energies

Review
Review on Test Benches Studying Sliding Electrical Contact and
Synthesis of Experimental Results
Théo Kziazyk 1 , Eric Gavignet 1, *, Pierre-Henri Cornuault 2 , Philippe Baucour 1 and Didier Chamagne 1

1 Energy Department, FEMTO-ST Institute, Université Franche-Comte, CNRS, 90000 Belfort, France
2 Applied Mechanics Department, FEMTO-ST Institute, Université Franche-Comte, CNRS,
25000 Besançon, France
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Sliding electrical contacts are commonly used with a slip ring to collect the current in
moving system generators, alternators, or electrical motors. These contacts are also found in electrical
transports without batteries, which are mostly supplied by means of a pantograph–catenary system.
These systems are fraught with numerous issues. Among them, it is worth highlighting wear and
heating, which lead to failures and pre-worn materials. Moreover, with the increase in speed and
improvements in technologies and materials, new problems emerge. This is the case with the
substitution of the classic copper strip with graphite or copper-impregnated graphite. Multiple works
that studied sliding electrical contacts have been achieved recently, some by trying to create a model
of the system based on experimental results, and others only based on experimental works and
measurements. This paper aims to review articles from this last category by making a synthesis of
different test benches used and then by opening a discussion based on different results highlighted
by scholars. This discussion is divided into five points that constitute the system inputs. These
are the environment, material, normal load, sliding speed, and current. Based on this discussion, a
conclusion attempts to evaluate topics where results and trends are commonly established by authors
and topics where there is a lack of work or some conflicts in the results or trends between different
articles. For this last point, some perspectives are given for further experimental works.
Citation: Kziazyk, T.; Gavignet, E.;
Cornuault, P.-H.; Baucour, P.; Keywords: sliding electrical contact; contact material; electric wear; pantograph–catenary interaction;
Chamagne, D. Review on Test slip ring interaction
Benches Studying Sliding Electrical
Contact and Synthesis of
Experimental Results. Energies 2023,
16, 1294. https://doi.org/10.3390/
1. Introduction
en16031294
In railway, automotive, or generating systems, sliding electrical contacts (SECs) are
Academic Editor: Francesco
widely studied in components such as generators, alternators, or electrical motors. These
Bottiglione
contacts are used to conduct electricity from a static/dynamic system to another dynamic
Received: 16 December 2022 system. For example, in a railway system, a pantograph slides against a copper wire to
Revised: 11 January 2023 supply the motors (Figure 1a) while rotating slip rings against brushes to carry the current
Accepted: 17 January 2023 in automotive or generating systems (Figure 1b). Therefore, the reliability and the lifetime
Published: 25 January 2023 of these systems are important.
Studying systems with SEC remains difficult because of the great number of properties
and effects that have to be taken into account. Figure 2 lists the parameters, inputs, and
outputs of an ideal experimental bench. The physical properties and phenomena depend
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. on inputs but are also interlinked. Thus, some of these properties and phenomena have an
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
indirect impact on the wear and the power supply quality.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Energies 2023, 16, 1294. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031294 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 1294 2 of 21

Spring
slip
rings

Catenary

Contact wire

Strip

Pantograph brushes

(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) Schematic of a pantograph–catenary system [1]. (b) Schematic of a slip ring.

PHYSIC PROPERTIES SYSTEM

SYSTEM INPUT
AND PHENOMENA OUTPUT

Environment Friction Electrical arc

Contact Wear
Speed Humidity area

Electrical Vibration
Normal load
resistivity
Room Supply quality
temperature
Materials Heating

Oxydation

Current Thermal
conduction Convection

Figure 2. Description of the parameters of a sliding electrical contact.

The main inputs impacting a sliding electrical contact can be divided into five items:
The materials relate to the wire contact/slip ring and the strip/brush. Wire contact
and slip ring are mainly composed of copper whereas the materials composing the strips
and brushes are more varied. They were first made of pure copper or steel but the system
needed lubrication and the wire contact/slip ring as well as the strip/brushes suffered too
much wear [2]. Graphite composite materials have been found to have an auto-lubricating
property and a lower toughness than copper [3,4]. This partly resolved the issue of wire
maintenance but it increased the electrical resistance of the contact, leading to an increase
in the heat produced into the contact [5]. Impregnating the graphite with copper partially
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 3 of 21

solved this problem [6]. The materials used also define the geometry of the sliding contact
and the apparent contact area. Moreover, roughness and asperity determine the real
contact area.
The current relies on the energy needed by the system to fully work. It induces
an increase in the heat released by the Joule effect. It also impacts the wear, friction
coefficient, and arcing. Finally, the current impacts the third body formation [7]. This body
will be detailed later and concerns the oxidation layer and the debris found between the
two surfaces.
The speed increases vibrations and contact losses, leading to an increase in arc occur-
rences [8]. Speed also induces a cooling phenomenon due to air convection [9].
The normal load represents the normal force of the strip on the wire contact. It avoids
contact loss between wire contact/slip ring and the strip/brushed, decreasing the arcing
and increasing the real contact area [10]. However, the normal load also increases the
friction coefficient and mechanical wear [11]. Furthermore, the normal load is known to
fluctuate due to the geometry of the catenary [12].
Environment is the most difficult parameter to study and control. The environmental
inputs include solar radiation, ambient temperature, frost, and humidity. For example,
wind gust and turbulence can affect the contact reliability [13]. These parameters affect other
physical properties and phenomena such as electrical resistivity, oxidation, or arcing [14,15].
These are the main inputs chosen by authors, but other properties can affect the contact
quality. In the pantograph–catenary system, the irregularities of the catenary [16,17], its
geometry [18], its height [19], and its wear [20,21] can have a noticeable effect on the
contact behaviour. The properties of the pantograph such as the strip spacing [22] and the
aerodynamics [23–25] can also be important to take into account.
Multiple models have been proposed to predict wear, such as a heuristic model [26,27]
or FEM model [28]. Others tend to study the heat [1] or the aerodynamics of the panto-
graph [15]. Most of these models are tested based on experimental results. This review
aims to describe different test benches made to study SEC and to discuss the main trends
and results found by authors. Finally, a synthesis of the progress of numerous fields that
composed SEC is given as a conclusion with some perspectives.

2. A Variety of Experimental Setups

Most of the test benches focused on the representativity of the sliding electrical contact
found in industries or in railways transports. Representativeness can be assessed through
materials, current or current density, contact area, normal load, or sliding speed. Some
experimental setups aim to measure the temperature close to the contact. After exper-
iments, wear measurements are also usually performed and friction track analyses are
sometimes conducted using characterisation tools such as scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Table 1 lists the test benches that study
the pantograph–catenary link whereas Table 2 presents the sliding contact in slip rings.
Most of the experimental setup has a rotating part corresponding to the contact wire or the
slip ring. In pressure with this part by means of strings, for example, one or two static parts
simulate the strip or the brushes.
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 4 of 21

Table 1. List of test benches used to study pantograph–catenary contact *. A(AC) stands for alternative
current and A(DC) for direct current.

Pin on Disc Pin on Disc Ring Block Ring Block Ring Block
Tribotester [29] Tribotester [30,31] Test Bench [32,33] Test Bench [34–36] CCTB [1,27,37,38]

Speed 28 m·s−1 20 m·s−1 8.4 m·s−1 110 m·s−1 60 m·s−1

Normal load 70 N 70 N 80 N 10–300 N 60–110 N

400 A(AC) 1400 A(DC)

Voltage 100–3000 V; 500 A(AC) 162/3 Hz
300 A(AC) 50 Hz 100 A(AC) 125 Hz 200 A(AC)
Current * 700 A(DC) 350 A(AC) 50 Hz
15–180 V

Zigzag motion None None Yes Yes (0.3–3 Hz) Yes

Arc detection Photo diode None None Hall effect Contact voltage
current sensor history

Temperature K-type
None None Infrared camera Infrared camera
measurement Thermocouple

Wear Mass loss Volume loss Instantaneous NWR

None None
measurement method distance mass difference

Friction
None Yes None Load cells Load cells
measurement

Surface analysis SEM, XPS SEM, EDS density SEM, EDS Digital camera None
3D profiler Hardness roughness SEM, EDS
Pure copper, Carbon,
Strip material Pure carbon Copper–graphite composites, Pure carbon Pure carbon Carbon-impregnated
Copper–graphite-coated, Cu (20–30%)

Wire material QCr0.5 chromium QCr0.5 chromium Copper–magnesium Copper–silver Pure copper
copper alloy copper alloy alloy alloy
Full-scale experiments
Fluctuation of Study frictional behaviour, Precise non-intrusive Adjustable angle
Particularity Use of different types
dynamic normal load Study of current thermal measurement of strip
of current

2.1. Experimental Study of Pantograph–Catenary Contacts

Three different types of test benches specializing in the study of the pantograph–
catenary contact have been found in the modern literature.

2.1.1. Current-Carrying Friction and Wear Tester Pin-on-Disc Tribometer

(In Table 1, see column 1 for the article by Zhang Y. [29] and column 2 for the article by
Yang Z. [31]). A copper disc rotates against two pins made of the same materials. A current
flows out of a pin through the disc sample and goes back from the other pin (see Figure 3).
The current is alternative (125 Hz or 50 Hz) and can reach 300 A. Sliding speed is set to a
maximum of 28 m·s−1 .
The particularity in the first article is to use a photo-diode to evaluate the electrical
arc intensity and a high-speed camera to record the arc discharge process with a 10,000 fps
(frame per second) frame rate. The dynamic normal load, representative of the one found
in a pantograph–catenary system, fluctuates periodically around 70 N, with precise am-
plitude and frequency. The impact of amplitude and frequency on the arcing rate is then
studied [29].
The specific feature of the second work is to use three different materials as strips
to study friction, wear, and current carrying performance. The wear rate is measured
by the mass loss during a test while the measurement method of the friction coefficient
is unclearly exposed. The current carrying performance is evaluated by measuring the
current carrying efficiency and the current carrying stability. Efficiency is calculated by the
average of the current measured by the current set. Stability corresponds to the fluctuation
of the conduction current during service. It is calculated as follows:
σ
δ = (1 − ¯ )100% (1)
Ii
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 5 of 21

where δ is the current-carrying stability parameter [%], σ is the standard deviation for
current [A], I¯i is the average value of the actual current during test [A].

Figure 3. Configuration of the test bench from articles by Yang Z. et al. [29–31]. Copyright (2023),
with permission from Elsevier.

Table 2. List of test benches used to study slip rings.

Test Bench In Situ Experimental

Low-Speed Tribological of Brushes for Friction Wear Tester
Test Bench
Test Bench [39] Test Device [40] Automotive for Cu-Ti3 AlC2 Brush [43]
of Metal Graphite
Small Brush-Type Brush [42]
DC Motor [41]

Speed 0.02–0.5 m·s−1 10 m·s−1 15 m·s−1 14 m·s−1 15 m·s−1

Normal load 5–30 N 1.25–5 N 1.5–2.5 N 2.4 N 1.25–7.5 N·cm−2

0–8 A(DC) 1–5 A(DC)

Current 0–10 A 5–20 A(DC) 0–15 A·cm−2
4.3 A·cm−2 3.4–17 A·cm−2

Arc detection None None None None None

Temperature K-type K-type T-type T-type None

measurement Thermocouple Thermocouple Thermocouple Thermocouple

Measure with Measure with Measure with

Wear
None mass loss mass loss position difference Calculated with mass loss
measurement
and distance and distance before/after test
Friction 3D piezoelectric None Yes None Power loss method
measurement sensor
Mass loss Before/after Before/after
Before/after test None Before/after test
measurement test test
3D optical microscope,
OM, SEM SEM, 3D surface profiler
Surface analysis SEM, white light inter- None Digital camera
EDS, 3D SP Raman Spectroscopy
ferometry, 3D SP
Hard carbon,
Electrographite electrographite, Copper–graphite Metal graphite
Brush material (40wt% Cu, Cu-30%Ti3 AlC2
DE9000 polymer-bonded, brush
graphite 60wt% C)

Hard carbon
electrographite Copper
Ring material Pure copper (99.9%) Copper (SE-Cu F25) Cu-5%Ag
polymer-bonded
graphite
Use three different types
Study at low of carbon, Anode and cathode Adjustable Tamb Study of homemade
Particularity
speed repeatability of results, studied apart Adjustable HR Cu-Ti3 AlC2 composites
contact surface given

Three issues can be noticed in papers that emerged from these works. Firstly, it is not
possible to know which sample is the cathode and the anode. Therefore, it is not specified
in which direction the current flows at the contact of the sample studied. Furthermore,
as there is no zig-zag motion, the wear rate measured during tests can be amplified due
to overheating. Finally, as the system contains two contacts and not just one, the contact
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 6 of 21

losses occurrences are multiplied. This leads to a current-carrying efficiency and stability
affected much quicker than in a system with one contact.

2.1.2. Ring Block-Type Test Machine

Test benches use one or two contact wires fixed at the outer edge of a rotating wheel
(in Table 1, see column 3 for the first experimental setup [32,33] and column 4 for the
second [34,35]). A strip is pushed so as to be in contact with these wires and is driven
by a translation movement to represent the sweeping motion of a strip in real conditions.
A current flows through the wire contact to the strip.
The first experimental bench (Figure 4a) helps to study contact temperature, using a
non-intrusive infrared camera [32,33]. Its characteristcs are listed in the third column of
Table 1. The authors did not measure wear, they mainly studied the wear processes and the
different wear morphology types using SEM, EDS, and observation.
The second experimental setup allows us to reach a sliding speed of 110 m·s−1 , but
the maximum value used to study the pantograph–catenary contact is set to 55 m·s−1 . One
peculiarity is to choose the angle between the strip and the contact wire, from 0◦ to 4◦ ,
and to observe its influence upon other parameters [34] (see Figure 4b). With the same
test bench, Chen G.X. et al. [35] measure the arc discharge energy, using a Hall voltage
sensor and a Hall current sensor. The cumulated arc discharge energy per unit of sliding
distance, defined as the scaled accumulated energy by the authors, is then calculated with
the formula: R
U Idt
E= (2)
d
where E is the arc dischage energy [J·km−1 ], U stands for the arc voltage [V], I represents
the electric current [A], d is the sliding distance [km], and t is the test time [s]. They also
measure the temperature with an infrared camera and calculate the wear rate of the contact
strip by dividing the volume loss V [mm3 ] by the covered distance d.

Contact wire
Strip inclination angle
Source

Steel wheels

Contact wire
R

Infra-red Strip
L High voltage
camera
probe

AC current Multichannel Rotating disc

clamp recorder
Contact strip
Comptuer Contact strip frame

(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Synoptic of the School of Electrical Engineering’s test bench from an article by
Wu G. et al. [33]. Copyright (2023), with permission from Elsevier. (b) Test bench synoptic of
the Tribology Research Institute, Southwest Jiatong University, from an article by Chen G. et al. [34].

2.1.3. Full-Scale Experimental Ring Block

A ring block called CCTB (Current Collection Test Bench) has been built within the
Mechanical Department of Politecnico di Milano [38] (in Table 1, see column 5). It is a
full-scale pantograph–catenary system that reaches a sliding speed of 60 m·s−1 , with a
sweeping movement between the contact wire and the strip. An airflow system is used
to simulate the real convection of the airflow. Four load sensors are used to measure the
normal load and friction coefficient.
Another particularity is to use an accelerometer placed at the centre of the strip
to measure the vertical acceleration of the strip and estimate contact quality and the
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 7 of 21

arcing rate. The percentage of arcing is also determined by estimating the time when
the contact between the wire and the strip has been lost. The contact strip temperature
is obtained by means of a K-type thermocouple positioned at the centre of the contact
strip [1]. Furthermore, it is possible to change the type of voltage between direct current
and 162/3 Hz or 50 Hz alternative current frequency.

2.2. Experimental Study of Slip Rings

In slip rings, the current, the velocity of the sliding contact, and the normal load are
usually lower than the one found in the pantograph–catenary link (PCL). Similarly, there is
no sweeping motion between the two entities and no external convection effect. However,
three different types of test benches developed with the same methods and specialising in
the study of slip rings have been found in modern literature. Table 2 summarises these test
benches features.

2.2.1. Studies of a Sliding Electrical Contact at Low Speed

This test bench is composed of a pure copper pin in contact with a rotating electro-
graphite disc [39] (first column in Table 2). The steady linear speed is set at 0.5 m·s−1 ,
chosen with the aim of studying the impact of load and electrical current on the friction
and wear behaviour. The friction coefficient is obtained thanks to a 3D piezoelectric sensor.
Wear is calculated by measuring mass loss. Temperature is measured by using a K-type
thermocouple, located 2 mm away from the interface between the copper and the carbon,
inside the copper span. During studies, the temperature is used as an indicator more than
quantitative data. Raman spectrometry is used to analyse the material evolution and the
oxidation layer of the copper–graphite copper.

2.2.2. Tribological Testing Device

The second column of Table 2 concerns a test bench where two SEC enable a closed-
loop electrical circuit [40]. The contacts are in the shape of a disc with an inner diameter
of 12 mm and an outer diameter of 19.5 mm. Real-time measurements of the normal
load and the friction torque for each sliding contact help calculate the friction coefficient.
Muti-component sensors are used to measure torque and force. A stationary sample is
attached on these multi-component sensors, electrically and thermally isolated from the
sensor. The current is given in current density and total current which helps see the current
impact from two points of view and to know the contact area. Wear is determined using
the sliding distance, the normal load, and the mass loss measured before and after the test.
To validate the repeatability of the data, each test was performed three or four times. Three
different carbonaceous materials with known properties are used and studied.

2.2.3. Slip Ring Brush Tribostester

(In Table 2, see the third column for the experimental setup used by Shin W.-G. and Lee
S.-H. [41], the fourth column for the one used by Turel A. et al. [42], and the fifth column for
a test bench used by Zhao H. [43]). Two brush samples are under pressure with a rotating
disc. An electrical current flows through one brush and exits at the opposite brush. Springs
are used to set a constant pressure between brush samples and commutator.
In a study by Shin W.-G. and Lee S.-H. [41] (Figure 5), contact temperature is measured
by means of two T-type thermocouples installed within 3 mm from the contact. Measure-
ments are carried out on the anode(+) and the cathode(-), leading to different results.
In the tests by Turel A. et al. [42], the test bench is introduced in an isolated chamber to
control ambient temperature. From this temperature chamber, two openings are connected
to a chamber in which a heater has been placed. Using K-type thermocouples helps set the
ambient temperature from 22 ◦ C to 200 ◦ C with a ±2 ◦ C tolerance. Additionally, relative
humidity is measured.
Zhao H. has led experiments to investigate the potential use of Cu-Ti3 AlC2 sliding
against a Cu-5%Ag alloy. To characterise the samples’ electrical wear performance, the main
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 8 of 21

indicators were voltage drop, friction coefficient, and wear rate. The friction coefficient is
measured through a power loss approach as follows:

P − P0
µ= (3)
NB Fr v
with µ the friction coefficient [-], P the load power of the motor when the brushes make
contact with the motor [W], P0 the no-load power without the brushes [W], NB the number
of brushes, Fr the contact pressure [N] and v the sliding speed [m·s−1 ].
The wear rate is calculated with the formula:
∆M
Ws = (4)
ρFr S

with Ws the wear rate [mm3 ·(N·m)−1 ], ∆M the mass loss [kg], ρ the density of the sample
[kg·mm−3 ], Fr the normal load [N] and S the sliding distance of the samples [m].

Thermocouple Thermocouple

(-)brush (+)brush

Normal Normal
Load T3 T4 T1 T2 Load

e e

A
Current source

Figure 5. Outline of the wear test from an article by Shin W-G. and Lee S-H. [41].

2.3. Other Studies of Electrical Sliding Contacts

Electrical Arc Generation
Represented by Figure 6a, a test bench allows the study of arc erosion characteristics
specifically [44]. The cathode, attached under the static stage, is made of pure copper while
the anode, attached on the dynamic edge, is a Cu-impregnated carbon strip material. When
starting a test, the electrodes are in contact and the contact is checked (Rc = 10.8 mΩ). Then,
the movable stage moves at a speed of 1 mm·s−1 . The electric arc occurs when a rupture of
the contact appears while the anode is moving. The lack of representativeness has been
admitted by the author. Indeed, the electric arc is elongated with the motion of the strip
in a real pantograph–catenary system [45,46], whereas the arc remains stuck to its roots
during tests. The arc exists in a particular region of the strip and remains stuck to its roots.
During the test, the temperature distribution is recorded with an infrared camera, and the
voltage waveform by a digital oscilloscope. This allows for following the arc position and
its process.
Triboelectrical test bench of a vibrating sliding contact
As shown in Figure 6b, two horizontal crossed cylinders are used to investigate a
sliding electrical contact. A spring applies a 10 N normal load between the cylinders [6].
An electrical current of 5 A flows through the electrodes, with the upper electrode as
the cathode and the lower as the anode. Those electrodes are 20 mm high and 10 mm
in diameter. A vibrator moves the lower electrode at a 5 mm amplitude and with 3 Hz
frequency. The four-point probes method is used to measure voltage drop and current.
These values allow for calculating the contact resistance more accurately without taking
into account contributions by wires and other contact points. Contact resistance is then
observed during a test. In an article by Grandin M., three different carbon-impregnated Cu
are studied and mounted on the moving part (anode), whereas the stationary part (cathode)
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 9 of 21

is made of copper. These tests are repeated for reproducibility regarding the specific wear
rates and the friction coefficient.

Copper electrode

Strip material
− +

Moving
direction
Movable
stage

(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) Outline from an article by Wu G. et al. [44] of arc generator. (b) Outline of the experi-
mental setup from an article by Granding M. [6]. Copyright (2023), with permission from Elsevier.

2.4. Conclusions
Test benches aim to study different parameters and characteristics composing a sliding
electrical contact. However, every test bench is built differently, and their respective sliding
electrical contacts are not fully representative. Several parameters such as vibrations,
materials, or mechanical structure can lead to different results when carried out on two
test benches. Besides, the physical properties of materials regarding tree directions are not
defined. The real contact area is an important feature that impacts the contact pressure,
the current density, the contact resistance, wear, and the friction coefficient. Furthermore,
the materials used are often different. Therefore, the experimental results of different
studies will be synthetised in the next section. We will focus on the impacts of the different
inputs on wear.

3. Discussion
This discussion is a comparison of the different experimental results obtained by
scholars. As the test bench and test conditions are all different, the trends of the outputs
(friction coefficient, temperature, wear) are listed depending on five major inputs: the
environment, the material, the normal load, the sliding speed, and the current.

3.1. Environmental Influences

Few studies have been conducted to explore the impact of the environment. Authors
have focused on two environmental properties: ambient temperature and air composition.

3.1.1. Ambient Temperature

An experiment led by Liu X. et al. [47] show that the friction coefficient and wear rate
are higher at 100 °C than at room temperature: the high temperature increases the graphite
plasticity and catalyses copper oxidation formation. Therefore a material with high copper
content is more sensitive to ambient temperature changes due to its sensitivity to oxidation.
Furthermore, the friction film can be destroyed more easily at high temperatures resulting
in oxidative wear.
Liu R. et al. [48] performed experiments when the room temperature was controlled.
They observed that the oxygen content of the materials’ surface increases at high tempera-
tures. This highlights the catalysis effect of temperature on the oxidation mentioned above.
They also measured that the wear rate increases with the ambient temperature.
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 10 of 21

3.1.2. Gaseous Environment

Experiments made by Hu Z.L. et al. [7] have shown that the wear rate of electrographite
brushes is more than twice as high at 10% relative humidity (RH) than at 50%. Observations
show that at low RH, only graphite grains can be found at the surface whereas a cuprous
oxide protective layer forms at higher RH. Indeed, the formation of this layer is facilitated
by the presence of water vapour, which acts as a catalyst. Furthermore, the current allows
the dissociation of water into H+ and OH− ions, increasing the formation of Cu2 O from O2
and Cu.
Qian G. et al. [49] reached the same kind of conclusion by performing tests in a normal
laboratory atmosphere and under a vacuum. The wear volume loss during tests is five
times higher in vacuum conditions than in air. For the same reasons mentioned above, no
oxide layer forms at the surface of the material, increasing the wear rate and the friction
coefficient. At the end of the tests, the authors measured the roughness of the worn surfaces:
it is more than twice as rough in vacuum conditions. This highlights the high adhesion and
intensive abrasion that occurs in the absence of both water or oxygen [50].

3.2. Strip/Brush Material

Due to the various manufacturing processes and chemical compositions, there is a
wide panel of materials used to manufacture brushes and strips. The number of scientific
works on this subject has recently increased by 30% in the past two years [51]. In this study,
we will focus on the sintered temperature and the metal impregnation.

3.2.1. Sintered Temperature

Liu R. et al. [48] compared two resin-bonded copper–graphite brushes sintered at
910 °C and 450 °C (see Table 3). The authors observed that the high sintered temperature
improves the bonding strength between copper and graphite. During the process, high
amounts of gases are emitted at high temperatures, leading to an increase in porosity [52].
Experimental results have shown that material sintered at high temperatures has better
abrasion resistance and therefore better wear performance at ambient temperatures. How-
ever, due to its higher porosity, its resistance to oxidative wear is poor, leading to lower
wear performance at a higher ambient temperature than for material sintered at 450 °C.

Table 3. Main characteristics of materials used by cited authors.

Sintered Flexual
Metal Misc Hardness Resistivity Opening
Process Temperature Strength
[%] [%] [HR10-392] [µΩ·mm] Porosity
[°C] [Mpa]
Dry powder mixed 450 1.5 Sn 64.3 901 8 23.8
62
Compressed (150 Mpa) 4 MoS2
Sintered 6 h 910 4.5 Resin 45.6 785 17.5 32.4

3.2.2. Copper Impregnation

Copper is mainly used to impregnate carbon and the three studies presented in this
section employ this metal [6,31,47]. Due to the higher electrical conductivity of copper,
the electrical resistance of the material drops sharply with the increase in copper amount
in the material [53]. It has also been observed that contact resistance decreases with the
amount of impregnated copper [6,31].
Figure 7a represents the wear rate measured during tests depending on copper im-
pregnation amount. From these measures and the authors’ arguments, Figure 7b explains
the dependence of the wear with the copper content of the material: (1) Without copper and
only graphite, the electrical contact resistance is high, thus increasing the heat at contact
point [47]. (2) The effect of a small amount of copper is less clear: from 0% to 50% copper
content, Liu X. et al. [47] observed an increase in wear rate due to the weakening of the
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 11 of 21

structure material and the low bonding strength between copper and graphite. On the other
hand, Grandin M. et al. [6] observed a decrease in the wear rate when the copper content
ranges from 6 to 26%. (3) A copper matrix starts to form with higher copper content. This
strengthens the materials and decreases wear rate, till reaching an optimum point (4) when
wear rate is at the minimum. (5) When reaching a very high copper content, the graphite
quantity spread on the surface is insufficient. Then, the contact loses the self-lubrication
properties related to graphite and the protective film of CuO2 and graphite tends to wear.
Therefore the roughness of the surface increases and leads to a loss in current-carrying
efficiency and stability. Furthermore, high content of copper leads to greater weakness to
oxidative wear [47]. Results by Yang Z. et al. [31] confirm these trends and show that the
wear rate increases with high copper contents. (6) Finally, concerning a copper material
with no graphite, the wear rate is high because of poor lubrication of the contact. As shown
by Yang Z. et al. [31], a high coefficient friction is measured and the surface is rough,
creating an unstable contact with a low current-carrying efficiency and stability.

20 (6)
Yang Z. (2019)
Liu X. (2021)
Grandin M. (2018)
(5)

Wear [arbitrary units]

Wear [mg.km−1]

(1) (2)
0.2

(3)
(4)

0.02
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Copper impregnation [%] Copper impregnation [%]

(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) Wear measures depending on copper impregnation in graphite material from three
authors [6,31,47]. (b) Typical dependence of wear depending on the copper content in graphite:
(1) full graphite material has a high contact electrical resistance; (2) low copper content weakens
the material structure; (3) formation of a copper matrix that strengthens the material; (4) optimal
point; (5) high copper content weakens the material due to oxidation sensitivity; (6) without the
self-lubrication of the graphite, the wear of full copper material is high.

We have shown that the copper impregnation content has a direct influence on the
wear rate of the material. The authors found that, at an optimum point, the wear rate is
minimum at a specific copper content. However, some points should be highlighted:
• As for the optimal point, the amount of copper is different from one author to the other.
• The effects on the friction coefficient and the wear rate of the copper oxide Cu2 O found
on the surface are still unclear.
• Authors did not observe the same wear rate trend at low amounts of copper content.

3.3. Normal Load

3.3.1. Impact of Normal Load on Mechanical Wear Versus Electrical Wear
Undoubtedly, increasing the normal load without any current increases the abrasive
wear of the strip and the contact temperature by friction heat. Indeed, Holm R. [54]
expressed the mass loss ∆m [mg·s−1 ] from mechanical wear with the following equation:

∆m = kpAv (5)
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 12 of 21

where k is the wear factor [s²·m−4 ], p is the normal load [N], A is the apparent contact area
[m2 ], and v is the sliding velocity [m·s−1 ].
Therefore, the normal load should be expressed accompanied by the apparent contact
area and the geometry of the contact to get the normal load, which is not the case for
most articles.
Regarding electrified contacts, most results show that increasing the normal load
between materials decreases the wear rate [34,41,55–58], the contact heating [34,35,41,57],
and the friction coefficient [40,41,56]. First, this is due to the power loss into the contact
point due to Joule effect:
Pc = IUc = Rc I 2 (6)
where Pc is the power loss [W], Rc the contact resistance [Ω], Uc the contact voltage [V],
and I the current [A].
Increasing the normal load between asperities results in an increase in contact spots [26].
Thus, the electrical contact resistance decreases due to a larger real contact area. Wang W. [59]
observed this trend by calculating the power loss and measuring the contact resistance when
changing the normal load.
Secondly, increasing the normal load tends to decrease the arcing rate [38] and the
arc discharge energy [34,35] leading to a decrease in the wear by arcing. This influence is
explained by the decrease in the contact loss rate between the strip and the contact wire.
Braunovic M. [60] describes the wear of brushes in an electric sliding contact as a
function of the normal load with a U-type curve (see Figure 8a). First, the total wear
drops rapidly with a decrease in electrical wear. After the optimum point, the total wear
rises as the mechanical wear increases. This optimum point depends on various types of
electrical machines. This behaviour is also described by Poljanec D. et al. [40] with three
different materials (hard carbon, electrographite, and polymer bonded graphite) and by
Wang Y.A. et al. [61]. However, Zhao H. et al. [62] had contradictory experimental results
(see Figure 8b) but they did not comment on the reverse U shape of the curve. Yet, they
mentioned that there is an optimum point.

100
0.40
Total wear 50 A
0.35
80 40 A
Wear rate [mm3.km−1]
Wear [arbitraty units]

Electrical wear
0.30 30 A
Mechanical wear
60 0.25 20 A
0A
0.20
40
0.15

0.10
20
0.05

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 5 10 15 20
Load [GPa] Normal load [N]

(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) Typical dependence of wear of electric machine brushes on load, from a book by
Braunovic M. [60]. (b) Effect of load on the wear rate of the pin, from an article by Zhao H. et al. [62].

3.3.2. Parameters Related to the Normal Load

• Periodic fluctuations: It is known that the contact force fluctuates due to the geometry
of the catenary [63,64]. Zhang Y. et al. [29] observed that a periodic fluctuation of
the normal load also influences the current carrying stability, its efficiency, and the
arcing rate. In this work, the normal load is modulated in frequency f and amplitude
B and the results obtained have shown that the arcing rate increases when f and B
increase [18]. Model, force fluctuation, span length, preload, and speed. Strip spacing,
friction coefficient, and lift force. More spacing between strips, more lift force, and
friction coefficient.
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 13 of 21

• The stiffness of the contact: A pantograph is a lumped-mass system of three levels.

The value of the stiffness and the lump have a direct impact on the contact behaviour
and the behaviour of the contact force [63,64]. Stiffness has been experimentally
studied by Ding T. et al. [65]. They observed that stiffness has a significant effect on the
friction coefficient and the wear rate. The latter increases at the extreme stiffness values:
slightly with low stiffness and sharply when stiffness becomes too high, reaching
a maximum when the contact is strongly rigid. These variations are explained by
vibration, which leads to arc discharge.
The impact of stiffness is different depending on the sliding speed and the current. Nonethe-
less, it has been found that an optimal stiffness value leads to wear minimisation.
• Contact area: By setting an inclination angle between the contact strip and the wire,
Chen G. et al. [34] changed the contact area and thus the contact pressure between
the strip and the wire. The increase in the contact pressure results in decreasing the
friction coefficient and the temperature of the contact. It also reduces the wear rate
and the scaled accumulated energy (see Equation (2)), especially at low normal load
(30 N).

3.4. Sliding Speed

The impact of the sliding speed on the behaviour of a sliding electrical contact depends
on the studied system and it is necessary to differentiate between the pantograph–catenary
link (PCL) and a slip ring system. Indeed, speed ranges are different (3 to 15 m·s−1 in a slip
ring system and 13 to 100 m·s−1 in a PCL), mechanical vibrations differ from one system to
another, and the convection is much higher in the PCL.

3.4.1. Slip Ring

In this system, the sliding speed without current increases the wear rate of the brush
and its temperature due to mechanical friction [41,62]. With current, the sliding speed
decreases the wear rate, the friction coefficient, and the electrical resistance [41,42]. No
hypothesis has been suggested to explain this observation. Poljanec D. et al. [40] highlighted
an exception with electrographite: the wear rate increases with high values of sliding
speeds (10 m·s−1 ), even with electrical current. This can be due to contact instabilities
owed/due to surface film discontinuity on the friction track. Turel A. et al. [42] observed
that applying a low sliding speed increases the wear rate at low current densities and high
ambient temperatures.

3.4.2. Pantograph–Catenary Link

Phenomena observed in the pantograph–catenary experiments are different. An in-
crease in arc [36,38] and in arc-discharge energy [35] has been highlighted when the sliding
speed increases. This causes temperature to increase [35] and wear rate to rise [35,38,58,66].
In the study by Zhang Y. et al. [29], mentioned in the previous section, the arcing rate has
been observed to rise with the sliding speed. The effect of the sliding speed is greater
when the normal load fluctuates. This trend is mainly due to an increase in vibrations and
contact losses.
In PCL, Derosa S. et al. [10] have studied the impact of the sliding speed on the CCTB.
They have shown that a slow sliding speed leads to the accumulation of heat and therefore
to significant wear. A threshold speed of 330 mm·s−1 has been estimated, below which the
strip wear variation significantly increases.
Moreover, convection must be taken into account for the PCL, since it leads the system
to cool off. By doing so, Ding T. et al. [9] have shown that the wear rate of the strip decreases
slightly with temperature. All the other experiments do not seem to have cooled the system
in real convection conditions.
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 14 of 21

3.5. Current
It has been observed that the current leads to increased contact temperature [9,34,35,39–41,56,67],
the friction coefficient [39,55,61,68], and the wear rate [39,42]. Its effects can be summed up in
three points:
1. The oxidation catalysis of the contact surface impacts the friction coefficient, the wear
rate, and the contact temperature;
2. The Joule effect produces heat due to high electrical contact resistance;
3. Sparks and arcs discharge when contact loss occurs, increasing the temperature and
wear rate.

3.5.1. Catalysis Oxidation

When the current is set, the friction coefficient drops at once [56,69]. Indeed, the current
acts as a catalyst for oxidation reactions in two ways [7,70,71]. First axis: the current brings
electrons that accelerate the oxidation process. Second axis: the heat produced by the Joule
effect and electrical arcs readily cause oxidation (see Section 3.1).
By heating the sample, Ding T. et al. [9] measured that the heat itself, rather than the
current, decreases the friction coefficient (see Figure 9).

0.13
50 A
30 A
[-]

0.12 10 A
Friction coefficient

0.11

0.10

0.09
100 150 200 250 300
Contact temperature [°C]

Figure 9. Current and temperature effects on the friction coefficient from an article by Ding T. et al. [9].

3.5.2. Heat by Joule Effect

The power dissipated by Joule effect is given by Equation (6). As the current increases,
and without vibration, the Joule effect quickly becomes the main heat source. When heat
is too high, the material can soften locally, so that it more easily generates wear debris,
flake-like delamination, and ploughing [9].

3.5.3. Arcing
Arcing happens in case of contact instabilities in which contact stiffness [65], normal
loading [34,39,41,56], and sliding velocity [29,35,36,38,72] play a key role. Here are the
chronological steps of the impact of arcs discharge:
1. The very high temperature can melt or turn materials into gas [73]: the melted
impregnated copper (1357 K) can yield copper ionisation that accelerates the oxidation
processes. Furthermore, copper can gasify (2848 K), and so can as well as the carbon
(4073 K) [44];
2. Melted copper asperities can solidify directly close to the contact. The resulting
particle makes grooves and ridges on the friction track due to the tangential force,
making the surface rougher. This also enhances abrasive wear rate [74];
3. The exudate copper from impregnated carbon can form a metallic film [74];
4. After arcing, some cracks can be observed on the surface. This could be due to the
non-homogenous thermal conduction properties of the material, leading to thermal
strain between the carbon substrate and the impregnated copper. Crack nucleation
can then occur through contact fatigue [74].
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 15 of 21

3.5.4. Direction of Current Flow

The flow direction of the current impacts the contact behaviour. In a copper–graphite
sliding contact, Senouci A. [75] and other authors [76–78] observed that the friction co-
efficient and the contact resistance are not the same depending on the directions of the
current. The contact resistance doubles when copper is the cathode and graphite the anode,
whereas the friction coefficient decreases slightly. In this case, the third body is a mixture
of carbon–copper oxides. Indeed, the current inhibits the growth of the copper oxides
and metallic bonds are created between copper and graphite. However, when copper
constitutes the anode, the third body is made of a thin copper oxide layer, which has a
great impact on the contact behaviour [79]. Carbon’s higher electrical resistance and self-
lubricant properties explain these behaviours. Shin W.G. et al. [41] and Bares J.A. et al. [2]
observed the same results.
In PCL, Midya.S et al. [45,46] observed that the arc’s root tends to maintain more
easily when the strip is the cathode, due to slow sliding speed. On the contrary, when
the wire is the cathode, the arc tends to break more easily, leading to more frequent open
contact. Authors indicate that the root of the cathode needs more energy to move than that
of the anode.

3.5.5. Wear Rate

Multiple correlations have been highlighted between the temperature or arc discharge
and the wear rate. From Figure 10a, Chen G.X. [35] observed that the wear rate is clearly
linearly correlated with contact temperature. On the same test bench, Mei G. also made
a linear correlation between arc discharge and wear rates (see Figure 10b), but also be-
tween the contact temperature and the arc discharge energy rate [80]. This shows that
the accumulated heat is directly related to electrical arcs. Finally, by heating the sample
at different temperatures, Ding T. [9] measured wear volume with and without current.
Figure 10c highlights that the wear volume increases with the current, almost linearly. This
last trend is also confirmed by Kubo.S and Kato.K [81] and Kubota.Y [68]. A contact at
room temperature, or cooled, leads to a slightly positive impact on the mass loss of the strip,
but the wear rate is mainly very much dependent on the current. The wear rate is therefore
the combination of arcing and temperature increase from the Joule effect. Therefore, the
fast arc discharge becomes the main reason for a high wear rate [38,82].
Figure 11 gives an overview of the wear process caused by the current. As discussed
above, the latter has three effects, with a direct or indirect impact on the wear rate. Firstly,
it is known that arc discharge has a direct and negative impact. Secondly, with the heat
from the Joule effect and electron flow, the current is a catalyst for oxidation. This can be
negative or positive for wear since the oxidation modifies the tribofilm properties and the
friction coefficient [83]. However, although the impact is not straightforward, the current
always increases the wear rate of the material [9,38,82,84,85].
• When increasing the normal load, a downward trend of the wear rate is most often
observed. Nevertheless, this trend is controversial among scholars. Furthermore,
the stiffness of the strip plays a key role in vibration and arc occurrence, yet it has been
discussed very little.
• The causes of wear are also being discussed and processes are still not well understood
when the current is flowing. Electric arc and Joule effects are the main factors in the
wear of electric sliding contact. Yet, from a chemical standpoint, the role of current
flowing through copper and graphite has not been much studied.
• Through the articles mentioned and their results, specific wear rate and wear rate
are both used to quantify wear properties. Results show strong differences from
one another.
• The material used as a strip of course plays a key role in the wear mechanism and
the behaviour of the electrical sliding contact. As a matter of fact, the manufacturing
process, impregnated rate, impregnated process, hardness, and electrical resistance
have been said to change the wear rate, the friction coefficient, and contact temperature
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 16 of 21

increase. Materials also have displayed different behaviours when changing the
normal load, the sliding speed, and the current flow.

35 3 0.080
Wear rate [mm3.km−1]

[10-4 mm3.(Nm)−1]
30 2.5 0.072

Mass loss [g]

25

Wear rate
2
20 0.064
1.5
15 300°C
0.056
10 1 220°C
160°C
5 0.5 0.048 Room T°(C)
0 0
Wind cooling
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.040
50 150 250 350 10 20 30 40 50
Contact temperature [°C] Arc dischage energy rate [J.(Nm)-1] Current [A]

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10. (a) Correlation between the temperature of the contact strip and the wear rate from an
article by Chen G.X. [35]. (b) Correlation between the arc discharge energy rate and the wear rate,
from an article by Mei G. [80]. (c) Mass loss of the carbon strip according to the variation of the
current at different temperatures, from an article by Ding T. et al. [9].

Electrical arcs
Oxydation Wear rate
Electrical sparks

Catalyst Trtibofilm Friction

Current oxydation properties coefficient

Direct current effects

Positive or negative impacts
Joule effect Heat Negative impacts
Impact power

Figure 11. Impacts of the current on the wear of materials found in sliding electrical contacts.

4. Conclusions
In this study, numerous test benches presented have helped synthetise the behaviour
of a SEC. Most of them are in some way representative of the slip ring system or the
pantograph–catenary link. They also have their own specificities and field of study. Owing
to the different geometries and structures, as well as the type of measurements, (intrusive
vs. non-intrusive), experimental results cannot be directly compared. Therefore, following
these results, mainly trends have been highlighted. The impacts of the major entries of
a SEC—that is the environment, the material, the normal load, the sliding speed and the
current—have been explained that way.
Figure 12 shows an overview of the discussed experimental results. Some sections,
such as the current effects or the environmental influence, can be clearly synthetised. As a
matter of fact, multiple authors suggest the same trends and explanations, which strengthen
the synthesis. However, the behaviour obtained with different materials and at different
contact forces or sliding speeds cannot be clarified so readily. Either some results are
contradictory, like the trends of the wear measured at different normal load or at different
speeds, or research is lacking and published works are insufficient.
Material
For studies concerning copper impregnation of graphitic materials, the results ob-
tained are similar, but their study boundary and result dispersion weaken these remarks.
The significance of the sintered temperature of the material is easily explained away but
based on a single reference. Furthermore, other process characteristics like pressure, time
of mixing, or type of impregnation could be studied. Furthermore, few authors mention
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 17 of 21

the full composition of the material used in their work. Finally, the direction of material
could be studied to have a better understanding of the anisotropic behaviour of graphite.
Contact force
Most papers indicate that the wear found in SEC follows the trend described by
Braunovic M. [60]. However, some results are contradictory, and by specifying the stiffness
and measuring the vibrations during experiments , one could have a better understanding
of the phenomena involved. Furthermore, an approximation and a study of the significance
of the contact area could be very interesting.
Sliding speed
In the pantograph–catenary link, the impact of the convection on the contact could
be more investigated, as it is not taken into account in most studies. The deflection and
aerodynamics could also be interesting to experimentally study. In slip ring systems, the
results of different papers are contradictory and it is not possible to clearly state whether
sliding speed affects the wear rate and the heat of the brush. Therefore, more investigations
are needed to clarify this point.

Environmental Material Force contact

influence
Sintered Direction of With Without
T°C material current current

Gaseous Relative Fluctuation Contact

Copper
environment humidity area
impregnation
Stifness

No study found
Sliding speed Current
Conflict on results
Joule effect Oxydation Direction of or lake of clarity
In PCL In slip rings
Arc discharge current flow Clear results
only one study
Sliding speed Wear Similar and clear
trends found

Figure 12. Overview of the numerous fields of study focusing on sliding electrical contacts, their
progress, and lack of studies.

From the different entries of an SEC, the current doubtlessly most impacts the be-
haviour of the contact temperature, the friction coefficient, or the wear rate. It is also the
entry whose effects are best known and explained. However, the interaction of the current
with the sliding speed, the normal load, or the geometry of the contact should be explored.

Author Contributions: Writing—original draft preparation, T.K.; writing—review and editing, T.K.,
E.G., P.B., P.-H.C. and D.C.; validation, E.G., P.B., P.-H.C. and D.C.; supervision, E.G., P.B. and D.C.;
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: This work has been supported by EIPHI Graduate School, contract <ANR-17-
EURE-0002>.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

SEC Sliding electrical contacts

SEM Scanning electron microscopy
EDS Energy dispersive spectroscopy
CCTB Current collection test bench
PCL Pantograph–catenary link
Energies 2023, 16, 1294 18 of 21

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