China ( and ).
280 Grape and Wine Biotechnology

Author details

Fengmei Zhu , ”in Du and Jun Li *

*“ddress all correspondence to: trueyeoman@ .com

College of Food Science and Technology, Hebei Normal University of Science and
Technology, Qinhuangdao, P.R. China

“nalysis and Testing Center, Hebei Normal University of Science and Technology,
Qinhuangdao, P.R. China

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