Official Guidelines from the Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Section

Supplemental Oxygen Utilization

During Physical Therapy Interventions
Task Force on Supplemental Oxygen: Ellen Hillegass, PT, EdD, CCS, FAACVPR, FAPTA;
Ann Fick, PT, DPT, MS, CCS; Amy Pawlik, PT, DPT, CCS; Rebecca Crouch, PT, DPT, CCS, FAACVPR;
Christiane Perme, PT, CCS; Rohini Chandrashekar, PT, DPT, CCS;
Susan Butler McNamara, PT, MMSc, CCS; Lawrence P. Cahalin, PT, PhD, CCS

ABSTRACT/SUMMARY INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE

The use of supplemental oxygen is an important component The use of supplemental oxygen is an important
of disease management in many patients who demonstrate component of disease management in patients diagnosed
hypoxemia at rest and/or with activity since supplemental with a variety of cardiac and/or pulmonary disease or
oxygen can assist individuals in improvement of functional dysfunction, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
performance. Although the evidence on the use of long (COPD), interstitial lung disease (ILD), heart failure (HF),
term or intermittent supplemental oxygen is not particularly and cystic fibrosis (CF). The number of people living with
robust, the majority of the evidence supports the use of COPD in the United States is estimated to be between
supplemental oxygen to improve exercise tolerance and 121 and 232 million. Additionally, approximately 100,000
prevent long term effects of hypoxemia such as pulmonary people are diagnosed with ILD. Heart failure is a major
hypertension and subsequent cor pulmonale. A need exists public health issue, with a prevalence of over 5.8 million
for recommendations on the use of supplemental oxygen in in the United States, and over 23 million worldwide.3
the clinical setting as physical therapists are often required Cystic fibrosis affects 30,000 children and adults in the
to utilize supplemental oxygen with patients in all settings United States and 70,000 worldwide.4 Physical therapists
but currently no national recommendations, position have an integral role in managing supplemental oxygen
statements, or guidelines exist for physical therapy practice. needs as they relate to achieving optimal function since
This position statement, developed following an extensive patients receiving supplemental oxygen or who may need
search of the literature, provides the following guidelines for supplemental oxygen at rest and/or with activity are found
physical therapists regarding assessment and management in every practice setting.
of supplemental oxygen for patients with cardiopulmonary The purposes of this position statement are to: (1)
diseases. provide an overview of the impact of hypoxemia and the
To safely maximize and optimize the functional ability impact of appropriate supplemental oxygen delivery on
of the patient, the role of the physical therapist is to: (1) assist function, (2) to discuss the benefits of supplemental oxygen
with titration of supplemental oxygen, (2) discuss in safety use in a variety of patient/client groups, and (3) to present
with activity, (3) present appropriate exercise prescriptions the role of physical therapy in the use of assessment and
to increase functional performance, and (4) instruct patients titration of supplemental oxygen in patients especially
in use of appropriate breathing exercises to optimize during activity, including legal implications of titration.
supplemental oxygen and decrease breathlessness. The goal of these recommendations is to improve care for
patients with supplemental oxygen needs, and improve the
Key Words: supplemental oxygen, hypoxemia, pulmonary management and use of supplemental oxygen in patients
with cardiopulmonary dysfunction.
disease, heart failure
Process
A task force was created in 2010 by the Cardiovascular
and Pulmonary Section of the American Physical
Address correspondence to: Ellen Hillegass, PT, EdD, Therapy Association (APTA) that included clinicians with
CCS, FAACVPR, FAPTA, Clinical Adjunct Professor, specific areas of practice and was charged to develop
Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30350 (ezhillegass@ recommendations on supplemental oxygen utilization
gmail.com). based upon current evidence. (See Appendix 1 for members
and expertise represented.) The recommendations in this

38 Cardiopulmonary Physical Therapy Journal Vol 25 v No 2 v June 2014

document represent consensus of the task force based rate as well as a rise in cardiac output to increase oxygen
on evidence from English-language publications up to delivery to tissues.9-11 Regional pulmonary vasoconstriction
2012 obtained by searching MEDLINE and CINAHL with occurs when there is alveolar hypoxia resulting in shunting
the key words supplemental oxygen, chronic obstructive of blood in the lungs. Long-term hypoxemia will lead to
pulmonary disease and supplemental oxygen, cystic fibrosis pulmonary hypertension, increasing the work on the
and supplemental oxygen, long term supplemental oxygen, right side of the heart, leading to right heart dysfunction
interstitial lung disease and supplemental oxygen, carbon and subsequently failure (cor pulmonale).9-11 Chronic
dioxide (CO2) retention, and supplemental oxygen and hypoxemia with cor pulmonale results in a poor prognosis
supplemental oxygen guidelines. These recommendations and a 32% to 100% increase in risk of mortality.9-14
were presented at the Combined Sections Meeting
of the APTA in 2010. Feedback was sought from the Acute Effects of Supplemental Oxygen
Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Section Board of Directors The short-term effects of utilizing supplemental
and final approval of these recommendations was given on oxygen include an improvement in breathlessness in
March 28, 2014. an individual with a decreased PaO2 and SpO2 at rest as
A systematic review of the literature was performed, well as a decreased breathlessness in individuals who
followed by development of recommendations by the task demonstrate a decrease in SpO2 with exercise.15,16 Short-
force based upon the strength of the evidence. A thorough term use of supplemental oxygen during exercise improves
review of the evidence found that the use of supplemental exercise tolerance in those with mild, moderate, or even
oxygen resulted in improved exercise tolerance, decreased severe hypoxemia during exercise.15,16 Swinburn et al16
work of breathing, decreased dynamic hyperventilation showed that the use of supplemental oxygen decreased
as well as a decrease in breathlessness in individuals that the minute ventilation in individuals who were breathless
demonstrated decreases in blood oxygen saturation (SpO2) and hypoxemic both during rest and activity. O’Donnell et
with exercise. However, physical therapists often report al17 identified that a decrease in dynamic hyperinflation in
fear of use of supplemental oxygen with many populations individuals with chronic disease occurred when utilizing
as well as having concerns with titration of supplemental supplemental oxygen for breathlessness. Similar to
oxygen with activity. O’Donnell, Bye et al18 demonstrated an improvement in
ventilatory muscle function with the use of supplemental
Hypoxemia and Its Impact on the Individual oxygen and Criner7 and Celli and MacNee8 showed altered
Signs and symptoms of hypoxemia include headache, favorable muscle recruitment with supplemental oxygen.
breathlessness or severe dyspnea, palpitations, angina, Manning and Schwartzstein5 also found an inhibition of the
restlessness and tremors.5-7 In severe hypoxemia, when central ventilatory response to hypoxemia with the use of
oxygen levels in the blood are extremely low, the signs and short-term supplemental oxygen.
symptoms include impaired judgment and a progressive Dean and associates19 found the use of supplemental
loss of cognitive and motor function that worsens as the oxygen alleviated hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction as
hypoxemia progresses.5-7 Loss of consciousness may well as improved hemodynamics including a decrease in
develop with severe hypoxemia.5-8 Assessment of the signs
peripheral vascular resistance and an increase in cardiac
and symptoms of hypoxemia are important for the physical
output. When there is an increase in supplemental oxygen
therapist who may not be able to monitor oxygen saturation
delivery, a decrease in breathlessness will occur as well as
via pulse oximetry regularly (See Box 1).
a decrease in the perception of dyspnea, which will lead to
Severe physiologic consequences occur when
an increase in exercise performance.15
hypoxemia develops and continues over time. When
the partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood (PaO2)
Chronic Effects of Supplemental Oxygen
falls below 55 mm Hg a subsequent increase in minute
Two landmark prospective controlled studies performed
ventilation occurs as well as a decrease in partial pressure
in the early 1980s are still the only current evidence
of carbon dioxide (PaCO2). This results in dilation of
discussed about long-term supplemental oxygen use.
peripheral vascular beds and a compensatory rise in heart
The two trials were the Nocturnal Oxygen Therapy Trial
(NOTT)20 and the British Medical Research Council (MRC)
long-term domiciliary supplemental oxygen therapy trial.21
Early studies were not controlled but provided evidence of
Box 1. Signs/Symptoms of Hypoxemia5-8 a reduction in mortality and a reduction in the development
of cor pulmonale when supplemental oxygen was used
• Impaired judgment
• Progressive loss of cognitive and motor functions as the continuously for 7 to 41 months.20,21 The study population
hypoxemia progresses included individuals who were severely hypoxemic with
• Decreased exercise tolerance elevated hematocrit, elevated pulmonary artery pressure,
• Loss of consciousness develops with severe hypoxemia and respiratory acidosis.
• Other signs and symptoms of hypoxemia include headache,
breathlessness or severe dyspnea, palpitations, angina, The NOTT trial compared continuous use of
restlessness, and tremors supplemental oxygen versus nocturnal supplemental
oxygen use only. The results of the NOTT trial showed

Vol 25 v No 2 v June 2014 Cardiopulmonary Physical Therapy Journal 39

an increase in mortality in individuals who used only the Published Guidelines/Statements
nocturnal supplemental oxygen versus the individuals who on Supplemental Oxygen Therapy
used supplemental oxygen continuously.20 The results of Currently few national guidelines on the use of
the MRC long-term supplemental oxygen study found that supplemental oxygen exist and none address the needs of
long-term oxygen therapy prevented a progressive decrease physical therapists working in all care settings with all patient
in PaO2 and an increase in pulmonary vascular resistance populations. The American Association of Respiratory Care
without an increase in PaCO2.21 The conclusions from these published guidelines in 2002 regarding supplemental
two studies were that, in individuals with severe hypoxemia, oxygen therapy for adults in acute care facilities, yet
nocturnal supplemental oxygen use was better than no these guidelines fail to address titration with activity, nor
supplemental oxygen therapy and continuous supplemental do they address the variety of populations that are treated
oxygen was better than nocturnal supplemental oxygen by physical therapists.23 In 2013 the Australian and New
therapy alone. Little evidence exists since those trials were Zealand Lung Associations published the Australian and
published and no studies have shown a benefit of long- New Zealand Guidelines for Management of COPD24,25
term oxygen therapy with mild or moderate hypoxemia. yet these guidelines do not address other populations. The
In addition, no studies have shown a benefit of long-term APTA has a position statement regarding pharmacology
oxygen therapy when supplemental oxygen is prescribed in physical therapy practice that has been interpreted to
for exercise-induced oxygen desaturation only.22 Table 1 include supplemental oxygen.
provides the indications for long-term supplemental oxygen
In addition, there are a few position statements from
therapy as a result of the available evidence.
other organizations on supplemental oxygen use with
heart failure. The most current indications for the use of
Supplemental Oxygen Use with Physical Activity
supplemental oxygen in patients with heart failure include
Supplemental oxygen has been utilized during physical
maintaining the SpO2 at least 89% to 90% and maintaining
activity for individuals who are hypoxemic and for those
the PaO2 at least 56 mm Hg.26 The Centers for Medicare and
who demonstrate oxygen desaturation with activity.
Supplemental oxygen has also been used to improve exercise Medicaid Services (CMS)27 and American Association for
training effects in individuals who were normoxemic at rest Respiratory Care (AARC)23 guidelines specifically mention
and had a SpO2 above 88% with activity.12 Emtner et al12 the use of supplemental oxygen in patients with heart
utilized an intervention of 7 weeks of high intensity training failure stating, “Long-term supplemental oxygen therapy
in individuals with COPD and observed improvement in the is indicated for hypoxemia (PaO2 < 55 mm Hg or SaO2
training work rate in groups trained both with and without < 88% in subjects breathing room air, OR PaO2 of 56-59
supplemental oxygen, yet the supplemental oxygen trained mm Hg or SaO2/SpO2 < 89% in association with specific
group increased the training work rate more rapidly than clinical conditions such as cor pulmonale, heart failure,
the group that trained without it.12 Puhan et al13 performed or erythrocythemia with a hematocrit > 56) at rest, during
a systematic review of supplemental oxygen interventions sleep, during ambulation, or during exercise.”
to enhance the effectiveness of physical exercise, yet
failed to find a beneficial effect of supplemental oxygen Effects of Supplemental Oxygen Use in Specific
for improving exercise tolerance possibly due to small Cardiopulmonary Diseases
samples in the reviewed randomized controlled trials Individuals with COPD gain many benefits from oxygen
as well as poor methodological quality of the studies. supplementation but unfortunately, they are a population
Therefore, although there is some evidence of the benefit that is often not given optimal supplementation due to
of supplemental oxygen for physical activity, there is a need the incorrect belief that all COPD patients would have a
for more research in this area. decreased drive to breathe if given too much oxygen. Long-

Table 1. Indications for Long-term Supplemental Oxygen Therapy. Adapted from Criner GJ. Effects of long-term
supplemental oxygen therapy on mortality and morbidity. Respir Care. 2000;45:105-118.
Absolute PaO2 ≤ 55 mm Hg or SpO2 ≤88%<
PaO2 55-59 mm Hg or SpO2 ≤ 89%,
In presence of cor pulmonale ECG evidence of right atrial enlargement,
hematocrit > 55%, congestive heart failure

PaO2 ≥ 60 mm Hg or SpO2 ≥ 90%; with lung disease or sleep apnea who also
Only in specific situations
have nocturnal desaturation that is not corrected by CPAP

Supplemental oxygen should be prescribed if PaO2 falls below 55 mm Hg

If the patient is normoxemic at rest but desaturates
during exercise or sleep; also consider nasal CPAP or bilevel positive airway
during exercise or sleep
pressure

Abbreviations: CPAP = continuous positive airway pressure

40 Cardiopulmonary Physical Therapy Journal Vol 25 v No 2 v June 2014

term supplemental oxygen use in individuals who have The following additional recommendations should be
been diagnosed with COPD has been demonstrated to utilized to guide physical therapists providing interventions
decrease the incidence of pulmonary arterial hypertension for patients in acute care and especially the intensive care
(PAH). In those with documented pulmonary hypertension, unit (ICU) that are receiving supplemental oxygen:
it has been shown to stabilize the condition and prevent
further increases in PAH.10 In addition, reduced morbidity • In the event that the prescription is not written as “Keep
and mortality were recorded in individuals who used SpO2> ___%” the clinician should contact the referring
continuous supplemental oxygen, which was associated practitioner to attempt to obtain a standing order.
with a reduction in development of right ventricular • Baseline vital signs including oxygen saturation must be
dysfunction/cor pulmonale.20,21,28 Supplemental oxygen measured before any activity.
also prevents the compensatory increase in red cell mass • An assessment should be performed to determine any
and therefore decreases incidence of polycythemia.22 changes in clinical status since the previous therapy
Evidence from clinical studies have demonstrated increased session.
exercise capacity in individuals with COPD with use • Oxygen saturation should be monitored closely when a
of oxygen supplementation as well as a reduction in the patient is prescribed oxygen at rest and/or with activity
number of pulmonary exacerbations, cardiac arrhythmias, during physical therapy interventions.
and episodes of myocardial ischemia.29-32 Neuropsychiatric • At the end of any physical therapy intervention, the
function33 and quality of life have also been shown to be supplemental oxygen must be returned to the delivery
improved with long-term oxygen supplementation.35-37 device and flow rate used prior to the intervention as
Supplemental oxygen use in individuals with CF has been oxygen is specifically prescribed at rest based upon
shown to decrease arterial hypoxemia, reduce the work resting arterial blood gases. In the event a patient is
of breathing, decrease dyspnea, increase oxygen delivery experiencing signs or symptoms of hypoxemia and cannot
to the working muscles, delay the onset of anaerobic maintain adequate oxygen saturation at the amount of
threshold, and prevent the development and/or progression supplemental oxygen prescribed at rest, the prescribing
of pulmonary hypertension.38-40
health care provider should be contacted immediately.
In individuals with ILD, the addition of supplemental
oxygen increases exercise tolerance,18,41 maximum work
Precautions with Supplemental Oxygen Titration
load,41,42 and minute ventilation.41 In a study by Naji et al43
Some concern exists in the medical community regarding
patients receiving long-term oxygen therapy demonstrated
titrating supplemental oxygen in individuals that have
a greater improvement in treadmill test performance as
elevated PaCO2 with activity (for example, individuals who
compared to those not receiving oxygen therapy. In patients
retain CO2) due to the results of the long-term supplemental
with ILD, supplemental oxygen requirements were found
oxygen studies that observed hypoventilation in some
to be predictive of mortality, with higher supplemental
individuals when supplemental oxygen was increased at
oxygen requirements more indicative of higher mortality,
independent of 6 minute walk test results and pulmonary rest.20,21 The studies demonstrated a decrease in “drive to
function.44 breathe” or hypoventilation when the supplemental oxygen
was increased at rest only. Aerobic exercise requires oxygen
Role of the Physical Therapist with Patients Receiving to be present in the bloodstream in sufficient quantity and
Supplemental Oxygen Therapy present in the muscle to be utilized by the mitochondria
If the original supplemental oxygen prescription does to produce energy for exercise. When individuals with
not include a specified target SpO2 value the prescribing pulmonary disease exercise, their gas exchange may
health care provider should be contacted. Once there is worsen, therefore decreasing the amount of oxygen in the
a prescription for a specific oxygen saturation target level blood and causing subsequent disassociation of oxygen
to be maintained during rest and activity (for example, from hemoglobin. Individuals with an elevated PaCO2 at
maintain SpO2 > 90%), the physical therapist may titrate the rest who demonstrate a decrease in supplemental oxygen
supplemental oxygen flow to maintain SpO2 at or above the saturation with activity benefit from increased supplemental
specified value. To assist the physical therapist with clinical oxygen during activity. Supplemental oxygen should be
decision making regarding supplemental oxygen titration, titrated to keep SpO2 > 90% with activity but returned to
an algorithm has been provided in Figure 1. their baseline supplemental oxygen flow at rest. Although
At times the oxygen delivery device the patient is using supplemental oxygen in patients with increased PaCO2 may
may be different from the one prescribed and the reason theoretically worsen hypercapnia, any increase in PaCO2 in
should be investigated. Signs and symptoms of distress and patients receiving long-term supplemental oxygen therapy
changes in heart rhythm must be closely monitored during is usually small and well tolerated. In two large trials of
a physical therapy intervention, as they are indications long-term supplemental oxygen therapy, hypercapnia was
of intolerance to activity. In the event of an emergency not a problem.20,21 In a small subset of individuals who
situation that warrants the immediate administration of exhibited CO2 retention with increased supplemental
supplemental oxygen, the physical therapist may provide oxygen, the development of increased hypercapnia was
the supplemental oxygen but the physician should be accompanied by an obvious decrease in respiratory rate
notified and an order written following the event.45 and depth, as well as the development of disorientation or

Vol 25 v No 2 v June 2014 Cardiopulmonary Physical Therapy Journal 41

Figure 1. Guide to decision making regarding supplemental oxygen.
Abbreviation: O2, supplemental oxygen
Correct use of oxygen monitoring requires individual to palpate pulse and compare to reading of pulse rate on pulse oximetry
1

Order example: “Titrate oxygen to maintain SpO2 > ____%

2

Oxygen delivery system needs to be changed to maintain or improve oxygenation

3

somnolence.20,21 Therefore, individuals with CO2 retention crucial. Not only are vital signs important to record but any
who demonstrate increased disorientation or a decrease signs and/or symptoms a patient exhibits relating to possible
in respiratory rate and/or depth along with no increase in hypoxemia and respiratory fatigue must be noted. When
SpO2 when supplemental oxygen is increased with activity documenting oxygen saturation, the following should be
are not candidates for supplemental oxygen with activity. included:
• T he supplemental oxygen delivery system utilized as
Additional Considerations Regarding Supplemental well as the amount of supplemental oxygen the patient
Oxygen Therapy required during rest and/or exercise
Assessment of oxygen saturation by physical therapists • T he amount of time the patient tolerated a certain activity
is typically performed using a pulse oximeter. Although before a low value was noted as well as the amount of
very useful, pulse oximeters, like any other monitoring tool, time the patient required to recover to an appropriate
need to be utilized correctly. Physical therapists must be oxygen saturation value
aware that inaccurate readings can occur. Therefore, it is • A ny special circumstances surrounding the response to
important to recognize and minimize limitations that hinder exercise or recovery following exercise
accuracy of pulse oximeters (See Box 2) and to monitor • Interventions that were employed to assist the patient
heart rate response and respiratory rate response.50-53 raise SpO2 or to decrease the symptoms of dyspnea, such
Proper documentation during therapeutic activities is as pursed lip or diaphragmatic breathing exercises

42 Cardiopulmonary Physical Therapy Journal Vol 25 v No 2 v June 2014

 Box 2. Pulse Oximetry Monitoring Considerations

1. M
 ovement: Motion50 and weight bearing can interfere with the signal transmitted to the sensor. Newer, motion-sensitive, technology
has shown to be more accurate than traditional technology during motion.51

2. P
 robe location: Placing the probe on the 3rd or 4th fingers has been shown to produce more accurate readings than the index
finger.50 Placing the probe on the finger is generally more accurate than the earlobe.52
• A forehead probe may be one of the most accurate ways of measuring pulse oximetry due to placement onto a central location of
the body and the ability to bypass temperature, circulatory, and neurological factors affecting the peripheral digits and earlobes.
• D
 irt, fingernail polish, blood etc. can block the sensor light path. The sensor is also calibrated to account for the tissue/cartilage in
the ear when using an ear probe. However, the pulse oximeter assumes nothing else, ie, dirt, is blocking the light passing from the
emitter to the detector.

3. Probe size and type:

• Use a pediatric size probe for children and an adult size probe for adults.
• Use a forehead probe if finger and earlobe appear to be inaccurate according to clinical symptoms.

4. Sensor positioning:
• If the emitter and detector sensors (especially of a disposable probe) are not in proper alignment, falsely low readings of oxygen
saturation can occur.53

5. “Probe off” false reading: The probe is actually off the finger or ear but a reading is given by the oximeter.

6. Low perfusion and/or dysrhythmias:

• Weak signal strength occurs in patients with poor perfusion therefore inaccurate readings may occur.52
• W
 eak signal strength occurs in patients with atrial fibrillation (due to the irregular pulse rate) and inaccurate readings may occur.

• V
 ital signs including heart rate and blood pressure before, For example, if a patient is receiving 4 l/min via nasal
during, and after the prescribed activity cannulae, the FiO2 is approximately 0.36.
In addition to estimating FiO2, it is helpful to be able
Precautions should be taken to educate patients to calculate how long an oxygen supply will last at a given
regarding the importance of not smoking while utilizing flow rate. The following formula may be used with the
supplemental oxygen as this is a fire risk and smoking also typical “e-cylinder” (29 inches high by 5 inches diameter)
has been shown to offset treatment benefit of supplemental portable compressed gas tanks only.
oxygen.47,48

Supplemental Oxygen Delivery Devices

Time to empty = lbs/sp in X .28
The fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) represents the
flow rate (l/min)
percentage of oxygen in atmospheric air. Normal room air
has a FiO2 of 0.21 at sea level. The FiO2 may be increased
by increasing the flow rate of supplemental oxygen from an
oxygen source. Alternatively, the FiO2 may also be increased For example, if a patient is on 4 l/min via nasal cannulae,
by altering the supplemental oxygen delivery device while and the psi is 1000, the tank will be empty in approximately
keeping the oxygen flow rate constant. It is important for 70 minutes. It is suggested to subtract 200 psi off the reading
the physical therapist to understand that both flow rate of the tank as a safeguard to ensure some oxygen remains
and delivery device may be manipulated to change the in the tank, given the error of approximation.
FiO2. Both device used and flow rate must be documented For more information on specific supplemental oxygen
to allow clear communication to other practitioners (eg, delivery devices, tubing, etc, please see Table 2 and Box 3.
2 l/min via nasal cannulae).
Determination of the FiO2 for patients using nasal Legal Issues Regarding Physical Therapist Administration
cannulae may be estimated by inserting oxygen flow rate in of Supplemental Oxygen
the equation below. The actual FiO2 received by the patient Supplemental oxygen for medical conditions is
may vary quite a bit depending on breathing pattern (eg, regulated as a drug by the Food and Drug Administration
nose vs mouth breathing). and requires a prescription for its use. The supplemental
oxygen prescription should be written based upon SpO2
FiO2 = flow rate in liters per minute (l/min) and not flow rate (l/min). Therefore, physical therapists
x 4 + 0.20 (approximating room air value) should always check standing orders or a patient’s specific
order. Should a physical therapist need to request a revision

Vol 25 v No 2 v June 2014 Cardiopulmonary Physical Therapy Journal 43

Table 2. Typical Oxygen Delivery Service
Device Name Picture of Device General Information Approximate FiO2
Nasal Delivers flows from 0.25 to O2 Tank Flow: Approximate FiO2
Cannula (NC) 6 l/min 1 L/min 0.24
Generally recommended 2 L/min 0.28
low flow NCs not used for 3 L/min 0.32
flows > 6 l/min due to 4 L/min 0.36
patient discomfort 5 L/min 0.40
6 L/min 0.44

High Flow Best for patients needing > Highest % O2 is up to 0.75 FiO2 at 15 l/min
Nasal Cannula 6 l/min NC
More comfortable, can
eat/drink/talk easier than
with mask

Oxymizer Specialized NC with O2 O2 Tank Flow: Approximate FiO2

(Reservoir reservoir that conserves O2 1 l/min 0.28
can also be Uses 25-75% less O2 (the 2 l/min 0.32
incorporated less O2 needed by the 4 l/min 0.41
into tubing patient, the higher savings 8 l/min 0.64
sitting below of O2) 12 l/min 0.82
the nasal Good way to deliver O2 at
prongs) home.

Simple Face Covers mouth and nose, O2 Tank Flow: Approximate FiO2
Mask useful for patients unable to 6-10 l/min 0.35-0.50 (can vary)
breathe through nose

Venturi O2 system providing more O2 Tank Flow: Approximate FiO2

System specific O2 concentration Turn dial and 0.24-0.50
than other devices provide O2 flow
Easy system for mobilizing as stated on dial
patients for needed FiO2
Can provide O2 via face
mask or tracheostomy tube

Non- Mask with O2 reservoir O2 Tank Flow: Approximate FiO2

rebreather (bag) providing higher FiO2 6 l/min 0.60
Mask Advantage – requires a 7 l/min 0.70
lower flow of O2 from the 8-10 l/min 0.80+
tank for the FiO2 needed

Ambu Bag Can be used to manually Up to 1.00 FiO2

ventilate patients during
ambulation when a portable
ventilator is not available,
give supplemental O2 for
suctioning etc.
For mobility, a
tracheostomy swivel
connector with expandable
tubing should be used to
prevent extubation.

44 Cardiopulmonary Physical Therapy Journal Vol 25 ❖ No 2 ❖ June 2014

 Box 3. Methods of Supplemental Oxygen Delivery

Continuous flow oxygen regulators: Oxygen flow is continuous throughout the entire respiratory cycle of inspiration and exhalation. This
category is typically found on “e-cylinders” commonly used in hospital settings as well as lighter weight units for portable use. This type of
regulator is recommended for patients who require higher flow rates of supplemental oxygen and use high flow oxygen delivery devices
(for flow rates of 6 -15 l/min). There is no delay in supplemental oxygen getting to patient as it is provided continuously, most often through
nasal cannulae. As long as patient breathes in through the nose, the patient derives the benefit of the supplemental oxygen.

On-demand oxygen regulators (pulsed): On-demand oxygen devices deliver a bolus of supplemental oxygen, usually upon inhalation
through the nose. In comparison to continuous flow regulators, the duration of supplemental oxygen provided in a similar size tank can be
increased. The device senses the start of inhalation (via a double lumen nasal cannula) and immediately gives a short pulse of supplemental
oxygen. One lumen of the oxygen tubing is connected to the oxygen flow portal and the other lumen is connected to a sensing trigger
portal. The sensitivity of this device is impaired if there is nasal congestion, mouth breathing, or if the patient cannot produce adequate
inspiratory pressures. Most of these systems are battery driven.

Oxygen concentrator: An oxygen concentrator draws in room air, passes the air through a special filter, and collects only the oxygen into a
reservoir. The concentrator has limited storage so essentially all of the oxygen is released into the tubing to the patient. Home concentrators
are heavy (about 50 pounds) and are usually on wheels so that they can be moved from room to room. A concentrator requires an electrical
outlet and produces a relatively loud noise, resulting in many patients choosing to keep their concentrator in separate room. Most oxygen
concentrators deliver a maximum flow rate of 5 l/min. Portable oxygen concentrators are available that can be wheeled by the patient.
These weigh approximately 10 pounds and are either battery or electrically powered. Maximal continuous flow rates are typically 2-3 l/
min; whereas pulsed flow rates may go to a maximum of 5-6 l/min. In general, a smaller portable concentrator is only capable of lower
maximum flow rate.

Liquid oxygen: When in liquid form, oxygen takes up less space and is stored in specially designed reservoir tanks. Small liquid portable
oxygen tanks are filled from these containers. There is a tendency for liquid oxygen to leak out of a portable system when sitting for a period
of time and for reservoir and portable tanks to freeze at low ambient temperatures and when used at higher flow rates.

Compressed gas cylinders: Compressed gas cylinders are the oldest and most reliable type of portable delivery system. Oxygen is
compressed into various sized metal cylinders under high pressure. In recent years, cylinders have been manufactured from aluminum
rather than steel; allowing for easier portability. Larger cylinders may deliver from 0.25 to 25 l/min through a conventional regulator.

in the written prescription, the recommendation is that it medical order.

should be written: “maintain SpO2 ≥ 90%” (or other value, The APTA’s position statement regarding pharmacology
depending on diagnosis). (HOD P06-04-14-14 Program 32) [Initial HOD 06-89-
Physical therapists working in any practice setting 43-89] discusses medications in the provision of physical
should be concerned about the legal implications of therapy services. It is felt that supplemental oxygen
working with supplemental oxygen, including its titration, management falls within the “Medications” section which
since supplemental oxygen is considered a drug. In a states:
review of all legal practice acts, the APTA’s Policy and • Physical therapist patient/client management integrates
Payment Department has not found any limitations on an understanding of a patient’s/client’s prescription and
physical therapists in use of, or titration of, supplemental nonprescription medication regimen with consideration
oxygen in any state.46 It appears most physical therapy of its impact upon health, impairments, functional
practice acts and physical therapy board regulations are limitations, and disabilities.
silent on the administration of supplemental oxygen. • The administration and storage of medications used for
However, some state/jurisdiction licensing authorities
physical therapy interventions is also a component of
have provided official interpretive opinions/statements
patient/client management and thus within the scope of
on this issue. Physical therapists should check with state/
physical therapist practice.
jurisdiction licensing authorities to determine if there is an
• Physical therapy interventions that may require the
official statement or opinion regarding the administration
of supplemental oxygen. concomitant use of medications include, but are not
The state of Connecticut has made legislative changes limited to, agents that promote integumentary repair
on the use of supplemental oxygen in hospitals that went and/or protection; facilitate airway clearance and/or
into effect in October 2010. The legislation requires all ventilation and respiration; facilitate adequate circulation
individuals who handle supplemental oxygen in any way and/or metabolism; and facilitate functional movement.49
to be trained in its use. The law allows a hospital to train
certain licensed and certified staff to connect or disconnect In addition to this APTA policy, the Guide to Physical
supplemental oxygen; transport a portable supplemental Therapist Practice45 includes the use of supportive
oxygen source; connect, disconnect, or adjust a mask devices and supplemental oxygen under the heading of
or nasal cannulae and adjust the flow rate to carry out a “Prescription and Devices Used by Physical Therapists.”

Vol 25 v No 2 v June 2014 Cardiopulmonary Physical Therapy Journal 45

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ON THE USE for oxygen should be performed during every treatment
OF SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN THERAPY BY PHYSICAL session in these individuals.
THERAPISTS 6. 
Retention of carbon dioxide should not be a
1. Supplemental oxygen is a drug and requires a prescription contraindication to supplemental oxygen use or
for use. When considering titration of supplemental supplemental oxygen titration. All individuals should be
oxygen with activity, an order should be in place written assessed for supplemental oxygen needs at rest and with
“Keep SpO2 ≥ ___% “(typically 88-90). This is the legal activity based upon SpO2 and symptoms. In individuals
prescription that allows titration of supplemental oxygen who have demonstrated oxygen desaturation with
in any practice setting. activity but do not demonstrate an improvement in SpO2
2. C ontinuous supplemental oxygen therapy is indicated despite appropriate breathing exercises and appropriate
when PaO2 ≤ 55 mm Hg or SpO2 ≤ 88% or in presence utilization of supplemental oxygen delivery devices,
of cor pulmonale, PaO2 55-59 mm Hg or SaO2 ≤ 89%, supplemental oxygen titration with activity may not be
with documented right atrial enlargement, hematocrit > indicated.
55%, or congestive heart failure. Supplemental oxygen 7. Recommendations for the use of supplemental oxygen
delivery should be set to keep SpO2 ≥ 90% (or per MD to optimize the functional abilities of individuals:
order) at rest, and should be titrated by a minimum of 1 •  Assessment of the need for supplemental oxygen
l/min for sleep, air travel, or activity.7 at rest and with activity, including the appropriate
3. Nocturnal supplemental oxygen therapy is indicated supplemental oxygen delivery devices
when oxygen desaturation occurs during sleep (PaO2 •  Instruction of patients in use of appropriate breathing
falls below 55 mm Hg or SpO2 < 90%) despite optimal exercises to optimize supplemental oxygen
additional therapy including continuous positive airway utilization and decrease breathlessness
pressure or bilevel positive airway pressure. Individuals •  Appropriate titration of supplemental oxygen with
requiring this supplemental oxygen should be assessed activity
during sleep with pulse oximetry. •  Instruction of patients in titration of supplemental
4. Intermittent supplemental oxygen therapy should oxygen with activity including specific amount of
be provided to improve quality of life and functional titration with each activity
activity for those who experience oxygen desaturation •  Appropriate exercise prescription with adjustment
during activity or exercise (when the PaO2 ≥ 60 mm Hg of supplemental oxygen to increase functional
or SpO2 ≥ 90% at rest but the patient desaturates during performance
activity).22 It is recommended to evaluate vital signs •  Instruction in use of supplemental oxygen with air
and incorporate breathing exercises when desaturation travel (see Box 4)
occurs with activity, in addition to titrating supplemental
oxygen. Intermittent supplemental oxygen therapy has CONCLUSION
been found to be useful in rehabilitation programs The use of supplemental oxygen is an important
for those with chronic lung disease, those awaiting component of disease management in many patients who
lung surgery, etc., to improve level of fitness and demonstrate hypoxemia at rest and/or with activity and a
therefore supplemental oxygen should be an adjunct to need exists for recommendations for use of supplemental
rehabilitation.22 oxygen in the clinical setting. Physical therapists are often
5. Supplemental oxygen should be initiated with a required to utilize supplemental oxygen with patients in
prescription and titrated to the activity by assessing diverse settings but currently no national recommendations,
vital signs, symptoms, and breathing. Assessment of the guidelines, or position statements exist to guide physical
adequacy of relief of hypoxemia should be performed therapy practice. This document provides guidelines
with pulse oximetry as well as improvement in level for physical therapists based upon an extensive search
of dyspnea and/or improvement in exercise tolerance. of evidence regarding assessment and management of
Patients should be reassessed 1 to 2 months after supplemental oxygen for patients with cardiopulmonary
starting continuous supplemental oxygen or nocturnal diseases. The guidelines describe the physical therapist’s
supplemental oxygen with assessment of resting as well role with titration of supplemental oxygen, ensuring safety
as activity SpO2. Patients may have been prescribed with activity, providing appropriate exercise prescriptions
supplemental oxygen while acutely ill, however, with to increase functional performance, and instructing patients
improvement in physical condition may not need the in use of appropriate breathing exercises to optimize
supplemental oxygen prescribed. Assessment of need supplemental oxygen and decrease breathlessness.

46 Cardiopulmonary Physical Therapy Journal Vol 25 v No 2 v June 2014

 Box 4. Need for Supplemental Oxygen During Air Travel24,25

Commercial aircraft operate at altitudes of up to 12,500 meters (41,000 feet), with the plane’s interior pressurized to 2100 – 2400 meters
(7000-8000 feet). At this level of pressurization, the alveolar PaO2 for healthy individuals decreases from 103 mmHg to 64 mmHg and
oxygen saturation declines from 97% to 93%. As a general rule, supplemental oxygen is unlikely to be required if a patient’s resting oxygen
saturation is 95% or higher, and likely to be required if oxygen saturation is 88% or lower. Patients with oxygen saturation values between
these levels might require individual assessment regarding need for supplemental oxygen.

Before flying, patients should ideally be clinically stable. Patients recovering from an acute exacerbation of their pulmonary disease are
particularly at risk for desaturation during air travel. Those already on long-term supplemental oxygen therapy typically need an increase
in flow rate of 1–2 l/min during flight. Careful consideration should be given to patients with any co-morbidities that may impair delivery
of oxygen to the tissues (eg, cardiac impairment, anemia). Exertion during flight will exacerbate hypoxemia.

The American Thoracic Society currently recommends that PaO2 during air travel should be maintained at more than 50 mmHg.54 All
patients with a PaO2 less than 70 mmHg at rest at ground level should receive supplemental oxygen during air travel.

Appendix 1. Task Force Members and Areas of Clinical Expertise

Ellen Hillegass PT, EdD, CCS (Task Force Chair, and acute care outpatient pulmonary rehabilitation)
Clinical Adjunct Professor
Mercer University | Atlanta, GA

Ann Fick PT, DPT, MS, CCS (acute care)

Assistant Professor
Physical Therapy Program
Maryville University | St. Louis, MO

Amy Pawlik, PT, DPT, CCS (acute care, interstitial lung disease, early mobilization)
Program Coordinator, Cardiac and Pulmonary Rehabilitation
University of Chicago Medical Center | Chicago, IL

Lawrence P. Cahalin, PT, PhD, CCS (heart failure)

Professor, Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine
Department of Physical Therapy
University of Miami | Coral Gables, FL

Rohini Chandrashekar, PT, DPT, CCS (acute care, early mobilization, outpatient cardiac and pulmonary rehabilitation)
St. Luke’s Hospital in the Woodlands | Houston, TX

Christiane Perme, PT, CCS (critical care, early mobilization)

Houston Methodist Hospital | Houston, TX

Susan Butler-McNamara, PT, MMSc, CCS (critical care, acute care, cystic fibrosis)
Maine Medical Center | Portland, ME

Rebecca Crouch, PT, DPT, CCS (acute care, outpatient pulmonary rehabilitation)
Director of Pulmonary Rehabilitation DUMC
Duke University Medical Center | Durham, NC

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