UNIT-IV

DIVERSION HEAD WORKS

Types of diversion head works
Diversion and storage head works
weirs and barrages
Layout of diversion head works, components
Bligh’s creep theory, Khosla’s theory, determination of uplift pressure
Impervious floors using Bligh’s and Khosla’s theory
Exit gradient
Introduction:
Any hydraulic structure which supplies water to the off-taking canal is called a headwork.
(Or)
The works which are constructed at the head of the canal, in order to divert the river water
towards the canal, so as to ensure a regulated continuous supply of silt-free water with a
certain minimum head into the canal, are known as diversion head works.
 Types of diversion head works
Headworks may be divided into two classes:
1. Diversion headwork
2. Storage headwork

Diversion headwork:
To divert required supply to canal from the river. They are two types.
a) Temporary spurs or bunds: which are temporary and constructed every year after
floods
b) Permanent weirs and barrages

Storage headwork:
A storage headwork comprises the construction of a dam across the river. It stores
water during the period of excess supplies in the river and releases it when demand
overtakes available supplies.
Weir:
The weir is a solid obstruction put across the river to raise its water level and
divert the water into the canal. If a weir also stores water for tiding over small
periods of short supplies, it is called a storage weir.
The main difference between a storage weir and a dam is only in height and the
duration for which the supply is stored.

Barrage:
The function of a barrage is similar to that of weir, but the heading up of water
is effected by the gates alone. No solid obstruction is put across the river.
The crest level in the barrage is kept at a low level.
 

4.  RIVER DIVERSION HEAD WORKS

4.1  Introduction

River diversion headwork is constructed at the head of the canal to divert the river water
towards the canal, so as to ensure a regulated continuous supply of silt-free water with a certain
cert ain
minimum head into the canal. It usually provides a small storage capacity.

4.2  Purposes of diversion headwork

(i)  It raises the water level in the river so that

t hat the commanded area is increased

(ii)  It regulates the supply of water into the canal

(iii)  It provides storage of water for a short period

(iv)  It controls the entry of silt into the canal

(v)  It reduces the fluctuations in the level of

o f supply in the river.

4.3  Selection of actual site for canal head works

The selection may be made in accordance with the following considerations.

i)  As far as possible a narrow, straight, well defined channel confined b/n banks not
submerged by the highest flood;
ii)  It should be possible to align the offtaking canal in such a way that the command
of its area is obtained without excessive digging.
iii)  The material of construction such as stone, sand, etc. should be available in the
vicinity of the site.
iv)  The site should be accessible by road. And there should be (enough) workers
available in the vicinity of project site.

4.4  Components of Diversion Head Works 

The components of diversion head works

work s consists of:

(1)  Weir or barrage

(2)  Divide wall
(3)  Fish ladder
(4)  Pocket or approach channel
(5)  Undersluices or scouring sluices
(6)  Silt excluder
(7)  Canal head regulator
(8)  River training works, such as marginal bunds, guide
gu ide banks 

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Figure 4.1. Typical layout of diversion headworks

4.4.1  Weirs and Barrages  

Weirs and barrages are permanent river diversion works and are relatively low dams
constructed across a river to raise the river level sufficiently to divert the flow in full, or in part,
into a supply canal or conduit for the purpose of irrigation, power generation, domestic and
industrial uses, etc.

Weirs are with or without gates, whereas barrages are always

a lways gate controlled.

4.4.1.1  Weirs 

Weirs may be classified according to the material of construction and certain

cert ain design features as

1)  Masonry weirs with vertical drop or vertical drop weirs

 
2)
3)  Rockfill
Concreteweirs
weirswith
withsloping aprons glacis
a downstream

1)  Masonry Weir (Vertical Drop Weir) : Consists of:

-  An impervious horizontal floor or apron

-  A masonry weir wall (with both upstream and downstream faces vertical; or both faces
inclined; or upstream face vertical and downstream
do wnstream face inclined)
-  Block protection at upstream end of floor, and a graded inverted filter at the downstream
end of floor
-  Launching aprons or pervious aprons
apro ns (or floors)
floors) after block protection
protect ion and inverted filters.

This type of weir is suitable for any type

t ype of foundation.

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Figure 4.2 Vertical drop weir

2)  Rockfill Weir With Sloping Aprons: It is the simplest type of construction and Consists
of:

-  Masonry weir wall

-  Dry packed boulders laid in the form of glacis or sloping aprons in the upstream and
downstream sides of the weir wall

The downstream slope is generally made very flat. It requires a very large quantity of stone. It
also has few intervening core walls.

Figure 4.3 Rockfill weir

3)  Concrete weir with downstream glacis: It is of recent origin and its design is based
on sub-surface flow concept. Hydraulic jump is developed on the glacis due to which
considerable energy is dissipated. Protection works such as inverted filter; block protection and
launching apron are provided. May be constructed on pervious foundation. Sheet piles of
sufficient depths are provided both at upstream and downstream ends of the floor.

Figure 4.4 Typical cross section of concrete weir with downstream glacis on permeable
foundation

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4.4.1.2  Barrages

The crest level is kept at a low level and the raising up of water level (or pording) is
accomplished mainly by means of gates. During floods these gates can be raised clear off the
high flood level and thus enable the high flood to pass with minimum of afflux (or heading up
of water on the upstream side). A barrage provides better control on the water level in the river
 but it is co mparatively more costly. The design o f a barrage involves the same procedure
pro cedure as a
concrete weir.

Figure 4.5 Typical cross section of a barrage on pervious foundation

4.4.2 Divide wall

It is masonry or concrete wall with top width of 1.5 to 3m constructed at right angles to the
axis of the weir and separates the ‘weir proper’ from under sluices. The divide wall extends on
the upstream side beyond the beginning of the canal head regulator and on the downstream
side, it extends up to the end of downstream protection of the under sluices.

The main functions of a divide

d ivide wall are:
a) To separate the floor of the under sluices which is at lower level from the weir
we ir proper;
 b)   To help in providing a comparatively less turbulent pocket near the canal head
regulator resulting in deposition of silt in this pocket and, thus, to help entry of silt-
free water into the canal;
c)  To isolate the pocket upstream of the canal head regulator and facilitate scouring
operation;
d)  To prevent formations of cross-currents to avoid their damaging effects on o n the weir.

4.4.3 Fish Ladder 

This structure enables the fish to pass upstream. It is device by which the flow energy can be
dissipated in such a manner as to provide smooth flow at sufficiently low velocity, not
exceeding 3 to 3.5m/s. This object is generally accomplished by providing a narrow opening

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adjacent to the divide wall and provide suitable baffles or staggering devices in it, so as to
control the flow velocity.

The various types of fish ladder are (i) pool type, (ii) steep channel type, (iii) fish lock type and
(iv) fish lift or elevator type. Types (iii) and (iv) are suitable for high dams only. Types (i) and
(ii) are generally provided for barrages.

Figure 4.6 Fish ladder

4.4.4. Undersluices or Scouring Sluices

They are the openings provided in the weir wall with their crest at low level. The openings are
fully controlled by gates. They are located on the same side of the o
off-taking
ff-taking canal.

 Functions of Undersluices:
(i)  They preserve a clear and well defined river channel towards the canal head regulator;
(ii) They scour the silt deposited on the river bed in the pocket upstream of the canal head
regulator;
(iii)They pass low floods without the necessity of dropping the weir
we ir crest shutters;
(iv) T
They
hey help to lower the high flood level by supplementing the discharge over the weir
during high floods.

Capacity of Undersluices:
The discharging capacity is fixed from the following considerations:
(i)  To ensure proper scouring, its capacity should be at least two times the maximum
discharge of the off-taking canal;
(ii) It should have sufficient capacity to discharge maximum winter flood – without the
necessity of dropping the weir shutter;
(iii) 10 to 20% of the maximum flood discharge – to supplement the discharge over the
weir during high floods.

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4.4.5. Canal head regulator 

The structure controlling diversion into a supply canal is called regulator. It is provided at the
head of the offtaking
o fftaking canal and serves the following functions:

(a)  It regulates the supply of water entering in the canal;

ca nal;
(b)  It controls the entry of silt in the canal;
(c)  It prevents the river floods from entering the canal.

The head regulator is generally aligned at right angle to the weir, but slightly larger angles
(between 900 and 1100) are now considered preferable for providing smooth entry of water into
the regulator. The regulation is done by means of gates.

The design principles are the same as those used in the design of barrages, except that the
regulators are a smaller version of barrages. An important consideration in designing the
regulator is silt exclusion from canals. Silt-excluder tunnels are often provided in the barrage
 bays adjacent to the regulator, so that the heavier silt-laden bottom layers of water bypass
through the tunnels (Figure 4.7).

Figure 4.7 Head regulator

The maximum height of gated opening is determined by the differences in crest level of

regulator (sillthan
much higher level)
theand the level.
pond pond level. During
To avoid high of
spilling floods, the water
this water overlevel in the ariver
the gates, R.C.will be
wall,
called Breast wall, is provided from pond level up-to river HFL. This wall rests over the piers
of the regulator bays.

The entry of silt into the canal is controlled by keeping the crest of the head regulator by about
1 to 1.5m higher than the
t he crest of the under sluices.

4.4.6. Guide banks (river training works)

Guide banks direct the main river flow as centrally as possible to the diversion structure. They
also safeguard the barrage from erosion and may be designed so that a desirable curvature is
induced to the flow for silt exclusion from the canals. The side slopes of the guide banks must
 be protected by stone pitching, with a sufficient 'self-launching'
'self-launching' stone apron at the lowest

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feasible level. The top levels of the guide banks will depend on the increase in the maximum
flood level upstream of the barrage.

4.4.7.  Protection Works 

The concrete floor of a weir or barrage is protected on the upstream as well as downstream by
loose apron. In the immediate vicinity of the floor, a certain portion of the loose apron is made
non-launching. The non-launching apron prevents the scour hole travel close to the floor or
sheet pile line; whereas launching apron is designed to launch along the slope of the scour hole
to prevent further scooping out of
o f the underlying river bed material.

4.5.  Designs of Weirs and Barrages

4.5.1 Causes of Failures of Weirs on Permeable Foundation

Causes of failures of weirs on permeable foundations may be classified into two broad
categories.

(1)  Due to seepage or

o r subsurface flow
(2)  Due to surface flow

4.5.1.1.  Failures due to seepage or subsurface flow

The seepage may cause the failure of a weir in two ways.

i)  By piping or undermining:  If the water percolating through the foundation has
sufficient force when it emerges at the downstream end of the impervious floor it may lift up
the soil particles at the end of the floor. With the removal of the surface soil there is further
concentration of flow into the resulting depression and more soil is removed which
 progressively result
result in subsidence of the floor in the hollows so formed.

  To prevent these kinds of failures:

(a)  Provide sufficient length of the impervious floor (so that the path of percolation is
increased) and reduce exit gradient.
(b)  Provide piles at upstream and downstream ends of
o f the impervious floor

(ii)  By uplift pressure: If the uplift pressure is not counterbalanced by the weight of the
floor, it may fail by rupture.

  To prevent failure by uplift:

u plift:

(a)  Provide sufficient thickness of the impervious floor

(b)  Provide pile at the upstream end of the impervious floor so that uplift pressure is
reduced on the downstream side.

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4.5.1.2.  Failures due to surface flow

The surface flow may cause the

t he failure of a weir in the fo
foll
llowing
owing two ways:
wa ys:

(i)  By suction due to standing wave or hydraulic jump : The standing wave or hydraulic
 jump developed ono n the downstream side ofo f the weir causes suction or
o r negative pressure which
also acts in the direction of uplift pressure. If the floor thickness is insufficient it may fail by
rupture in suction.
The following measures may be taken tot o prevent such kind of failure:
(a)  Providing additional thickness of the impervious floor to counterbalance the suction
 pressure due to standing wave.
(b)  Constructing floor as monolithic concrete mass instead of in different layers of
masonry.

(ii)  By scour on the upstream and downstream of the weir : Upstream and downstream
ends of the impervious floor and bed of the river may be scoured during floods. If not
 prevented, lead to damage to the floor and an ultimately failure.

Preventive measures which should be taken against

aga inst failure due to scour are:

(a)  Providing deep piles both at upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor.
The piles should be driven much below the calculated scour depth.
(b)  Providing launching aprons of suitable length and thickness at upstream and
downstream ends of the impervious floor.

4.5.2.  Criteria for the Design of Weirs and Barrages

Design of weirs and barrages consists of;

i)  Hydraulic design

ii)  Structural design

The hydraulic design deals with the evaluation of the hydraulic forces acting on the structure
and the determination of the configurations of the structure which will be most economical and
will have the best functional efficiency.

The structural design consists of dimensioning the various parts of the structure to enable it to
resist safely all the forces acting on it.

The hydraulic design is treated in respect of both subsurface and surface flows. The various
aspects of design in respect of subsurface flow involves determination
det ermination of;
- Uplif
Upliftt pressure,
- Exit gradient,
- Length of impervious floor,
-  Depth of sheet piles or cutoffs at upstream and downstream ends of the impervious
floor;

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-  Protection works.
 Note: These aspects shall be discussed in detail in section 4.5.3.

On the other hand, the design

des ign in respect of surface flow involves determination of;
-  Pond level;
-   Afflux;
-   Levels of upstream floor and crest of weir or barrage;
- Shape of weir crest;
-   Waterway;
-   Effect of retrogression.

Pond level: Pond level, in the undersluice pocket, u/s of the canal head regulator may be
obtained by adding the working head to the designed full supply level in the canal. The
working head should include the head required for passing the design discharge into the canal
and the head loss in the regulator.

Afflux: It is the rise in water level on the u/s of a weir or barrage as a result of its construction.
The value of afflux corresponding to the design flood is important for the design of the length
of the weir, crest levels, river training works, etc.

Levels of u/s floor and crest of weir or barrage

The u/s floor level of a weir or a barrage bays (other than undersluice bays) is fixed at the
general river bed level, at or below the level of the crest of the weir or barrage. Usually the
floor level is kept at 0.5 to 1.0 m higher than the u/s floor
floor level of the undersluice bays.

The crest levels of weirs or barrages are fixed as follows:

fo llows:

(i)  For weirs without shutters, the crest level should be at the required
requ ired pond level;
(ii)  For weirs with shutters, the crest level should not be lower than 2 m below the pond
level as the maximum height ofo f the falling shutters is limi
limited
ted to 2 m.
(iii)  For barrages, the crest level is determined by the depth required to pass the design
flood at the desired afflux. The level of crest in this case should be fixed by
adjustment of the
undersluice crest waterway. It should in any case be kept higher than the
level.

Shape of the weir crest  

-  A vertical drop weir is usually trapezoidal in cross section and its dimensions may be
obtained on the basis of
o f stability
stability considerations;

-  A glacis type weir is provided with a top width of about 2.0 m, and u/s slope of 2:1 to 3:1
depending on site conditions and d/s slope as required for the glacis of stilling basin.

Waterway: The length of waterway which is equal to the length of the we weirir or barrage is fixed
to pass safely the maximum flood discharge. The length of the waterway should be equal to the
stable river width for the maximum flood discharge so that shoaling upstream is mostly
eliminated and a nearly straight and stable approach
appro ach to the we
weir
ir or barrage is obtained.

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The clear waterway to be provided between guide banks or abutments, excluding thickness of
 piers, is usually taken equal to the Lacey’s regime perimeter
perimeter given by
P  4.75 Q  
Where

P = Lacey’s regime perimeter in m,

Q = design flood discharge (m3/s)

To account for the silt load carried by the alluvial rivers, the clear waterway of 1.1 to 1.25
times Lacey’s regime perimeter is provided.

Effect of Retrogression: As a result of construction of a weir or barrage progressive

retrogression or degradation of the downstream river bed is caused which results in lowering o
off
the downstream river stages and the same has to be suitably provided for in the design of
downstream cisterns.

4.5.3.  Design of Impervious Floor for Subsurface Flow

4.5.3.1.  Bligh’s Creep Theory

Bligh assumed that the percolating water creeps along

a long the base profile of the structure, which is
in contact with the subsoil.
subsoil. The length of the path thus traversed by the percolating
percolating water is
called the creep length. Bligh also assumed that the head loss per unit length of creep (called
hydraulic gradient) is proportional to the distance of the point from the upstream of the
foundation.

Figure 4.8 Bligh’s creep theory – definition sketch

Shortcoming of this theory is that it does not discriminate between the horizontal and vertical
creeps in estimating the exit hydraulic gradient.

The total creep length, L, is given by

L = d 1 + d 1 + L1 + d 3 + d 3 + L2 + d 2 + d 2 = (L1 + L2) + 2d 1 + 2d 2 + 2d 3 

L= b + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)

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The hydraulic gradient or the loss of head per unit length of creep is,

H H H
 
L  b  2d 1  2d 2  2d 3  b  2d 1  d 2  d 3 
Therefore, for any point the head loss is proportional to the creep length.

As the hydraulic gradient is constant, if L1 is the creep length up to any point, then head loss up
to this point will be (H/L) L1 and the residual head at this point will be (H - (H/L) L 1).

The head losses at the three

t hree vertical cutoffs will be:

[(H/L) 2d1], [(H/L) 2d2] and [(H/L) 2d3]

The reciprocal of the hydraulic gradient, i.e., L/H is known as Bligh’s coefficient of creep, C.

(a)  Safety against piping and undermining

According to Bligh, the safety against piping can be ensured by providing sufficient creep
length, given by L = C.H, where C is the Bligh’s Coefficient for the so
soil
il..

Bligh recommended certain values of C for different soils. According to Bligh if the hydraulic
1
gradient H/L   (for the soil) there is no danger of
o f piping.
C

Table 4.1 Recommended values of Bligh coefficient of creep C and safe hydraulic gradient
Safe
Type of soil Value of C Hydraulic Gradient
Fine micac
micaceous
eous sand 15 1/15
Coarse grained sand 12 1/12
Sand mixed with boulder and gravel; and for loam soil 5 to 9 1/9 to1/5
Light sand & mud 8 1/8

(b)  Safety against uplift pressure

The ordinate of the subsoil hydraulic gradient line above the bottoms of the floor at any point
represents the residual seepage head or the uplift
uplift p
pressure
ressure at that point.
If h´ is the uplift pressure head at a point
po int under the floor, the pressure intensity is,
P    gh   

This is to be resisted by the weight of the floor, the thickness of which is t and density ρm (for

concrete,  m = 2400 kg/m3). Downward force per unit area due to the weight of the floor is

W  m g t  
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Therefore, equating
 m g t   gh'  
m
which gives h   t  Sm t  


Figure 4.9 Determination of floor thickness

where Sm is the relative density of the floor material. Thus, we can write,
wr ite,

h  t  S m t   t  
which gives the thickness of the floor,
h  t h
t   
Sm  1   Sm  1
where h is the pressure head (ordinate of hydraulic gradient) measured above the top of floor,
and (Sm-1) is submerged specific gravity of the fl
floo
oorr material.
material.

Considering a safety factor of 4/3 to 3/2

4 h 3 h
t  to  
3 Sm 1   2 Sm  1
with Sm= 2.24, t ≈ 1.08 h  to 1.2 h 

The design will be economical if the greater part of the creep length (i.e. of the impervious
floor) is provided upstream of the weir where nominal floor thickness would be sufficient. The
downstream floor has to be thicker to resist the uplift pressure. However, a minimum floor
length is always required to be provided on the downstream side from the consideration of

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surface flow to resist the action of fast flowing water whenever it is passed to the downstream
side of the weir

Figure 4.10

Moreover, the provision of maximum creep length on the upstream side of the weir (barrier)
also reduces uplift pressures on the portion of the floor provided on the downstream side of the
 barrier (Fig 4.10a). This is because a large portion
po rtion of
o f the total creep having taken
t aken place
p lace up to
the barrier; the residual heads on the downstream floor are reduced. Further, (see Fig 4.10b) a
vertical cutoff at the upstream end of the floor reduces uplift all over the floor. Thus, according
to Bligh’s theory a vertical cutoff at the upstream end of the floor is more useful than the one at
the downstream end of the floor.

Limitations of Bligh’s Theory

(i)  Bligh made no distin

d istinction
ction between horizontal
hor izontal and vertical creep.
(ii) The theory holds good as long as horizontal distance between cut-offs or pile lines is
greater than twice their depth.
(iii)No distinction is made between the effectiveness of the outer and inner faces of sheet
 piles and short and long intermediate piles. However, investigations, later, have shown
that the outer faces of the end piles are much more effective than the inner ones. Also
intermediate piles of shorter length than the outer ones are ineffective except for local
redistribution
redistribution of
o f pressure.
  indication on the significance of exit
(iv) No e xit gradient. Average value of
o f hydraulic gradient

gives idea
gradient (forabout safety against piping. Exit gradient must be less than critical exit
safety).
(v)  The assumption, loss of head is proportional to creep length is not true and actual uplift
 pressure distribution is is not linear, but it follows a sine curve.
(vi) B
Bligh
ligh did not specify the absolute necessity of prov
providing
iding a cutoff at the downstream
do wnstream end
of the floor, whereas it is absolutely essential to provide a deep vertical cutoff at the
downstream end of the floor to prevent undermining.

4.5.3.2.  Lane’s Weighted Creep Theory  

Lane made distinction between vertical and horizontal creep. He indicated that the horizontal
creep is less effective in reducing uplift (or in causing head loss) than the vertical creep. He,
therefore, used a weightage factor of (1/3) for the horizontal creep. Thus, the weighted creep
length, Lw, is given by

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1
 L w     N   V  
3
Where
 N = sum ofo f all the horizontal contacts
co ntacts and all conta cts less than 450 to the
a ll the sloping contacts
horizontal.
0
V = sum of all the vertical contacts and all sloping contacts greater than 45   to the
horizontal.
To ensure safety against piping L w > C1H

Where H = Total seepage head (difference in water head between upstream

upstream and downstream)
C1 = Lane’s coefficient (empirical) of creep

  H     1  
Further if the hydraulic gradient       safety against piping can be ensured.
 L w    C1  
Table 4.2. Recommended values of Lane’s coefficient of creep C 1 and safe hydraulic Gradient. 

  1  
Type of Soil (Material) Value of C1  Safe Hydraulic Gradient     
Very fine sand or silt 8.5 1/8.5
 C1 
Fine sand 7.0 1/7
Coarse sand 5.0 1/5
Gravel & Sand 3.5 to 3.0 1/3.5 to 1/3
Boulders, with some cobble & gravel 2.5 1/2.5
Boulders, gravel and sand 2.5 to 3.0 1/2.5 to 1/3
Clayey Soils 3.0 to 1.6 1/3 to 1/1.6

Lane’s method for determination of the uplift pressure is criticized on the grounds that it is an
empirical method and not based on any mathematical approach. However, because of the
simplicity
simplicity of the method it is also widely used.

4.5.3.3.  Khosla’s Theory and Concept of Flow Nets 

The main principles of this theory are summarized below:

a)  The seepage water does not creep along the bottom contour of pucca-floor as stated by
Bligh, but moves along a set of streamlines. This steady seepage in a vertical plane for a
homogeneous soil can be expressed
e xpressed by Laplacian equation:

Where, φ = Flow potential

pot ential = Kh; K = the coefficient of permeability of soil as defined by  
Darcy’s law and h is the residual head at any point within the soil.

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The above equation represents two sets of curves intersecting each other orthogonally. The
resultant flow
flow diagram
d iagram showing both of the curves is called a Flow Net .

The streamlines represent the paths along which the water flows through the sub-soil. Every
 particle entering the soil at a given
g iven point upstream of the
t he work will trace out its own path
pat h and
will represent a streamline. The first streamline follows the bottom contour of the works and is
the same as Bligh’s path of creep. The remaining streamlines follows smooth curves transiting
slowly from the outline of the foundation to a semi-ellipse, as shown in Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.11 Khosla’s flow

flow net

Treating the downstream bed as datum and assuming no water on the downstream side, it can
 be easily stated that every streamline possesses
po ssesses a head equal
equa l to h1 while entering the soil; and
when it emerges at the downstream end into the atmosphere, its head is zero. Thus, the head h 1  
is entirely lost during the passage of water along the streamlines.

Further, at every intermediate point in its path, there is certain residual head, h, still to be
dissipated in the remaining length to be traversed to the downstream end. This fact is
applicable to every streamline, and hence, there will be points on different streamlines having

the same
called value of residual
an equipotential line. head h. If such points are joined together, the curve obtained is

Every water particle on line AB is having a residual head h = h1, and on CD is having a
residual head h = 0, and hence, AB and CD are equipotential lines.

 b)  The seepage water exerts a force at each point in the direction of flow and tangential to the
streamlines. This force (F) has an upward component from the point where the streamlines
turns upward. For soil grains to remain stable, the upward component of this force should
 be counterbalanced by the submerged weight
w eight of the soil grain. This force has the maximum
disturbing tendency at the exit end, because the direction of this force at the exit point is
vertically upward, and hence full force acts as its upward component. For the soil grain to
remain stable, the submerged weight of soil grain should be more than this upward
disturbing force. The disturbing force at any point is proportional to the gradient of
 pressure of
o f water at that point. This gradient of pressure of water at the exit end is called
ca lled

Hydraulic Structures II-Lecture Note  Page 15 

 

the exit gradient. In order that the soil particles at exit remain stable, the upward pressure
at exit should be safe. In other
ot her words, the exit gradient should be safe.
This exit gradient is said to be critical, when the upward disturbing force on the grain is just
equal to the submerged weight of the grain at the exit. When a factor of safety equal to 4 to 5 is
used, the exit gradient can then be taken as safe. In other words, an exit gradient equal to ¼ to
1/5 of the critical exit gradient is ensured, so as to keep the structure safe against piping.

4.5.3.4.  Khosla’s Theory of Independent Variables  

In order to know how the seepage below the foundation of a hydraulic structure is taking place,
it is necessary to plot the flow net. In other words, we must solve the Laplacian equations. This
can be accomplished either by mathematical solution of the Laplacian equations, or by
graphically sketching and by adjusting the streamlines and equipotential lines with respect to
the boundary conditions. These are complicated methods and are time consuming. Therefore,
for designing hydraulic structures such as weirs or barrage on pervious foundations, Khosla has
evolved a simple, quick and an accurate approach, called  Method of Independent Variables.  

In this method, a complex profile like that of a weir is broken into a number of simple profiles;
each of which can be solved mathematically. Mathematical solutions of flow nets for these
simple standard profiles have been presented in the form of equations and curves (given in
Figure 4.18 (a), (b) and (c)), which can be used for determining the percentage pressures at the
various key points. The simple standard profiles
pro files used are:

(a)  A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile at either end, i.e. at
upstream or downstream end.

Figure 4.12 (a) Pile at upstream end and (b) Pile at the downstream end
(b)  A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but with no vertical cut-offs.

Figure 4.13 Depressed floor

(c)  A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line at some
intermediate position.

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Figure 4.14 Intermediate pile

In general, the usual weir section consists of a combination of all or some of the three forms
mentioned above. Each elementary form is treated as independent of the others. The pressures
as a percentage of the water head are read from Khosla’s curves at the key points. The key
 points are the junction of the
t he floor and the pile
p ile or cut-off walls, the bottom
botto m points of the pile or
walls, and the bottom corners in the case of depressed floor. The percentage pressure observed
from the curves for the simple form into which the profile has been broken up, is valid for the
 profile as a whole if corrected for:

(i)  Mutual interference of piles;

(ii)  The floor thickness; and
(iii)  The slope of the floor.

i)  Correction for Mutual Interference of Piles

The correction C to be applied as a percentage of head is given by

   D 
D  d 
C  19  
 b    b  
Where b’= the distance between two pile lines
D= the depth of pile line, the influence of which has to be determined on the
neighboring pile of depth d. D is to be measured below the level at which
interference is desired.
d= the depth of pile on which the effect is to be determined.
 b= total floor
floor length.

The correction is positive for points in the rear or backwater and subtractive for points forward
in the direction of flow. This equation does not apply to the effect of an outer pile on an
intermediate pile, if the intermediate pile is equal to or smaller than the outer pile and is at a
distance less than twice the length of the outer pile.

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Fig.4. 15 Mutual interference of piles

ii)  Correction for Floor Thickness

In the standard forms with cutoffs, the thickness of the floor is assumed to be negligible. Thus
as observed from Khosla’s curves, the percentage pressures at the junction points E and C
 pertain to the level at the
t he top of
o f the floor whereas the actual
act ual junction is with the bottom of the
floor.

The percentage pressures at the actual points E and C are interpolated by assuming a straight
line pressure variation from the hypothetical point E to D and also from D to C.  

Fig. 4.16 Correction for floor thickness

For pile no. 1, since the corrected pressure at E 1 should be less than the calculated pressure at
E, the correction to be applied for the joint E 1  shall be negative. Similarly, the pressure
calculated at C is less than the corrected pressure at C1, and hence, the correction to be applied
at point C1 is positive.

iii)  Correction for Slope of the Floor

A correction is applied for a sloping floor, and is taken as positive for the down and negative
for the up slopes following the direction of flow. The values of correction for various slopes
are tabulated below (Table 4.3).

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Fig. 4.17 Correction for slope of the floor

Table 4.3: Correction for floor slope

Slope Correction
(V: H) (% of pressure)
1:1 11.2
1:2 6.5
1:3 4.5
1:4 3.3

1:5 2.8
1:6 2.5
1:7 2.3
1:8 2.0

The correction given above is to be multiplied by the horizontal length of the slope  and divided
 by the distance between the two pile lines   between which the sloping floor is located. This
correction is applicable only to the key points of the pile line fixed at the beginning or the ends
of the slope.

iv)  Exit Gradient (GE) 

For standard form consisting of a floor length b with a vertical cutoff of depth d, the exit
gradient at its d end is given by:
H 1
GE  .  
d   
1
  1   2
Where    , and  
2
b
    
d 
H = maximum seepage head

The exit gradient so calculated must lie within safe limits as given in the following table (Table
4.4).

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Table 4.4: Safe exit gradient for different types of soils

Type of soil Safe exit gradient

Shingle ¼ to 1/5
Coarse sand 1/5 to 1/6
Fine sand 1/6 to 1/7

(a)  Intermediate sheet pile

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(b) Sheet pile at the end and depressed floor

(c)  Exit gradient

Figure 4.18 Khosla’s Pressure Curves (a, b, and c)

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Depth of sheet piles on upstream and downstream of impervious floor

The sheet pile must be taken up to the level of possible deepest scour below the bed of the
river. According to Lacey the depth
dept h of scour in alluvial soils is given by
1
 q 2   3
R   1.35   
  f   
Where
R = scour depth measured below the highest flood level (HFL),
q = discharge per unit length,
f = Lacey’s silt factor.

In order to ensure further safety, for the design of sheet piles the scour depth is considered as
1.25 to 2 times R given by the above equation.

Design of protection works at the u/s and d/s ends of the impervious floor
In order to further safeguard the impervious floor against failure due to piping certain
 protection works are provided at both the u/s and d/s ends of the impervious
impervious floor. These
 protection works consist of
(i)  Inverted filter,
(ii)  Block protection, and
(iii)  Launching apron or pervious apron (as shown in 4.19)

Filte r: consists of layers of materials of increasing permeability from bottom to top.

 Inverted Filter:
The thickness of the inverted filter varies from 0.5 to 1.25 m. To prevent the filter material
from dislocation by surface flow they are loaded with large size stones or concrete blocks. The
 blocks are usually 0.9
0. 9 to 1.2 m thick and are placed with open joints filled with river sand or
or
filter
filter material.
material.

It is provided immediately at the d/s end of the impervious floor to relieve the uplift pressure.
The length depends on the scour depth D below the river bed and it usually varies from 1.5 D
to 2 D, where D is given by

D = XR – Y

Where XR = depth of
o f deepest scour level below high flood level
X = a multiplying factor (varies from 1.25 to 2)
Y = depth of
o f the river bed or impervious floor below high flood level

Y = High flood level – River bed level (or floor level)

 Block Protection:  It is provided immediately at the u/s end of the impervious floor. It consists
of 0.6 to 1.0 m thick stone or concrete blocks laid on 0.4 to 0.6 m thick loosely packed stone.
The length of the block protection is usually equal to the depth of scour, D, below the river bed
at the u/s end of
o f the impervious floor.
floor.

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Figure 4.19. Upstream and downstream protection works

 Launching apron or pervious apron: It is an apron of loosely packed stones. Its function is to
 protect the impervious
impervious floor and the pile from the scour holes progressing towards the floor
and the pile.

The protection is provided by a launching apron by forming a protective covering of stones

over a certain slope below the bed of the river at which the apron is originally laid to the
 bottom of
o f the deepest scour likely to occur. As shown in Figure 4.20, when scour
scou r occurs, the
new position attained by this apron is called launched position.

The size of the stones (that shall not be washed away during maximum flood) is given by
USBR as
2
  V  
d      A   
 4.915 
Where VA = average velocity of flow in m/s and d = mean diameter of stones in m.

It is generally assumed that the stones launch at a slope of 2:1. The quantity of stone in a
launching apron should be sufficient to provide about 1.0 m thick cover over a slope of 2:1 in
the launched position. Thus if D is the depth of scour, the length of the launched apron would
 be about 5D   2.236D. Since the thickness of the launched apron is 1 m, the quantity of stone
3
required is 2.236D m  per m length of the apron (See Figure 4.20).

Figure 4.20. Launching apron

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Example 4.1
The figure below (Figure E-4.1) shows a section of a hydraulic structure   on permeable
foundation. Calculate the average hydraulic gradient according to
(a)  Bligh’s creep theory 
(b)  Lane’s weighted creep theory 
Also find the uplift pressures at points A and B and the
t he floor thickness required at these points.

5m
A B

5m d 3 = 3 m
d 1 = 5m
8m
d 2 = 10m

10 m

b = 25 m

Figure E-4.1

Solution

(a)  Bligh’s
 Bligh’s creep theory  
   Total creep length, L = b + 2(d1 + d3 + d2) = 25 + 2 (5 + 3 + 10) = 61 m
Hydraulic gradient = H/L = 5/61 = 1/12.2
From Table 4.1, H/L < 1/C = 1/12 (Coarse grained sand)
Therefore, the structure would be safe on coarse
co arse grained sand.
   Uplift pressure at point A
Length of creep up to point A, LA = 2d 1 + 5 = 2 x 5 + 5 = 15 m
Residual seepage head at point A, hA = [H – (H/L)LA] = H (1 – LA/L)
= 5 (1 – 15/61) = 3.77 m

Uplift pressure at point A, PA = ghA = 9.81 x 3.77 = 36.98 kN/m2 

   Thickness of the floor at point A

4 hA 4 3.77
tA  3 Sm  1   3 x 2.24  1  4.05 m  
Hydraulic Structures II-Lecture Note  Page 24 
 

  Uplift pressure at point B

Length of creep up to point B, LB = 10 + 2(5 + 3) = 26 m
Residual seepage head at point B, hB = H[1 – LB/L] = 5 (1 – 26/61) = 2.87 m
2
Uplift pressure at point B, P B = ghB = 9.81 x 2.87 = 28.15 kN/m  

  Required thickness of floor at B,

4 hB 4 2.87
tB    x  3.09 m  
3 Sm  1 3 2.24  1
(b)   Lane’s weighted creep theory
  Total weighted creep length, Lw = 2 (5 + 3 + 10) + 1/3 (25) = 44.33 m
Hydraulic gradient, H/Lw = 5/44.33 = 1/8.87 < 1/C1 = 1/8.5 (Table 4.2)
Therefore, the structure would be safe on very fine sand or silt.
  Uplift pressure at point A
Weighted creep length at A, LwA = 2 x 5 + 1/3 (5) = 11.67 m

Residual head at A, hA = 5(1 – 11.67/44.33) = 3.68 m

PA = 9.81 x 3.68 = 36.1 kN/m2  
4 hA 4 3.68
tA    x  3.96 m  
3 S m  1 3 2.24  1

   Uplift pressure at B,

LwB = 2(5 + 3) + 1/3 (10) = 19.33 m

hB = 5 (1 – 19.33/44.33) = 2.82 m
P  = 9.81 x 2.82 = 27.66 kN/m2  
B
4 hB 4 2.82
tB    x  3.03 m
3 S m  1 3 2.24  1

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Example 4.2
Determine the percentage pressures at various key points in figure E-4.2. Also determine the
exit gradient and plot the hydraulic gradient line for pond level on upstream and no flow on
downstream.

Figure E-4.2

Solution:
Solution:
(1) For upstream Pile Line No. 1

Total length of the floor, b = 57.0 m

Depth of u/s pile line, d = 154 – 148 = 6 m
α = b/d = 57/6 = 9.5 
1/α = 1/9.5 = 0.105 
From curve Figure 4.18 (b)

φC1 = 100 – 29 = 71 %
φD1 = 100 – 20 = 80 %
These values of φ C1 must be corrected for three corrections as below:
Corrections for φC1 
(a)  Correction at C 1 for Mutual Interference of Piles: (φC1) is affected by intermediate pile
 No.2

Hydraulic Structures II-Lecture Note  Page 26 

 

Since point C1  is in the rear in the direction of flow, the correction is positive. Therefore,
correction due to pile interference on C 1 = 1.88 % (+ ve)

(b) Correction at C 1 due to thickness of floor:  

Pressure calculated from curve is at C1′, (Fig) but we want the
 pressure at C1. Pressure at C1 shall be more than at C 1′ as the
direction of flow is from C 1  to C1′ as shown;  and hence, the
correction will be + ve and

(c) Correction due to slope at C 1 is nil, as this point is neither situated at the start nor at the
end of a slope.

Therefore, corrected (φC1) = 71 % + 1.88 % + 1.5 %

= 74.38 % (answer)
And (φD1) = 80 %

(2) For intermediate Pile Line No. 2

d = 154 – 148 = 6 m
 b = 57 m
α = b/d = 57/6 = 9.5 
Using curves of Fig. 4.18 (a), we have b1 in this case
 b1 = 0.6 + 15.8 = 16.4
 b = 57 m
Therefore, b1/b = 16.4/57 = 0.298 (for φC2)
(1 – b1)/b = 1 – 0.298 = 0.702
φE2 = 100 – 30 = 70 % (Where 30 % is φ C  for a base ratio of 0.702 and α = 9.5) 
φC2 = 56 % (For a base ratio 0.298 and α = 9.5)  
φD2 = 100 – 37 = 63 % (Where 37 % is φ D for a base ratio of 0.702 and α = 9.5) 

Corrections for φE2 

(a) Correction at E 2 for sheet pile lines. Pile No. (1) will affect the pressure at E 2 and since E2 
is in the forward direction of flow, this correction shall be negative. The amount of this
correction is given as:

Hydraulic Structures II-Lecture Note  Page 27 

 

Since the pressure observed is at E2′  and not at E 2, (Fig.)

and by looking at the direction of flow, it can be stated
easily that pressure at E2 shall be less than that at E 2′, hence, this correction is negative,

Therefore, correction at E 2 due to floor thickness = 1.17 % (- ve)

(c) Correction at E 2 due to slope is nil, as the point E 2 is neither situated at the start of a slope
nor at the end of a slope.
Hence, corrected percentage pressure at E2 = Corrected φE2 = (70 – 1.88 – 1.17) % = 66.95 %

Corrections for φC2 

(a) Correction at C2 due to pile interference. Pressure at C2 is affected by pile No.(3)
No.(3 ) and since
the point C2 is in the back water
wat er in the direction of flow, this correction is pos
positive.
itive. The amount
of this correction is given as:

(b) Correction at C2 due to floor thickness. It can be easily stated that the pressure at C 2 shall
 be more than
t han at C2′, and since the observed pressure is at C 2′, this correction shall be positive
and its amount is the same as was calculated for the point E2 = 1.17 %
Hence, correction at C2 due to floor thickness = 1.17 % (+ ve)
(c) Correction at C2 due to slope. Since the point C 2 is situated at the start of a slope of 3:1, i.e.
an up slope in the direction
d irection of flow; the correction is negative.

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Correction factor for 3:1 slope from Table 4.3 = 4.5

Horizontal length of the slope = 3 m
Distance between two pile lines between which the
t he sloping floor is located = 40 m
Therefore, actual correction = 4.5 × (3/40) = 0.34 % (- ve)
Hence, corrected φC2 = (56 + 2.89 + 1.17 – 0.34) % = 59.72 %
(3) Downstream Pile Line No. 3
d = 152 – 141.7 = 10.3 m
 b = 57 m
1/α = 10.3/57 = 0.181 
From curves of 4.18 (b), we get
φD3 = 26 %
φE3 = 38 %
Corrections for φE3 

(a) Correction due to piles . The point E 3  is affected by pile No. 2, and since E 3  is in the
forward direction of flow from pile No. 3, this correction is negative
negat ive and its amount is given by

(b) Correction due to floor thickness  

From the Figure, it can be stated easily that the pressure at E 3

shall be less than at E 3′, and hence the pressure observed form 
curves is at E3′; this correction shall be negative and its
amount

(c) Correction due to slope at E 3 is nil, as the point E 3 is neither situated at the start nor at the
t he
end of any slope
Hence, corrected φE3 = (38 – 1.02 – 0.76) % = 36.22 %

The corrected pressures at various key points are tabulated below in Table below

Hydraulic Structures II-Lecture Note  Page 29 

 

Exit gradient
Let the water be headed up to pond level, i.e. on  RL 158 m on the upstream side with no flow
downstream
The maximum seepage head, H = 158 – 152 = 6 m
The depth of d/s cur-off, d = 152 – 141.7 = 10.3 m
Total floor length, b = 57 m
α = b/d = 57/10.3 = 5.53 
1
For a value of α = 5.53,    from curves of
of Figure 4.18 is equal
equal to 0.18. 
 

Hence, the exit gradient shall be equal to 0.105, i.e. 1 in 9.53, which is very much safe.

Hydraulic Structures II-Lecture Note  Page 30