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Futures contract
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In finance, a futures contract is a standardized contract, traded on a futures exchange, to

buy or sell a certain underlying instrument at a certain date in the future, at a specified
price. The future date is called the delivery date or final settlement date. The pre-set
price is called the futures price. The price of the underlying asset on the delivery date is
called the settlement price. The settlement price, normally, converges towards the
futures price on the delivery date.

A futures contract gives the holder the obligation to buy or sell, which differs from an
options contract, which gives the holder the right, but not the obligation. In other words,
the owner of an options contract may exercise the contract. If it is an American-style
option, it can be exercised on or before the expiration date; a European option can only
be exercised at expiration. Thus, a Futures contract is more like a European option. Both
parties of a "futures contract" must fulfill the contract on the settlement date. The seller
delivers the commodity to the buyer, or, if it is a cash-settled future, then cash is
transferred from the futures trader who sustained a loss to the one who made a profit. To
exit the commitment prior to the settlement date, the holder of a futures position has to
offset his position by either selling a long position or buying back a short position,
effectively closing out the futures position and its contract obligations.

Futures contracts, or simply futures, are exchange traded derivatives. The exchange's
clearinghouse acts as counterparty on all contracts, sets margin requirements, etc.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Futures vs. Forwards

• 2 Standardization
• 3 Margin
• 4 Settlement
• 5 Pricing
• 6 Futures contracts and exchanges
• 7 Who trades futures?
• 8 Options on futures
• 9 Futures Contract Regulations
• 10 See also
• 11 References
• 12 Futures Exchanges & Regulators

• 13 External links

[edit] Futures vs. Forwards

While futures and forward contracts are both a contract to deliver a commodity on a
future date, key differences include:

• Futures are always traded on an exchange, whereas forwards always trade over-
the-counter, or can simply be a signed contract between two parties.
• Futures are highly standardized, whereas each forward is unique
• The price at which the contract is finally settled is different:
o Futures are settled at the settlement price fixed on the last trading date of
the contract (i.e. at the end)
o Forwards are settled by the delivery of the commodity at the specified
contract price.
• The credit risk of futures is much lower than that of forwards:
o Traders are not subject to credit risk because the clearinghouse always
takes the other side of the trade. The day's profit or loss on a futures
position is marked-to-market in the trader's account. If the mark to market
results in a balance that is less than the margin requirement, then the trader
is issued a margin call.
o The risk of a forward contract is that the supplier will be unable to deliver
the grade and quantity of the commodity, or the buyer may be unable to
pay for it on the delivery day.
• In case of physical delivery, the forward contract specifies to whom to make the
delivery. The counterparty on a futures contract is chosen randomly by the
exchange.
 • In a forward there are no cash flows until delivery, whereas in futures there are
margin requirements and a daily mark to market of the traders' accounts.

[edit] Standardization

Futures contracts ensure their liquidity by being highly standardized, usually by

specifying:

• The underlying asset or instrument. This could be anything from a barrel of crude
oil to a short term interest rate.
• The type of settlement, either cash settlement or physical settlement.
• The amount and units of the underlying asset per contract. This can be the
notional amount of bonds, a fixed number of barrels of oil, units of foreign
currency, the notional amount of the deposit over which the short term interest
rate is traded, etc.
• The currency in which the futures contract is quoted.
• The grade of the deliverable. In the case of bonds, this specifies which bonds can
be delivered. In the case of physical commodities, this specifies not only the
quality of the underlying goods but also the manner and location of delivery. For
example, the NYMEX Light Sweet Crude Oil contract specifies the acceptable
sulfur content and API specific gravity, as well as the location where delivery
must be made.
• The delivery month.
• The last trading date.
• Other details such as the commodity tick, the minimum permissible price
fluctuation.

[edit] Margin

To minimize credit risk to the exchange, traders must post margin or a performance bond,
typically 5%-15% of the contract's value.

Margin requirements are waived or reduced in some cases for hedgers who have physical
ownership of the covered commodity or spread traders who have offsetting contracts
balancing the position.

Initial margin is paid by both buyer and seller. It represents the loss on that contract, as
determined by historical price changes, that is not likely to be exceeded on a usual day's
trading.

A futures account is marked to market daily. If the margin drops below the margin
maintenance requirement established by the exchange listing the futures, a margin call
will be issued to bring the account back up to the required level.

Margin-equity ratio is a term used by speculators, representing the amount of their

trading capital that is being held as margin at any particular time. The low margin
requirements of futures results in substantial leverage of the investment. However, the
exchanges require a minimum amount that varies depending on the contract and the
trader. The broker may set the requirement higher, but may not set it lower. A trader, of
course, can set it above that, if he doesn't want to be subject to margin calls.

Return on margin (ROM) is often used to judge performance because it represents the
gain or loss compared to the exchange’s perceived risk as reflected in required margin.
ROM may be calculated (realized return) / (initial margin). The Annualized ROM is
equal to (ROM+1)(year/trade_duration)-1. For example if a trader earns 10% on margin in two
months, that would be about 77% annualized.

[edit] Settlement

Settlement is the act of consummating the contract, and can be done in one of two ways,
as specified per type of futures contract:

• 'Physical delivery' - the amount specified of the underlying asset of the contract is
delivered by the seller of the contract to the exchange, and by the exchange to the
buyers of the contract. Physical delivery is common with commodities and bonds.
In practice, it occurs only on a minority of contracts. Most are cancelled out by
purchasing a covering position - that is, buying a contract to cancel out an earlier
sale (covering a short), or selling a contract to liquidate an earlier purchase
(covering a long). The Nymex crude futures contract uses this method of
settlement upon expiration.
• Cash settlement - a cash payment is made based on the underlying reference rate,
such as a short term interest rate index such as Euribor, or the closing value of a
stock market index. A futures contract might also opt to settle against an index
based on trade in a related spot market. Ice Brent futures use this method.
• Expiry is the time when the final prices of the future is determined. For many
equity index and interest rate futures contracts (as well as for most equity
options), this happens on the third Friday of certain trading month. On this day the
t+1 futures contract becomes the t forward contract. For example, for most CME
and CBOT contracts, at the expiry on December, the March futures become the
nearest contract. This is an exciting time for arbitrage desks, as they will try to
make rapid gains during the short period (normally 30 minutes) where the final
prices are averaged from. At this moment the futures and the underlying assets are
extremely liquid and any mispricing between an index and an underlying asset is
quickly traded by arbitrageurs. At this moment also, the increase in volume is
caused by traders rolling over positions to the next contract or, in the case of
equity index futures, purchasing underlying components of those indexes to hedge
against current index positions. On the expiry date, a European equity arbitrage
trading desk in London or Frankfurt will see positions expire in as many as eight
major markets almost every half an hour.
[edit] Pricing

When the deliverable asset exists in plentiful supply, or may be freely created, then the
price of a future is determined via arbitrage arguments. The forward price represents the
expected future value of the underlying discounted at the risk free rate—as any deviation
from the theoretical price will afford investors a riskless profit opportunity and should be
arbitraged away; see rational pricing of futures.

Thus, for a simple, non-dividend paying asset, the value of the future/forward, F(t), will
be found by compounding the present value S(t) at time t to maturity T by the rate of risk-
free return r.

or, with continuous compounding

This relationship may be modified for storage costs, dividends, dividend yields, and
convenience yields.

In a perfect market the relationship between futures and spot prices depends only on the
above variables; in practice there are various market imperfections (transaction costs,
differential borrowing and lending rates, restrictions on short selling) that prevent
complete arbitrage. Thus, the futures price in fact varies within arbitrage boundaries
around the theoretical price.

The above relationship, therefore, is typical for stock index futures, treasury bond futures,
and futures on physical commodities when they are in supply (e.g. on corn after the
harvest). However, when the deliverable commodity is not in plentiful supply or when it
does not yet exist, for example on wheat before the harvest or on Eurodollar Futures or
Federal Funds Rate futures (in which the supposed underlying instrument is to created
upon the delivery date), the futures price cannot be fixed by arbitrage. In this scenario
there is only one force setting the price, which is simple supply and demand for the future
asset, as expressed by supply and demand for the futures contract.

In a deep and liquid market, this supply and demand would be expected to balance out at
a price which represents an unbiased expectation of the future price of the actual asset
and so be given by the simple relationship

With this pricing rule, a speculator is expected to break even when the futures market
fairly prices the deliverable commodity.
In a shallow and illiquid market, or in a market in which large quantities of the
deliverable asset have been deliberately withheld from market participants (an illegal
action known as cornering the market), the market clearing price for the future may still
represent the balance between supply and demand but the relationship between this price
and the expected future price of the asset can break down.

See:

• Pricing Futures and Forwards by Arbitrage Argument, Quantnotes

[edit] Futures contracts and exchanges

There are many different kinds of futures contract, reflecting the many different kinds of
tradable assets of which they are derivatives. For information on futures markets in
specific underlying commodity markets, follow the links.

• Foreign exchange market

• Money market
• Bond market
• Equity index market
• Soft Commodities market

Trading on commodities began in Japan in the 18th century with the trading of rice and
silk, and similarly in Holland with tulip bulbs. Trading in the US began in the mid 19th
century, when central grain markets were established and a marketplace was created for
farmers to bring their commodities and sell them either for immediate delivery (also
called spot or cash market) or for forward delivery. These forward contracts were private
contracts between buyers and sellers and became the forerunner to today's exchange-
traded futures contracts. Although contract trading began with traditional commodities
such grains, meat and livestock, exchange trading has expanded to include metals,
energy, currency and currency indexes, equities and equity indexes, government interest
rates and private interest rates.

Contracts on financial instruments was introduced in the 1970s by the Chicago

Mercantile Exchange(CME) and these instruments became hugely successful and quickly
overtook commodities futures in terms of trading volume and global accessibility to the
markets. This innovation led to the introduction of many new futures exchanges
worldwide, such as the London International Financial Futures Exchange in 1982 (now
Euronext.liffe), Deutsche Terminbörse (now Eurex) and the Tokyo Commodity Exchange
(TOCOM). Today, there are more than 75 futures and futures options exchanges
worldwide trading to include:

• Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) -- Interest Rate derivatives (US Bonds);

Agricultural (Corn, Soybeans, Soy Products, Wheat); Index (Dow Jones Industrial
Average); Metals (Gold, Silver)
 • Chicago Mercantile Exchange -- Currencies, Agricultural (Pork, Cattle, Butter,
Milk); Index (NASDAQ, S&P, etc); Various Interest Rate Products
• ICE Futures - the International Petroleum Exchange trades energy including crude
oil, heating oil, natural gas and unleaded gas and merged with
IntercontinentalExchange(ICE)to form ICE Futures.
• Euronext.liffe
• London Commodity Exchange - softs: grains and meats. Inactive market in Baltic
Exchange shipping.
• Tokyo Commodity Exchange TOCOM
• London Metal Exchange - metals: copper, aluminium, lead, zinc, nickel and tin.
• New York Board of Trade - softs: cocoa, coffee, cotton, orange juice, sugar
• New York Mercantile Exchange - energy and metals: crude oil, gasoline, heating
oil, natural gas, coal, propane, gold, silver, platinum, copper, aluminum and
palladium
• Futures exchange

[edit] Who trades futures?

Futures traders are traditionally placed in one of two groups: hedgers, who have an
interest in the underlying commodity and are seeking to hedge out the risk of price
changes; and speculators, who seek to make a profit by predicting market moves and
buying a commodity "on paper" for which they have no practical use.

Hedgers typically include producers and consumers of a commodity.

For example, in traditional commodities markets farmers often sell futures contracts for
the crops and livestock they produce to guarantee a certain price, making it easier for
them to plan. Similarly, livestock producers often purchase futures to cover their feed
costs, so that they can plan on a fixed cost for feed. In modern (financial) markets,
"producers" of interest rate swaps or equity derivative products will use financial futures
or equity index futures to reduce or remove the risk on the swap.

The social utility of futures markets is considered to be mainly in the transfer of risk, and
increase liquidity between traders with different risk and time preferences, from a hedger
to a speculator for example.

[edit] Options on futures

In many cases, options are traded on futures. A put is the option to sell a futures contract,
and a call is the option to buy a futures contract. For both, the option strike price is the
specified futures price at which the future is traded if the option is exercised. See the
Black model, which is the most popular method for pricing these option contracts.
[edit] Futures Contract Regulations

All futures transactions in the United States are regulated by the Commodity Futures
Trading Commission (CFTC), an independent agency of the United States Government.
The Commission has the right to hand out fines and other punishments for an individual
or company who breaks any rule. Although by law the commission regulates all
transactions, each exchange can have its own rule, and under contract can fine companies
for different things or extend the fine that the CFTC hands out.

The CFTC publishes weekly reports containing details of the open interest of market
participants for each market-segment, which has more than 20 participants. These reports
are released every Friday (including data from the previous Tuesday) and contain data on
open interest split by reportable and non-reportable open interest as well as commercial
and non-commercial open interest. This type of report is referred to as 'Commitments-Of-
Traders'-Report, COT-Report or simply COTR.

[edit] See also

• List of finance topics

• Agriculture
• Freight derivatives
• Seasonal spread trading
• Prediction market
• 1256 Contract

FUTURES exchange

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Futures exchange
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards.
Please discuss this issue on the talk page or replace this tag with a more specific message.
This article has been tagged since October 2006.
A futures exchange, is a corporation or organization which provides a marketplace in
which to trade derivatives such as futures contracts and options. Known also as
Commodities exchanges, contracts transact daily in a variety of standardized products
such as equities, bonds, short-term interest rates, grains, softs and currencies.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Standardization
• 2 Nature of contracts
• 3 Derivatives Clearing
• 4 Central Counterparty
• 5 Margin and Mark-to-Market
• 6 Regulators
• 7 History of futures exchanges
• 8 See also

• 9 Futures Exchanges

[edit] Standardization

The contracts traded on futures exchanges are always standardized. In principle, the
parameters to define a contract are endless (see for instance in futures contract). To make
sure liquidity is high, there is only a limited number of standardized contracts.

[edit] Nature of contracts

Exchange traded contracts are not issued like securities, but they are "created" when one
party buys (goes long) a contract from another party (who goes short). In the beginning
there are no contracts, so the number of contracts that clients are long must equal the
number of contracts that clients are short. This always goes through the exchange, which
means that the exchange is the counterparty for all trades. However, the exchange does
not take any net positions. In this way clients do not know who they have ultimately
traded with. Compare this with securities, in which an issuer issues the security. After
that, it is a legal entity that is traded independently of the issuer. Even if the issuer buys
back some securities, they still exist. Only if they are legally cancelled can they
disappear.

[edit] Derivatives Clearing

There is usually a division of responsibility between provision of trading facility and

settlement of those trades. While derivative exchanges like the CBOE and LIFFE take
responsibility for providing efficient, transparent and orderly trading environments,
settlement of the resulting trades are usually handled by Clearing Corporations, also
known as Clearing Houses, that serve as central counterparties to trades done in the
respective exchanges. For instance, the Option Clearing Corporation and the London
Clearing House respectively are the clearing corporations for CBOE and LIFFE. An well
known exception to this is the case of Chicago Mercantile Exchange, which clears trades
by itself.

[edit] Central Counterparty

Derivative contracts are leveraged positions whose value is volatile. They are usually
more volatile that their underlying. This can lead to situations where one party to a trade
loses a big sum of money and is unable to honor its settlement obligation. In a safe
trading environment, the parties to a trade need to be assured that their counterparty will
honor the trade, no matter how the market has moved. This requirement can lead to
messy arrangements like credit assessment, setting of trading limits and so on for each
counterparty, and take away most of the advantages of a centralised trading facility. To
prevent this, Clearing corporations interpose themselves as counterparties to every trade
and extend guarantee that the trade will be settled as originally intended. This action is
called Novation. As a result, trading firms take no risk on the actual counterparty to the
trade, but on the clearing corporation. The clearing corporation is able to take on this risk
by adopting an efficient margining process.

[edit] Margin and Mark-to-Market

Clearing houses charge 2 types of margins - the Initial Margin and the Mark-To-Market
margin (also referred to as Variation Margin).

The Initial Margin is the sum of money (or collateral) to be deposited by a firm to the
clearing corporation to cover possible future loss in the positions (the set of positions held
is also called the portfolio) held by a firm. In the simplest case, this is the dollar figure
that answers a question of this nature: What is the likely loss that this firm may incur on
its portfolio with a 99% confidence and over a period of 2 days? The clause 'with a 99%
confidence' and 'over a period 2 days' is to be interpreted as that number such that the
actual portfolio loss over 2 days is expected to exceed the number only 1% of the time.
Several popular methods are used to compute initial margins. They include the CME-
owned SPAN (a grid simulation method used by the CME and about 70 other exchanges),
STANS (a Monte Carlo simulation based methodology used by the OCC), TIMS (earlier
used by the OCC, and still being used by a few other exchanges like the Bursa Malaysia.

The Mark-to-Market Margin (MTM margin) on the other hand is the margin collected to
offset losses (if any) that has already been incurred on the positions held by a firm. This
is computed as the difference between the cost of the position held and the current market
value of that position. If the resulting amount is a loss, the amount is collected from the
firm; else, the amount may be returned to the firm (the case with most clearing houses) or
kept in reserve depending on local practice. In either case, the positions are 'marked-to-
market' by setting their new cost to the market value used in computing this difference.
The positions held by the clients of the exchange are marked-to-market daily and the
MTM difference computation for the next day would use the new cost figure in its
calculation.

Clients hold a margin account with the exchange, and every day the swings in the value
of their positions is added to or deducted from their margin account. If the margin
account gets too low, they have to replenish it. In this way it is highly unlikely that the
client will not be able to fulfill his obligations arising from the contracts. As the clearing
house is the counterparty to all their trades, they only have to have one margin account.
This is in contrast with OTC derivatives, where issues such as margin accounts have to be
negotiated with all counterparties.

[edit] Regulators

Each exchange is normally regulated by a national governmental (or semi-governmental)

regulatory agency:

• In Australia, this role is performed by the Australian Securities and Investments

Commission
• In China, by the China Securities Regulatory Commission
• In India, by the Securities and Exchange Board of India.
• In Singapore by the Monetary Authority of Singapore
• In the UK, futures exchanges are regulated by the Financial Services Authority.
• In the USA, by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission.

[edit] History of futures exchanges

Though the origins of futures trading can be supposedly traced to Ancient Greek or
Phoenician times, the history of modern futures trading begins in Chicago, United States
in the early 1800s. Chicago is located at the base of the Great Lakes, close to the
farmlands and cattle country of the U.S. Midwest, making it a natural center for
transportation, distribution and trading of agricultural produce. Gluts and shortages of
these products caused chaotic fluctuations in price. This led to the development of a
market enabling grain merchants, processors, and agriculture companies to trade in "to
arrive" or "cash forward" contracts to insulate them from the risk of adverse price change
and enable them to hedge. Forward contracts were standard at the time, however, most
forward contracts weren't honored by both the buyer and the seller. For instance, if the
buyer of a corn forward contract had an agreement to buy corn and at delivery time the
price of corn was dramatically higher then when the two originally contracted the buyer
backed out. Vice versa is also true. In addition, the forward contracts market was very
illiquid and an exchange was needed that would bring together a market to find potential
buyers and sellers of a commodity instead of making people bear the burden of finding a
buyer or seller.

In 1848, the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), the world's first futures exchange, was
formed. Trading was originally in forward contracts; the first contract (on corn) being
written on March 13, 1851. In 1865, standardized futures contracts were introduced.
The Chicago Produce Exchange was established in 1874, renamed in 1898 the Chicago
Mercantile Exchange (CME). In 1972 the International Monetary Market (IMM), a
division of the CME, was formed to offer futures contracts in foreign currencies: British
pound, Canadian dollar, German mark, Japanese yen, Mexican peso, and Swiss franc.

Later in the 1970s saw the development of the financial futures contracts, which allowed
trading in the future value of interest rates. These (in particular the 90-day Eurodollar
contract introduced in 1981) had an enormous impact on the development of the interest
rate swap market.

Today, the futures markets have far outgrown their agricultural origins. With the addition
of the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) the trading and hedging of financial
products using futures dwarfs the traditional commodity markets, and plays a major role
in the global financial system, trading over 1.5 trillion U.S. dollars per day in 2005.

The recent history of these exchanges (Aug 2006) finds the Chicago Exchange trading
more than 70% of its Futures contracts on its "Globex" trading platform and this trend is
rising daily. It counts for over 45.5 Billion dollars of nominal trade (over 1 million
contracts) every single day in "electronic trading" as opposed to open outcry trading of
Futures, Options and Derivatives. And that is only one of the worlds current Futures
Exchanges, albeit the largest one at this writing.

In June of 2001, ICE acquired the International Petroleum Exchange (IPE), now ICE
Futures, which operated Europe’s leading open-outcry energy futures exchange. Since
2003, ICE has partnered with the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX) to host its electronic
marketplace. In April of 2005, the entire ICE portfolio of energy futures became fully
electronic.

In 2006, the New York Stock Exchange teamed up with the London Exchanges
"Euronext" electronic exchange to form the first trans-continental Futures and Options
Exchange. These two developments as well as the sharp growth of internet Futures
trading platforms developed by a number of trading companies clearly points to a race to
total internet trading of Futures and Options in the coming years.

[edit] See also

• List of futures exchanges

• commodity markets
• currency market
• stock markets
• bond market
• Trader (finance)

[edit] Futures Exchanges

• Chicago Board of Trade

 • Euronext
• Chicago Mercantile Exchange
• Intercontinental Exchange
• New York Mercantile Exchange
• New York Board of Trade
• National Stock Exchange of India

Financial markets
Economic subtypes: Capital markets (Stock markets, Bond markets |
Primary markets, Secondary markets) | Derivatives markets (Futures
Markets)
Money markets | Insurance markets | Foreign exchange markets |
Commodity markets

Organisations: Stock exchange | Futures exchange

Related Topics: List of stock exchanges | List of futures exchanges |

Lloyd's of London | List of stock market indices

arket capitalization
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Market capitalization, often abbreviated to market cap, is a measurement of corporate

size that refers to the current stock price times the number of outstanding shares. This
measure differs from equity value to the extent that a firm has outstanding stock options
or other securities convertible to common shares. The size and growth of a firm's market
capitalization is often one of the critical measurements of a public company's success or
failure. However, market capitalization may increase or decrease for reasons unrelated to
performance such as acquisitions, divestitures and stock repurchases.

Market capitalization is the number of common shares multiplied by the current price of
those shares. The term capitalization is sometimes used as a synonym of market
capitalization; more often, it denotes the total amount of funds used to finance a firm's
balance sheet and is calculated as market capitalization plus debt (book or market value)
plus preferred stock.

The total market capitalization of all the companies listed on the New York Stock
Exchange is greater than the amount of money in the United States [1]. The global market
capitalization for all stock markets was $43.6 trillion in March 2006 [2].

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Valuation
• 2 Float
• 3 Categorization of companies by market cap
• 4 Examples
• 5 Levels
• 6 See also
o 6.1 Lists

• 7 External links

[edit] Valuation
Main article: Business valuation

Market capitalization is a function of the price of a firm's stock and may not accurately
reflect intrinsic value because of varying future expectations held by investors.

[edit] Float

The amount of shares available on the open market, the "free float", is sometimes less
than the total number of shares because a portion of the outstanding shares may be held
by "insiders," and/or by the company as treasury stock. In addition to the float being
perhaps much smaller than the total number of shares, a significant portion of the float
may be owned by large institutional investors who rarely trade. As a result, on any given
trading day, generally only a small percentage of shares are traded, as in the example of
Yahoo!, about 1.5% (20,025,727 out of 1,180,000,000).

The sudden availability on the open market of all of a company's stock, as a result of both
the insiders and the company selling all shares held, could cause a plummet in the stock
price (if unexpected and not already priced in by the market).

[edit] Categorization of companies by market cap

While there are no strong definitions for market cap categorizations, a few terms are
frequently used to group companies by capitalization.
In the U.S., companies and stocks are often categorized by the following approximate
market capitalization values:

• Small-cap: market cap below US$1 billion

• Mid-cap: market cap between US$1 billion and US$5 billion
• Large-cap: market cap exceeds US$5 billion

The small-cap definition is far more controversial than those for the mid-cap and large-
cap classes. Typical values for the ranges are enumerated here:

• Micro-cap: market cap under US$100 million

• Nano-cap: market cap under US$50 million

Blue chip is sometimes used as a synonym for a large-cap, while some investors consider
any micro-cap or nano-cap issue to be a penny stock, regardless of share price. [citation needed]

[edit] Examples

Examples of share valuation compared to market cap (price), and share ownership, from
Yahoo! Inc. ([3], [4])

Valuation measures

• Market Cap (intraday): 51.21B

• Enterprise Value (25-Dec-04): 49.04B
• Trailing P/E (ttm, intraday): 98.54
• Forward P/E (fye 31-Dec-05): 74.50
• PEG Ratio (5 yr expected): 3.66
• Price/Sales (ttm): 16.22
• Enterprise Value/Revenue (ttm): 15.51
• Enterprise Value/EBITDA (ttm): 71.99

Share statistics

• Average Volume (3 month): 20,025,727

• Shares outstanding: 1.37B
• % of shares held by Insiders: 14%
• % of shares held by Institutions: 74%
• Float: 1.18B
• % of float held by Institutions: 86%
• Treasury stock: $160M

ttm = Trailing twelve months (or last twelve months)

[edit] Levels

Stock market capitalisation 2003 (compared with GDP converted to € through estimated
purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange rates)

• EU: €6.0 trillion (59% of PPP GDP)

• Japan: €2.4 trillion (75% of PPP GDP)
• United States: €10.7 trillion (108% of PPP GDP)

One way to measure the "madness" is to measure the value of the stock market's overall
capitalization to the size of the national Gross Domestic Product. Historically the stock
market value has been about 58% of GDP. Lows were in the range of 37% in the early
1950s, and 25% at the bottom of the Great Depression. Highs in this measurement were
around 75% and occurred at all the important market turning points in the last 80 years
including 1929 and 1966. As recently as 1991, the market was at the historic 58% level of
GDP.

Since 1991, all semblance to reality began to be lost in this particular measurement. By
the 4th quarter of 1999 stock market capitalization had increased to stratospheric and
unprecedented 185% of total GDP. Even today the rate is still 104%.