Unit 5 - Research Methodology (Research Design)

Chapter 3
Methodology
Contents of Chapter 3
🞂 Research design
🞂 Research sample
🞂 Research instruments
🞂 Research procedure
🞂 Operational framework
🞂 Analysis of Data
🞂 Expected outcomes (for proposal)
Research Design
It is a method and procedure that is planned

to implement a scientific research
Objectives of Research Design
🞂 Help to obtain reliable and valid data through

appropriate and correct procedures.
🞂 Help to answer research questions.
🞂 To control variables in certain research.
🞂 To get rid of disturbances during the
implementation of research.
🞂 To reduce uncertainty/questions to your
research.
Types of Research Design
🞂 Descriptive
◦ Survey
◦ Case study
🞂 Correlational design
◦ To look at the relationship between two or more
variables.
🞂 Experimental/quasi-experimental design
Descriptive design
🞂 Survey
◦ Snapshot of an incidence.
◦ Collect data at one point of time.
◦ Usually use questionnaire/interview.
🞂 Case study
◦ To intensively study event/incidence already
occurred.
◦ To make generalisation to a bigger population
which has the same case.
Correlational research design
🞂 Involves at two variables for a research sample.
🞂 The correlation index indicates the degree of
relationship between variables.
🞂 Data can be analysed using statistical test or
graphical methods (e.g. scatter plot).
🞂 Interpretation of correlation coefficient (- or +)

◦ 0-0.4 weak
◦ 0.41-0.7 medium
◦ 0.71-1.0 high
Experimental design
🞂 True Experiment
◦ Research subjects are randomly assigned into
research groups (random assignment).
🞂 Quasi-Experiment
◦ Research subjects are not randomly assigned into
groups.
(1) One-Shot Experiment:
One experimental group, treatment, measurement
X🡪 O
X = treatment
O = measurement
Only involves post measurement (e.g. post-test)
(2) One-Group Experiment with pre and post Test

One experimental group, treatment, measurement
O🡪 X🡪 O
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
One of the simplest experimental designs is the ONE GROUP PRETEST-
POSTTEST DESIGN--EXAMPLE?
One way to examine Efficacy of a Drug:
O1 X O2
Measure DRUG Measure
Patients’ Condition Experimental Patients’ Condition
(Pretest) Condition/ (Posttest)
intervention
🞂 RESULT: Significant Improvement from O1 to O2 (i.e.,

sig. O2 - O1 difference)
🞂 QUESTION: Did X (the drug) cause the improvement?
10
(3) Two-group experiment with post test
Two groups, treatment, measurement
Xa 🡪 O
Xb 🡪 O
X = treatment
O = measurement
Only involves post measurement (e.g. post-test)
(4) TWO-Group Experiment with pre and post Test
O🡪 Xa 🡪 O
O🡪 Xb 🡪 O
pre and posttest
control group design
O🡪 X 🡪 O
O🡪 🡪 O O🡪 X 🡪 O
O🡪 🡪 O
X 🡪 O
🡪 O
X 🡪 O
🡪 O
Four-group design
Posttest only control
group design
🞂 Experimental group can be more than two
groups.
🞂 Measurement (pretest/post test) can be
conducted several times depending on the
research questions.(repeated measurements)
Experimental studies need to control for potential
confounding factors that may threaten internal validity
of the experiment:
◦ History?
● Biasing events that occur between pretest and post-test
◦ Maturation?
● Physical/biological/psychological changes in the subjects
◦ Testing?
● Exposure to pretest influences scores on post-test
◦ Instrumentation?
● Flows in measurement instrument/procedure
14
◦ Selection?
● Subjects in experimental & control groups different from the start
◦ Statistical Regression (regression toward the mean)?

● Subjects selected based on extreme pretest values
◦ Experimental Mortality?
● Differential drop-out of subjects from experimental and control
groups during the study
◦ Hawthorne effect
● is a form of reactivity whereby subjects improve or modify an aspect
of their behavior, which is being experimentally measured, in
response to the fact that they know that they are being studied
15
RESEARCH DESIGN
Single-Subject Designs
The single-subject designs were derived primarily from the

work of behavioral psychologists, especially those
engaged in applied behavioral analysis, which combines
behavioral principles with the techniques of experimental
psychology to solve socially-relevant problems.
While the single-subject designs are often used to

investigate the effects of an independent variable on the
behavior of one subject or a small number of subjects,
they can also be used with groups of subjects.
16
RESEARCH DESIGN
Several characteristics distinguish the single-subject
designs from the group designs:
1. Each single-subject design includes at least one baseline

(no treatment) phase and one treatment phase. As a
result, each subject acts as his/her own no-treatment
control.
2. The dependent variable is measured repeatedly at
regular intervals throughout the baseline and treatment
phases. Repeated measurement of the DV helps control
any maturational effects that might otherwise threaten
the study's internal validity by enabling an investigator to
detect those effects in the pattern of performance on the
DV measure.
17
RESEARCH DESIGN
There are a large number of single-subject designs,

but the most commonly used are the AB design (and
its extensions) and the multiple baseline design.
◦ AB Design
◦ Reversal (Withdrawal) Designs
◦ Multiple Baseline Designs
18
RESEARCH DESIGN
AB Design
The simplest single-subject design is the AB design,

which includes a single baseline (A) phase and a
single treatment (B) phase. As in all single-subject
designs, the dependent variable is measured at
regular intervals during both phases.
19
RESEARCH DESIGN
Example: A psychologist decides to assess the effects of a

low dose of phenothiazines on the BPRS scores of one patient
using the AB design. She administers the BPRS to the patient
at two-week intervals for three months during the baseline (A)
phase of the study and for three months during the treatment
(B) phase. The design of this study and its possible results are
illustrated below:
A B
Time
20
RESEARCH DESIGN
Because the patient's symptoms decreased only

after he began receiving the phenothiazines,
these results suggest that a low dose of
phenothiazines has a positive effect on
symptoms.
21
RESEARCH DESIGN
Reversal Designs (ABA, ABAB, Etc.)
The AB design can be expanded to include more than

one baseline phase or more than one baseline and
more than one treatment phase. Because any
expansion requires the withdrawal of the treatment
during the second and subsequent baseline phases,
the extensions of the AB design are called reversal
(withdrawal) designs.
22
RESEARCH DESIGN
• Advantage of the reversal designs over the simple AB

design: they provide additional control over potential
threats to a study's internal validity.
• When an ABAB design is used, if status on the DV
returns to the initial baseline (no treatment) level during
the second A phase and then to its previous treatment
levels during the second B phase, an investigator can be
more certain that any observed change in the dependent
variable is actually due to the IV rather than to an
historical event or other extraneous factor.
• Repeating the study by adding another A and B phase
is referred to as intrasubject replication.
23
RESEARCH DESIGN
Example: To confirm that the observed improvement in symptoms

was due to the phenothiazines, the psychologist extends her study
to include an additional baseline and treatment phase. This ABAB
design and its possible results are illustrated below:
A B A B
H H
L L
Time
24
RESEARCH DESIGN
• Reversal designs are considered inappropriate when

withdrawal of a treatment during the course of a research study
would be unethical (e.g., when the treatment has successfully
eliminated a self-injurious behavior).
• Reversal design does not provide conclusive information if
the effects of an independent variable persist rather than
"reverse" (return to baseline levels) when it is withdrawn.
• When this occurs, an investigator can't be certain whether
an observed effect on the dependent variable is due to the
independent variable or to other factors.
• If a reversal design is inappropriate for ethical or practical
reasons, an investigator might use a multiple baseline design.
25
RESEARCH DESIGN
Multiple Baseline Design
• Multiple baseline design does not require withdrawal of a

treatment during the course of the study but, instead, involves
sequentially applying the treatment either to different behaviors
of the same subject (multiple baseline across behaviors); to the
same subject in different settings (multiple baseline across
settings); or to the same behavior of different subjects (multiple
baseline across subjects).
• Once the treatment has been applied to a "baseline" (behavior,
setting, or subject), it is not withdrawn from that baseline during
the course of the study.
26
RESEARCH DESIGN
Example: To test the effects of the self-instructional

component of the self-control procedure on attention
span, a psychologist uses a multiple baseline design.
S/he trains a child in self-instruction and then tells the
child to use the technique when working on arithmetic
homework in three different settings: first when working
alone in a quiet room; then when working in the library;
and then when working in the classroom. The
psychologist measures the child's attention span in all
three settings at regular intervals during the baseline
and treatment phases.
27
RESEARCH DESIGN
This design and its possible results are illustrated below

A B
Quiet Room
Library
Time
28
RESEARCH DESIGN
Because the child's attention span in each setting did

not increase until self-instruction was applied to it,
these results confirm that self-instruction is useful for
improving attention span.
As can be seen in the above figure, sequentially

applying an intervention to different settings helps
determine if an intervention is actually responsible for
any observed changes in the target behavior:
29

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Chapter 3

It is a method and procedure that is planned

🞂 Help to obtain reliable and valid data through

🞂 Interpretation of correlation coefficient (- or +)

(2) One-Group Experiment with pre and post Test

🞂 RESULT: Significant Improvement from O1 to O2 (i.e.,

(4) TWO-Group Experiment with pre and post Test

◦ Statistical Regression (regression toward the mean)?

The single-subject designs were derived primarily from the

While the single-subject designs are often used to

1. Each single-subject design includes at least one baseline

There are a large number of single-subject designs,

The simplest single-subject design is the AB design,

Example: A psychologist decides to assess the effects of a

Because the patient's symptoms decreased only

Reversal Designs (ABA, ABAB, Etc.)

The AB design can be expanded to include more than

• Advantage of the reversal designs over the simple AB

Example: To confirm that the observed improvement in symptoms

• Reversal designs are considered inappropriate when

Multiple Baseline Design

• Multiple baseline design does not require withdrawal of a

Example: To test the effects of the self-instructional

This design and its possible results are illustrated below

Because the child's attention span in each setting did

As can be seen in the above figure, sequentially

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