Air and Noise Pollution Control

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Air and Noise Pollution Control

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Air and Noise Pollution Control (CE : Sem-5)

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CONTENTS
KCE–057 : AIR & NOISE POLLUTION CONTROL
UNIT-1 : AIR POLLUTION (1–1 N to 1–18 N)

Composition and structure of atmosphere, global implications of
air pollution, classification of air pollutants: particulates,
hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur, oxides of
nitrogen and photochemical oxidants. Indoor air pollution. Effects
of air pollutants on humans, animals, property and plants.
UNIT-2 : CHEMISTRY OF AIR POLLUTION (2–1 N to 2–16 N)

Air pollution chemistry, meteorological aspects of air pollution
dispersion; temperature lapse rate and stability, wind velocity and
turbulence, plume behaviour, dispersion of air pollutants, the
Gaussian Plume Model, stack height and dispersion.
UNIT-3 : AIR POLLUTION CONTROL (3–1 N to 3–12 N)

Ambient air quality and standards, air sa mpling a nd
measurements. Control of particulate air pollutants using
gravitational settling chambers, cyclone separators, wet collectors,
fabric filters (Bag-house filter), electrostatic precipitators (ESP).
UNIT-4 : CONTROL OF GASEOUS CONTAMINANTS (4–1 N to 4–12 N)

Absorption, Adsorption, Condensation and Combustion, Control
of sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and
hydrocarbons. Automotive emission control, catalytic convertor,
Euro-I, Euro-II and Euro-III specifications, Indian specifications.
UNIT-5 : NOISE POLLUTION (5–1 N to 5–23 N)

Basics of acoustics and specification of sound; sound power, sound
intensity and sound pressure levels; plane, point and line sources,
multiple sources; outdoor and indoor noise propagation;
psychoacoustics and noise criteria, effects of noise on health,
annoyance rating schemes; special noise environments: Infrasound,
ultrasound, impulsive sound and sonic boom; noise standards
and limit values; noise instrumentation and monitoring procedure.
Noise indices. Noise control methods.
SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ–1 N to SQ–12 N)

KCE 057 AIR & NOISE POLLUTION CONTROL (L-T-P 3-0-0) Credit – 3
Course Outcomes:
After completion of the course student will be able to:
CO-1 Understand air pollutants and their impacts.

CO-2 Explain air pollution chemistry and meteorological aspects of air pollutants.
CO-3 Demonstrate methods for controlling particulate air pollutants.
CO-4 Demonstrate methods for controlling gaseous air pollutants.
CO-5 Understand automotive emission standards.
CO-6 Apply methods for controlling noise pollution.
Unit 1
Air pollution: composition and structure of atmosphere, global implications of air pollution,
classification of air pollutants: particulates, hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, oxides of
sulphur, oxides of nitrogen and photochemical oxidants. Indoor air pollution. Effects of air
pollutants on humans, animals, property and plants. [8]
Unit 2
Air pollution chemistry, meteorological aspects of air pollution dispersion; temperature
lapse rate and stability, wind velocity and turbulence, plume behaviour, dispersion of air
pollutants, the Gaussian Plume Model, stack height and dispersion. [8]
Unit 3
Ambient air quality and standards, air sampling and measurements. Control of particulate air
pollutants using gravitational settling chambers, cyclone separators, wet collectors, fabric
filters (Bag-house filter), electrostatic precipitators (ESP). [8]
Unit 4
Control of gaseous contaminants: Absorption, Adsorption, Condensation and Combustion,
Control of sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons.
Automotive emission
control, catalytic convertor, Euro-I, Euro-II and Euro-III specifications, Indian
specifications. [8]
Unit 5
Noise pollution: Basics of acoustics and specification of sound; sound power, sound
intensity and sound pressure levels; plane, point and line sources, multiple sources; outdoor
and indoor noise propagation; psychoacoustics and noise criteria, effects of noise on health,
annoyance rating schemes; special noise environments: Infrasound, ultrasound, impulsive
sound and sonic boom; noise standards and limit values; noise instrumentation and
monitoring procedure. Noise indices. Noise control methods. [8]
References:
1. Peavy, Rowe and Tchobanoglous: Environmental Engineering.
2. Martin Crawford: Air Pollution Control Theory.
3. Wark and Warner: Air Pollution: Its Origin and Control.
4. Rao and Rao: Air Pollution Control Engineering.
5. Nevers: Air Pollution Control Engineering.
6. Mycock, McKenna and Theodore: Handbook of Air Pollution Control Engineering and
Technology.Suess and Craxford: W.H.O. Manual on Urban Air Quality Management
7. C.S. Rao, Air pollution and control
8. Advanced Air and Noise Pollution Control by Lawrence K. Wang, Norman C. Pereira &
Yung IseHung.
9. Noise Pollution and Control by S. P.Singhal , Narosa Pub House
10. Textbook of Noise Pollution and Its Control by S. C. Bhatia, Atlantic; Edition
Air and Noise Pollution Control 1–1 N (CE-Sem-5)
1 Air Pollution
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Air-Pollution : Composition .................... 1–2N to 1–10N
and Structure of
Atmosphere, Global
Implications of Air Pollution
Part-2 : Classification of ....................................... 1–10N to 1–14N

Air Pollutants : Particulates,
Hydrocarbon Carbon
Mono-oxide, Oxides of Sulphur,
Oxides of Nitrogen and
Photo-chemical
Oxidants, Indoor
Air Pollution
Part-3 : Effects of Air Pollutants ........................ 1–15N to 1–18N

on Humans, Animals,
Property and Plants
Air Pollution 1–2 N (CE-Sem-5)
PART-1
Air-Pollution : Composition and Structure of Atmosphere, Global
Implications of Air Pollution.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. What is air pollution ? Discuss the composition of

atmosphere.
Answer
A. Air Pollution : “Pollution is an undesirable change in the physical,
chemical or biological characteristic of air, water and soil that may
harmfully affect the life or create a potential life hazard of any living
organism especially for man.”
OR
“Pollution is an unwanted alteration to the Earth’s natural resources,
usually with a negative impact on human health or life style.”
B. Composition of Atmosphere :
1. Clean air is made up of nitrogen, oxygen and argon with traces of other
gases such as carbon dioxide.
2. But natures try to balance the natural composition of environment
which is disturbed by human being.
3. Plants and forests have an important contribution in it because it takes
harmful carbon dioxide in respiration and releases life giving oxygen.
4. The nature accepts general exploitation but unusual exploitation harms
air composition badly.
Element Parts per Million
Nitrogen 780,800
Oxygen 209,500
Argon 9,300
Carbon dioxide 300
Neon 18.2
Helium 5.2
Krypton 1.1
Hydrogen 0.5
Nitrous oxide 0.5
5. According to WHO (World Health Organisation) :

“Air pollution results mainly from gaseous emissions of industry, thermal
power stations automobiles domestic combustions, smoke from the fire
etc. From the different sources of air pollution, a variety of pollutants
are released into atmosphere.”
6. Our atmosphere covers the earth as a blanket in which there is the
combination of various gases which protects living beings from Ultraviolet
Radiations. This atmosphere helps in spreading radio waves as a medium.
Que 1.2. Discuss the sources of air pollution.
Answer
Source of Environmental Pollution :
1. After starting of industrial revolution societies began to produce wastes
faster than the wastes could be disposed of. These wastes accumulate in
the environment and cause pollution.
2. Pollution is an undesired change in air, water, or soil that adversely
affects the health, survival, or activities of humans or other organisms.
Sources of Pollution
Natural Pollution Man-made Pollution

Fig. 1.2.1. Sources of environmental pollution.
1. Natural Pollution :
i. Such pollution takes place naturally, they cannot be stopped but they
can help by management at correct time through prediction.
ii. For example-land slide, volcanic explosion, storm, etc.
According to their nature, they can be divided into three parts :
i. Bio-degradable Pollutants : Such pollutants which are naturally
decomposed easily by temperature, air, humidity, bacteria or animals,
as: the rubbish produced by human being in everyday life, the cardboard
taken from the houses, vegetables, dirty water etc. They come in the
series of bio-degradable pollutants.
ii. Slow Bio-degradable Pollutants : Such pollutants which are not
naturally decomposed easily, these pollutants can stay in their original
form for a long time, as: plastic can stay without decomposition up to
1500 year.
iii. Non-degradable Pollutants : Such pollutants living in the atmosphere
for centuries spread their harmful effect. Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), and
Aluminium (Al) atomic and nuclear waste come in this series
2. Man-made Pollution : Such pollution is found in milking more than
necessity of natural resources unnaturally by man, urbanization and
industrialization are the chief reason, as : industrial rubbish, sewage,

cutting of forests etc.
Que 1.3. Explain the sources of man-made air pollution.
Answer
Sources of Man-made Pollution :
1. Transportation :
i. Transportation is a major source of air pollutants.
ii. Vehicles are probably the largest single source of pollutants such as
hydrocarbons, nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide.
iii. Other harmful emissions include as lead, benzene, arsenic, aldehydes,
sulphates, particulate matter and the secondary creation of ozone.
iv. The lead content of petrol is 4 g/ L which is higher than the permitted
levels of other parts of the world.
v. The national vehicle population has significantly increased in recent
years.
2. Industrial Processes :
i. Major industries in India are located near in the large cities.
ii. Many industries are situated between residential areas and any pollutants
emitted by the industries are dispersed and eventually deposited in the
residential areas resulting in serious impacts on the health of the
residents.
iii. Typical examples of industrial emissions include sulphur dioxide (SO2),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), and
volatile organic compounds (VOC) and particulate matter.
iv. Most of emissions originate from industrial processes such as
metallurgical plants and smelters, chemical plants and petroleum
refineries, cement production, fertilizer and synthetic rubber
manufacturing, pulp and paper milling.
v. Heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, etc.) are emitted from smelters,
brass works and secondary lead plants and coal combustion.
3. Industrial and Non-industrial Fugitive Processes :
i. Process fugitive particles are not emitted from a definable point such as
a stack.
ii. Industrial fugitive dust emissions result from wind erosion of storage
piles and unpaved roads.
iii. Fugitive emissions result from industry-related operations such as
materials handling, loading and transfer operations.
iv. The mining, transportation and storage of coal are results in fugitive
emission of pollutants; mainly methane.
v. Volatile hydrocarbons vaporize when fuels such as gasoline and natural

gas escape from storage tanks are being transferred from one tank to
another.
vi. Non-industrial fugitive emissions are caused by traffic entrainment of
dust from public paved and unpaved roads, agricultural operations,
construction and fires.
4. The Energy Production :
i. In India most of the energy is derived from burning carbon-based fuels
such as coal, petroleum products and wood.
ii. Wood fuel is the main energy source for over 90 % of the rural population.
iii. The productive sector accounts for about 31% of energy use, the
residential sector about 52 % and the transport sector about 11 %.
5. Waste Management :
i. The treatment of noxious wastes is a major source of air pollution.
ii. Dump burning is done to reduce waste volume and to destroy harmful
organic materials but it can result in emissions of large quantities of
particulate matter, of which consists of unburned garbage and offensive
odours.
iii. Dump burning may also put significant amounts of harmful chemicals
into the atmosphere, especially if the dump contains tyres, petroleum-
based wastes and industrial chemicals.
iv. In addition, highly toxic emissions of particulate matter such as dioxins,
hydrochloric acid and heavy metals can result during poorly managed
incineration of domestic, hospital and industrial waste.
v. Burning of wastes in residential areas also contributes to the emissions.
6. Agricultural Activities :
i. Agricultural is a key sector of the economy of India and emission of
pollutants occur from several sources.
ii. Burning of crop residue is a major source of hydrocarbons and particulate
matter.
iii. Livestock emit methane and ammonia. Savanna burning emits large
amounts of carbon monoxide (CO) and substantial amounts of nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and methane (CH4).
iv. Manure management and enteric fermentation emit methane.
v. The spraying of the fields with pesticides, use of herbicides and dusting
also contribute small amounts of pollutants.
Que 1.4. What are the causes of environmental pollution ?

Answer
Causes of Environmental Pollution : Following are the many causes
of environmental pollution :
1. Urbanization causes environmental pollution.
2. Over-population causes environmental pollution.
3. Road transportation causes environmental pollution.
4. Engineering activities causes environmental pollution.
5. Mining and blasting causes environmental pollution.
6. Deforestation causes environmental pollution.
7. Industrial rubbish causes environmental pollution.
8. Over-irrigation causes environmental pollution.
Que 1.5. Describe the structure of our atmosphere.
Answer
Structure of Atmosphere : Our atmosphere can be divided into five
levels. Various situations are found on various levels. They are :
1. Troposphere :
i. The troposphere is the first layer of the Earth’s atmosphere.
ii. All the events related to seasons take place in this sphere, such as-
formation of clouds, lightning.
iii. Its height is from 8 km to 12 km and 3/4 part of atmosphere is included
in it.
2. Stratosphere :
i. The stratosphere is the second major layer of the Earth’s atmosphere.
ii. The height of the stratosphere is about 50 km from the surface of the
earth. We also call it protective shield.
iii. The ozone layer is also available in it which protects from harmful
ultraviolet rays.
iv. This ozone layer is mostly harmed by chlorofluorocarbon (CFC).
3. Mesosphere :
i. The mesosphere is the third layer of the atmosphere, directly above the
stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere.
ii. In the mesosphere, the temperature decreases as altitude increases.
iii. The height of this sphere is about 80 km from the surface of the earth.
4. Thermosphere :
i. The thermosphere is the layer in the Earth’s atmosphere directly above
the mesosphere and below the exosphere.
ii. The height of thermosphere is about 600 to 650 km from the Earth’s
surface.
iii. It checks cosmic rays of the sun and acts to reflect radio waves to the
earth.
iv. Due to these radio waves we are able to talk without satellite as used by
the soldiers.
Space
Exosphere
above 1000 km
Thermosphere
650 km
Mesophere
80 km
Stratosphere
50 km
Troposphere
8-12
km
Earth Crust
Fig. 1.5.1.
5. Exosphere :
i. The exosphere is the uppermost layer of Earth’s atmosphere, where the
atmosphere thins out and merges with interplanetary space.
ii. It is located directly above the thermosphere.
iii. The most common molecules within Earth’s exosphere are those of the
lightest atmospheric gases.
iv. Hydrogen is present throughout the exosphere, with some He, CO2 and
atomic oxygen near its base.
Que 1.6. Discuss the effects of air pollution.
Answer
Effects of Air Pollution : Following are the various effects of air
pollution :
1. Effect on Atmosphere :
i. It is found increment in the temperature in extreme industries, motor
vehicles, heat and gases emitted from AC and dense populated urban
region.
ii. Gradually this temperature forms heat island on increasing.
iii. When smoke and dust covers the sky in plentiful quantity, the heat
obtained from the sun goes back into the space on being reflected by
smoke and dust.
iv. Due to this there is a fall in temperature and it causes the danger of
snow fall.
2. Depletion of Ozone Layer :
i. In the atmosphere, 12 km above from the earth, ozone layer in
stratosphere is disarranged which prevents ultraviolet rays by 99%.
ii. Generally, refrigerators, fire brigades, CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) gas
used in AC, harm the ozone layer mostly.
iii. In 1985, British scientists discovered ozone hole.
iv. They find 2 % shortage in the thickness of Ozone layer; this depletion is
a symbol of danger.
v. The depletion is going on, that day is not so far harmful ultraviolet rays
will demolish everything. So it is quite necessary to ban CFC gases
completely.
3. Green House Effect :
i. In the atmosphere, there are plenty of some gases which are heat
absorber due to these, the temperature of the earth increases.
ii. In some decades, such a situation will rise, the temperature of the earth
will increase from 5°C to 7°C because of which glaciers will start melting
and the level of water in the sea will increase and the coastal regions will
sink in the water.
iii. The average temperature of the earth is 15°C which can increase up to
30°C.
iv. So, we call these gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, CFC, and SF6) as green house
gases. Green house effect places due to green house gases.
4. Acid Rain :
i. Refineries, metals-melting industries, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide
produced on burning coal and petrol, SO2 reacting with H2O present in
atmosphere in the sunlight forms sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and it rains as
acid rain because SO2 cannot stay in gaseous state for a long time :
2SO2 + 2H2 + O2  2H2SO4
ii. Sulphuric acid harms the soil and plants mostly.
iii. Acid rain has bad effect on rail-lines, buildings, bridges mostly.
iv. When the value of pH is less than 5, then the rain is called acid rain.
5. Smog :
i. Smog is a problem in most large cities.
ii. It is caused by emissions from industry, motor vehicles, domestic wood
combustio n and othe r so urce s, accumulating unde r ce rtain
meteorological conditions.
iii. Smog is a combination of smoke and fog.
iv. The infamous London fogs about 4,000 deaths were attributed to the
severe fog of 1952 were smog of this type.
There are mainly two types of smog :
1. Industrial smog.
2. Photo-chemical Smog :
i. Light energy (UV).
ii. Hydrocarbons/VOCs (from fossil fuel combustion).
iii. NOx (from fossil fuel combustion).
iv. Often contains ozone (O3).
6. Effect of Air Pollution on Living Organisms and Non-living
Organism :
i. Effect on Living Organisms and Plants :
a. Sulphur-dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon mono-oxide
(SO2, NO2, CO) present in the atmosphere are very harmful.
b. These gases produce (cause) various types of diseases as: diseases
related to lungs, eyes, respiration, heart, bones, teeth etc.
c. The smoothness of plants and leaves start ending. It causes the
danger of cold (ice) and worms.
ii. Effect on Non-living Organisms :
a. Atmospheric pollution equally affects not only living organisms but
also non-living organisms.
b. Due to this vehicles, building are destroyed which are in the contact
of atmosphere directly.
c. The main reasons for this are acid rain and green house gases.
Que 1.7. Discuss the various measures to monitoring and

controls of air pollution.
Answer
Measures to Monitoring and Controls of Air Pollution : To prevent
air pollution, adopting following rules, the atmosphere and life can be
protected. It can be prevented by a little awareness and responsibilities :
1. We should encourage people to plant new trees instead of cutting the
forests.
2. Chimneys of industries should be high and purification plants should be
setup.
3. Using vehicles in group, we can get rid of fuel and pollution produced by
it.
4. Encouraging people to use public transport system and opposed to private

vehicles.
5. Wastage obtained from industries should be destroyed properly.
6. We should focus on the fuel free from lead and full of sulphur.
7. Industrial plants should be setup away from the populated areas.
8. Walk or use a cycle for short distance or non-urgent work.
9. We should take action against the vehicles which emit smoke and
harmful gases.
10. New technique should be used so that gaseous reflection may be less.
11. To cook food, equipments free from pollution, should be used as electric
heater induction cooker etc.
12. Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons.
13. Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and
every industry.
14. Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout
must be made mandatory.
15. Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried
out to know the emission levels.
16. We should plant trees near our houses because they absorb carbon
dioxide and release oxygen (O2) which is necessary to living beings.
PART-2
Classification of Air Pollutants : Particulate, Hydrocarbon,
Carbon Monoxide, Oxides of Sulphur, Oxides of Nitrogen and
Photo-chemical Oxidants, Indoor Air Pollution.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.8. Discuss the classification of air pollutants.
Answer
Classification of Air Pollutants :
i. Today in India, air pollution is a serious problem.
ii. It is generated due to many causes such as burning of wood, burning of
biotic substance, emission of vehicles and harmful smoke from industrial
workshops.
iii. The factors which cause air pollution are called air pollutants. These are
of three types :
Classification of air pollutants
Physical Air Biological Air Chemical Air

Pollutants Pollutants Pollutants
1. Physical Air Pollutants : There are many factors under physical air
pollutants :
i. Smell of waste substances from homes.
ii. Heat emitted from radioactive radiation.
iii. Smoke produced from industrial workshop, domestic chimneys.
2. Biological Air Pollutants : Biological pollutants consist of
decomposition of wastes from crops and the smell generated from
decomposing of dead animals.
3. Chemical Air Pollutants : It consists of gases produced from chemical
fertilizers, and harmful gases from industrial workshop as (CO2, CO,
SO2) etc.
Que 1.9. Discuss the form of air pollutants.
Answer
Air pollution occurs in many forms but can generally be thought of as
gaseous and particulate contaminants that are present in the Earth’s
atmosphere.
A. Gaseous Pollutants :
1. They include sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3),
carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC), hydrogen
sulphide (H2S), hydrogen fluoride (HF), and various gaseous forms of
metals.
2. These pollutants are emitted from large stationary sources such as
fossil fuel fired power plants, smelters, industrial boilers, petroleum
refineries, and manufacturing facilities as well as from area and mobile
sources.
B. Particulates or Aerosol :
1. They come in both large and small solid forms.
2. Large particulates include substances such as dust, asbestos fibres, and
lead.
3. Fine particulates include sulphates (SO4) and nitrates (NO3).
4. Important sources of particulates are power plants, smelters, mining
operations, and automobiles.
5. Asbestos and lead affect organisms, while sulphates and nitrates not
only cause health problems, but, also contribute to acid rain or acid
deposition and a reduction in visibility.
C. Toxic Air Pollutants :
1. A class of chemicals which may potentially cause health problems in a
significant way.
2. The sources of toxic air pollutants include power plants industries,

pesticide application, and contaminated wind-blown dust.
3. Persistent toxic pollutants, such as mercury are of particular concern
because of their global mobility and ability to accumulate in the food
chain.
Que 1.10. Discuss the various air pollutants and their effects.
Answer
Following are the various air pollutants and their effects :
A. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) :
1. Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas with a pungent, suffocating odour.
2. It is a dangerous air pollutant because it is corrosive to organic materials
and it irritates the eyes, nose and lungs.
Effects of Sulphur Dioxide Emissions : Sulphur dioxide found in the
air produces following effects :
1. Irritates eyes, nose, throat.
2. Damages lungs when inhaled.
B. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) :
1. Oxides of nitrogen are produced by combustion of all fossil fuels including
coal and gas fired power stations and motor vehicles.
2. The two main nitrogen oxides are nitric oxide (NO), or nitrogen
monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) the sum of which is equal to NOx.
3. Nitric oxide (NO) is a colourless gas. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a gas of
reddish-brown colour with a distinct sharp, biting odour. Combustion of
fuels always produces both NO2 and NO.
4. But almost 90 % of the NOx combustion product is in the form of NO
which is then oxidized to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the air.
5. Therefore, only a small percentage of NO2 found in the atmosphere is
directly emitted there in this form.
6. The rest has been formed as a result of chemical reactions in the
atmosphere itself.
Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Emissions :
1. It causes acid rain which destroying fish and plant life in lakes, damaging
surfaces of buildings etc.
2. It also contributes to photochemical smog.
C. Ammonia :
1. Ammonia is a colourless, pungent, hazardous caustic gas composed of
nitrogen and hydrogen.
2. Ammonia emissions are also grouped as NHy which is a sum of NH3 and
NH4.
3. Ammonia produces from agricultural processes and production of
pharmaceuticals.
4. It is characterized by a pungent odour.
Effects of Ammonia Emissions :

1. Exposure to very high concentrations of gaseous ammonia in the air
may result in lung damage and even death.
2. Ammonia reacts with oxides of sulphur and nitrogen to form secondary
particles in the atmosphere.
3. Ammonia is highly corrosive in nature and contaminate of surface water,
negatively impacting marine life.
D. Carbon Mono-oxide (CO) :
1. Carbon mono-oxide is a colourless, odourless gas which is highly toxic to
humans.
2. The combustion of carbon-based fuels produces carbon dioxide (CO2).
But not all such combustion is complete, and this leads to the production
of carbon mono-oxide.
3. Motor vehicles and industry are among the largest anthropogenic sources
of carbon monoxide emissions.
Effects of Carbon Mono-oxide Emissions :
1. Carbon mono-oxide is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many
countries around the world.
2. Exposures to carbon monoxide may lead to toxicity of the central nervous
system and heart, severe effects on the baby of a pregnant woman,
headaches and dizziness.
3. Problems with getting oxygen supplied to some body parts which may be
life-threatening.
E. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) :
1. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are defined as organic compounds
which easily evaporate and enter the atmosphere.
2. VOCs may include a wide range of organic air pollutants, from pure
hydrocarbons to partially oxidized hydrocarbons to organic compounds
containing chlorine, sulfur, or nitrogen.
Effects of Volatile Organic Compounds :
1. Some aromatic compounds such as benzene, toluene and xylene are
potential carcinogens and may cause leukemia.
2. Contribute to sick building syndrome indoors.
3. As facilitators in ozone formation, VOCs may indirectly contribute to
respiratory problems and other ozone-related problems.
E. Ozone (O3) :
1. Ozone (O3) is a colourless, poisonous gas with a sharp, cold, irritating
odor.
2. Ozone which is formed in the troposphere as a result of anthropogenic
emissions of primary pollutants has negative effects on humans and the
natural environment, and from this point of view it is an air pollutant.
3. The tropospheric ozone is the main component of the photochemical
smog.
Effects of Ozone as an Air Pollutant : Ozone in the troposphere can

have the following negative effects on animals, humans and the natural
environment :
1. Irritation of the respiratory system causing coughing, throat irritation
and an uncomfortable sensation in the chest.
2. Compromised lung function harming the breathing process and
aggravation of asthma.
3. Interference with photosynthesis and suppression of growth of some
plant species. Reduction in agricultural yields.
G. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) :
1. This gas is most responsible for ozone depletion.
2. This gas is produced by refrigerators, AC and evaporators. CFC may
stay in the atmosphere for 15 years approximately.
3. Heavily CFC emitting products should be prohibited.
4. This emitting CFC mixes with another gas of atmosphere that causes
damage of human health and protective ozone layer.
Effects of Chlorofluorocarbon : CFC badly damages the protective
layer of ozone which provide safety from the harmful ultraviolet rays
that causes of skin, eye diseases and it damages the plants also.
Que 1.11. What are the reasons of automobile pollution in India

and measures to control it ?
Answer
A. Reasons of Automobile Pollution in India :
1. Continuous increase in means of transportation in India.
2. Use of more vehicles in cities due to population growth.
3. Dependency on diesel and petrol engine only as fuel.
4. Moving old vehicles on the road freely.
5. Lack of proper pollution check of vehicles at a regular interval of time
and improper condition of the roads.
B. Measures to Control Automobile Pollution : There are following
measures to control it which are given below :
1. Improvement in technology of manufacturing vehicles.
2. Proper maintenance of the roads in the cities should be made and flyovers
should be built.
3. Petrol should be used only for petrol engine.
4. Oil should be changed time to time.
5. Lubricant of high quality should be used.
6. Vehicles should be got service at definite interval of time.
7. Vehicles should be driven at a constant speed.
8. Quality of fuel should be improved and vehicles that run with the help of
CNG and batteries should be enhanced.
PART-3
Effects of Air Pollutants on Humans, Animals,
Property and Plants.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.12. What are the effects of air pollution on human health ?
Answer
Following are the effects of air pollution on human health :
1. Suspended Particular Matter :
i. Effects on breathing and respiratory systems, aggravation of existing
respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, alteration of body’s defense
systems against foreign materials, damage to lung tissues, carcinogenic
effects, and premature mortality (still births).
ii. Elderly people and children are most sensitive.
2. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) :
i. Effects on breathing, respiratory illness, breakdown of lung defenses,
aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and
death.
ii. Asthmatics and those suffering from chronic lung and cardiovascular
diseases are sensitive to SO2 exposure.
3. Carbon Mono-oxide (CO) :
i. The health threat of CO is maximum to those having cardiovascular
disease, because it reduces oxygen delivery to organs and tissues.
ii. At elevated concentrations, CO impairs visual perception, manual
dexterity, and mental ability.
4. Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) :
i. NO plays a major role in tropospheric ozone formation.
ii. NO2 irritates the lungs, causes bronchitis and pneumonia, lowers
resistance to respiratory infections.
iii. Asthmatics are most susceptible, and increases susceptibility to viral
attacks.
5. Lead :
i. High lead exposures can cause seizures, mental retardation, and
behavioral disorders.
ii. Foetuses, infants and children are especially susceptible to low doses,
resulting in disorders of central nervous system. Lead uptakes may be a
factor in high blood pressure and heart disease.
6. Ozone (O3) :
i. Ozone reduces lung function, and is associated with coughing, sneezing,
chest pain, and pulmonary congestion.
ii. It may affect all healthy people as well as the people with impaired
respiratory systems.
7. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) : Increasing concentrations over the years
cause green house effect, leading to global warming and climate changes.
8. Nuclear Waste : Causes radioactivity contaminations of areas, cancers,
mutations, deaths.
Que 1.13. Discuss the effects of air pollutants on plants.
Answer
Effects of Air-pollution on Plants :
1. The adverse impacts of air pollution are not limited to human health
alone, but plants and animals are also detrimentally affected by air
pollutants.
2. The most prominent air pollutant, which causes severe damage to the
plants is fluorine.
3. Fluorine is emitted from factories manufacturing aluminium, glass,
phosphate fertilizers, etc; and in some clay baking operations.
4. The concentrations of fluorine in excess of about 0.3 µg/m3 cause phyto-
toxicological effects on plants.
5. Frequently, the plant damage is observed on the fruit or on the flower
either of which significantly lowers the value of the crop.
6. The most obvious damage caused by the general air pollutants like SO2,
HF, HCl, CI2, O3, NO3, NH3, Hg, H2S, H2N, PAN, herbicides, smog, etc.,
to the plants and vegetation occurs in the leaf structure ; as the pollutants
clog the stomata of the leaf, thereby reducing the intake of CO2, which
adversely affects the photosynthesis.
7. These adverse impacts may range from reduction in growth rate to the
total death of the plant.
8. Plants also absorb low concentrations of pollutants like fluorine, and
heavy metals like arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, etc; which prove
very harmful to cattle and animals grazing on these vegetations, even
when the plants may not even show any signs of damage.
Que 1.14. What are the effects of air pollutants on animals ?
Answer
Effects of Air-Pollutants on Live-Stock Animals :
1. The adverse health effects of air-pollutants on farm animals occur,
when animals eat the plants, grasses, fodder, and other vegetation,
which has been contaminated by the air pollutants.
2. Contaminates that affect the live-stock are Fluorine, Arsenic and Lead.
3. These pollutants originate either from the industries situated nearby or

from dusting and spraying.
4. Out of these contaminants, fluorine proves to be the worst pollutant,
since cattle and sheep are found to be more susceptible to consumption
of fluorine.
5. The cattle grazing on vegetation that has been contaminated with fluorine
may develop fluorosis, even when the contaminated plants do not show
signs of damage.
6. Arsenic from dusts and insecticide sprays falling on the plants can
similarly be accumulated by the plants, and when such contaminated
vegetation is eaten by cattle, they may suffer from arsenic poisoning,
with leading symptoms like salivation, thirst, vomiting, uneasiness, feeble
and regular pulse and respiration.
7. Lead contamination of the atmosphere occurs on account of various
industries, such as smelters, coke ovens, and other coal-based industries.
8. The lead fumes absorbed by the vegetation from the atmospheric air,
contaminates the vegetation, which accumulates lead within itself.
9. The lead-contaminated vegetation when eaten by live-stock animals
may cause lead poisoning, which may cause symptoms like inability to
stand and staggering, prostration, etc; besides complete loss of appetite,
paralysis of digestive tract, and diarrhoea.
Que 1.15. Discuss the effect of air pollutions on materials and

services.
Answer
Effects of Air-Pollutants on Materials and Services :
1. Air pollutants cause deteriorating effects on metallic surfaces, glass
surfaces, painted surfaces, building stones, rubber surfaces, etc. along
with damaging the paper and fabric.
2. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen react in the atmosphere with water
vapour to form acidic fumes, which attack and damage the metal
surfaces, a problem that has been particularly acute for the computer,
switch gear, and communications industries.
3. Fluorine is highly reactive, and at high atmospheric concentrations,
may even cause etching of glass on windows, etc.
4. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in the ambient air reacts with lead oxide in
white paint, to form lead sulphate, due to which white painted surfaces
in doors, windows, walls in buildings tend to acquire brownish tint
overnight.
5. Another peculiar impact of air pollution was noticed on electric cables
and electricity poles, resulting in power leakage from high voltage electric
cables.
6. This was caused due to deposition of particles, which are good conductors
of electricity, on insulators on electrical poles, resulting in leakage from
high tension lines.
7. It is extremely difficult to estimate the financial loss caused by air pollution
due to accelerated deterioration of materials and aesthetic items, such
as the exteriors of the buildings, statues, monuments, or horticulture
plantings; or the cost of materials or service loss.
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. What is air pollution ? Discuss the compos ition of

atmosphere.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.1, Unit-1.
Q. 2. Explain the sources of man-made air pollution.

Q. 3. Describe the structure of our atmosphere.

Q. 4. Discuss the effects of air pollution.

Q. 5. Discuss the classification of air pollutants.

Q. 6. Discuss the various air pollutants and their effects.

Q. 7. What are the effects of air pollution on human health.

Q. 8. Discuss the effect of air pollutions on materials and

services.

2 Chemistry and
Dispersion of
Air Pollution
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Air Pollution Chemistry, .......................... 2–2N to 2–4N
Meteorological Aspects of
Air Pollution, Dispersion,
Temperature Lapse
Rate and Stability
Part-2 : Wind Velocity and ...................................... 2–4N to 2–7N

Turbulence, Plume
Behaviour
Part-3 : Dispersion of Air Pollutants, ................. 2–8N to 2–15N

The Gaussian Plume
Model, Stack Height
and Dispersion
Chemistry & Dispersion of Air Pollution 2–2 N (CE-Sem-5)
PART-1
Air Pollution Chemistry, Meteorological Aspects of Air Pollution,
Dispersion, Temperature Lapse Rate and Stability.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.1. Describe the air pollution chemistry.
Answer
Air Pollution Chemistry :
1. Some air pollutants that are released into the atmosphere by man-made
activities pose environmental and health risks directly.
2. These primary pollutants include carbon monoxide, particulate matter,
nitrogen oxides and lead, emitted from exhausts of road vehicles.
3. Additional impacts, however, result from the conversion of primary
pollutants by a complex series of chemical reactions in the atmosphere,
to secondary pollutants, many of which are potentially more harmful
than their precursors.
4. Since much of the pollutant chemistry is driven by the presence of
sunlight, the secondary products are commonly referred to as
photochemical pollutants.
5. A well-known secondary photochemical pollutant is ozone (O3). Its
formation results from the sunlight-initiated oxidation (reaction with
oxygen) of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene (C6H6)
in the presence of nitrogen oxides (NOx), mostly nitric oxide (NO) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
6. Once formed, ozone is scavenged by NO, and in the absence of other
competing reactions, a “photostationary state” is formed where
concentrations of NO, NO2 and O3 are all inter-related.
7. In rural areas away from major sources of NO, such as urban road
transport, ozone scavenging by NO is lower, and consequently ozone
concentrations in the atmosphere are higher.
Que 2.2. Write a short note on dispersion of air pollution

pollutants into the atmosphere.
Answer
Dispersion of Air Pollutants into the Atmosphere :
1. When once a pocket of smoke, containing air pollutants, is released into
the atmosphere from a source like an automobile or a factory chimney,
it gets dispersed into the atmosphere into various directions depending
upon the prevailing winds and temperature and pressure conditions in
the environment.
2. From our knowledge of meteorology and hydrology, we know that the
temperature conditions of the environment are defined by a technical
term, called lapse rate. For easier understanding, we will discuss lapse
rate here before discussing its effects on the dispersion of the pocket of
polluted smoke (called plume).
Que 2.3. Describe the atmospheric temperature lapse rate and

stability.
Answer
Atmospheric Temperature Lapse Rate :
1. When the air has minimum velocity or more or less motionless, the
accumulation of the pollution will be maximum.
2. When the air is in turbulence, the pollution will be low.
3. The turbulence is not measured by the observatories but is calculated
on the basis of vertical temperature profile.
4. It has been noted that the stability of the atmosphere is its tendency to
resist or enhance the vertical motion, in other words to suppress or
augment existing turbulence.
5. As the atmosphere is cooler at higher altitudes, normally the temperature
reduces at a rate of 1°C per 100 m height.
6. This decrease in temperature is known as adiabatic lapse rate.
7. But in most of the cases, there is decrease in temperature, but is less
than adiabatic lapse rate.
8. Such change is known as sub adiabatic rate and the atmosphere is
known to be under stable.
9. Under such conditions, the mixing of the pollutants and their dilution
takes place slowly.
10. When the rate of decrease of temperature with height is more than the
adiabatic rate, is known as super-adiabatic lapse rate and the atmosphere
is under unstable condition.
11. Such conditions are very good for mixing and dilution of the pollutants.
12. The adiabatic lapse rate known as neutral condition is characterised by
winds, cloudy days and night.
13. Sometimes the temperature increases with height, which is known as

inversion.
14. Under condition the diffusion of the pollutants cannot take place and it
forms a blanket layer at the tops.
15. The emission of pollutants occurs at or near surface of the earth. But
the depth of the layer into which they made turbulent or diffused varies
both in space and time.
16. The height above the surface of the atmosphere, where the adiabatic
lapse rate intersects the observed vertical temperature profile is known
as maximum mixing depth (MMD).
17. When the mixing height is low, but still above plume height, ground
level concentration will be relatively high, because in this state the
pollutants are prevented from dispersing in the upward atmosphere.
PART-2
Wind Velocity and Turbulence, Plume Behavior.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.4. Write down the effect of wind velocity on air pollution.
Answer
A. Wind Velocity :
1. Wind carries air contaminants away from their source, causing them to
disperse.
2. In general, the higher the wind speed, the more contaminants are
dispersed and the lower their concentration.
3. However, high wind can also generate dust - a problem in dry windy
rural areas.
B. Direct Effects of Weather on Air Quality : Following are the factors
that can direct affect the amount of air pollution :
1. Sunshine : Makes some pollutants undergo chemical reactions,
producing smog.
2. Rain : Washes out water-soluble pollutants and particulate matter.
3. Higher Air Temperatures : Speed up chemical reactions in the air.
4. Wind speed, atmospheric turbulence/stability, and mixing depth - affect
the dispersal and dilution of pollutants.
Que 2.5. Describe turbulence effects on air pollutions.
Answer
1. There are basically two different causes of turbulent eddies :
i. Mechanical turbulence.
ii. Convective turbulence.
2. While both of them are usually present in any given atmospheric
condition, either mechanical or convective turbulence prevails over the
other.
3. Mechanical Turbulence :
i. It is caused by physical obstructions to normal flow such as mountains,
building, trees, etc.
ii. The degree of mechanical turbulence depends on wind speed and
roughness of the obstructions.
4. Convective Turbulence :
i. It results from different heating-cooling of surfaces and air masses.
ii. Higher the atmospheric temperature difference makes the greater
turbulence in air pollution.
5. Atmospheric eddies cause a breaking apart of atmospheric parcels polluted
air at lower and lower concentrations to occupy successively larger
volumes of air.
6. Thus the level of turbulence in the atmosphere determines its dispersive
ability.
Que 2.6. Describe the plume behaviour on air pollutions.
Answer
Plume Behaviour on Air Pollutions :
The manner in which the emitted plume behaves under each of these
seven conditions are also shown in these figures, and explained below :
A. Looping Plume :
1. Looping plume [Fig. 2.6.1(a)] has a wavy character and occurs in super
adiabatic environment; which produces highly unstable atmosphere,
because of rapid mixing.
2. During the high degree of turbulence, the dispersion of plume would be
rapid, yet higher concentrations near the ground may occur due to
turbulence, before the dispersion is finally completed.
3. Hence, in areas where environment is generally super-adiabatic, higher
stacks may be needed to prevent premature contact of pollutants with
the ground.
4. Such conditions will then ensure a very good dispersion of pollutants;

but automobile exhausts cannot be dispersed well, because they are
released at lower levels.
B. Neutral Plume :
1. Neutral plume is the upward vertical rise of the plume from the stack,
as shown in Fig. 2.6.1(b), which occurs when the environmental lapse
rate is equal to or very near to the adiabatic lapse rate.
2. The upward lifting of the plume will continue till it reaches an air of
density similar to that of the plume itself.
C. Coning Plume :
1. The neutral plume tends to cone as shown in Fig. 2.6.1(c), when the
wind velocity is greater than 32 km/hr, and when cloud cover blocks the
solar radiation by day and terrestrial radiation by night.
2. Coning plume also occurs under subadiabatic conditions (i.e., when
environmental lapse rate is less than the adiabatic lapse rate).
3. Under such conditions, the environment is slightly stable, and there is a
limited vertical mixing, thereby increasing the probability of air pollution
in the area.
4. The plume dispersion is known as coning, because the plume makes a
cone like shape about the plume line, as shown in Fig. 2.6.1(c).
D. Fanning Plume :
1. Under extreme inversion conditions, caused by negative environmental
lapse rate, from the ground and upto a considerable height, extending
even above the top of the stack, the emission will spread only horizontally,
as it cannot lift due to extremely stable environment.
2. In such a case, there will be no vertical mixing, and the plume will simply
extend horizontally over large distances, as shown in Fig. 2.6.1(d). Such
a plume pattern is called a fanning plume.
E. Lofting Plume :
1. When there exists a strong super adiabatic lapse rate above a surface
inversion, then the plume is said to be lofting.
2. Such a plume has minimum downward mixing, as its downward motion
is prevented by inversion, but the upward mixing will be quite turbulent
and rapid.
3. The dispersion of pollutants will therefore, be rapid, and no concentrations
will touch the ground.
4. Hence, this would be the most ideal case for dispersion of emissions.
F. Fumigating Plume :
1. When an inversion layer occurs at a short distance above the top of the
stack, and super adiabatic conditions prevail below the stack, then the
plume is said to be fumigating (Fig. 2.6.1(f)).
2. In such a case, the pollutants cannot escape above the top of the stack
because of inversion layer, and they will be brought down near the
ground due to turbulence in the region above the ground and below the
inversion, caused by strong lapse rate.
3. This represents quite a bad case of atmospheric conditions for dispersion.
G. Trapping Plume :
1. When inversion layers exist above the emission source, as well as below
the source, then naturally, the emitted plume will neither go up, nor will
it go down, and would remain confined between the two inversions, as
shown in Fig. 2.6.1(g).
2. Such a plume is called a trapping plume, and is considered a bad condition
for dispersion, as the dispersion cannot go above a certain height.
Z Z
Super adiabatic
U T X U T X
(a) Looping plume (b) Neutral plume
Z Z
U T X U T X
(c) Coning plume (d ) Fanning plume

Z Z
U T X U T X
(e) Lofting plume (f ) Fumigating plume
U T X
(g ) Trapping plume
Fig. 2.6.1. Different types of plume behaviours.

PART-3
Dispersion of Air Pollutants, the Gaussian Plume Model,
Stack Height and Dispersion.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.7. What are the impact of atmospheric pressure on

dispersion of air pollutants ?
Answer
Impact of Atmospheric Pressure on Dispersion of Air Pollutants :
1. While the formation of high pressure system over an area, if continues
for several days, could buildup serious air pollution problems, due to
formation of inversion conditions.
2. Hence, high pressure systems (anticyclones), which are accompanied
by clear skies, light winds, and atmospheric stability, may prove to be
bad for dispersion of pollutants.
3. On the other hand, low pressure systems (cyclones), which are associated
with highly unstable atmospheric conditions, generally lead to good
mixing and rapid dispersion of pollutants.
4. Hence, such cyclonic atmospheric conditions, which are usually
accompanied by rains and storms, prove to be better for dispersion of
pollutants.
5. However when a warm front overtakes a low pressure cell, conflicting
influences are produced.
6. Initially, warm front will reduce the pollutant load mainly due to storm
activity along its leading edge; but as the warm front develops, more
stable conditions will form with an accompanying increase in the air
pollution potential.
Que 2.8. Discuss the impact of moisture and precipitation on

dispersion of air pollutants.
Answer
Impact of Moisture and Precipitation on Dispersion of Air
Pollutants :
1. The moisture content, and the form in which it is present in the
atmosphere, may considerably affect the quality of air at a particular
region.
2. The presence of water vapour (humidity) in the air affects the air quality,
primarily by blocking and obstructing the solar radiation reaching the
ground, and also the heat radiation reflected from the surface.
3. Humidity also leads to formation of fogs, and increases the Earth's
corrosive action of air pollutants.
4. Excessive moisture in the atmosphere will finally lead to rains, which
are helpful in improving the quality of the ambient air, because they
wash down the pollutants to the Earth, to be ultimately drained out with
rain-run off.
5. The process of removal of atmospheric SO2 through rain, may, however,
cause problems due to reaction of SO2 with water, forming H2SO3 or
H2SO4 leading to fall of acid rain, which increases the rate of corrosion
where air pollutants are present and in addition, decreases the pH of
rivers and streams, adversely influencing the algae and plant life of
such water bodies.
Que 2.9. How do winds impact the dispersion of pollutants into

the ambient air environment ?
Answer
Impact of Winds on Dispersion of Pollutants :
1. The moving air is known as wind. Such a movement in the air is caused
by the unequal distribution of atmospheric temperature and pressure
over the Earth’s surface, and is largely influenced by the rotation of the
earth.
2. The direction of winds is always from high pressure areas to low pressure
areas, but the coriolis force tends to deflect the air currents out of these
expected patterns.
3. Regional and local geographical and topographical features may also
affect the direction and speed of winds.
4. The quicker heating and cooling of the Earth as compared to the
neighbouring sea may also cause the flow of sea breezes from sea to
land during day time, and flow of land breezes from land to sea during
nights after sun set, respectively.
5. Such a wind pattern may also contribute to air pollution problems.
6. In the friction layer at the Earth’s surface, winds are generally gusty
and changeable, primarily due to locally generated mechanical or thermal
turbulence.
7. Wind speed is usually measured by an anemometer at a height, say Zo.
Knowing the wind velocity (u0) at anemometer height (Z0), we can work
out the velocity u at any other height Z by using the formula
k
Z
u = u0   ...(2.9.1)
 Z0 
Where, k is a constant  1/9 for large lapse rates, and 1/3 for marked
inversions, average normal value being 1/7.
8. The direction and speed of surface winds primarily govern the drift and
diffusion of polluted gases and particulate emissions from automobiles
and factories, etc. emitted near the ground levels.
9. The higher the wind speed at or near the point of emission, the more
rapidly the pollutants would be carried away from the source.
10. The pollutants so dispersed, will not exist at the same concentration, but
will rapidly be diluted with greater and greater volumes of air.
Que 2.10. Write down the Gaussian distribution equation which

is commonly used to predict the concentration of an air pollutant
evolving from a source (factory) at any downward point, and the
location of the maximum pollution.
Answer
Gaussian Distribution Equation :
1. The Gaussian plume model is the most common air pollution model for
estimating concentrations from point sources downwind.
2. Employing a three-dimensional axis of downwind (x), crosswind (y), and
vertical (z) with the origin at the effective height of emission, it assumes
that the time-averaged plume concentrations from a continuously
emitting plume, at each downwind distance, have independent Gaussian
distributions both in the horizontal and the vertical.
3. Following are the assumptions of Gaussian model :
i. Concentrations are proportional to the emission rate.
ii. Pollutants are diluted by the wind at the point of the emission at a rate
inversely proportional to the wind speed, which is constant both in time
and height
iii. They do not undergo chemical reactions or other removal processes.
iv. Pollutant material reaching the ground or the top of the mixing height
as the plume grows is reflected back to the plume centerline.
4. The equation, known as Gaussian distribution equation, is given as :
1  H2 y2 
  2  2
Q 2   
Cx, y = ( e)  z y 
u z y
1 H2 1 y2

Q  2 2  y2
or Cx, y = ( e) 2  z . ( e) ...(2.10.1)
u z y
where, C = The concentration of pollutant in gm/m3.
Q = The pollutant emission rate in gm/sec.
u = Mean wind velocity in m/sec.
x and y = Downwind and cross wind horizontal distances,

respectively in m.
y = Plume’s standard deviation in cross-wind
direction in m.
z = Plume’s standard deviation in vertical direction
in m.
H = Effective height of stack.
5. When concentration is required only along x-direction, i.e., in the
downwind horizontal direction along the centre line of the plume, then
naturally, y = 0. Then eq. (2.10.1) becomes
1  H2 
  2
Q 2
Cx, 0 = (e)   z  ...(2.10.2)
u  z  y
6. When the smokes are emitted at ground level, the effective stack height
(H) is zero, then the above eq. (2.10.2) gets further simplified, as
Q
Cx, 0 = ...(2.10.3)
 u z  y
7. Values of y and x are not only a function of downwind distance (x) but
are also a function of atmospheric stability.
Que 2.11. A coal-fired thermal power plant burns 6.25 tonnes of

coal per hour, and discharges the combustion products through a
stack having an effective height of 80 m. The coal has a sulphur
content of 4.7 %, and the wind velocity at the top of the stack is 8.0
m/sec. Atmospheric conditions are moderately to slightly unstable.
Determine the maximum ground-level concentration of SO2 and
the distance from the stack at which this maximum occurs.
Answer
Given : Coal burnt per hour = 6.25 t = 6250 kg, Sulphur content of coal
= 4.7 %, H = 80 m, u = 8 m/sec
To Find : C(x, o)max of SO2 and xmax
1. Emission rate for SO2 :
4.7
Sulphur produced per hr = 6250 × kg = 293.75 kg
100
Now, S + O2 = SO2
the molecular mass of both S and O2 is 32, and they combine on a one to
one mass basis.
 293.75 kg of S + 293.75 kg of O2 = 587.5 kg of SO2 per hour
587.5  1000
Emissio n rate o f SO 2 in gm/se c = gm/se c
60  60
= 163.19 gm/sec.
2. The maximum ground level concentration occurs where z = 0.707 H,
z
provided is constant with x.
y
For the given atmospheric conditions of moderately to slightly unstable,

we have the stability class as B to C. For conservative designs, let us
assume it to be class C.
The maximum ground level concentration would occur where
z = 0.707 H = 0.707 × 80 = 56.6 m.
From we can find that az will reach a value of 56.6 m at x = 850 m (for
C class of course).
z
Hence, maximum concentration would occur at x = 850 m, provided
y
is constant upto this distance. It can be confirmed from that for class C
z
conditions, is constant for distances (x) up to 1 km from the stack.
y
Hence, xmax = 850 m.

3. Now, to determine concentration at x = 850 m, we use Gaussian
Distribution Equation (2.10.2), as
1 H2 
Q 2
 2
C(x, 0) = ( e)   z  ...(2.11.1)
u z y
Form eq. (2.11.1), y = 88 m at x = 850 (C class)

802
163.19  2
 Cmax = ( e) 2(56.6) gm/ m 3
3.14  8  56.6  88
= 4.8 × 10–4 gm/m3 = 480  gm/m3.
Que 2.12. From the above question, determine the ground level
concentrations at a distance of 2 km downwind at :
a. The centre line of the plume, and
b. At a crosswind distance of 0.5 km on either side of the centre
line.
Answer
Given : x = 2 km
To Find : C(x, y) at
i. y = 0, ii. y = 0.5 km
1. Concentration at x = 2 km along centre line of plume, means y = 0 and
x = 2 km. The ground level concentration is given as,
1 H2
Q  2
C(x, 0) = ( e) 2  z
u z y
where, z = 130 (from z Vs x graph, for x = 2 km and C
class)
y = 220 (from y Vs x graph, for x = 2 km and C
class)
80 2
163.19  2
 C(2, 0) = ( e) 2  (130) gm/m3
3.14  8  130  220
= 1.878 × 10 – 4 gm/m3 = 1878  gm/m3.
2. Concentration at x = 2 km and y = 0.5 km (i.e., 500 m) is given by,
H2 y2

Q  2 2. 2
C(x, y) = (e) 2. z ( e) y
u z y
80 2 (500)2
163.19  2 
(e) 2  (130)  ( e) 2(220) gm/m3
2
=
3.14  8  130  220
= 0.142 × 10 – 4 gm/m3 = 14.2  gm/m3.
Que 2.13. What is meant by the effective height of a stack (chimney)

and how is it computed ?
Answer
Effective Height of a Stack :
1. The value of H used in Gaussian Distribution Equation is the effective
height of the stack (chimney) and not its actual height.
2. This effective height consists of actual height (h) plus the height (h) to
which the plume rises above the stack before levelling out, as shown in
Fig. 2.13.1.
 H = h + h ...(2.13.1)
where, h = Actual height of stack in m.
h = Plume height in m.
h
Emitted smoke
H
h
Chimney
Fig. 2.13.1.
3. There exists several equations for calculating the plume height h; out
of which, Holland’s equation is often used and is given by,
vs D  3  Ts  Ta  
h = 15  2.68  10 PD  
u   Ts  
...(2.13.2)
where, h = Rise of plume above the stack in m.
vs = Stack gas velocity i.e., efflux emission velocity
from the stack in m/sec.
D = Inside exit diameter of stack in m.
u = Wind speed in m/sec.
P = Atmospheric pressure in mill-bars.
Ts = Stack gas temperature in K.
Ta = Air temperature in K.
4. Eq. (2.13.2) is quite suitable for computing h from neutral conditions.
For unstable conditions, the above value of h should be increased by 10
to 20 %, and for stable conditions, it should be decreased by 20 to 10 %.
5. Another frequently used equation for computing h is given by Davidson
and Bryant, as :
1.4
v   Ts  Ta 
h =  s   1  T  ...(2.13.3)
 u s
6. All the terms used in this equation have the same meaning as for
eq. (2.13.2).
7. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), earlier known as ISI, has through
their code No. IS : 8829—1978 suggested the following empirical formulas
for computing plume rise (h) :
i. For hot effluents with heat release of the order of 106 cal/sec or more :
Q1/
H
4
h = 0.84 (12.4 + 0.09 h) ...(2.13.4)
u
where, QH = Heat release in calories per second.
h = Height of the chimney in m.
u = Wind velocity in m/sec.
ii. For not very hot releases, and which can be counted as momentum
sources above :
3 vs D
h = ...(2.13.5)
u
where, vs and D have the same meaning as in eq. (2.13.2).
Que 2.14. Determine the effective height of a stack, with the

following given data :
1. Physical stack is 180 m tall with 0.95 m inside diameter.
2. Wind velocity is 2.75 m/sec.
3. Air temperature is 20 °C.
4. Barometric pressure is 1000 millibars.
5. Stack gas velocity is 11.12 m/sec.
6. Stack gas temperature is 160 °C.
Answer
Given : h = 180, D = 0.95 m, u = 2.75 m/sec,

Ta = 20 °C = 20 + 273 = 293 K, P = 1000 millibars, vs = 11.12 m/sec
Ts = 160 °C = 160 + 273 = 433 K
To Find : Effective height of a stack (H).
1. Using Holland’s equation, we get
vs  D  3  Ts  Ta  
h = 1.5  2.68  10 PD  
u   Ts  
11.12  0.95  3 433  293 
= 1.5  2.68  10  1000  0.95 
2.75  433 
11.12  0.95  2.68  0.95  140 
= 1.5  
2.75  433 
h = 8.92 m
2. Effective height of stack, H = h + h
= 180 + 8.92 = 188.92 m

Q. 1. Describe the air pollution chemistry.

Q. 2. Describe the atmospheric temperature lapse rate and

stability.
Q. 3. Describe the plume behaviour on air pollutions.

Q. 4. Discuss the impact of moisture and precipitation on

dispersion of air pollutants.
Q. 5. Write down the Gaussian distribution equation which is

commonly used to predict the concentration of an air
pollutant evolving from a source (factory) at any downward
point, and the location of the maximum pollution.
Q. 6. What is meant by the effective height of a stack (chimney)

and how is it computed ?
Q. 7. Determine the effective height of a stack, with the following

given data :
1. Physical stack is 180 m tall with 0.95 m inside diameter.
2. Wind velocity is 2.75 m/sec.
3. Air temperature is 20 °C.
4. Barometric pressure is 1000 millibars.
5. Stack gas velocity is 11.12 m/sec.
6. Stack gas temperature is 160 °C.

3 Air Pollution Control
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Ambient Air Quality and ........................... 3–2N to 3–4N
Standards, Air Sampling and
Measurements
Part-2 : Control of Particulate Air ....................... 3–4N to 3–12N

Pollutants using Gravitational
Settling Chambers, Cyclone
Separators, Wet Collectors,
Fabric Filters (Bag-house filter),
Electrostatic Precipitations (ESP)
Air Pollution Control 3–2 N (CE-Sem-5)
PART-1
Ambient Air Quality and Standards, Air Sampling and
Measurements.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.1. What do you mean by ambient air quality measurement

and their standards of air pollution ?
Answer
Ambient Air Quality Measurement and their Standards :
1. The first Indian emission regulations came into existence in 1989. Further
in 1991 and 1992 these regulations were soon replaced by gasoline and
diesel vehicles.
2. Since 2000 India had been starting European Emissions and Fuel
Regulations for light duty and heavy duty vehicles.
3. The automotive emission India is working on the two reports from
planning commission established expert committee for Auto fuel Policy,
Auto fuel vision and policy 2025.
4. The implementation schedule of EU emission in India is tabulated as
given below :
Standard Reference Year Region
India 2000 Euro 1 2000 All over the country
Bharat Stage II Euro 2 2001 NCR, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai
2003 NCR, 11 other cities
2005 All over the country
Bharat Stage III Euro 3 2005 NCR, 11 other cities
2010 All over the country
Bharat Stage IV Euro 4 2010 NCR, 13 other cities
2015 29 cities mainly in the states of Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and
Maharashtra
Bharat Stage V Euro 5 2019 All over the country
Bharat Stage VI Euro 6 2021 All over the country
5. The above standards are for 4-wheel vehicles are suggested in different
regions of the country.
6. For 2 and 3 wheelers, Bharat stage II applied from April 2005 and Bharat
stage III from April 2010.
7. In May 2014 the expert committee recommended Bharat stage V from
April 2017 all over the country. It is proposed up to 2025.
Que 3.2. What are the objectives of stack sampling at origin of

pollution ?
Answer
Objectives of Stack Sampling :
1. The most important work is to collect the samples of the emission of
gases at source. This collection of samples is also known as stack sampling
at origin of pollutants.
2. The emission inventories data are systematically collected to have the
detailed information regarding the air pollution emission in the particular
area.
3. The main objects of the sampling at source are :
i. To measure the quality and quantity of pollutant produce by the source.
ii. To determine the quality and efficiency of control equipments under
various conditions.
iii. To determine the emission due to changes in raw materials and the
processes in the industry.
iv. For the application of the local control system at the place.
v. To collect data from a single pollutant or multiple pollutant source.
vi. To know the nature of the pollutant source.
vii. To determine the effect on the emission of the pollutant source in
different weather of the year.
viii. To determine the effect in the emission in different zones/areas of the
country.
Que 3.3. Write the steps of procedure for particular matter

sampling.
Answer
Procedure for Particular Matter Sampling : The NEERI (National
Environmental Engineering Research Institute) has given the procedure
for the collection of particular matter sampling :
1. Determine the gas composition and correct to moisture content.
2. Determine the temperature and velocity at each traverse point.
3. Determine the empty weight thimble (W1).
4. Mark out the traverse points on the probe. The marks are properly fixed
by typing with asbestos thread.
5. Check all points for leakages.
6. Determine the flow rate to be sampled under isokinetic conditions.
7. Insert the probe at the traverse points 1, very close to the stack. Start
the pump and adjust the flow so that the rotameter reads the
predetermined value.
8. Switch off the pump at the end of sampling time.
9. Read the vacuum at the dry gas meter (DGM) and temperature.
10. Move the probe to the subsequent traverse points by repeating the
steps 5 to 8.
11. After completion of collection of sample, remove the probe and allow it
to cool.
12. Remove the thimble carefully. Some of the dust would be adhered to the
nozzle. These should be removed by tapping and transfer to the thimble.
13. Weigh the thimble with sample. The difference in weight gives the dust
collected.
14. The volume of sample collected either given by dry gas meter or by
sampling rate given by rotameter multiplied by the sampling time.
15. Hence from (12) and (13) the emission rate can be calculated. This will
give DGM conditions. This is to be corrected for temperature and pressure
so as to obtain for standard conditions.
PART-2
Control of Particulate Air Pollutants using Gravitational
Settling Chambers, Cyclone Separators, Wet Collectors, Fabric
Filters (Bag-house filter), Electrostatic Precipitations (ESP).
Questions-Answers
Que 3.4. Describe the gravitational settling chamber with its

advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
A. Gravity Settling Chamber :
1. It consists of a cylindrical body with multiple dust hoppers as shown in
the Fig. 3.4.1.
2. The dirty air enters into the chamber from one end. During this process
the dense particles present in the air settled down into the hoppers and
the clean air escaped out from another end.
3. This technique is based on the gravity phenomenon.
4. The emitted smokes, when made to pass through a settling chamber
Fig. 3.4.1, drop some of their larger sized particles in the chamber, under
Stoke’s law.
5. The largest size particle (d) that can be removed with 100 % efficiency in
such a chamber of length L and height H is given by,
18 v h H
d=
g L p
where, vh = Horizontal velocity of gas passing through the chamber,
between 0.5 to 2.5 m/sec.
p = Density of particles removed.
 = Viscosity of air, at the given temperature in kg/m. sec.
C = Correction factor for existing non-quiescent conditions
in the gas flow through the chamber, generally taken at
equal to 2.
Clean gas
Slurry in
Fluid out out
Dirty gas
in
Coarse Intermediate Fine Dust hoppers

particles particles particles
Fig. 3.4.1. Gravity settling chamber.
B. Advantages of Settling Chamber : Following are the advantages of
settling chamber :
1. It has very low energy cost.
2. It has low capital cost.
3. It has low pressure drop through device.
4. It has excellent reliability.
5. It provides incidental cooling of gas stream.
C. Disadvantages of Settling Chamber : Fo llowing are the
disadvantages of settling chamber :
1. It has large physical size.
2. It cannot handle sticky dust.
3. Its cost increases as the cost of material increases.
Que 3.5. Explain in detail “Cyclones Equipments” which is used

to control air pollutants.
Answer
Cyclones Equipments :
1. It consists of a cylinder with inverted cone at the bottom.
2. The gas particles enter the cylinder from top in tangential manner.
3. Then it passes through vertex separators. The rotational effect and the
gravity are used to separate mixture of solids and fluids.
4. A centrifugal force rotates the particles at very high speed which is
called a cyclone in industrial and professional kitchens for separating
grease from the exhaust air.
Clean
gas out
Over flow
Feed Particle
Vortex core
Main vortex
laden gas in
Spinning gas
stream forces
particles to outside
walls and then to the
base of the cyclone
Under flow
Particles
collected
Fig. 3.5.1. Cyclone method.
5. A cyclone works on the principle of creating high-speed spiral air flow to
remove particles. This spiral motion applies a centrifugal force on the
particles.
6. The inertia of the particles forces them to the outside walls of the cyclone,
where they fall to the bottom and are collected.
7. The speed of the air flow and the width of the cyclone influence particle
removal the smaller the diameter, the more efficient is the particle
removal.
8. The conical section at the base of the cyclone gradually decreases the
diameter of the spinning gas stream, resulting in better removal of
smaller particles.
9. However, in practice, reducing the diameter increases the pressure
drop across the cyclone. Combining several units together as a
‘multi-cyclone’ can prevent this.
10. Its efficiency depends on the generated centrifugal force (Fc) , which in
turn, depends on mass of the particles (Mp), inlet gas velocity (vi) and
radius of cyclone (R), and is given by,
v 2i
Fc = M p
R
11. A dynamic precipitator Fig. 3.5.1 imparts centrifugal force to the entering
gas with the help of rotating vanes, and is, thus, about 7 times more
effective than an ordinary cyclone.
12. Such a unit can work as an exhaust fan as well as a dust collector.
13. They are widely used in ceramics, food and pharmaceutical and wood
working industries.
14. They cannot, however, handle wet fibrous material, which tend to
accumulate on the moving vanes.
Que 3.6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of cyclone

collector or separator ?
Answer
A. Advantages of Cyclone Collector :
1. Relatively inexpensive, simple to design and maintain.
2. Requires less floor area.
3. Ensures dry continuous disposal of collected dusts.
4. Low to moderate pressure loss (2.5 to 20 cm).
5. It can handle large volumes of gases at temperatures upto 90°C. Cyclones
are widely used in industries producing larger quantities of gas
containing larger sized particles, like, Cement and Fertilizer plants,
Petroleum refineries, Asphalt mixing plants, Grain mills, Cotton gins,
etc.
B. Disadvantages of Cyclone Collector :
1. Requires much head room.
2. Collection efficiency is low for smaller particles.
3. Quite sensitive to variable dust loadings and flow rates.
Que 3.7. Describe the “Wet Scrubber” which is used to control air
pollution.
Answer
Wet Scrubber :
1. Wet scrubbers are effective air pollution control devices for removing
particles and gases from industrial exhausts.
2. In this device polluted air passes through absorbent liquid or water
sprayed on the polluted air.
3. So these dirty particles of air stream contacts the liquid, the liquid absorbs
the pollutants, in much the same way that rain droplets wash away
strong odours on hot summer days.
Clean gas out
Packed bed Clean gas out

Mist eliminator wet scrubber
Dirty gas in Water in
Liquid Spray
in heads
Throat Packing
contaminated
Elbow gas in
cross-over
Contaminants
Liquid to settling out
and recirculation
Fig. 3.7.1. Wet scrubber.
i. A packed bed wet scrubber removes gaseous and particle contaminants

from a gas stream.
ii. It works by bringing the gas stream into contact with a scrubbing liquid
(usually water).
iii. The scrubbing liquid absorbs the gaseous pollutants, and the spray
droplets physically capture the particles.
iv. The packed bed of non-reactive material gives a greater gas-to-liquid
contact which improves the removal of particle pollutants.
v. Using certain scrubbing liquids can increase gaseous pollutant removal,
e.g., using an alkaline liquid to remove acidic pollutants.
vi. Trapping and treating droplets of the scrubbing liquid can allow it to be
recycled.
4. Wet scrubber produce wet sludge in the air purification process, it holds
in the pond temporarily and after that it will be treated before reuse or
disposed.
5. Wet scrubbers can be highly effective in removing particles, with removal
efficiencies of up to 99%; however, their efficiency for very small particles
can be much lower.
6. However, scrubbers suffer from high levels of corrosion and produce
slurry waste streams which are less convenient for recycling and disposal.
7. Scrubbers remove 80-95 % of the SOx. Certain types do not remove
NOx.
8. They are costly to retrofit to existing power plants. They increase the
electric generating costs by 10-15 %.
9. Scrubbers are like liquid filters for the gases resulting from combustion.
10. The exhaust gases are forced through a spray of water containing calcium
hydroxide, Ca(OH)2.
11. The SO2 gas reacts with the lime to produce a solid of calcium sulphate,
CaSO4.
12. There are some problems in getting rid of the liquid sludge that is
produced. It can be pumped into a pond for temporary storage.
Que 3.8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of scrubber

equipments ?
Answer
A. Advantages of Scrubbers : Following are the advantages of scrubbers :
1. It is a very efficient process to separate dirt from ambient air.
2. It can handle flammable and explosive dusts with little risk.
3. It provides gas absorption and dust collection in a single unit.
4. It provides cooling which is produced of hot gases.
5. It can be neutralized the corrosive and dusts.
B. Disadvantages of Scrubbers : Following are the disadvantages of
scrubbers :
1. High potential for corrosion problems.
2. Disposal of waste sludge can be very expensive.
3. Collected particulate may be contaminated and unrecyclable.

4. Requires make up water to replace purged liquid and disposed sludge.
Que 3.9. Explain the bag house or fabric filters, used to control
air pollution.
Answer
Bag House or Fabric Filters :
1. In such a system, the flue gas is allowed to pass through a woven or
felted fabric, which filters out the particulate matter and allows the gas
to pass.
2. Small particles are retained on the fabric, initially through interception
and electro static attraction; and later on, when a dust mat is formed,
the fabric starts collecting particles more efficiently.
3. A bag house filter unit, Fig. 3.9.1, provided in an ordinary room of the
factory, contains several vertically hanging fabric cylindrical bags
(1.8 to 9 m long); the upper ends of the bags are closed, and lower ends
are attached to a hopper, where also, the inlet of the flue gas is located.
Mechanism for shaking
rapping or vibrating bags
Tubular
Clean filter bags
air out
Dirty
air in Clean
air out
Dirty air in
( i) ( ii)
Fig. 3.9.1. Bag house fabric filter unit.
4. The upward moving gas drops out particulate matter in these bags,
which settles down into the hopper, and cleaner gas goes out through
the fabric filters.
5. The framework, housing the hanging bags, is provided with an automatic
shaking device for cleaning the bags of the collected dust.
6. Compared to other types of air pollution control equipment, bag houses

are incredibly versatile and can be engineered for almost any dust
producing application by varying size and bag types.
7. They are very efficient when properly maintained and are also rugged
enough to handle rough applications.
8. However, they typically require a lot of maintenance and a relatively
dry environment to operate effectively.
9. Their use is also limited to certain operating temperatures and chemical
conditions.
Que 3.10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of bag house
filter ?
Answer
A. Advantages : Following are the advantages of bag house filters :
1. Versatile and flexible for many applications.
2. It is very high for collection and removal of very small particles.
3. It is cost-effective when properly designed and maintained.
4. It is modular design for convenient assembly.
5. It can collect other pollutants with certain fabric coating additions.
B. Disadvantages : Following are the disadvantages of bag house filters :
1. It is limited by high temperatures and corrosive chemicals.
2. It is requires a lot of maintenance.
3. It is not well suited for very high dust loads.
4. It is large footprint requiring large floor areas.
5. It is potential for fire or explosion.
Que 3.11. Describe the electrostatic precipitator equipment.

OR
What are the equipments used to control air pollution in industries ?
Describe any one of them.
Answer
Air Pollution Controlling Equipments :
Following are the equipments used to control air pollution in industries :
1. Gravity settling chamber.
2. Scrubbers.
3. Cyclones.
4. Bag house filters.
5. Electrostatic precipitator.
Electrostatic Precipitator Equipment :
1. The electrostatic precipitator works by removing particles and smoke
from a gas stream using an electrostatic charge.
2. Electrostatic precipitator generally large size low velocity dust collection
devices.
3. In this transformers are used to develop extremely high voltage given
between charging electrodes and collecting plates
4. Electrostatic precipitators have two parts one is the charging and another
is the collecting sections.
5. In the charging section, the incoming smoke, grease, mist, and other
particulates pass by ionizer wires which impart a positive electrical charge
to these contaminants.
6. The positively charged contaminants are then drawn through the
collection section which contains a secondary electrical field with
negatively charged aluminium plates.
7. Since opposite charges attract, the positively charged contaminants collect
on the negatively charged aluminium plates, periodically the collected
dust is removed from the collecting plates by a hammer device, which
falls to a bottom hopper for removal.
8. The removal efficiencies for ESPs are highly variable, however, for very
small particles alone, the removal efficiency is about 99 percent.
9. ESPs are used in boilers, furnaces, and many other units of thermal
power plants, cement factories, steel plants, etc.
Waste gasses without
smoke particles
2
Smoke particles
are attracted to the Positively charged
collecting plates collecting plate
Collecting plates are

1 knocked to remove 3
Smoke particles the smoke particles
pick up a negative
charge Negatively charged
metal grid
Waste gases
containing
smoke particles
Fig. 3.11.1. Electrostatic precipitator.
Que 3.12. What are the advantages and dis advantages of

electrostatic precipitator ?
Answer
A. Advantages of Electrostatic Precipitator : Following are the
advantages of electrostatic precipitator :
1. Particles may be collected wet or dry.
2. 99 % and plus efficiency can be obtained.
3. Even small particles can be removed.
4. Maintenance is nominal, unless corrosive and adhesive materials are
present in flue gases.
5. They contain a few moving parts.

6. They can be operated at high temperatures upto 300–450 °C.
B. Disadvantages of Electrostatic Precipitator : Following are the
disadvantages of electrostatic precipitator :
1. Higher initial costs.
2. Sensitive to variable dust loadings and flow rates.
3. They use high voltage, and hence may pose risk to personal safety of the
staff.
4. Collection efficiency reduces with time.

Q. 1. What are the objectives of stack sampling at origin of

pollution ?
Q. 2. Write the steps of procedure for particular matter sampling.

Q. 3. Explain in detail “Cyclones Equipments” which is used to

control air pollutants.
Q. 4. Describe the “Wet Scrubber” which is used to control air

pollution.
Q. 5. Explain the bag house fabric filters, used to control air

pollution.
Q. 6. Describe the electrostatic precipitator equipment.


4 Control of Gaseous
Contaminants
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Absorption, Adsorption, ............................. 4–2N to 4–5N
Condensation and Combustion
Part-2 : Control of Sulphur Oxides, ....................... 4–6N to 4–7N

Nitrogen Oxides, Carbon
Monoxide, and Hydrocarbons,
Automotive Emission
Part-3 : Control Catalytic Convertor ................... 4–7N to 4–11N

Euro-I, Euro-II and
Euro-III Specifications,
Indian Specifications
Control of Gaseous Contaminants 4–2 N (CE-Sem-5)
PART-1
Absorption, Adsorption, Condensation and Combustion.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.1. Enumerate the various engineering devices that are

used to control the emission of gaseous air pollution from industries.
Describe any one.
Answer
Following are the devices used to control the emission of gaseous air
pollution from industries :
1. Absorption units.
2. Adsorption units.
3. Combustion or incineration equipments.
Absorption Units : Absorption units includes spray towers, plate towers,
packed towers, and venturi scrubbers.
1. Out of these devices, spray towers and venturi-scrubbers can
simultaneously be used for removing particulate pollutants.
2. Scrubbers are generally less effective in removing gaseous pollutants
than towers, but then, towers get frequently clogged by particulate
matter.
3. Other effective devices for removing gaseous pollutants, i.e., plate towers
and packed towers, are shown in Fig. 4.1.1 and Fig. 4.1.2, respectively.
4. These absorption units work on the principle of transfer of the pollutants
from the gas phase to the liquid phase.
5. In other words, the pollutants from the dirty gas get absorbed in the
liquid, through which the gas is made to pass, in these units.
6. Such absorption takes place by diffusion as well as dissolution.
7. The effectiveness of these devices, naturally, depends upon the solvent
(liquid), through which the gas is made to pass.
8. When water is used as the solute, the removal is restricted only to a few
inorganic gases, such as NH3, Cl2, and SO2.
9. All such absorbent units must be properly designed for the given
conditions, before one of them is adopted.
10. Care should also be taken to ensure that the pollutants transferred
from air to water, may not cause heavy and uncontrollable water
pollution.
Gas out
Gas out
Liquid in Liquid
distributor
Shell
Tray Liquid in Packing
Down restrainer
spout shell
Liquid
Froth redistributor
Random
packing Packing
Gas in support
Gas in
Liquid out Liquid out
Fig. 4.1.1. Plate tower. Fig. 4.1.2. Packed tower.
Que 4.2. Describe the adsorption units used to control gaseous

air pollutions.
Answer
Adsorption Units :
1. Absorption units use adsorbents like activated carbon, molecular sieves
(dehydrated zeolites, i.e., alkali or metal silicates), activated alumina,
silica gel, etc.
2. In adsorption units, the dirty gases are made to pass through the beds of
such adsorbent materials, wherein the pollutants are effectively caught
and removed.
3. Activated carbon beds can very effectively catch hydrocarbons, H2S, and
SO2.
4. One special form of molecular sieve can also capture NO2. A schematic
sketch of such a unit is shown in Fig. 4.2.1.
5. The above adsorbents, except activated carbon, have the drawbacks
of preferably capturing water, before catching any of the gaseous
pollutants; and hence, water may have to be removed from the gas,
before it is treated in such units.
6. Moreover, almost all the adsorbents are subject to destruction at
moderately high temperatures (150 °C for active carbon, 600 °C for
molecular sieves, 400 °C for silica gel, and 500 °C for activated alumina).
7. Hence, they prove to be very inefficient for purifying industrial gases at
such high temperatures.
Pollutant
laden gas
Adsorbent
beds
Clean
gas
Fig. 4.2.1. Schematic sketch of an adsorption tower unit.
Que 4.3. Explain in detail about condensation and combustion

equipments which are used as pollution control device.
Answer
Combustion or Incineration Equipments :
1. It may be used to purify polluted gases, when the pollutants in the gas
streams are oxidizable to an inert gas.
2. Pollutants, like hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide (CO) can be easily
burnt, oxidized, and removed in such equipments.
3. Both, Direct flame combustion by burners Fig. 4.3.1, and catalytic
combustion Fig. 4.3.2, have been used in commercial applications.
Refractory
lined steel Burner
shell ports
Gas burner Refractory

piping ring baffle
Inlet for
contaminated
air-stream
Burner
Fig. 4.3.1. Direct flame incineration.
Hot polluted
Burner Catalyst
gases
Fuel 315–480°C 425–600°C
Clean
Air gas
out
Dirty
gas Fan to mix gases to
distribute them evenly
Fig. 4.3.2. Catalytic incineration.
4. Catalytic incineration can be used when combustible materials in the

waste polluted gas, are too low to make direct-flame incineration feasible.
5. This generally happens when the energy of the polluted gas is lesser
than 3.7 MJ/m3.
6. At all such energy contents, the gas burning becomes self supporting
after initial ignition, thereby making possible the use of direct flame
incinerators. Secondary supporting fuel may also sometimes be used to
make such a method feasible.
7. It has also to be ensured that the final combustion product from the
incinerator is easily disposable, and less toxic than the original gas
pollutants, being removed.
8. Direct flame incineration has been successfully used to purify the
industrial gases in Varnish cooking, Meat smoke houses, and Paint
bake oven industries,
9. When the combustible fuel value of the polluted gases are lower, some
catalytic materials have been found to accelerate the rate of oxidation,
without themselves undergoing a chemical change, thus reducing the
incineration time, or making the incineration feasible even with low-
energy polluted gases.
10. Costly Platinum (Pt) or Palladium (Pd) compounds have often been used
as catalysts. Conventionally, such a catalytic compound is placed in a bed
similar to absorption beds, and the supporting lattice is made of ceramic.
11. The old catalytic systems were effective only when the hot gases were
being passed through them; and hence, pre-heating by heaters (as
shown in Fig. 4.3.2) was an absolute necessity. But in modern days,
even cold catalytic systems, which work at ambient temperatures, have
been designed, thus eliminating the necessity of pre-heating.
12. Catalytic incinerators have often been successfully used to control SO2,
NOx, CO, hydrocarbons, etc. Besides being costly, their major drawback
is their susceptibility to poisoning by sulphur and lead compounds, even
in trace amounts.
13. Catalytic combustion has successfully been used in purifying emissions
like, varnish cooking, asphalt oxidation, printing press, etc.
PART-2
Control of Sulphur Oxides,Nitrogen Oxides, Carbon Monoxide, and
Hydrocarbons, Automotive Emission.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.4. Describe the air pollution caused by automobiles and

its control.
Answer
Air Pollution from Automobiles :
1. Automobiles chiefly emit carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC),
and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
2. The contents of these pollutants in the smoke, emitted by the
automobiles, may usually vary, as :
CO — 0.5 to 6.4 %
HC — 300 to 1000 ppm
NOx — 500 to 3000 ppm,
depending upon the type and condition of the engine of the automobile.
3. An ideal internal combustion engine (IC engine), when gets stoichiometric
mixture of air and fuel (14.7 : 1 ratio) burns them up completely to CO2,
water and nitrogen, without producing any CO.
4. But in actual practice, two and three wheeler petrol engines receive
high fuel content mixture (12 : 1 ratio), during cold start, idling,
acceleration, and high speed cruising ; and similarly diesel engines receive
low fuel content mixture (16 : 1 ratio) when running at a medium speed.
So in practice, the combustion of fuel in automobiles is never complete.
5. Naturally then, the exhaust gases from such engines, invariably contain
products of incomplete combustion; i.e., CO, HC, H2 , hundreds of
oxygenated hydrocarbons, as well as small fractions of nitrogen oxides.
6. These pollutants are highly dangerous to the overall environment and
to the life in general; and hence the automobiles are now a days seen as
a symbol of technological menace.
7. The emissions from petrol engines of two, three and four wheelers
(including cars, having 4 stroke engines), contain heavier concentrations
of HC and CO; whereas, the four stroke diesel engines of diesel vehicles
(buses and trucks) contain heavier concentrations of NO along with
thick smoke and particles.
8. The auto emissions also contain gaseous pollutants, like SO2, and lead
compounds, especially when lead containing fuel is used in India.
Controlling of Automobiles Pollution :
1. In order to reduce lead menace, efforts are now on, in India, to reduce
lead content in the gasoline, as it will take quite some time before we are
able to switch over completely to lead-free gasoline.
2. Similarly, SO2 emissions are caused in auto exhausts, because sulphur,
or ‘compounds of sulphur’ are invariably present in the mineral oil.
3. Efforts are also on, to reduce sulphur content, to as low a level as
possible, in the gasoline.
4. Besides the above improvements required in the gasoline, the upkeep
and maintenance of the auto engines, is also of utmost importance.
5. The proper tuning of the engine and carburettor is very essential, in
order to control pollutant emissions.
6. Central Motor Vehicles Rules 1989, framed under Motor Vehicles Act,
1988, has therefore, stipulated permissible auto-emission levels.
7. The maximum permissible CO emission, while idling is limited to 3.0%
for cars, and 4.5% for two and three wheelers.
PART-3
Control Catalytic Convertor Euro-I, Euro-II and
Euro-III Specifications, Indian Specifications.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.5. Write a short note on catalytic convertor, which is used

to control the air pollution from automobiles.
Answer
Catalytic Convertor :
1. The catalytic convertors are usually made of noble metals, like platinum,
palladium, etc., and help in oxidising CO and HC into their final end
product of CO2, and also to reduce NO into nitrogen.
2. These noble metal catalysts are highly active, and resist sulphur poisoning.
3. They may be made in pellets, or may be in the form of a monolithic one
piece metal.
4. A catalytic convertor is generally placed inside the tail exhaust pipe of

the automobile, so as to pass through it the ‘partially oxidised emissions,
before they are let out into the atmosphere.
5. In earlier years, two different catalytic metal beds were being used for
oxidizing CO and HC, and for reducing NO ; but in modern days, catalysts
have been designed, which catalyse both sets of reactions.
6. These catalysts, popularly called three way catalysts, (Pt, Pd and Rh),
have simplified the dual bed to a single bed catalytic converter.
7. Presently, installation of such three way catalytic converters is

compulsory for all automobiles plying on the roads of USA and Japan.
8. The auto manufacturers in India, have however, been avoiding the
incorporation of catalytic convertors in the vehicles, primarily due to the
high cost of noble metals.
9. These convertors will also necessitate certain changes in the basic design
of the engines, as they tend to reduce the engine efficiency.
10. Efforts are also being made at Indian Institute of Petroleum - Dehradun,
Regional Research Laboratory - Bhubaneswar, and Projects and
Development India Ltd. - Sindri, to develop an efficient catalytic system,
using cheaper metals, like Mn, Cu, Cr-Cu, composite oxides.
11. Be that as it may, the Indian car manufacturers have now started fitting
catalytic converters in the new cars being released in our metro cities
and the lead free petrol required to run such vehicles has been available
in all the metropolitan cities of India, since about the year 1996.
12. Whereas, there had been an improvement in the designs of petrol run
cars, there had been a tendency on the part of auto manufactures to
change over to diesel run cars, due to lesser unit cost of diesel as compared
to petrol.
13. The diesel fumes have, however, been found to be more polluting than
those of petro, particularly in respect of toxic carcinogenic particulate
matter being released by diesel vehicles.
14. The ban on diesel cars has also been recommended by the environmental
Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA).
Que 4.6. Write down the specifications of Euro-I, Euro-II and

Euro-III.
Answer
Table 4.6.1 Existing as well as notified Euro-I, Euro-II and Euro-III

Emission Norms
CO (g/km) HC + NO (g/km) PM (g/km)
Petrol Diesel Petrol Diesel Petrol Diesel
India 1996 8.68-12.40 5-9 3-4.36 2-4 – –
India 2000 2.72 2.72-6.90 0.97 0.97-1.70 – 0.14-0.25
Euro I : 2.72 2.72 0.97 0.97 – 0.14

(Enforced in
Europe in 1993)
Enforced in
National
Capital Region
(NCR) of India
from June
1, 1999
Euro II : 2.20 1.00 0.50 0.70-0.90 – 0.08-0.10
(Enforced in
Europe in 1996)
Enforced in
NCR India)
from April 1,
2000
Euro III : 2.30 0.60 0.2-0.15 0.56 – 0.05

(Enforced in
Europe in
2000
Que 4.7. What are the Indian specifications of pollution control

from automobiles ?
Answer
Indian Specifications of Pollution Control from Automobiles :
1. The first Indian emission regulations were idle emission limits which
became effective in 1989.
2. These idle emission regulations were soon replaced by mass emission
limits for both gasoline (1991) and diesel (1992) vehicles, which were
gradually tightened during the 1990s.
3. Since the year 2000, India started adopting European emission and fuel
regulations for four-wheeled light-duty and for heavy-duty vehicles.
4. India’s own emission regulations still apply to two- and three-wheeled
vehicles.
5. The foundation for automotive emission standards in India since the

early 2000s is contained in two reports from the Indian Planning
Commission.
6. The National Auto Fuel Policy, announced on October 6, 2003, envisioned
a phased program for introducing Euro 2-4 emission and fuel regulations
by 2010.
7. In order to establish limits beyond Bharat Stage IV, the Indian Planning
Commission established an Expert Committee in 2013 to draft an updated
Auto Fuel Policy, Auto Fuel Vision and Policy 2025, that was published
in May 2014.
Indian Specification :
Standard Reference Date Region
India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide
Bharat Euro 2 2001 NCR, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai
Stage II 2003-04 NCR, 11 other cities
2005-04 Nationwide
Bharat Euro 3 2005-04 NCR, 11 other cities
Stage III 2010-04 Nationwide
Bharat Euro 4 2010-04 NCR, 13 other cities
Stage IV 2015-07 Above plus 29 cities mainly in
the states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan and Maharashtra
2015-10 North India plus bordering districts
of Rajasthan (9 States)
2016-04 Western India plus parts of South and
East India (10 States and Territories)
2017-04 Nationwide
Bharat Euro 5 NO —
Stage V
Bharat Euro 6 2020-04 Nationwide
Stage VI
Que 4.8. What are the application of adsorption for control of

gaseous and odour emission at source ?
Answer
Application of Adsorption : following are the application of adsorption
for control of gaseous and odour emission at source :
1. Vapor Recovery in Process Industries :
i. Major applications are in the recovery of solvents from air stream that
are free from particulate matter and whose vapor concentrations are
above 700 ppm.
ii. Activated carbon has been found very effective in adsorption of various
organic compounds.
2. Deodorization of Odours Emissions : Many odorants in low
concentrations such as 100 ppb or less are detectable and objectionable
and deodorization of such gas stream by solid adsorption is in many
instances an effective and economical procedure.
3. Adsorption of H2S and Carbon disulphide from Waste Gases of
Viscose Production Plants : Typical pollutants in the waste gases of
Viscose rayon industries are hydrogen sulphide and carbon disulphide
and these gases can be separated from waste gas stream in single
adsorption plant using activated carbon.
4. Adsorption of Sulphur Containing Gases :
i. Adsorptive separation of various sulphur compounds like H2S, SO2, can
be achieved by physical adsorption catalysis.
ii. Activated carbon serves as a contact catalyst for various reactions of
sulphur compounds including air oxidation of H2S to sulphur of SO2, to
SO3 or to sulphuric acid and reduction of SO2, or sulphuric acid by H2S to
produce sulphur.
5. Adsorption of NOx : The methods applied for removal of NOx from
waste gases are trusted on physical and catalized adsorption.
6. Adsorption of Mercury Vapours : Mercury vapours can be removed
by use of adsorbent like activated carbon and ion-exchange resin.
7. Control of Gaseous Radio Active Emission : Activated carbon
adsorption can be used to prevent emission of radioactive gases from
nuclear reactors or other source. Radon and radio-iodine are examples
of adsorbable radioactive gases.
8. Gas Masks : Activated carbon or charcoal is used almost universally in
gas because they are best all round adsorbent for toxic gases.

Q. 1. Enumerate the various engineering devices that are used

to control the emission of gaseous air pollution from
industries. Describe any one.
Q. 2. Explain in detail about condensation and combustion

equipments which are used as pollution control device.
Q. 3. Write a short note on catalytic convertor, which is used to

control the air pollution from automobiles.
Q. 4. What are the application of adsorption for control of gaseous

and odour emission at source ?

5 Noise Pollution
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Noise Pollution : ......................................... 5–2N to 5–8N
Basics of Acoustics and
Specification of Sound,
Sound Power, Sound Intensity
and Sound Pressure Levels
Part-2 : Plane, Point and Line .............................. 5–8N to 5–15N

Sources, Multiple Sources,
Outdoor and Indoor Noise
Propagation, Psychoacoustics
and Noise Criteria, Effects
of Noise on Health, Annoyance
Rating Schemes
Part-3 : Special Noise Environments : ............. 5–15N to 5–23N

Infrasound, Ultrasound, Impulsive
Sound and Sonic Boom, Noise Standards
and Limit Values, Noise of
Instrumentation and Monitoring
Procedure, Noise Indices, Noise Control
Methods
Noise Pollution 5–2 N (CE-Sem-5)
PART-1
Noise Pollution : Basics of Acoustics and Specification of Sound,
Sound Power, Sound Intensity and Sound Pressure Levels.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.1. Define noise and explain as to how and why it should
be regarded as an environmental pollutant ?
Answer
1. Sound in the environment is caused by vibrations in the air (or some,
other medium) that reach human ears and stimulate a sensation of
hearing.
2. When the sound becomes loud, or disagreeable, or unwanted, it becomes
noise.
3. Since the unwanted sound (i.e., noise) certainly produces several
undesirable effects on our body health, it can be termed as an
environmental pollutant.
4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981 of India includes
noise as one of the air pollutant.
5. Noise can, therefore, also be defined as that unwanted sound pollutant,
which produces undesirable physiological and psychological effects in
an individual, by interfering with one's social activities like work, rest,
recreation, sleep, etc.
6. It may also be noted that when noise is defined as unwanted sound,
then certainly it becomes a subjective definition, independent of the
loudness of the sound, since a particular loudness may not be liked by
one person, whereas the same loudness may be quite pleasant to
another person.
7. A particular sound being enjoyed by one person can, thus, become a
noise pollution to another person.
8. The noise, as an air pollutant, in fact, differs from other pollutants in
the sense that it is transient in nature, and is not a continuing or
persisting phenomenon.
9. When once the noise pollution stops, the environment becomes free of
this pollutant, unlike other pollutants like gases and particulate matter
which continue to linger on, after once entering into the air atmosphere.
Que 5.2. What do you understand by noise pollution and what

are the factors of noise pollution ?
Answer
Noise Pollution :
1. Noise pollution is caused when noise which is an unpleasant sound
affects our ears and leads to psychological problems like stress,
hypertension, hearing impairment, etc. It is caused by machines in
industries, loud music, etc.
2. Sound levels beyond 100 dB can cause permanent hearing loss, and
noise of around 90 dB causes auditory weakness. The industrial sound
limit according to the world health organization (WHO) is 75 dB.
Factors of Noise Pollution : There will be various factors of noise
pollution. Some human made noise pollutions are as follows :
1. Road Traffic Noise :
i. Noise pollution arises due to several transportations means like : Scooters,
motorcycles, cars, buses, and trucks etc. Measures must be taken to
reduce road traffic noise pollution.
ii. Increased traffic has brought about traffic jams and automobile
congestion that produce noise via repeated hooting.
iii. Road traffic is one of the most widespread sources of noise, and
unfortunately, the most difficult to control.
iv. Research shows that over 40 % of the populations are bothered by noise
from road traffic.
2. Pet Noise :
i. As owners of pets such as dogs, birds and cats, you must prevent them
from causing any noise nuisance to your neighbours.
ii. Don't let your dog bark or whine or leave it alone for long periods.
3. Neighbour's Noise :
i. Neighbour’s noise can be part of a more serious neighbour problem.
ii. Under the Housing Act social landlords can take action against tenants
for anti-social behaviour.
iii. The Noise-Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules-2000 gives councils
the power to issue an anti-social behaviour order to anyone causing
"harassment, alarm or distress" this can include noise.
4. Aircraft Noise :
i. Many people regularly hear aircraft noise. Those living near civil and
military airports are severely affected by takeoff and landing noise.
ii. The impact is greatest the perimeter of the airport and below flight
paths.
iii. Loud aircraft noise can cause insomnia, concentration disorders and
learning difficulties in children.
5. Railway Noise :
i. Railways are another major source of environmental noise in India.
ii. The authorities take measures to reduce this form of noise pollution.
iii. This becomes the dominant source of noise for most people living near
railways only at a relatively high level.
6. Construction Site Noise :
i. This covers inherently noisy operations building works, road-works,
demolition, dredging etc.
ii. They often take place in areas which were quiet beforehand and are
expected to be quite again when the work is complete.
iii. Do not leave powered tools running idly switch it off when you are not
using it. Complete the work as quickly as possible do not let it drag on for
months.
7. Fireworks Noise :
i. Recently fireworks have become an increasing noise problem for people
and pets.
ii. They are let off not only for traditional celebrations such as Marriage,
Deepawali Night, but year round to mark public and private celebration.
8. Musical Instrument Noise :
i. Keep the volume as low as possible, especially late at night. Use
headphones, or listen to music on a personal stereo.
ii. If you play a musical instrument, avoid practice early in the morning or
during the late evening/night.
iii. If the instrument has an amplifier, turn the volume down or preferably
use personal headphones.
9. Household appliances Noise :
i. Household appliances are produce lots of noise are which disturb home
members and neighbours also.
ii. There are various home-made noise pollutants including domestic
gadgets such as pressure cookers, washing machines, mixer-grinders,
desert coolers, air conditioners, sewing machines and vacuum cleaners.
iii. Electrical transistors, TVs, musical instruments, telephones, and
loudspeakers, Doors bell, crying of infants etc.
Que 5.3. Write down the specifications of acceptable noise level

for different areas as per BIS code 4954-1968 pollution.
Answer
Following are the specifications of acceptable noise level for areas as per
BIS code 4954-1968 pollution :
Table 5.3.1.
Area Category of Limits in dB (A) Leq
Code Area/Zone
Day Time Night Time
(A) Industrial Area 75 70
(B) Commercial Area 65 55
(C) Residential Area 55 45
(D) Silence Zone 50 40
Note :
1. Day time shall mean from 6.00 am to 10.00 pm.
2. Night time shall mean from 10.00 pm to 6.00 am.
3. Silence zone is an area comprising not less than 100 metres around
hospitals, educational institutions, courts, religious places or any other
area which is declared as such by the competent authority.
4. Mixed categories of areas may be declared as one of the four above
mentioned categories by the competent authority.
Que 5.4. Write down the major highlights of the provisions of

noise pollution. (Regulation and control Rules, 2000).
Answer
The major highlights of the provisions of this Noise Pollution
(Regulation and Control Rules, 2000) are indicated below :
1. The State Government shall take measures for abatement of noise
including noise emanating from vehicular movements and ensure that
the existing noise levels do not exceed the ambient air quality standards
(see Table 5.3.1) specified under these rules.
2. All development authorities, local bodies and other concerned
authorities while planning developmental activity or carrying out
functions relating to town and country planning shall take into
consideration all aspects of noise pollution as a parameter of quality
life to avoid noise menace and to achieve the objective of maintaining
the ambient air quality standards in respect of noise.
3. The noise levels in any area/zone shall not exceed the ambient air
quality standards in respect of noise as specified in the Schedule
(see Table 5.3.1).
4. The authority shall be responsible for the enforcement of noise pollution

control measures and the due compliance of the ambient air quality
standards in respect of noise.
5. A person may, if the noise level exceeds the ambient noise standards
by 10 dB(A) or more given in the corresponding columns against any
area / zone, make a complaint to the authority.
6. The authority shall act on the complaint and take action against the
violator in accordance with the provisions of these rules and any other
law in force.
Que 5.5. Write a short note on :

1. Sound power.
2. Sound pressure.
3. Sound intensity.
Answer
A. Sound Power :
1. The power of sound (W) is defined as the rate of doing work by a travelling
sound wave in the direction of the propagation of the wave.
2. The energy transmitted by a sound wave in the direction of its propagation
in thus, defined as its power, and is represented in Watts in SI units.
B. Sound Pressure :
1. The equivalent pressure of such a sine wave is represented by root
mean square pressure (prms) as :
1 T 2
p(2t )  . p dt
T 0 ( t)
prms = ...(5.5.1)
where, p(t) = Pressure at any time t.

2. The rms sound pressure is, thus obtained by adding the squares of
amplitude values at small time intervals, and dividing the total by the
averaging time, and finally taking the square root of the total.
A
3. This works out equal to for a regular sine wave.
2
4. The sound pressure (prms) is further related to atmospheric pressure
and barometric pressure by the equation.
5. Sound pressure = Total atmospheric pressure – Barometric pressure.
C. Sound Intensity :
1. In addition to sound pressure (Prms), the sound intensity (I) is another
important term which is used to measure sound.
2. It is defined as the sound power averaged over the time, per unit area
normal to the direction of propagation of the sound wave.
3. Intensity and power of a sound wave are related by the equation
W
I= ...(5.5.2)
a
where, I = Intensity of sound wave in Watt/m2.
W = Power of sound wave in Watts (averaged over
the time.
a = A unit area  to the direction of wave motion.
4. Sound intensity (I) is further related to rms sound pressure by the
equation,
2
prms
I= ...(5.5.3)
C
where, prms = rms sound pressure in pascals (Pa) .
 = Density of air or medium in which sound wave
is travelling in kg/m3.
C = Velocity of sound wave in m/sec.
5. The density of air () and the speed of sound (C) used in the above
equation can be known if the temperature of air is known.
6. In other words, given the temperature and pressure of air, the density
of air can be determined from the standard tables; and the speed of
sound determined by the equation
C = 20.05 T ...(5.5.4)
where, T = Absolute temperature in Kelvin (K).
C = Speed of sound in m/sec.
Que 5.6. Explain in detail “level of noise”.
Answer
Levels of Noise :
1. The sound pressure of the faintest sound that can be heard by a normal
healthy individual is about 20 micro-pascal (-Pa).
2. On the other hand, the loudest sound produced by a Saturn rocket at
the lift off stage is about 200 Pa.
3. This astronomical variation in sound pressure (varying from 20 -Pa to
200 Pa) is usually avoided by expressing sound pressure on a scale
based on the log of the ratio of the measured sound pressure and a
reference standard pressure. Measurements on this scale are called
levels.
4. The sound level (L) is, thus, represented as :
Q
L = log10 ...(5.6.1)
Q0
where, Q = Measured quantity of sound pressure, or sound
intensity.
Q0 = Re fe re nce standard quantity o f sound
pressure, or sound intensity.
L = Sound level in bels (B).
5. The unit of sound level obtained in eq. (5.6.1) is bels (B), and since it
turns out to be a rather large unit, a smaller unit of decibels (dB) is
generally used.
6. Hence, when sound level is expressed in decibels, the eq. (5.6.1) reduces
to
Q
L in dB = 10 log10 ...(5.6.2)
Q0
i. The reference standard quantity Q0 in the above equation is taken is to
be equal to 20 Pa, when should pressure is measured. In that
eventuality, eq. (5.6.2) reduces to sound pressure level (Lp) in dB
2
 prms 
Lp = 10 log10 
 20  Pa 
 prms 
or Lp = 20 log10  ...(5.6.3)
 20  Pa 
where, prms = Root mean square pressure in Pa.
ii. Similarly, the reference standard quantity Q0 in eq. (5.6.2) is taken to
the equal to 10–12 W/m2, when sound intensity level is measured. The
sound intensity level is thus given as :
7. Sound intensity level (Li) in dB
 I 
Li in dB = 10 log 10  12 
 10 
where, I = Measured sound intensity is W/m2 ...(5.6.4)
8. Out of these two terms, i.e., sound pressure and sound intensity, sound
pressure level on reference scale of 20 Pa, is usually adopted to express
sound levels in decibels.
PART-2
Plane, Point and Line Sources, Multiple Sources, Outdoor and
Indoor Noise Propagation, Psychoacoustics and Noise Criteria,
Effects of Noise on Health, Annoyance Rating Schemes.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.7. Discuss the behaviour of point, line and plane sound
sources.
Answer
A. Point Sources :
1. The SPL from an ideal point source radiator falls at the rate of 6 dB per
doubling of distance.
2. The Intensity of sound from the point source falls off as the inverse
square of the distance. This is known as the inverse square law.
3. The energy radiated from the point source is evenly distributed over
the surface of an expanding sphere.
4. The surface area of the sphere is inversely proportional to the distance
(radius of the sphere) squared.
B. Line Sources :
1. The SPL from an infinitely long line source falls off at a rate of 3 dB per
doubling of distance.
2. This is because the energy distribution is now over the surface of a
cylinder, rather than a sphere as in the case of the point source.
3. Because the surface area of the expanding cylinder is inversely
proportional to distance, not distance squared, it follows that the energy
density falls simply with distance from the source, rather than distance
squared.
C. Plane Sources :
1. Imagine an infinitely large flat surface that radiates sound.
2. The SPL from an infinitely large plane sound source is constant with
distance from the source.
3. The energy distribution from the source is now over the surface of
another plane some distance from the source.
4. As the wave propagates it does not expand but rather continues to pass
through precisely the same area as the source itself.
5. Therefore the energy density at any point in space is equal to the
energy density at the source plane itself.
6. The SPL is constant everywhere in the vicinity of a plane radiator.
Que 5.8. Discuss the various sources of noise pollution.
Answer
Sources of Noise Pollution :
The occurrence of noise will dependent or independent in nature.
According to their source of generation, noise pollution can be classified
into two categories :
Noise pollution
Natural pollution Human-made pollution
Household Social Industrial Transportation

equipments events activities
A. Natural Sources : Under natural noise pollution, the events take
place naturally as heavy rain, lightening, volcanic explosion, thundering
of clouds etc. but their effect remains upto particular time and area
and they do not harm most.
B. Human-made Sources : This type of noise pollution affects vast.
Loud music, sound of vehicles, noise produced by industries is under it.
Some causes of these are as follows :
1. From Household Equipments : In our daily life, household
equipments such as mixers, vacuum cleaner, washing machine, cooler,
music system, dog barking etc., cause noise pollution.
2. From Social Events : Such social group programs in which mostly
people make a noise. Its examples are following: group worshiping,
disco, parties, market areas marriage functions etc.
3. From Industrial Activities : The noise produced by industrial units
is very dangerous and loud e.g., manufacturing industries, printing
machines, site of building construction, etc.
4. From Transportation Means : Now-a-days, where we see, we will
hear loud noise of vehicles which produce maximum noise, e.g., trains,
buses, aeroplanes, taxies, agricultural machines (tractors, crashers)
etc.
Que 5.9. Explain the outdoor and indoor noise propagation.
Answer
A. Outdoors Noise Propagation :
1. Sound waves travel in a continuously extending spherical wave-front
from the source.
2. For a point source that emits a certain sound energy, this energy is
concentrated in a single point at the source.
3. At a distance from the source, the same energy is distributed over a
sphere.
4. The greater the distance from the source, larger the surface over
which the energy is dispersed.
5. The sound energy is dispersed over an imaginary sphere with a surface
that grows in proportion to the square of the distance from a point
source.
6. The surface of the sphere grows 4 times with each doubling of the
distance from the source.
7. The sound hence rapidly declines with the distance from the source.
8. Each doubling of the distance from the point source yields a 6 dB
reduction of the sound level.
B. lndoor Noise Propagation :
1. The sound wave hits building construction surfaces before it is
significantly attenuated.
2. The sound field indoors is not spherical but depends on the geometry
and the acoustical properties of these surfaces.
3. The volume of the room and the distances between the sound source,
the building construction surfaces and the listening point are also
important.
4. The sound in a certain listening point in a room is composed of the
direct sound and the reflected sound.
5. The direct sound is the sound that has not yet been reflected in a
surface.
6. The sum of all reflected sound is called the reverberant sound field.
7. It consists of all sound that has been reflected once, twice or more in
the building construction surfaces.
8. The sound reflected one time is called 1st reflections, two times 2nd
reflections etc.
9. If the surfaces were perfectly absorptive, there would be no reflections
at all.
10. In reality, there is always a loss of energy when a sound wave hits a wall.
11. The air also absorbs some of the sound wave’s energy.
12. The sound absorption is frequency dependent. High frequency sound
is often more easily absorbed than low frequency sound.
Que 5.10. Write a short not on :

A. Psychoacoustic of noise pollution.
B. Noise criteria of noise pollution.
Answer
A. Psychoacoustics of Noise Pollution :
1. Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception, i.e., the
branch of science studying the psychological and physiological responses
associated with sound including speech and music.
2. Hearing includes the mechanical wave propagation and a sensory and
perceptual event.
3. When sound arrives at the ear, it is transformed in to neural action
potential.
4. The ear has a non-linear response to sounds of different intensity
levels: this non-linear response is called loudness
B. Noise Criteria of Noise Pollution :
1. The human ear can nominally hear sounds in the range 20 Hz
(0.02 kHz) to 20,000 Hz (20 kHz).
2. The upper limit tends to decrease with age; most adults are unable to
hear above 16 kHz.
3. Tones between 4 and 16 Hz can be perceived by the body’s sense of
touch.
4. The minimum threshold at which a sound can be heard is frequency
dependent. By measuring this minimum intensity for testing tones of
various frequencies, a frequency dependent absolute threshold of
hearing (ATH) curve may be derived and can be used to find the lower
limits.
Que 5.11. What are effects of noise on health ?
Answer
Effects on Noise Pollution on Human Health :
1. Hearing Problems :
i. Hearing is one of the five senses that human beings have. As such, it is
an essential part of the life of any person.
ii. But in as much as the ear serves the purpose of receiving sound waves,
it can also do so to a certain limit.
iii. When it gets to the point termed as noise, it means it is undesirable
because it interferes with one's hearing capacity.
iv. This is the reason people cover their years when there is really loud
noise.
v. Such loud noise can cause hearing impairment, which can even result
in permanent hearing loss.
vi. Hearing loss due to noise pollution is attributed to prolonged exposure

of noise levels above 85 decibels.
2. Difficulty in Sleeping :
i. Noise can deter sleep because of its psychological effect. Having noise
around can distort peaceful sleep as it causes stress.
ii. Moreover, being in a noisy place means there is almost no chance of
having any sleep.
iii. Inadequacy of sleep in turn interrupts the normal functioning of the
body, leading to discomfort, fatigue, and general moodiness.
3. Reduced Cognitive Functioning :
i. The ear is connected to the brain, which coordinates the body's stimulus
responses.
ii. For this reason, all the sound waves that hit the ear are sent to the brain
for interpretation.
iii. This means too much noise also gets to the brain and according to
scientific reports, such kind of noise dulls the brain and contributes to a
lower response rate by the brain.
iv. Due to this, cognitive functioning reduces and so is the ability to solve
problems normally.
v. Individuals who live in areas with too much noise, for instance, adjacent
to busy highways, railway lines, airports or near loud night clubs tend to
have lower cognitive power compared to those who live in quieter
environments.
4. Cardiovascular Problems :
i. Noise ‘excites’ the heart. Too much noise means that the heart is also
disturbed and ends up beating faster; increasing blood pressure.
ii. In loud noise, stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol are also
released.
iii. Therefore, blood pressure will definitely increase in noisy environments
thus prompting faster flow of blood which in turn leads to secretion of
catecholamine, a hormone that further magnifies the number of times
the heart pumps blood.
iv. As much as there is no harm in this, regular exposure will keep the body
getting higher impulses leading to increased blood pressure.
v. If blood pressure keeps rising, it may open up chances for heart related
diseases such as high blood pressure and stroke.
vi. Other cardiovascular diseases include hypertension and arteriolosclerosis
and are caused by the dilation of the pupil and constriction of blood
vessels.
5. Emotion and Behavioral Change :

i. This is different from cognitive thinking. Too much noise means
disturbance of peace which may lead to annoyance or anger.
ii. People in this state tend to have constant headaches which may even
intensify if the noise is continuous.
iii. This may lead to an amplified stress levels and thus, emotions take over
and violence may ensue.
iv. This type of behavior is reported to be due to anxiety. With such behavior,
it becomes hard to concentrate on work and achieve set goals owing to
reduced work efficiency.
6. Reproduction Problems :
i. Varying studies have been conducted to estimate the effect of noise
pollution on reproduction in human beings and surprisingly, most of
these studies have posited that pregnant women exposed to noise
pollution during the course of their expectancy tend to give birth to
children with less body weight.
ii. The stress levels experienced by the expectant mother equally disturbs
the unborn child.
Que 5.12. Discus s the annoyance rating s chemes of noise

pollution.
Answer
Annoyance Rating Schemes of Noise Pollution :
1. Noise levels in general have increased over the years.
2. Sound pressure level represents the magnitude of noise and is one of
the characteristics that can verify whether a given noise is above its
“pollution level”.
3. There are other characteristics of noise that dictate whether people will
react adversely to it or not. These are :
i. Spectral composition or frequency content.
ii. Duration.
iii. Presence of pure tones.
iv. Suddenness.
v. Variability.
vi. Information content.
4. The above factors introduce much subjectivity into noise pollution
characterization, and various rating schemes have been devised that
are meant to correlate with the annoyance related characteristics of a
noise signal.
5. Noise levels are commonly measured by a hand-held instrument called

a sound-level meter that gives either a single-number evaluation of the
time-varying pressure in decibels or a spectral breakdown of the signal.
6. The annoyance is accessed using the noise annoyance rating scale as
shown in Fig. 5.12.1.
0 25 50 75 100
Not at all Somewhat Rather Quite Very

annoying annoying annoying annoying annoying
Fig. 5.12.1. Noise annoyance rating scale.
7. Annoyance is strongly dependent on dB level in each frequency band,

and noise control techniques are equally dependent on the decibel level
in each frequency band.
8. Thus, identifying noise problems with regard to both magnitude and
frequency is an important step toward intelligent noise control.
PART-3
Special Noise Environments : Infrasound, Ultrasound, Impulsive
Sound and Sonic Boom, Noise Standards and Limit Values,
Noise of Instrumentation and Monitoring Procedure,
Noise Indices, Noise Control Methods.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.13. Write a short note on :

1. Ultrasound.
2. Infrasound.
3. Sonic Boom.
4. Impulsive sound.
Answer
1. Ultrasound :
i. Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper
audible limit of human hearing.
ii. Ultrasound is not different from “normal” (audible) sound in its physical
properties, except that humans cannot hear it.
iii. This limit varies from person to person and is approximately 20 kilohertz
(20,000 hertz) in healthy young adults.
iv. Ultrasound devices operate with frequencies from 20 kHz upto several
gigahertz.
v. Ultrasound is used in many different fields. Ultrasonic devices are used
to detect objects and measure distances.
vi. Ultrasound imaging or sonography is often used in medicine.
vii. In the nondestructive testing of products and structures, ultrasound is
used to detect invisible flaws.
viii. Industrially, ultrasound is used for cleaning, mixing, and accelerating
chemical processes.
x. Animals such as bats and porpoises use ultrasound for locating prey and
obstacles.
2. Infrasound :
i. Infrasound, sometimes referred to as low-frequency sound, describes
sound waves with a frequency below the lower limit of audibility
(generally 20 Hz).
ii. Hearing becomes gradually less sensitive as frequency decreases, so for
humans to perceive infrasound, the sound pressure must be sufficiently
high.
iii. The ear is the primary organ for sensing infrasound, but at higher
intensities it is possible to feel infrasound vibrations in various parts of
the body.
iv. The study of such sound waves is sometimes referred to as infrasonics,
covering sounds beneath 20 Hz down to 0.1 Hz. and rarely to 0.001 Hz.
v. People use this frequency range for monitoring earthquakes and
volcanoes, charting rock and petroleum formations below the earth,
and also in ballistocardiography and seismocardiography to study the
mechanics of the heart.
3. Sonic Boom :
i. A sonic boom is the sound associated with the shock waves created
whenever an object travels through the air faster than the speed of
sound.
ii. Sonic booms generate enormous amounts of sound energy, sounding
similar to an explosion or a thunderclap to the human ear.
iii. The crack of a supersonic bullet passing overhead or the crack of a
bullwhip are examples of a sonic boom in miniature.
iv. Sonic booms due to large supersonic aircraft can be particularly loud
and startling, tend to awaken people, and may cause minor damage to
some structures.
v. They led to prohibition of routine supersonic flight over land.
vi. Although they cannot be completely prevented, research suggests that

with careful shaping of the vehicle the nuisance due to the sonic booms
may be reduced to the point that overland supersonic flight may become
a practical option.
4. Impulsive Sound :
i. It is a category of (acoustic) noise which includes unwanted, almost
instantaneous (thus impulse like) sharp sound (like clicks and pops).
ii. Noises of the kind are usually caused by electromagnetic interference,
scratchers on the recording disks, gunfire, explosions and ill
synchronization in digital recording and communication.
iii. High levels of such a noise (200 dB) may damage internal organs, while
180 decibels are enough to destroy or damage human ears.
Que 5.14. Write down the acceptable outdoor noise levels for
various type of building as per BIS code 4954-1968.
Answer
Acceptable Outdoor Noise Levels in-

Residential Areas
S. No. Location Noise levels dB(A)
1. Radio and TV studios 25-30
2. Music rooms 30-35
3. Hospitals, class rooms, 35-40
auditorium
4. Apartments, hotels, homes 35-40
conference-rooms,
small offices
5. Court rooms, private libraries 40-45
offices
6. Large public offices, 45-50
banks, stores, etc.
7. Restaurants 50-55
Que 5.15. Discuss the noise pollution from road. Discuss the
methods to prevent noise pollution from road.
Answer
A. Noise pollution from roads :
1. One of the main sources of environmental noise in India is road traffic.
2. Traffic noise is a major concern because it affects every person directly

or indirectly.
3. There are basically two sources of traffic noise. One is from new roads,
the other from existing roads.
4. Noise from existing roads is more difficult to tackle.
5. Some roads traffic generates noise greater than 70 decibels. Barrier
could be applied to some 40 identified road sections for implementation
under the Public Works Programme.
6. Other solutions are being investigated for the remainder, such as traffic
management and alternate motor vehicles.
7. To protect residents affected by traffic noise from new roads, the
Environmental Protection Department liaises with other departments
during the planning stage to minimize the impacts.
B. Method to Prevent Noise Pollution from Road :
1. Avoid slamming car doors.
2. Keep the silencer in good order.
3. Do not start engine unnecessarily.
4. Use the horn only in an emergency.
5. Carry out noisy repairs during the day.
6. Use noise barriers and take proper traffic measures.
7. Service the vehicle regularly for quietness and economy.
8. Check the brakes are properly adjusted and do not squeal.
9. Quieter vehicles, tyres and road surfaces should be used.
10. Keep the volume of in car music reasonable loud music reduce, boost
noise on road.
Que 5.16. Explain the methods of reducing noise at home.
Answer
Reducing Noise at Home : The following simple measures can be
taken for reducing noise at home :
1. Keep noisy household equipment (e.g., washing machines) away from
partition walls.
2. When buying a new household appliance, ask how noisy it is.
3. Perform noisy jobs during normal waking hours.
4. Apologise to neighbours in advance for disturbance.
5. Keep the volume of TV, radio and music as low as possible, especially
late at night.
6. If you want to turn the volume up, use headphones.
7. If your dog barks when left alone, arrange to leave it with a friend.
8. If you have an old or faulty burglar alarm, replace it with one complying
with standard.
9. If you have a party, tell your neighbours in advance and keep the noise
to a minimum.
10. If using fireworks for a celebration, tell neighbours especially if they
have pets and don’t let fireworks off after 11.00 pm.
Que 5.17. Discuss the different techniques used to control the

noise pollution in industries.
Answer
Noise Reduction (Control) in Industries : Following are different
techniques used to control the noise pollution in industries :
1. Reducing noise from process exhaust stacks.
2. Controlling high pressure steam, natural gas and other vent noises.
3. Acoustic blankets/warps attenuate noise from the equipment casing.
4. Acoustically treating roof exhausters, ventilating equipment and cooling
towers.
5. Closing openings in enclosures and barrier walls required for utilities.
6. Damping method of reducing noise in chutes, hoppers, machine guards,
conveyors, panels and more.
7. Selecting efficient equipment like selecting fans, compressors, PD
blowers and engines that operate efficiently contribute significantly to
noise attenuation.
8. Adjusting fan speed is in direct correlation with fan speed, so simple
adjustments can produce significant results.
9. Duct lining ventilation systems with acoustic absorbent material such
as foam or fiberglass will effectively decrease airborne noise.
10. Reducing noise pollution by muffling the sounds at the source is one of
the best methods in industry and for urban living.
11. Protective equipment is generally mandatory when noise levels exceed
85 dB(A) in industry.
Que 5.18. Explain the different noise problems control approaches

by Government.
Answer
Noise Problems Control Approaches :
A four-pronged approach is adopted by the Government to tackle
environmental noise in India. The four prongs are as follows :
1. Planning :
i. Planning is better than cure. The government has prescribed standards
with due regards to noise in planning new development or redevelopment
projects.
ii. Considerable efforts have been devoted to pre-empting noise problems
that may arise from land use and public work planning activities.
iii. These efforts ensure that new noise-sensitive receivers such as homes
and schools will not be exposed to excessive noise and new infrastructure
will not cause insurmountable noise problems.
iv. Further, whenever an opportunity for urban redevelopment arises,
these opportunities will be seized to improve the noise environment
through environmentally friendly urban design.
2. Abatement :
i. Abatement is one of the means to resolve existing noise problems, which
are caused by busy highway running through populated areas and schools
affected by noise from aircraft or road traffic.
ii. A large number of schools in India have been badly affected by noise
from road traffic, and from aircraft noise when the airport was still in
operation.
iii. So in noise abatement zones road surfaces are made from noise absorptive
materials which help to traffic noise upto 5 dB(A).
iv. A policy has been implemented to address the noise impact of existing
roads. The following measures will be adopted at excessively noisy road
sections where practicable :
a. Erect road-side noise barriers or enclosures.
b. Pave roads with low-noise resurfacing materials.
c. Implement traffic management scheme, such as restricting or
diverting traffic at certain sensitive hours.
3. Control :
i. Many forms of environmental noise are under statutory control.
ii. A key instrument for control is the Noise Control Ordinance. The
Ordinance controls construction, noise from commercial and industrial
premises, neighbourhood noise and noise from newly-registered motor
vehicles.
iii. In addition to the Noise Control Ordinance, Road Traffic Ordinance also
provides control over noise generated from motor vehicles.
iv. The Aircraft Noise Ordinance also controls environmental noise. It
requires aircrafts flying in and out of the city.
v. International Airport to be certified for the most stringent noise standards.
vi. This is controlled under the factories and Industrial Undertakings
Ordinance, the enforcement of which is carried out by the Labour
Department.
4. Partnership :
i. Apart from controlling pollution through law enforcement, the
Environmental Protection Department (EPD) also encourages
compliance by developing partnership programmes with various trades
and industries affected by pollution control laws.
ii. These include the construction industry, restaurant trade, vehicle repair
workshops and property management sector which are the subject of
most public complaints over the past decade.
Que 5.19. Discuss the various noise control equipments.
Answer
Noise control Equipment : Following are the various equipments
used to control noise :
A. Fan Silencers :
1. A wide variety of fans and blowers are used in today's industrial facilities
in a variety of applications.
2. They may be stand alone or included as components in OEM equipment
such as dust collectors and air handling units.
3. Rotating mechanical equipment such as fan is a common noise source in
manufacturing plants.
4. The noise generated by fans can quickly become a significant problem,
requiring the use of silencers and wraps.
5. Specific fan/silencer needs and facility requirements including issues
such as :
i. Space restrictions.
ii. Maintaining air flow by minimizing pressure loss through the silencer.
iii. Meeting environmental noise regulations and industrial health and safety
requirements.
iv. Using construction materials specific to the application.
v. Providing accessories including rain hoods, transitions, support brackets
and flow measuring devices.
B. Sound Enclosures :
1. A highly effective means for controlling localized industrial noise is to
install an encapsulating sound enclosure to contain and absorb noise
where reduced sound levels are required.
2. Because almost every in-place noise issue is in a different environment,
each application is a custom design.
i. Noise Control Curtains :
a. Adapting flexible curtains to sound enclosure assembly provides
efficient noise control.
b. The sound proofing curtain systems are an economical, high

performance, noise control product possessing high mechanical
strength.
c. They are fire safe, easily cleanable, resistant to dust, dirt, oils and
most chemicals, and give a long service life.
d. Curtains reduce reverberant noise energy and offer a 7-10 dB
reduction.
ii. Rigid Metal Noise Enclosures :
a. Another effective type of sound enclosure is a rigid metal enclosure.
b. The standard wall is constructed of an 18 GA solid exterior skin
with a 22 GA interior perforated liner, and a 4 lb/ft3 density acoustic
fill core.
c. Options for other types of wall construction are available. With an
STC of upto 41, metal enclosures are designed to both contain and
absorb noise, and to act as a barrier between noisy and quiet areas.
iii. Acoustic Flexible Connectors :
a. Acoustic flexible connectors are manufactured using a unique
combination of materials to control airstream breakout noise.
b. Depe nding on the application, the flexible inner wall is
manufactured from high-temperature or rugged; acoustic media is
then sandwiched between this inner wall and a tough outer acoustic
barrier.
c. Finally, everything is secured in place with two sets of heavy duty
backing bars.
C. Industrial Process Silencers :
1. Industrial process silencers are the equipments which are used for
attenuate noise.
2. Silencer design, with an understanding of the application, equipment,
and process, is critical when it comes to meeting specific noise attenuation
requirements.
3. There are three basic types of silencers :
i. Absorptive and Dissipative Silencers : These are lined with sound
absorbing materials such as mineral wool or fiberglass to attenuate
sound waves. They are most effective with mid and high frequency
noise.
ii. Reactive Chamber Silencers : They have target with low frequency
noise. Multiple chambers with differing internal cross sections are used
to reflect noise energy back to the source.
iii. Absorptive/Reactive : It is a combination of both the absorptive and
reactive designs. Design covers a broader range of frequencies to meet
stricter attenuation requirements.
D. Acoustic Building Ventilation Systems :
1. Successful acoustic building ventilation systems are a combination of
noise attenuation solutions coupled with good ventilation practices.
2. High volume acoustic ventilation systems remove high internal heat

loads from "hot" sources such as large compressors, engines, generators
and motors while minimizing noise impact on surrounding communities
by the rotating equipment and necessary supply/exhaust fans.

Q. 1. Define noise and explain as to how and why it should be

regarded as an environmental pollutant ?
Q. 2. Write down the specifications of acceptable noise level for
areas as per BIS code 4954-1968 pollution.
Q. 3. Write down the major highlights of the provisions of noise
pollution. (Regulation and control Rules, 2000).
Q. 4. Discuss the various sources of noise pollution.
Q. 5. Write a short not on :
A. Psychoacoustic of noise pollution.
B. Noise criteria of noise pollution.
Q. 6. What are effects of noise on health ?
Q. 7. Write down the acceptable indoor noise levels for various
type of building as per BIS code 4954-1968.
Q. 8. Discuss the different techniques used to control the noise
pollution in industries.
Q. 7. Discuss the various noise control equipments.

Air and Noise Pollution Control SQ–1 N (CE-Sem-5)
1 Air Pollution
(2 Marks Questions)
1.1. Define air pollution.

Ans. Air pollution is define as the presence in or introduction into the air
of one or more contaminants, which are injurious to human beings.
1.2. What are the compositions of gases in air ?

Ans. Composition of atmospheric air :
N2 = 78 %, O2 = 21.93 %, Ar = 0.93 %, CO2 = 0.03 %, etc.
1.3. Discuss in short structure of atmosphere.

Ans.
Space
Exosphere
above 1000 km
Thermosphere
650 km
Mesophere
80 km
Stratosphere
50 km
Troposphere
8-12
km
Earth Crust
Fig. 1.3.1.
1.4. What is the green house effect ?

2 Marks Questions SQ–2 N (CE-Sem-5)
Ans. The green house effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s
surface. When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere,
some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-
radiated by green house gases such as water vapour, CO2 CH4,
nitrous oxide, O3 and some artificial chemicals (e.g., CFCs).
1.5. What are the sources of air pollution ?
Ans. Mainly there are two sources of air pollution :
i. Natural sources ii. Man-made sources
1.6. Write down the classification of pollutants.
Ans. Following are the various types of pollutants :
i. Degradable. ii. Slowly degradable.
iii. Non-degradable.
1.7. What do you mean by acid rain ?
Ans. Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form
of precipitation with acidic components, such as sulphuric or nitric
acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry
forms.
1.8. Define the term smog.
Ans. Smog is a kind of air pollution, originally named for the mixture of
smoke and fog in the air.
1.9. What are the effects of air pollution on atmosphere ?
Ans. Following are the effects of air pollution on atmosphere :
i. It is found increment in the temperature in extreme industries,
motor vehicles, heat and gases emitted from AC and dense populated
urban region. Gradually this temperature forms heat island on
increasing.
ii. When smoke and dust covers the sky in plentiful quantity, the heat
obtained from the sun goes back into the space on being reflected
by smoke and dust. Due to this there is a fall in temperature and it
causes the danger of snow fall.
1.10. What are the effects of air pollutant on human ?
Ans. Impact on Human : Air pollution invites many diseases such as
asthma, irritation of eyes, headache, dizziness, heart diseases etc.
1.11. What are the effects of air pollutant on animal ?

Ans. Impact on Animal : It destroys the life of aquatic as fish when
acid rain is formed in air. It may cause skin cancer in wildlife.
1.12. What are the effects of acid rain on plants ?

Ans. Impact on Plants : Acid rain destroys the leaves of the plants and
ozone prevents the growth of plants.

Chemistry and
2 Dispersion of
Air Pollution
(2 Marks Questions)
2.1. How do air pollution occurs ?

Ans. Air pollution occurs when certain gases and particles build up in the
atmosphere to such levels that they can cause harm to our health,
causing breathing and respiratory problems, and even resulting in
premature death, as well as damaging the environment around us.
2.2. Why temperature inversion is necessary ?

Ans. Temperature inversions are important because they suppress
vertical dispersion of pollution and often trap pollution near the
surface where we live.
2.3. Define atmospheric stability.

Ans. Atmospheric stability is associated with how air parcels behave
once they are displaced vertically from their initial positions.
2.4. What are the types of atmospheric stability ?

Ans. There are three types of atmospheric stability :
i. Positive Stability : It implies that a displaced air parcel will return
to its initial position; associated with high pollution.
ii. Neutral Stability : Neutral stability implies that a displaced air
parcel will remain at its new position; associated with moderate
pollution.
iii. Negative Stability or Instability : It means that a displaced air
parcel will continue to accelerate away from its rest position;
associated with low pollution.
2.5. How does temperature affect air quality ?

Ans.
i. Temperature inversions affect air pollution because they change
the dynamics of air movement.
ii. Warm air rises in the atmosphere because it is less dense and,
therefore, more buoyant than the cooler air above it.
iii. This smothering effect traps air pollutants and allows their
concentrations to increase.
2.6. How does air pollution affect our health ?

Ans. Pollution affect our health in the following ways :
i. Respiratory diseases.
ii. Cardiovascular damage.
iii. Fatigue, headaches and anxiety.
iv. Irritation of the eyes, nose and throat.
v. Damage to reproductive organs.
vi. Harm to the liver, spleen and blood.
2.7. Define the mechanical turbulence.

Ans.
i. Random fluctuation of wind velocity (speed and direction).
ii. Wind is zero at ground surface and rise with elevation to near the
speed imposed by the pressure gradient.
iii. The greater the mean wind speed, greater the turbulence.
iv. The more the mechanical turbulence, the easier it is to disperse
the spread the atmospheric pollutants.
2.8. Define the thermal turbulence.

Ans.
i. Different of air circulation during day time and nights.
ii. During clear nights when the ground radiates its heat away to the
cold night sky and the cold air above it causing a sinking density
current.
2.9. What are the effects of wind on air pollution ?

Ans. Following are the effects of wind on air pollution :
i. Wind diffuses pollutants by stretching them along the wind
direction.
ii. Wind speed also enhances turbulence, and thus vertical and
horizontal diffusion.
iii. Variations in wind direction are also important as they lead to
sinuous plumes.
iv. The greatest potential for pollution is in low wind situations
because horizontal transport and turbulent diffusion are both
curtailed.
2.10. Define the mixing depth.

Ans.
i. The vertical distance between Earth’s surface and the height to
which convectional movements extend is called the mixing depth.
ii. Generally, greater the mixing depth, better the air quality.
2.11. What are the classes of air quality model ?

Ans. Classes of Air Quality Model : The air quality modeling
procedures can be categorized into four generic classes: Gaussian,
numerical, statistical or empirical and physical.
2.12. What are the uses of Gaussian model ?

Ans. Gaussian models are the most widely used techniques for
estimating the impact of nonreactive pollutants.
2.13. What are the plume types ?

Ans. Following are the types of plume :
i. Looping plume.
ii. Neutral plume.
iii. Coning plume.
iv. Fanning plume.
v. Lofting plume.
vi. Fumigating plume.
vii. Trapping plume.
2.14. Discuss the looping plume.

Ans.
i. High degree of convective turbulence.
ii. Superadiabatic lapse rate that means strong instabilities.
iii. Associated with clear daytime conditions accompanied by strong
solar heating and light winds.
iv. High probability of high concentrations sporadically at ground
level close to stack.
v. Occurs in unstable atmospheric conditions.
2.15. Discuss the fanning plume.

Ans.
i. Occurs under large negative lapse rate.
ii. Strong inversion at a considerable distance above the stack.
iii. Extremely stable atmosphere.
iv. Little turbulence.
v. If plume density is similar to air, travels downwind at approximately
same elevation.

3 Air Pollution Control

(2 Marks Questions)
3.1. Write short note on air quality measurement.

Ans. Following are the ambient air quality measurement and their
standard :
1. The first Indian emission regulations came into existence in 1989.
Further in 1992 and 1991 these regulations were soon replaced by
gasoline and diesel vehicles.
2. Since 2000 India had been starting European Emissions and fuel
regulations for light duty and heavy duty vehicles.
3. The automotive emission India is working on the two reports from
planning commission established expert committee for Auto-fuel
Policy, Auto fuel vision and policy 2025.
3.2. Define the stack sampling of air pollutant.

Ans.
i. For deciding the techniques to be adopted for removing the pollution
from the gaseous emission of the industries, automobile, vehicles
etc.
ii. The most important work is to collect the sample of the emission of
gases at source. This collection of samples is also known as stack
sampling at origin of pollutants.
3.3. Write short note on sampling study planning.

Ans. For the stack sampling, proper planning is required. The proper
survey is done before planning. For the planning following points
should be considered :
i. The planner should be familiar with the process and operation to
determine the cycle operation.
ii. All methods of the sampling should be well known.
iii. Sample time because some sample undergoes cyclic changes.
iv. Amount of sample required.
v. The site should be well surveyed before taking the sample because
the source point must located clearly.
3.4. Discuss the selection of sampling location of air pollutant.

Ans.
i. The selection of the sampling site is an individual judgment and
requires the well experience of the field.
ii. The sampling point should be as far as possible from the disturbing
influence such as elbows, bends, transition pieces, baffles or other
obstructions.
iii. Researcher have shown that sampling point should be at a distance
of 5 to 10 times diameters downstream from any obstructions and
3 to 5 times diameter upstream from similar disturbance.
3.5. List the major equipments used to control air pollution.

Ans. Following are the major equipments used to control the air pollution :
i. Cyclones. ii. Scrubbers.
iii. Bag house-filters. iv. Electro-static precipitator.
v. Gravity settling chamber.
3.6. Write note on gravity settling chamber.

Ans.
i. It consists of a cylindrical body with multiple dust hoppers.
ii. The dirty air enters into the chamber from one end.
iii. During this process the dense particles present in the air settled
down into the hoppers and the clean air escaped out from another
end.
iv. This technique is based on the gravity phenomenon.
3.7. Write note on scrubbers.
Ans.
i. Scrubbers are designed to remove gases pollutants from the air.
ii. In this device polluted air passes through a chamber.
iii. In this chamber water is sprayed on the air.
iv. Particles are made wet and removed from the air.
v. It is a very efficient process to separate from ambient air.
3.8. What are the advantages of bag house filters ?
Ans.
i. Versatile and flexible for many applications.
ii. Very high for collection and removal of very small particles.
iii. Cost-effective when properly designed and maintained.
iv. Modular design for convenient assembly.
3.9. Write down the types of scrubbers.
Ans. Following are the types of scrubbers :
i. Spray towers. ii. Cyclone spray chambers.
iii. Venturi scrubbers. iv. Orifice scrubbers.
v. Impingement scrubbers. vi. Packed bed scrubbers.
vii. Dry scrubbers.

4 Control of Gaseous
Contaminants
(2 Marks Questions)
4.1. Write a short note on absorption units.

Ans.
i. Absorption units work on the principle of transfer of the pollutants
from the gas phase to the liquid phase.
ii. In other words, the pollutants from the dirty gas get absorbed in
the liquid, through which the gas is made to pass, in these units.
Such absorption takes place by diffusion as well as dissolution.
4.2. Write a note on adsorption units.

Ans.
i. Adsorption units use adsorbents like activated carbon, molecular
sieves (dehydrated zeolites, i.e., alkali or metal silicates), activated
alumina, silica gel, etc.
ii. In adsorption units, the dirty gases are made to pass through the
beds of such adsorbent materials, wherein the pollutants are
effectively caught and removed.
iii. Activated carbon beds can very effectively catch hydrocarbons, H2S,
and SO2.
4.3. What are the classifications of adsorbent ?

Ans. Potential adsorbent can be classified into three groups :
i. Non polar solids - where the adsorption is mainly physical e.g.,
activated carbon.
ii. Polar solids - where the adsorption is chemical and no change in the
chemical structure of the molecules or the surface occurs e.g. silica
and aluminium oxides. These materials adsorb both polar and
nonpolar molecules, but they exhibit preference or polar molecules.
iii. Chemical Adsorbing surfaces which adsorb the molecules and then
release them after reaction, which may be either catalytic, leaving
the surface unchanged or noncatalytic requiring replacement of
the surface atoms.
4.4. Discuss activated carbon.

Ans.
i. Among the various adsorbent mentioned above activated carbon is
most commonly used adsorbent because it has large surface area
per unit weight or volume of solid.
ii. Activated carbon is the residue obtained from various carbonaceous
materials like coal, nut shells, wood, paper mill sludge, petroleum
sludge, which are subjected to various steps like drying, carbonizing
and activating.
iii. Activated carbon is effective in adsorbing molecules or organic
substances with less selectivity than is exhibited by other more
polar adsorbents.
4.5. What are the characteristics of adsorbents ?

Ans.
i. Some of the important parameters for characterization of
adsorbents are particle size, surface area, pore size, pore volume
and pore volume distribution, density, adsorption capacity, iodine
number and molasses number, hardness and abrasion resistance.
ii. The total adsorptive capacity of a sample of activated carbon or any
adsorbent may be measured by its activity or relativity for a standard
vapour.
4.6. What are the applications of adsorption for control of

gaseous and odour emission at source ?
Ans. Following are the applications of adsorption process :
i. Vapour Recovery in Process Industries.
ii. Deodorization of Odours Emissions.
iii. Adsorption of H2S and carbon disulphide (CS2) from waste gases of
viscose production plants.
iv. Adsorption of sulphur containing gases.
4.7. Write down the effects of sulphur dioxide (SO2).

Ans. Sulphur dioxide found in the air produces following effects :
i. Irritates eyes, nose, throat.
ii. Damages lungs when inhaled.
4.8. What are the effects of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) ?

Ans.
i. When inhaled, nitrogen dioxide becomes a serious air pollutant
which may cause pulmonary edema (accumulation of excessive
fluid in the lungs).
ii. It causes acid rain which destroying fish and plant life in lakes,
damaging surfaces of building etc.
iii. It also contributes to photochemical smog.
4.9. What are the effects of carbon mono-oxide (CO) emission

on human health ?
Ans. Following are the effects of carbon mono-oxides emission on

human health :
i. Carbon mono-oxide is the most common type of fatal poisoning in
many countries around the world.
ii. Exposures to carbon monoxide may lead to toxicity of the central
nervous systems and heart, severe effects on the body of a pregnant
woman, headaches and dizziness.
iii. Problems with getting oxygen supplied to some body parts which
may be life-threatening.
4.10. Write down the effects of volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Ans. Following are the effects of VOCs :
i. Some aromatic compounds such as benzene, toluene and xylene
are potential carcinogens and may cause leukemia.
ii. Contribute to sick building syndrome indoors.
iii. As facilitators in ozone formation, VOCs may indirectly contribute
to respiratory problems and other ozone-related problems.
4.11. What are the effects of ozone (O3) as an air pollutant ?

Ans. Following are the effects of ozone :
i. Ozone in the troposphere can have the following negative effects
on animals, humans and the natural environment.
ii. Irritation of the respiratory system causing coughing, throat
irritation and an uncomfortable sensation in the chest.
iii. Compromised lung function harming the breathing process and
aggravation of asthma.
4.12. What are the reasons of automobiles pollution in India ?

Ans. Following are the reasons of automobiles pollution :
i. Continuous increase in means of transportation in India.
ii. Use of more vehicles in cities due to population growth.
iii. Dependency on diesel and petrol engine only as fuel.
iv. Moving old vehicles on the road freely.
4.13. What are the measures to control the automobile pollution ?

Ans. There are following measures to control the automobile pollution :
i. Improvement in technology of manufacturing vehicles.
ii. Proper maintenance of the roads in the cities should be made and
flyovers should be built.
iii. Petrol should be used only for petrol engine.
iv. Oil should be changed time to time.
v. Lubricant of high quality should be used.
4.14. Which Euro standard is currently in use in India ?

Ans. Euro VI - since 1st April 2020.

5 Noise Pollution
(2 Marks Questions)
5.1. Define noise pollution.

Ans. The unwanted unpleasant sound that causes discomfort for all
living beings is known as noise pollution.
5.2. List out the sources of noise pollution.

Ans. Industrial noise, transport noise and neighborhood noise are the
sources of noise pollution.
5.3. What are the control measures of noise pollution ?

Ans. Source control, transmission path intervention, receptor control,
oiling, etc., are the control measures of noise pollution.
5.4. What are the effects of noise pollution ?

Ans. The impacts of noise pollution are :
1. Hearing capability.
2. General health.
3. In communication.
5.5. What is Echo ?

Ans. A sound that reflected from a surface to the listener's ear is called
echo.
5.6. Explain ‘Intensity of Sound’.
Ans. The rate of sound per unit area is called intensity of sound. Intensity
of sound is measured in decibel (dB). Human ears can generally
hear the sound between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. The sound between
60-65 Hz is quite suitable for human ears. The sound more than
above level it can cause loss of hearing capacity.
5.7. What are psychological effects of air pollution ?
Ans. Psychological Effects :
i. High noise pollution affects the proper sleep of everybody which
will be one of the causes of insomnia. It affects the emotional balance
of persons.
ii. It also affects working capabilities and arouses the fatigue in short
period of time.
iii. Sometimes it will be the cause of depression, means person does

not use his mind properly or positive sense.
5.8. Discuss degree of noise.

Ans. Following are the various degrees of noise :
i. Painful : 120 – 140 dB
ii. Extremely Loud : 90 dB
iii. Very Loud : 60 – 80 dB
iv. Moderate : 40 – 50 dB
v. Faint : 30 dB
5.9. Define the power of sound.

Ans.
i. The power of sound (W) is define as the rate of doing work by a
travelling sound wave in the direction of the propagation of the
wave.
ii. The energy transmitted by a sound wave in the direction of its
propagation is thus, defined as its power, and is represented in
Watts in SI units.
5.10. What are the effects of noise pollution on human health ?

Ans. Following are the effects of noise pollution on human health :
i. Noise pollution causes various mental, physical, and physiological
disorders in human beings and animals.
ii. Health effects of noise include anxiety and stress reaction and in
extreme cases fright.
iii. The physiological manifestations are headaches, irritability and
nervousness, feeling of fatigue and decreases work efficiency.
5.11. How to control and prevent the noise pollution ?

Ans. Control and Prevention of Noise Pollution :
Noise pollution invites many kinds of physical and mental
depressions. It is compulsory to check them. Many suitable steps
must be taken to check them :
i. People should be aware of it.
ii. Vehicles and generators should have silencers.
iii. We should listen to music and TV in low volume.
iv. Generators and motors should have sound proofing.
5.12. Write down the noise control equipments.

Ans. Following are the noise control equipments :
i. Fan silencers.
ii. Sound enclosures.
iii. Industrial process silencers.
iv. Acoustic building ventilation systems.


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Air and Noise Pollution Control

QUANTUM PAGE PVT. LTD.

PUBLISHED BY : Apram Singh

© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Information contained in this work is derived from sources

Air and Noise Pollution Control (CE : Sem-5)

Price: Rs. 45/- only

Printed Version : e-Book.

KCE–057 : AIR & NOISE POLLUTION CONTROL

UNIT-1 : AIR POLLUTION (1–1 N to 1–18 N)

UNIT-2 : CHEMISTRY OF AIR POLLUTION (2–1 N to 2–16 N)

UNIT-3 : AIR POLLUTION CONTROL (3–1 N to 3–12 N)

UNIT-4 : CONTROL OF GASEOUS CONTAMINANTS (4–1 N to 4–12 N)

UNIT-5 : NOISE POLLUTION (5–1 N to 5–23 N)

SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ–1 N to SQ–12 N)

After completion of the course student will be able to:

CO-1 Understand air pollutants and their impacts.

Part-2 : Classification of ....................................... 1–10N to 1–14N

Part-3 : Effects of Air Pollutants ........................ 1–15N to 1–18N

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. What is air pollution ? Discuss the composition of

5. According to WHO (World Health Organisation) :

Que 1.2. Discuss the sources of air pollution.

Natural Pollution Man-made Pollution

industrialization are the chief reason, as : industrial rubbish, sewage,

Que 1.3. Explain the sources of man-made air pollution.

v. Volatile hydrocarbons vaporize when fuels such as gasoline and natural

Que 1.4. What are the causes of environmental pollution ?

Que 1.5. Describe the structure of our atmosphere.

Que 1.6. Discuss the effects of air pollution.

Que 1.7. Discuss the various measures to monitoring and

4. Encouraging people to use public transport system and opposed to private

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.8. Discuss the classification of air pollutants.

Classification of air pollutants

Physical Air Biological Air Chemical Air

Que 1.9. Discuss the form of air pollutants.

2. The sources of toxic air pollutants include power plants industries,

Effects of Ammonia Emissions :

Effects of Ozone as an Air Pollutant : Ozone in the troposphere can

Que 1.11. What are the reasons of automobile pollution in India

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.13. Discuss the effects of air pollutants on plants.

Que 1.14. What are the effects of air pollutants on animals ?

3. These pollutants originate either from the industries situated nearby or

Que 1.15. Discuss the effect of air pollutions on materials and

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q. 1. What is air pollution ? Discuss the compos ition of

Q. 2. Explain the sources of man-made air pollution.

Q. 3. Describe the structure of our atmosphere.

Q. 4. Discuss the effects of air pollution.

Q. 5. Discuss the classification of air pollutants.

Q. 6. Discuss the various air pollutants and their effects.

Q. 7. What are the effects of air pollution on human health.

Q. 8. Discuss the effect of air pollutions on materials and

Part-2 : Wind Velocity and ...................................... 2–4N to 2–7N

Part-3 : Dispersion of Air Pollutants, ................. 2–8N to 2–15N

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. Describe the air pollution chemistry.