Measurements
Measurements
Measurements
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS 105
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106 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Suitable for Direct current and Direct and alternating Alternating current
measuring voltage currents and voltage and voltage (reads
(reading in rms value) average value but
scale is adjusted to
give rms value for
sinusoidal waveforms)
Scale Linear Non-linear Linear
Method of control Hairsprings Hairsprings Hairsprings
Method of damping Eddy current Air Eddy current
Frequency limits 20–200 Hz 20–100 kHz
–
Advantages 1 Linear scale 1 Robust construction 1 Linear scale
2 High sensitivity 2 Relatively cheap 2 High sensitivity
3 Well shielded 3 Measures dc and ac 3 Well shielded from
from stray 4 In frequency range stray magnetic fields
magnetic fields 20–100 Hz reads 4 Lower power
4 Low power rms correctly consumption
consumption regardless of supply 5 Good frequency
wave-form range
Disadvantages 1 Only suitable for 1 Non-linear scale 1 More expensive
dc 2 Affected by stray than moving iron
2 More expensive magnetic fields type
than moving iron 3 Hysteresis errors in 2 Errors caused when
type dc circuits supply is
3 Easily damaged 4 Liable to non-sinusoidal
temperature errors
5 Due to the
inductance of the
solenoid, readings
can be affected by
variation of
frequency
Figure 10.3
values. For sinusoidal quantities the indication is 10.6 Shunts and multipliers
⊲0.707Im ⊳/⊲0.637Im ⊳ i.e. 1.11 times the mean value.
Rectifier instruments have scales calibrated in r.m.s. An ammeter, which measures current, has a low
quantities and it is assumed by the manufacturer that resistance (ideally zero) and must be connected in
the a.c. is sinusoidal. series with the circuit.
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS 107
Ia ra V D Ia ra D Is Rs , hence
RS = ohms Ia ra ⊲0.04⊳⊲25⊳
IS Rs D D D 0.02002
IS 49.96
The milliammeter is converted into a voltmeter by = 20.02 mZ
connecting a high value resistance (called a mul-
tiplier) in series with it as shown in Fig. 10.4(b). Thus for the moving-coil instrument to be used as
From Fig. 10.4(b), an ammeter with a range 0–50 A, a resistance of
value 20.02 m needs to be connected in parallel
V D Va C VM D Ira C IRM with the instrument.
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108 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Hence for the moving-coil instrument to be used as input resistance (some as high as 1000 M) and can
a voltmeter with a range 0–100 V, a resistance of handle a much wider range of frequency (from d.c.
value 12.49 k needs to be connected in series with up to MHz).
the instrument. The digital voltmeter (DVM) is one which
provides a digital display of the voltage being mea-
sured. Advantages of a DVM over analogue instru-
Now try the following exercise ments include higher accuracy and resolution, no
observational or parallex errors (see section 10.20)
and a very high input resistance, constant on all
Exercise 48 Further problems on shunts ranges.
and multipliers A digital multimeter is a DVM with additional
circuitry which makes it capable of measuring a.c.
1 A moving-coil instrument gives f.s.d. for a voltage, d.c. and a.c. current and resistance.
current of 10 mA. Neglecting the resistance Instruments for a.c. measurements are generally
of the instrument, calculate the approximate calibrated with a sinusoidal alternating waveform to
value of series resistance needed to enable the indicate r.m.s. values when a sinusoidal signal is
instrument to measure up to (a) 20 V (b) 100 V applied to the instrument. Some instruments, such
(c) 250 V [(a) 2 k (b) 10 k (c) 25 k] as the moving-iron and electro-dynamic instruments,
2 A meter of resistance 50 has a f.s.d. of give a true r.m.s. indication. With other instruments
4 mA. Determine the value of shunt resis- the indication is either scaled up from the mean
tance required in order that f.s.d. should be value (such as with the rectified moving-coil instru-
(a) 15 mA (b) 20 A (c) 100 A ment) or scaled down from the peak value.
[(a) 18.18 (b) 10.00 m (c) 2.00 m] Sometimes quantities to be measured have com-
3 A moving-coil instrument having a resistance plex waveforms (see section 10.13), and whenever a
of 20 , gives a f.s.d. when the current is quantity is non-sinusoidal, errors in instrument read-
ings can occur if the instrument has been calibrated
5 mA. Calculate the value of the multiplier to
for sine waves only. Such waveform errors can be
be connected in series with the instrument so
largely eliminated by using electronic instruments.
that it can be used as a voltmeter for measuring
p.d.’s up to 200 V [39.98 k]
4 A moving-coil instrument has a f.s.d. of 20 mA
and a resistance of 25 . Calculate the val- 10.8 The ohmmeter
ues of resistance required to enable the instru-
ment to be used (a) as a 0–10 A ammeter, An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring
and (b) as a 0–100 V voltmeter. State the electrical resistance. A simple ohmmeter circuit
mode of resistance connection in each case. is shown in Fig. 10.7(a). Unlike the ammeter or
[(a) 50.10 m in parallel voltmeter, the ohmmeter circuit does not receive the
(b) 4.975 k in series] energy necessary for its operation from the circuit
under test. In the ohmmeter this energy is supplied
5 A meter has a resistance of 40 and reg- by a self-contained source of voltage, such as a
isters a maximum deflection when a cur- battery. Initially, terminals XX are short-circuited
rent of 15 mA flows. Calculate the value of
resistance that converts the movement into
(a) an ammeter with a maximum deflection of
50 A (b) a voltmeter with a range 0–250 V
[(a) 12.00 m in parallel
(b) 16.63 k in series]
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS 109
and R adjusted to give f.s.d. on the milliammeter. If supplied to a load. The instrument has two coils:
current I is at a maximum value and voltage E is
constant, then resistance R D E/I is at a minimum (i) a current coil, which is connected in series with
value. Thus f.s.d. on the milliammeter is made zero the load, like an ammeter, and
on the resistance scale. When terminals XX are
(ii) a voltage coil, which is connected in parallel
open circuited no current flows and R ⊲D E/O⊳ is
with the load, like a voltmeter.
infinity, 1.
The milliammeter can thus be calibrated directly
in ohms. A cramped (non-linear) scale results and is
‘back to front’, as shown in Fig. 10.7(b). When cal- 10.11 Instrument ‘loading’ effect
ibrated, an unknown resistance is placed between
terminals XX and its value determined from the Some measuring instruments depend for their oper-
position of the pointer on the scale. An ohmme- ation on power taken from the circuit in which
ter designed for measuring low values of resis- measurements are being made. Depending on the
tance is called a continuity tester. An ohmmeter ‘loading’ effect of the instrument (i.e. the current
designed for measuring high values of resistance taken to enable it to operate), the prevailing circuit
(i.e. megohms) is called an insulation resistance conditions may change.
tester (e.g. ‘Megger’). The resistance of voltmeters may be calculated
since each have a stated sensitivity (or ‘figure of
merit’), often stated in ‘k per volt’ of f.s.d. A volt-
meter should have as high a resistance as possible
10.9 Multimeters (– ideally infinite). In a.c. circuits the impedance of
the instrument varies with frequency and thus the
Instruments are manufactured that combine a loading effect of the instrument can change.
moving-coil meter with a number of shunts and
series multipliers, to provide a range of readings
on a single scale graduated to read current and Problem 3. Calculate the power dissipated
voltage. If a battery is incorporated then resistance by the voltmeter and by resistor R in
can also be measured. Such instruments are Fig. 10.9 when (a) R D 250
called multimeters or universal instruments or (b) R D 2 M. Assume that the voltmeter
multirange instruments. An ‘Avometer’ is a typical sensitivity (sometimes called figure of merit)
example. A particular range may be selected either is 10 k/V
by the use of separate terminals or by a selector
switch. Only one measurement can be performed at
a time. Often such instruments can be used in a.c. as
well as d.c. circuits when a rectifier is incorporated
in the instrument.
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110 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(a) expected ammeter reading D V/R D 10/500 D A considerable error is thus caused by the load-
20 mA. ing effect of the voltmeter on the circuit. The error
is reduced by using a voltmeter with a higher
(b) Actual ammeter reading D V/⊲R C ra ⊳ D sensitivity.
10/⊲500 C 50⊳ D 18.18 mA. Thus the ammeter
itself has caused the circuit conditions to change
from 20 mA to 18.18 mA.
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS 111
Exercise 49 Further problems on (i) With direct voltage measurements, only the
instrument ‘loading’ effects Y amplifier ‘volts/cm’ switch on the c.r.o. is
1 A 0–1 A ammeter having a resistance of 50 used. With no voltage applied to the Y plates
is used to measure the current flowing in a the position of the spot trace on the screen is
1 k resistor when the supply voltage is 250 V. noted. When a direct voltage is applied to the
Calculate: (a) the approximate value of current Y plates the new position of the spot trace is
(neglecting the ammeter resistance), (b) the an indication of the magnitude of the voltage.
actual current in the circuit, (c) the power For example, in Fig. 10.14(a), with no voltage
dissipated in the ammeter, (d) the power dis- applied to the Y plates, the spot trace is in the
sipated in the 1 k resistor. centre of the screen (initial position) and then
[(a) 0.250 A (b) 0.238 A the spot trace moves 2.5 cm to the final position
(c) 2.83 W (d) 56.64 W] shown, on application of a d.c. voltage. With the
‘volts/cm’ switch on 10 volts/cm the magnitude
2 (a) A current of 15 A flows through a load of the direct voltage is 2.5 cm ð 10 volts/cm, i.e.
having a resistance of 4 . Determine the 25 volts.
power dissipated in the load. (b) A wattmeter,
whose current coil has a resistance of 0.02 is (ii) With alternating voltage measurements, let a
connected (as shown in Fig. 10.13) to measure sinusoidal waveform be displayed on a c.r.o.
the power in the load. Determine the wattmeter screen as shown in Fig. 10.14(b). If the time/cm
reading assuming the current in the load is still switch is on, say, 5 ms/cm then the periodic
15 A. time T of the sinewave is 5 ms/cm ð 4 cm, i.e.
[(a) 900 W (b) 904.5 W] 20 ms or 0.02 s. Since frequency
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS 113
(c) The peak-to-peak height of the display is 3.6 cm, (a) The width of one complete cycle is 4 cm. Hence
hence the peak-to-peak voltage the periodic time, T is 4 cm ð 500 µs/cm, i.e.
2 ms.
D 3.6 cm ð 20 V/cm D 72 V 1 1
Frequency, f D D D 500 Hz
T 2 ð 103
Problem 9. For the c.r.o. display of a pulse (b) The peak-to-peak height of the waveform is
waveform shown in Fig. 10.16 the ‘time/cm’ 5 cm. Hence the peak-to-peak voltage
switch is on 50 ms/cm and the ‘volts/cm’ D 5 cm ð 5 V/cm D 25 V.
switch is on 0.2 V/cm. Determine (a) the
1
periodic time, (b) the frequency, (c) the (c) Amplitude D 2 ð 25 V D 12.5 V
magnitude of the pulse voltage.
(d) The peak value of voltage is the amplitude, i.e.
12.5 V, and r.m.s.
peak voltage 12.5
voltage D p D p D 8.84 V
2 2
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114 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
(c) Since 5 cm represents 1 cycle, then 5 cm rep- 3 For the sinusoidal waveform shown in
resents 360° , i.e. 1 cm represents 360/5 D 72° . Fig. 10.21, determine (a) its frequency, (b) the
The phase angle D 0.5 cm peak-to-peak voltage, (c) the r.m.s. voltage
D 0.5 cm ð 72° /cm D 36° . [(a) 7.14 Hz (b) 220 V (c) 77.78 V]
Hence waveform A leads waveform B by 36°
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS 115
and negative half cycles of each of the com- a mirror image of the positive cycle about
plex waveforms shown in Figures 10.22(a) and point B. In Fig. 10.22(f), a complex wave-
(b) are identical in shape, and this is a feature form comprising the sum of the fundamen-
of waveforms containing the fundamental and tal, a second harmonic and a third harmonic
only odd harmonics. are shown with initial phase displacement. The
positive and negative half cycles are seen to be
dissimilar.
P2
X = 10 lg dB ⊲1⊳
P1
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116 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
I2
i.e. X = 20 lg dB
I1
V2
or X = 20 lg dB
V1
Figure 10.23
(from the laws of logarithms).
From equation (1), X decibels is a logarithmic
ratio of two similar quantities and is not an absolute From above, the power ratio in decibels, X, is given
unit of measurement. It is therefore necessary to by: X D 10 lg ⊲P2 /P1 ⊳
state a reference level to measure a number of
decibels above or below that reference. The most P2
widely used reference level for power is 1 mW, and (a) When D 3,
P1
when power levels are expressed in decibels, above
or below the 1 mW reference level, the unit given X D 10 lg ⊲3⊳ D 10⊲0.477⊳
to the new power level is dBm. D 4.77 dB
A voltmeter can be re-scaled to indicate the power
level directly in decibels. The scale is generally cal- P2
ibrated by taking a reference level of 0 dB when a (b) When D 20,
P1
power of 1 mW is dissipated in a 600 resistor (this
being the natural impedance of a simple transmis- X D 10 lg ⊲20⊳ D 10⊲1.30⊳
sion line). The reference voltage V is then obtained D 13.0 dB
from
P2
V2 (c) When D 400,
PD , P1
R
X D 10 lg ⊲400⊳ D 10⊲2.60⊳
3 V2
i.e. 1 ð 10 D D 26.0 dB
600
from which, V D 0.775 volts. In general, the number P2 1
(d) When D D 0.05,
of dBm, P1 20
X D 10 lg ⊲0.05⊳ D 10⊲1.30⊳
V
X D 20 lg
0.775 D −13.0 dB
0.2
(a), (b) and (c) represent power gains and (d) repre-
Thus V D 0.20 V corresponds to 20 lg sents a power loss or attenuation.
0.775
D 11.77 dBm and
Problem 13. The current input to a system
0.90 is 5 mA and the current output is 20 mA.
V D 0.90 V corresponds to 20 lg
0.775 Find the decibel current ratio assuming the
input and load resistances of the system are
D C1.3 dBm, and so on.
equal.
A typical decibelmeter, or dB meter, scale is shown
in Fig. 10.23. Errors are introduced with dB meters
From above, the decibel current ratio is
when the circuit impedance is not 600 .
I2 20
20 lg D 20 lg
Problem 12. The ratio of two powers is I1 5
(a) 3 (b) 20 (c) 4 (d) 1/20. Determine the D 20 lg 4 D 20⊲0.60⊳
decibel power ratio in each case.
D 12 dB gain
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS 117
Decibel power ratio D 10 lg ⊲P2 /P1 ⊳ where P1 D Similarly for the second stage,
input power D 8 mW, and P2 D output power.
P2
Hence D 31.62
P1
P2
14 D 10 lg and for the third stage,
P1
from which P2
D 0.1585
P1
P2
1.4 D lg The overall power ratio is thus
P1
15.85 ð 31.62 ð 0.1585 D 79.4]
P2 from the definition
and 101.4 D
P1 of a logarithm
Problem 17. The output voltage from an
P2 amplifier is 4 V. If the voltage gain is 27 dB,
i.e. 25.12 D
P1 calculate the value of the input voltage
assuming that the amplifier input resistance
Output power, P2 D 25.12 P1 D ⊲25.12⊳⊲8⊳ D and load resistance are equal.
201 mW or 0.201 W
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118 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Hence the input voltage V1 is 0.179 V. 9 The scale of a voltmeter has a decibel scale
added to it, which is calibrated by taking a
reference level of 0 dB when a power of 1 mW
Now try the following exercise is dissipated in a 600 resistor. Determine
the voltage at (a) 0 dB (b) 1.5 dB (c) 15 dB
(d) What decibel reading corresponds to
0.5 V?
[(a) 0.775 V (b) 0.921 V
Exercise 51 Further problems on (c) 0.138 V (d) 3.807 dB]
logarithmic ratios
1 The ratio of two powers is (a) 3 (b) 10 (c) 20
(d) 10 000. Determine the decibel power ratio
for each.
[(a) 4.77 dB (b) 10 dB (c) 13 dB (d) 40 dB] 10.15 Null method of measurement
1 1 1
2 The ratio of two powers is (a) 10 (b) (c)
3 40
1 A null method of measurement is a simple, accu-
(d) 100 . Determine the decibel power ratio for rate and widely used method which depends on an
each. instrument reading being adjusted to read zero cur-
[(a) 10 dB (b) 4.77 dB
(c) 16.02 dB (d) 20 dB] rent only. The method assumes:
3 The input and output currents of a system are (i) if there is any deflection at all, then some current
2 mA and 10 mA respectively. Determine the is flowing;
decibel current ratio of output to input current
assuming input and output resistances of the (ii) if there is no deflection, then no current flows
system are equal. [13.98 dB] (i.e. a null condition).
4 5% of the power supplied to a cable appears
at the output terminals. Determine the power Hence it is unnecessary for a meter sensing current
loss in decibels. [13 dB] flow to be calibrated when used in this way. A sensi-
tive milliammeter or microammeter with centre zero
5 An amplifier has a gain of 24 dB and its input position setting is called a galvanometer. Examples
power is 10 mW. Find its output power. where the method is used are in the Wheatstone
[2.51 W] bridge (see section 10.16), in the d.c. potentiometer
(see section 10.17) and with a.c. bridges (see sec-
6 Determine, in decibels, the ratio of the output tion 10.18)
power to input power of a four stage system,
the stages having gains of 10 dB, 8 dB, 5 dB
and 7 dB. Find also the overall power gain.
[20 dB, 100]
10.16 Wheatstone bridge
7 The output voltage from an amplifier is 7 mV.
If the voltage gain is 25 dB calculate the value Figure 10.24 shows a Wheatstone bridge circuit
of the input voltage assuming that the amplifier which compares an unknown resistance Rx with
input resistance and load resistance are equal. others of known values, i.e. R1 and R2 , which have
[0.39 mV] fixed values, and R3 , which is variable. R3 is varied
until zero deflection is obtained on the galvanometer
8 The voltage gain of a number of cascaded G. No current then flows through the meter, VA D
amplifiers are 23 dB, 5.8 dB, 12.5 dB and VB , and the bridge is said to be ‘balanced’. At
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ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS 119
balance,
10.17 D.C. potentiometer
R2 R3 The d.c. potentiometer is a null-balance instru-
R1 Rx D R2 R3 i.e. Rx = ohms
R1 ment used for determining values of e.m.f.’s and
p.d.s. by comparison with a known e.m.f. or p.d. In
Fig. 10.26(a), using a standard cell of known e.m.f.
E1 , the slider S is moved along the slide wire until
balance is obtained (i.e. the galvanometer deflection
is zero), shown as length l1 .
Figure 10.24
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120 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
With reference to Fig. 10.26, When the potential differences across Z3 and
Zx (or across Z1 and Z2 ) are equal in magnitude
E1 l1 and phase, then the current flowing through the
D
E2 l2 galvanometer, G, is zero. At balance, Z1 Zx D Z2 Z3
from which
from which,
Z2 Z3
Zx = Z
l2 650
E 2 D E1 D ⊲1.0186⊳ Z1
l1 400
D 1.655 volts There are many forms of a.c. bridge, and these
include: the Maxwell, Hay, Owen and Heaviside
bridges for measuring inductance, and the De Sauty,
Now try the following exercise Schering and Wien bridges for measuring capaci-
tance. A commercial or universal bridge is one
which can be used to measure resistance, inductance
Exercise 52 Further problems on the or capacitance. A.c. bridges require a knowledge
p of
Wheatstone bridge and d.c. potentiometer complex numbers (i.e. j notation, where j D 1).
A Maxwell-Wien bridge for measuring the induc-
1 In a Wheatstone bridge PQRS, a galvanometer
tance L and resistance r of an inductor is shown in
is connected between Q and S and a voltage
Fig. 10.28
source between P and R. An unknown resistor
Rx is connected between P and Q. When the
bridge is balanced, the resistance between Q
and R is 200 , that between R and S is 10
and that between S and P is 150 . Calculate
the value of Rx [3 k]
2 Balance is obtained in a d.c. potentiometer at a
length of 31.2 cm when using a standard cell of
1.0186 volts. Calculate the e.m.f. of a dry cell
if balance is obtained with a length of 46.7 cm
[1.525 V]
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Figure 10.29
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Figure 10.31
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124 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY
Figure 10.32
Exercise 56 Short answer questions on
The maximum relative error of Rx is given by the electrical measuring instruments and
sum of the three individual errors, i.e. 1.0%C0.5%C measurements
0.2% D 1.7%. Hence 1 What is the main difference between an ana-
logue and a digital type of measuring instru-
Rx D 43.25 Z ± 1.7% ment?
1.7% of 43.25 D 0.74 (rounding off). Thus Rx 2 Name the three essential devices for all ana-
may also be expressed as logue electrical indicating instruments
3 Complete the following statements:
Rx D 43.25 ± 0.74 Z (a) An ammeter has a . . . . . . resistance and
is connected . . . . . . with the circuit
(b) A voltmeter has a . . . . . . resistance and
Now try the following exercises is connected . . . . . . with the circuit
4 State two advantages and two disadvantages
of a moving coil instrument
Exercise 55 Further problems on 5 What effect does the connection of (a) a
measurement errors shunt (b) a multiplier have on a milliamme-
ter?
1 The p.d. across a resistor is measured as 37.5 V
with an accuracy of š0.5%. The value of the 6 State two advantages and two disadvantages
resistor is 6 k š 0.8%. Determine the current of a moving coil instrument
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