2.

Thiessen Method
CE352 – HYDROLOGY
- Area – weighted average (every gage represents
MIDTERM REVIEWER best the area immediately around the gage)
Constructing Thiessen Network:
- Rainfall is expressed in terms of the depth to which 1. Plot Stations on a map
rainwater would stand on an area, if all the rain were 2. Connect adjacent stations by straight lines
collected on it. 3. Bisect each connecting line perpendicularly
- 1 cm of rainfall over a catchment area of 1km 2 4. Perpendiculars line define a polygon around each
represents a volume of water equal to 104m3 station
5. P at a station is applied to the polygon closest to it.
AMOUNT OF PRECIPITATION Thiessen Polygon Method:
1. Draw straight dashed lines between each rainfall
- Expressed as the depth of rain in inches, millimeters,
gate
or centimeters that fall on a level surface
2. Draw perpendicular bisectors lines. The enclosed
- Measured as the depth of water deposited in an
areas are known as Thiessen Polygons.
open straight-sided container
3. Determine the area of each polygon
4. Calculate the average rainfall
RAIN GAUGE
Formula:
- Gather and measure the amount of liquid 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈. = [ ∑ 𝑾𝒊 𝒙 𝑷𝒊 ] / ∑ 𝑾𝒊
precipitation over a set period of time in a given
location. 3. Isohytel Method
- It has a receiver in which an inner tube is located and - Preferred method for the analysis of individual
the falling rain is fed into the inner tube through the storms because it gives the best approximation
receiver and the total quantity measured by a for the rainfall pattern
measuring glass. - An Isohyet is a line, on a rainfall map of the
- The height of the receiver and the diameter of a basin, joining places of equal rainfall readings.
circular map are of standard dimension. - An isohyetal map showing contours of equal
rainfall presents a more accurate picture of the
RAIN GAUGE SETTING rainfall distribution over the basin
- Most elaborate and accurate method
Considerations: Formula:
1. The ground must be level and in the open and the 𝑷 + 𝑷𝟐
∑ [𝑨 ( 𝟏 )]
instrument must present a horizontal catch surface. 𝑷= 𝟐
2. The gauge must be set as near the ground as ∑𝑨
possible to reduce wind effects. Isohytal Method:
3. The instrument must be surrounded by an open 1. Plot gauge locations on map
fenced area of at least 5.5m x 5.5m 2. Subjectively interpolate between rain amounts
4. No object should be nearer to the instrument than 30 between gauges at a selected interval
m or twice the height of the obstruction. 3. Connect points of equal rain depth to produce lines
of equal rainfall amounts (isohyets)
COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE
COMPARISON BETWEEN METHODS
PRECIPITATION
Arithmetic Mean Method
1. Average Method / Arithmetic - Assumes uniform rainfall distribution
- Is the simplest method of getting the average - Very seldom occurs
precipitation. - Easiest to use but least accurate
- Done by computing the arithmetic mean or average Thiessen Polygon Method
of the recorded precipitation. - Assumes linear variation
∑𝐏
- 𝐀𝐯𝐞 𝐏. = - Use when gages are not uniformly distributed
𝐍𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬
- Can use gages outside of watershed
Isohyetal Method
- Theoretically the most accurate FREQUENCY OF POINT RAINFALL
- Most time-consuming method
- Can use gages outside of the watershed - The probability of occurrence of a particular extreme
rainfall is important in many hydraulic applications
RAIN GAUGES especially those concerning with floods.
- Number of time that a given magnitude of the rainfall
1. Recording Type may occur in a given period.
1.1. Tipping Bucket Type - N = No. of years of record
- 30.5cm size as per us weather bureau - m = rank
𝒎
- Water collect from tip bucket to storage tank - P = probability 𝑷 =
𝑵+𝟏
- Least count of 1mm and gives out one 𝟏
- T = recurrence interval in years 𝑻 =
electrical pulse for every mm of rainfall 𝑷
𝒎
- Electric circuit - F = frequency in % 𝑭 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑵+𝟏
1.2. Weighing Bucket Type
- Consists of a storage bin, and weighed to DETERMINATION OF EVAPORATION
record the mass.
Evaporation / Evapotranspiration (ET)
- It weighs rain or snow which falls into a bucket
- One of the components of hydrologic cycle. Loss of
1.3. Natural Syphons Type
water in the form of vapour from soil, snow, lake,
2. Non-recording Type
streams, reservoir, seas, and depressions to the
- Most rain gauges used in India. i.e. Symon’s
atmosphere due to energy of sun is called
Rain Gauge
Evaporation.
- Recordings are taken at 8:30am
- Transpiration is the process by which water leaves
- If rainfall is more then intermediate readings are
the living plant body and enters the atmosphere as
taken at 5:30pm
vapour.
- Capacity is 10cm
- The process involves collection of water in the body
- In case of heavy rainfall
of the plant and finally evaporation of it to the
- Accuracy 0.1mm
atmosphere from stomata of the leaves.
RAIN GAUGE NETWORK - This loss of water by these two processes to the
atmosphere is called Evapotranspiration (ET)
Factors:
- Economic distribution to a large extent FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
- Topography and Accessibility to some extent
There are various factors like hydrological,
ESTIMATION OF MISSING DATA meteorological and physical “that affect the rate of
evaporation” from earth’s surface.
- Missing data can be estimated from observation 1. RADIATION
and testation as close as possible to station in - Is the most important factor of evaporation. Solar
question. radiation supplies continuous energy, which is
- 4 stations are used then the 4th station is the essential for evaporation.
missing data - “Evaporation is directly proportional to radiation”
- Annual Precipitation is within 10% of the normal - Solar energy neat the equator is more, therefore,
annual precipitation at station in question then evaporation is much more.
simple arithmetic average is use in estimate the
missing data. 2. VAPOUR PRESSURE
𝑷𝑨 + 𝑷𝑩 + 𝑷𝑪 - “Evaporation rate varies directly with difference of
𝑷𝒙 = vapour pressure between air and water”. If E is the
𝟑
- Annual Precipitation more than 10% (use the rate of evaporation (mm/day) and, ew and ea are the
normal ratio method) vapour pressure in water and in air, then
𝑵𝑿 𝑷𝑨 𝑷𝑩 𝑷𝑪 - E = C (ew - ea) – DALTON’S LAW “C is constant”
𝑷𝒙 = ( + + )
𝟑 𝑵𝑨 𝑵 𝑩 𝑵𝑪
3. TEMPERATURE - “Evaporation rate decreases in the following
- “Increase in air temperature increases evaporation” order; bare ground, grass and croplands,
when other factors remaining the same yet the high light forests and dense forest.”
correlation coefficient between the two does not
9. SALINITY OF WATER
exist. In cold dry season although temperature is
- It actually under quality of water. Yet if the soil is
less, rate of evaporation is more because some of
saline, evaporation decreases.
heat energy absorbed at lower depth in hot water is
released in cold season. 10. DEPTH OF WATER IN THE WATER BODY
4. WIND VELOCITY - If the depth is more, it increases evaporation in
- “The increase in wind velocity increases winter season. On the other hand, low depth
evaporation.” Wind removes the evaporated water increases evaporation in summer as all water
vapour and thereby creates space for new gets warmed up by solar radiation.
evaporated water vapur. When there is no wind 11. HUMMIDITY
above the water body where the evaporated water - “If humidity is more, water holding capacity of air
vapour is in still condition, further evaporation is less, so less evaporation.” If water content is
ceases to take place. If wind velocity over the water less in air, more evaporation will take place.
body is high, it does not increases correspondingly
the evaporation. “There is always a critical velocity PAN EVAPORIMETER
of wind beyond which evaporation does not
Instruments, open type that measures the rate of
increase.”
evaporation of water into the atmosphere, sometimes it
5. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE is called an Atmometer.
- If atmospheric pressure is more, according to Evaporation rates are so sensitive to the water supply
DALTON’S LAW. ea is more, hence less and the nature of the evaporating surface.
evaporation. “Thus decrease in atmospheric
pressure can increase evaporation.” At higher TYPES OF EVAPORIMETERS
altitude, atmospheric pressure is low; hence
evaporation should have been more. But it is not 1. CLASS A EVAPORATION PAN
necessary because temperature at higher altitude - Consists of 1210mm width and a depth of
is low which reduces evaporation. 255mm.
6. AREA OF WATER SURFACE - Used by the U.S. Weather Bureau and known as
- “Evaporation is directly proportional to the area Class A Land Pan.
exposed.” Hence, if area is more, evaporation is - Depth of water is maintained below 18cm and
more. 20cm.
7. QUALITY OF WATER - The pan is made of unpainted galvanized iron
- It also affects the rate of evaporation. “If water sheet. Monet Metal is used where corrosion is
contains dissolved salts, it reduces the saturated problem.
vapour pressure es” and by Dalton’s Law, E - The pan is supported by wooden platform of
decreases. Also, turbidity of water has some 15cm height above the ground to allow free
indirect effects. circulation of air below the pan.
- Evaporation measurements are made by
8. NATURE OF EVAPORATING SURFACE
measuring the depths of water with a hook
- Evaporating surface is classified into three main
gauge in a stilling well.
surfaces; land surface, water surface and
snow surface. Temperature remaining the 2. ISI STANDARD PAN
same, evaporation from saturated soil surface is - Modified Class A Pan, consists of a pan
same to that of adjacent water surface. 1220mm in diameter with 255mm of depth.
- “Evaporation decreases when the soil surface is - The pan is made of copper sheet of 0.90mm
dry.” Thus, evaporation is independent on the thickness, tinned inside and painted white
availability of water on the surface. Further, it is outside.
again dependent on presence or absence of - A fixed point gauge indicates the level of water.
vegetal cover.
 - A calibrated cylindrical measure is used to add KM = coefficient accounting for various other factors
or remove water, maintaining the water level in with a value equal to 0.36 for large deep waters and
the pan to a fixed mark. 0.5 for small, shallow waters.
- The top of the pan is covered fully with a
hexagonal wire netting on a galvanized iron to If given that the wind velocity is at a level other than
protect the water in the pan from birds and to what is required in the formula, the wind velocity is
make the temperature more uniform during the assumed to follow the 1/7 power law as
day and night. 𝟏
𝑼𝟗 = 𝑼𝟏 (𝟗)𝟕
- Evaporation of this pan is found to be less by 𝟏
14% compared to the unscreened pan. 𝑼𝒉 = 𝑼𝟏 (𝒉)𝟕
3. COLORADO SUNKEN PAN
- 920 mm square and 460 mm deep made of
unpainted galvanized iron sheet and buried into
the ground within 100mm of the top.
- Main advantage of this type is that radiation and
aerodynamic characteristics are similar to a lake.
- Disadvantages:
1.1. Difficult to detect leaks
1.2. Extra care is needed to keep the
surrounding area free from all grass,
dust, etc.
1.3. Expensive to install
4. US GEOLOICAL SURVEY FLOATING PAN
- A square pan with 90mm side and 450mm depth
supported by drum floats in the middle of a raft
(4.25 x 4.87m) is set afloat on a lake to stimulate
the characteristics of a large body of water.
- The water level is kept constant leaving a rim of
75mm.
- Diagonal baffles provided in the pan reduce the
surging in the pan due to wave action.

EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION
EQUATIONS
E = 0.00241 (pvs – pv8) V8
Where:
pvs = the vapor pressure at the water surface (inches of
mercury)
ps = the vapor pressure 8m above the water surface
MEYER’S FORMULA:
EL = KM (ew - ea) (1 + u9 / 16)
Where:
EL = lake evaporation in mm/day
ew = saturated vapor pressure at the water surface
temperature in mm of mercury
ea = actual vapor pressure overlying air at about 9m
above the ground