Data Communications

Unit-V: Cellular Wireless Networks

&WLAN
 Cellular Wireless Networks

Of all the tremendous advances in data communications and telecommunications, perhaps the most
revolutionary is the development of cellular networks.

Cellular technology is the underlying technology for mobile telephones, personal communications systems,
wireless Internet and wireless Web applications, and much more. It is a technique developed to increase the
capacity available for mobile radio telephone service. Contrast with the older mobiles using large area, high-
power transmitters. The essence of a cellular network is the use of multiple low-power transmitters. The area to
be covered is divided into cells in a hexagonal tile pattern that provide full coverage of the area. Because the
range of such a transmitter is small, an area can be divided into cells, each one served by its own antenna.
Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and is served by a base station, consisting of transmitter, receiver,
and control unit. Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or crosstalk. However,
cells sufficiently distant from each other can use the same frequency band.
 Cellular Geometries

The first design decision to make is the shape of cells to cover an area. A matrix of square cells would be the simplest layout to
define, as seen here in the above Figure. However, this geometry is not ideal. If the width of a square cell is d, then a cell has four
neighbors at a distance d and four neighbors at a distance d. As a mobile user within a cell moves toward the cell's boundaries, it is
best if all of the adjacent antennas are equidistant. This simplifies the task of determining when to switch the user to an adjacent
antenna and which antenna to choose.

A hexagonal pattern provides for equidistant antennas (Figure 14.1b). The radius of a hexagon is defined to be the radius of
the circle that circumscribes it (equivalently, the distance from the center to each vertex; also equal to the length of a side of a
hexagon). For a cell radius R, the distance between the cell center and each adjacent cell center is d = R. In practice, a precise
hexagonal pattern is not used. Variations from the ideal are due to topographical limitations, local signal propagation conditions,
and practical limitation on siting antennas.
 Frequency Reuse

With a wireless cellular system, you are limited in how often you can use the same frequency for different communications because
the signals, not being constrained, can interfere with one another even if geographically separated. Systems supporting a large
number of communications simultaneously need mechanisms to conserve spectrum. In a cellular system, each cell has a base
transceiver. The transmission power is carefully controlled (to the extent that it is possible in the highly variable mobile
communication environment) to allow communication within the cell using a given frequency while limiting the power at that
frequency that escapes the cell into adjacent ones. The objective is to use the same frequency in other nearby cells, thus allowing
the frequency to be used for multiple simultaneous conversations. Generally, 10 to 50 frequencies are assigned to each cell,
depending on the traffic expected.
The essential issue is to determine how many cells must intervene between two cells using the same frequency so that the
two cells do not interfere with each other. Various patterns of frequency reuse are possible. If the pattern consists of N cells and
each cell is assigned the same number of frequencies, each cell can have K/N frequencies, where K is the total number of
frequencies allotted to the system. For AMPS (Section 14.2), K = 395, and N = 7 is the smallest pattern that can provide sufficient
isolation between two uses of the same frequency. This implies that there can be at most 57 frequencies per cell on average.
 Frequency Reuse Patterns

Above Figure shows some example reuse patterns. In characterizing frequency reuse, the following parameters are commonly used:
D = minimum distance between centers of cells that use the same band of frequencies (called cochannels)
R = radius of a cell
d = distance between centers of adjacent cells (d = R)
N = number of cells in repetitious pattern (reuse factor), each cell in pattern uses a unique band of frequencies.
With a hexagonal cell pattern, the following values of N possible
 N = I2 + J2 + (I x J), I, J = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
 Possible values of N are 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, etc
 Increasing Capacity
In time, as more customers use the system, traffic may build up so that there are not enough frequencies
assigned to a cell to handle its calls. A number of approaches have been used to cope with this situation,
including the following:

• Adding new channels: Typically, when a system is set up in a region, not all of the channels are used, and
growth and expansion can be managed in an orderly fashion by adding new channels.

• Frequency borrowing: In the simplest case, frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells.
The frequencies can also be assigned to cells dynamically.

Cell splitting: In practice, the distribution of traffic and topographic

features is not uniform, and this presents opportunities for capacity

increase. Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells.

• Cell sectoring: With cell sectoring, a cell is divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with its own
set of channels, typically three or six sectors per cell. Each sector is assigned a separate subset of the cell's
channels, and directional antennas at the base station are used to focus on each sector.
• Microcells: As cells become smaller, antennas move from the tops of tall buildings or hills, to the tops of
small buildings or the sides of large buildings, and finally to lamp posts, where they form microcells. Each
decrease in cell size is accompanied by a reduction in the radiated power levels from the base stations and the
mobile units. Microcells are useful in city streets in congested areas, along highways, and inside large public
buildings.

The use of smaller cells enables the use of lower power and provides superior propagation conditions.
 Frequency Reuse Example

Example. Assume a system of 32 cells with a cell radius of 1.6 km, a total of 32 cells, a total frequency bandwidth that supports 336
traffic channels, and a reuse factor of N = 7. If there are 32 total cells, what geographic area is covered, how many channels are there
per cell, and what is the total number of concurrent calls that can be handled? Repeat for a cell radius of 0.8 km and 128 cells.

Figure a shows an approximately square pattern. The area of a hexagon of radius R is . A hexagon of radius 1.6 km has an
area of 6.65 km2, and the total area covered is 6.65 ´ 32 = 213 km2. For N = 7, the number of channels per cell is 336/7 = 48, for a
total channel capacity of 48 ´ 32 = 1536 channels. For the layout of Figure 14.4b, the area covered is 1.66 ´ 128 = 213 km2. The
number of channels per cell is 336/7 = 48, for a total channel capacity of 48 ´ 128 = 6144 channels.
 Overview of Cellular System

The above Figure shows the principal elements of a cellular system. In the approximate center of each cell is a
base station (BS). The BS includes an antenna, a controller, and a number of transceivers, for communicating on
the channels assigned to that cell. The controller is used to handle the call process between the mobile unit and the
rest of the network. At any time, a number of mobile user units may be active and moving about within a cell,
communicating with the BS. Each BS is connected to a mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO), with
one MTSO serving multiple BSs. Typically, the link between an MTSO and a BS is by a wire line, although a
wireless link is also possible. The MTSO connects calls between mobile units. The MTSO is also connected to the
public telephone or telecommunications network and can make a connection between a fixed subscriber to the
public network and a mobile subscriber to the cellular network. The MTSO assigns the voice channel to each call,
performs handoffs, and monitors the call for billing information.
 Cellular System Channels

The use of a cellular system is fully automated and requires no action on the part of the
user other than placing or answering a call. Two types of channels are available between
the mobile unit and the base station (BS): control channels and traffic channels.
Control channels are used to exchange information having to do with setting up and
maintaining calls and with establishing a relationship between a mobile unit and the
nearest BS.
Traffic channels carry a voice or data connection between users.
 Call Stages

Above Figure illustrates the steps in a typical call between two mobile users within an area controlled by a
single MTSO:
• Mobile unit initialization: mobile unit scans and selects the strongest setup control channel used for this system
(Figure 14.6a). Then a handshake takes place between the mobile unit and the MTSO controlling this cell, through the
BS in this cell, to identify the user and register its location.
• Mobile-originated call: A mobile unit originates a call by sending the number of the called unit on the preselected
setup channel (Figure b).
• Paging: The MTSO then attempts to complete the connection to the called unit, sending a paging message to
certain BSs depending on the called mobile number (Figure c).
• Call accepted: The called mobile unit recognizes its number on the setup channel being monitored and responds to
that BS, which sends the response to the MTSO. The MTSO sets up a circuit between the calling and called BSs, and
also selects an available traffic channel within each BS's cell and notifies each BS, which in turn notifies its mobile unit
(Figure d).
• Ongoing call: While connection is maintained, the mobile units exchange voice or data signals, through respective
BSs and MTSO (Figure e).
• Handoff: If a mobile unit moves out of range of one cell and into the range of another during a connection, the traffic
channel has to change to one assigned to the BS in the new cell (Figure f).
 Other Functions
Other functions performed by the system but not illustrated in the previous Figure include:

• Call blocking: During the mobile-initiated call stage, if all the traffic channels assigned to the nearest
BS are busy, then the mobile unit makes a preconfigured number of repeated attempts. After a certain
number of failed tries, a busy tone is returned to the user.
• Call termination: When one of the two users hangs up, the MTSO is informed and the traffic
channels at the two BSs are released.
• Call drop: During a connection, because of interference or weak signal spots in certain areas, if the
BS cannot maintain the minimum required signal strength for a certain period of time, the traffic
channel to the user is dropped and the MTSO is informed.
• Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber: The MTSO connects to the public switched
telephone network. Thus, the MTSO can set up a connection between a mobile user in its area and a
fixed subscriber via the telephone network. Further, the MTSO can connect to a remote MTSO via the
telephone network or via dedicated lines and set up a connection between a mobile user in its area
and a remote mobile user.
 Mobile Radio
Propagation Effects
Mobile radio communication introduces complexities not found in wire communication or in fixed
wireless communication. Two general areas of concern are signal strength and signal propagation
effects.
• Signal strength: The strength of the signal between the base station and the mobile unit
must be strong enough to maintain signal quality at the receiver but no so strong as to create
too much cochannel interference with channels in another cell using the same frequency
band. Several complicating factors exist. Human-made noise varies considerably, resulting in
a variable noise level. For example, automobile ignition noise in the cellular frequency range
is greater in the city than in a suburban area. Other signal sources vary from place to place.
The signal strength varies as a function of distance from the BS to a point within its cell.
Moreover, the signal strength varies dynamically as the mobile unit moves.
• Fading: The term fading refers to the time variation of received signal power caused by
changes in the transmission medium or path(s). In a fixed environment, fading is affected by
changes in atmospheric conditions, such as rainfall. But in a mobile environment, where one
of the two antennas is moving relative to the other, the relative location of various obstacles
changes over time, creating complex transmission effects. Even if signal strength is within an
effective range, signal propagation effects may disrupt the signal and cause errors.
Design Factors

In designing a cellular layout, the communications engineer must take account of these
various propagation effects, the desired maximum transmit power level at the base
station and the mobile units, the typical height of the mobile unit antenna, and the
available height of the BS antenna. These factors will determine the size of the
individual cell. Unfortunately, as just described, the propagation effects are dynamic
and difficult to predict. The best that can be done is to come up with a model based on
empirical data and to apply that model to a given environment to develop guidelines for
cell size. One of the most widely used models was developed by Okumura et al
[OKUM68] and subsequently refined by Hata [HATA80]. The original was a detailed
analysis of the Tokyo area and produced path loss information for an urban
environment. Hata's model is an empirical formulation that takes into account a variety
of environments and conditions. See text for more details.
 Multipath Propagation

Three propagation mechanisms, illustrated in Stallings DCC8e Figure 14.7, play a role. These three propagation effects influence
system performance in various ways depending on local conditions and as the mobile unit moves within a cell.

Reflection occurs when an electromagnetic signal encounters a surface that is large relative to the wavelength of the signal.
For example, suppose a ground-reflected wave near the mobile unit is received. Because the ground-reflected wave has a 180º
phase shift after reflection, the ground wave and the line-of-sight (LOS) wave may tend to cancel, resulting in high signal loss.
Further, because the mobile antenna is lower than most human-made structures in the area, multipath interference occurs. These
reflected waves may interfere constructively or destructively at the receiver.

Diffraction occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to the wavelength of the radio wave. When a
radio wave encounters such an edge, waves propagate in different directions with the edge as the source. Thus, signals can be
received even when there is no unobstructed LOS from the transmitter.

If the size of an obstacle is on the order of the wavelength of the signal or less, scattering occurs. An incoming signal is
scattered into several weaker outgoing signals. At typical cellular microwave frequencies, there are numerous objects, such as lamp
posts and traffic signs, that can cause scattering. Scattering effects are difficult to predict.
 Effects of Multipath Propagation
As just noted, one unwanted effect of multipath propagation is that multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases. If
these phases add destructively, the signal level relative to noise declines, making signal detection at the receiver more difficult. A
second phenomenon, of particular importance for digital transmission, is intersymbol interference (ISI). Consider that we are
sending a narrow pulse at a given frequency across a link between a fixed antenna and a mobile unit. Stallings DCC8e Figure 14.8
shows what the channel may deliver to the receiver if the impulse is sent at two different times. The upper line shows two pulses at
the time of transmission. The lower line shows the resulting pulses at the receiver. In each case the first received pulse is the desired
LOS signal. The magnitude of that pulse may change because of changes in atmospheric attenuation. Further, as the mobile unit
moves farther away from the fixed antenna, the amount of LOS attenuation increases. But in addition to this primary pulse, there
may be multiple secondary pulses due to reflection, diffraction, and scattering. Now suppose that this pulse encodes one or more
bits of data. In that case, one or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the same time as the primary pulse for a subsequent
bit. These delayed pulses act as a form of noise to the subsequent primary pulse, making recovery of the bit information more
difficult. As the mobile antenna moves, the location of various obstacles changes; hence the number, magnitude, and timing of the
secondary pulses change. This makes it difficult to design signal processing techniques that will filter out multipath effects so that
the intended signal is recovered with fidelity.
 Types of Fading

Fading effects in a mobile environment can be classified as either fast or slow. Referring to Stallings
DCC8e Figure 14.7, as the mobile unit moves down a street in an urban environment, rapid
variations in signal strength occur over distances of about one-half a wavelength. At a frequency of
900 MHz, which is typical for mobile cellular applications, a wavelength is 0.33 m. Changes of
amplitude can be as much as 20 or 30 dB over a short distance. This type of rapidly changing fading
phenomenon, known as fast fading, affects not only mobile phones in automobiles, but even a
mobile phone user walking down an urban street. As the mobile user covers distances well in excess
of a wavelength, the urban environment changes, as the user passes buildings of different heights,
vacant lots, intersections, and so forth. Over these longer distances, there is a change in the average
received power level about which the rapid fluctuations occur. This is referred to as slow fading.
Fading effects can also be classified as flat or selective. Flat fading, or nonselective fading, is
that type of fading in which all frequency components of the received signal fluctuate in the same
proportions simultaneously. Selective fading affects unequally the different spectral components of
a radio signal. The term selective fading is usually significant only relative to the bandwidth of the
overall communications channel. If attenuation occurs over a portion of the bandwidth of the signal,
the fading is considered to be selective; nonselective fading implies that the signal bandwidth of
interest is narrower than, and completely covered by, the spectrum affected by the fading.
 Error Compensation Mechanisms
The efforts to compensate for the errors and distortions introduced by multipath fading fall
into three general categories: forward error correction, adaptive equalization, and
diversity techniques. In the typical mobile wireless environment, techniques from all three
categories are combined to combat the error rates encountered.
Forward error correction is applicable in digital transmission applications: those in
which the transmitted signal carries digital data or digitized voice or video data. Typically
in mobile wireless applications, the ratio of total bits sent to data bits sent is between 2
and 3. This may seem an extravagant amount of overhead, in that the capacity of the
system is cut to one-half or one-third of its potential, but the mobile wireless environment
is so difficult that such levels of redundancy are necessary. Chapter 6 discusses forward
error correction.
Adaptive equalization can be applied to transmissions that carry analog
information (e.g., analog voice or video) or digital information (e.g., digital data, digitized
voice or video) and is used to combat intersymbol interference. The process of
equalization involves some method of gathering the dispersed symbol energy back
together into its original time interval. Equalization is a broad topic; techniques include the
use of so-called lumped analog circuits as well as sophisticated digital signal processing
algorithms.
 Error Compensation Mechanisms
Diversity is based on the fact that individual channels experience independent fading events. We
can therefore compensate for error effects by providing multiple logical channels in some sense
between transmitter and receiver and sending part of the signal over each channel. This technique
does not eliminate errors but it does reduce the error rate, since we have spread the transmission
out to avoid being subjected to the highest error rate that might occur. The other techniques
(equalization, forward error correction) can then cope with the reduced error rate.
Some diversity techniques involve the physical transmission path and are referred to as
space diversity. For example, multiple nearby antennas may be used to receive the message, with
the signals combined in some fashion to reconstruct the most likely transmitted signal. Another
example is the use of collocated multiple directional antennas, each oriented to a different
reception angle with the incoming signals again combined to reconstitute the transmitted signal.
More commonly, the term diversity refers to frequency diversity or time diversity techniques. With
frequency diversity, the signal is spread out over a larger frequency bandwidth or carried on
multiple frequency carriers.
 First Generation Analog

The original cellular telephone networks provided analog traffic channels; these are now referred
to as first-generation systems. Since the early 1980s the most common first-generation system in
North America has been the Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) developed by AT&T. This
approach is also common in South America, Australia, and China. Although gradually being
replaced by second-generation systems, AMPS is still in common use. In this section, we provide
an overview of AMPS.
 AMPS Spectral Allocation In North America
 In North America, two 25-MHz bands are allocated to AMPS (see Stallings DCC8e
Table 14.2), one for transmission from the base station to the mobile unit (869–894
MHz), the other for transmission from the mobile to the base station (824–849 MHz).
Each of these bands is split in two to encourage competition (i.e., so that in each market
two operators can be accommodated). An operator is allocated only 12.5 MHz in each
direction for its system. The channels are spaced 30 kHz apart, which allows a total of
416 channels per operator. Twenty-one channels are allocated for control, leaving 395
to carry calls. The control channels are data channels operating at 10 kbps. The
conversation channels carry the conversations in analog using frequency modulation.
Control information is also sent on the conversation channels in bursts as data. This
number of channels is inadequate for most major markets, so some way must be found
either to use less bandwidth per conversation or to reuse frequencies. Both approaches
have been taken in the various approaches to mobile telephony. For AMPS, frequency
reuse is exploited.
 Operation
 AMPS-capable phone has numeric assignment
module (NAM) in read-only memory
 NAM contains number of phone
 serial number of phone

 when phone turned on, transmits serial number and

phone number to MTSO

 MTSO has database of mobile units reported stolen

 MTSO uses phone number for billing

 if phone is used in remote city, service is still billed to

user's local service provider

 AMPS Call Sequence
1. subscriber initiates call keying in number
2. MTSO validates telephone number and checks
user authorized to place call
3. MTSO issues message to user's phone
indicating traffic channels to use
4. MTSO sends ringing signal to called party
5. when called party answers, MTSO establishes
circuit and initiates billing information
6. when one party hangs up MTSO releases
circuit, frees radio channels, and completes
billing information
 AMPS Control Channels
 21 full-duplex 30-kHz control channels
 transmit digital data using FSK
 data transmitted in frames

 control information can be transmitted over voice

channel during conversation
 Mmobile unit or the base station inserts burst of data
• turn off voice FM transmission for about 100 ms
• replacing it with an FSK-encoded message
 used to exchange urgent messages
• change power level
• handoff
 Second Generation CDMA
 provide higher quality signals, higher data rates,
support digital services, with overall greater
capacity
 key differences include
 digital traffic channels
 encryption

 error detection and correction

 channel access

• time division multiple access (TDMA)

• code division multiple access (CDMA)
 Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA)
 have a number of 2nd gen systems
for example IS-95 using CDMA
 each cell allocated frequency bandwidth
 is split in two
half for reverse, half for forward
uses direct-sequence spread spectrum

(DSSS)
 Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA) Advantages
 frequency diversity
 noise bursts & fading have less effect
 multipath resistance
 chipping codes have low cross & auto correlation
 privacy
 inherent in use of spread-spectrum
 graceful degradation
 more users means more noise
 leads to slow signal degradation until unacceptable
Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) Disadvantages
 self-jamming
some cross correlation between users
 near-far problem
signals closer to receiver are received with
less attenuation than signals farther away
RAKE Receiver
 IS-95
 second generation CDMA scheme
 primarily deployed in North America
 transmission structures different on
forward and reverse links
IS-95 Channel Structure
 IS-95 Forward Link
 four types of channels
 Pilot (channel 0)
• allows mobile unit to acquire timing information
 Synchronization (channel 32)
• 1200-bps channel used by mobile station to obtain
identification information about the cellular system
 Paging (channels 1 to 7)
• Contain messages for one or more mobile stations
 Traffic (channels 8 to 31 and 33 to 63)
• 55 traffic channels
 all channels use same bandwidth
 Forward
Link
Processing
 Forward Link - Scrambling
 after interleaver, data scrambled
 privacy mask
 prevent sending of repetitive patterns
 reduces probability of users sending at peak power at
same time
 scrambling done by long code
 pseudorandom number from 42-bit shift register
 initialized with user's electronic serial number

 output at a rate of 1.2288 Mbps

Forward Link - Power Control
 inserts power control info in traffic channel
to control the power output of antenna
robs traffic channel of bits at rate of 800 bps

by stealing code bits

800-bps channel carries information directing

mobile unit to change output level

power control stream multiplexed to 19.2 kbps
 Forward Link - DSSS
 spreads 19.2 kbps to 1.2288 Mbps
 using one row of Walsh matrix
 assigned to mobile station during call setup
 if 0 presented to XOR, 64 bits of assigned row sent

 if 1 presented, bitwise XOR of row sent

 final bit rate 1.2288 Mbps

 bit stream modulated onto carrier using QPSK
 data split into I and Q (in-phase and quadrature)
channels
 data in each channel XORed with unique short code
 IS-95 Reverse Link
 up to 94 logical CDMA channels
 each occupying same 1228-kHz bandwidth
 supports up to 32 access and 62 traffic channels

 traffic channels are mobile unique

 each station has unique long code mask based on
serial number
• 42-bit number, 242 – 1 different masks
• access channel used by mobile to initiate call, respond to
paging channel message, and for location update
 Reverse
Link
Processing
 Reverse Link - DSSS
 long code unique to mobile XORed with output
of randomizer
 1.2288-Mbps final data stream
 modulated using orthogonal QPSK modulation
 differs from forward channel in use of delay
element in modulator to produce orthogonality
 forward channel, spreading codes orthogonal
 reverse channel orthogonality of spreading codes not

guaranteed
 Third Generation Systems
 high-speed wireless communications to support
multimedia, data, and video in addition to voice
 3G capabilities:
• voice quality comparable to PSTN
• 144 kbps available to users over large areas
• 384 kbps available to pedestrians over small areas
• support for 2.048 Mbps for office use
• symmetrical and asymmetrical data rates
• packet-switched and circuit-switched services
• adaptive interface to Internet
• more efficient use of available spectrum
• support for variety of mobile equipment
• allow introduction of new services and technologies
 Driving Forces
 trend toward universal personal telecommunications
 universal communications access
 GSM cellular telephony with subscriber identity module,
is step towards goals
 personal communications services (PCSs) and personal
communication networks (PCNs) also form objectives for
third-generation wireless
 technology is digital using time division multiple access
or code-division multiple access
 PCS handsets low power, small and light
IMT-2000 Terrestrial Radio
Alternative Interfaces
CDMA Design Considerations
– Bandwidth and Chip Rate
 dominant technology for 3G systems is CDMA
 3 CDMA schemes, share some design issues
 bandwidth (limit channel to 5 MHz)
 5 MHz reasonable upper limit on what can be
allocated for 3G
 5 MHz is enough for data rates of 144 and 384 kHz

 chip rate
 given bandwidth, chip rate depends on desired data
rate, need for error control, and bandwidth limitations
 chip rate of 3 Mbps or more reasonable
CDMA Design Considerations
– Multirate
 provision of multiple fixed-data-rate channels to user
 different data rates provided on different logical channels
 logical channel traffic can be switched independently
through wireless fixed networks to different destinations
 flexibly support multiple simultaneous applications
 efficiently use available capacity by only providing the
capacity required for each service
 use TDMA within single CDMA channel
 or use multiple CDMA codes
 CDMA Multirate
Time and Code Multiplexing
 Summary
 principles of wireless cellular networks
 operation of wireless cellular networks
 first-generation analog
 second-generation CDMA
 third-generation systems
Wireless LANs
 Overview of Wireless LANs
 wireless transmission medium
 issues of high prices, low data rates,
occupational safety concerns, & licensing
requirements now addressed
 key application areas:
LAN extension
cross-building interconnect

nomadic access

ad hoc networking

Single Cell LAN Extension
Multi Cell LAN Extension
Cross-Building Interconnect

used to connect
wired or wireless
LANs in nearby
buildings

point-to-point
connect wireless link
bridges or used
routers • not a LAN per
se
 Nomadic Access
link LAN hub & mobile data terminal

• laptop or notepad computer

• enable employee to transfer data from portable
computer to server

 also
useful in extended environment such
as campus or cluster of buildings
users move around with portable computers
access to servers on wired LAN
Infrastructure Wireless LAN
 Ad Hoc Networking
 temporary peer-to-peer network
Wireless LAN Requirements
CONNECTION TO
THROUGHPUT – NUMBER OF NODES-
BACKBONE LAN –
should make efficient hundreds of nodes
use of control
use of medium across multiple cells
modules

BATTERY POWER
TRANSMISSION
SERVICE AREA – CONSUMPTION –
ROBUST AND
coverage area of 100 reduce power
SECURITY– reliability
to 300m consumption while
and privacy/security
not in use

LICENSE-FREE
COLLOCATED
OPERATION – not HANDOFF/ROAMING–
NETWORK
having to secure a enable stations to
OPERATION –
license for the move from one cell to
possible interference
frequency band used another
between LANs
by the LAN
DYNAMIC
CONFIGURATION-
addition, deletion,
relocation of end
systems without
disruption
 Wireless LANs
spread
infrared (IR)
spectrum OFDM LANs LANs
LANs

mostly operate in orthogonal

individual cell of
ISM (industrial, frequency
IR LAN limited to
scientific, and division
single room
medical) bands multiplexing

no Federal IR light does not

Communications superior to
penetrate opaque
Commission spread spectrum
walls
(FCC) licensing
is required in
USA
operate in 2.4
GHz or 5 GHz
band
 Spread Spectrum LAN
Configuration
 usually use multiple-cell arrangement
 adjacent cells use different center frequencies
 Spread Spectrum LANs
Transmission Issues
 licensing regulations differ between countries
 USA FCC allows in ISM band:
 spread spectrum (1W), very low power (0.5W)
• 902 - 928 MHz (915-MHz band)
• 2.4 - 2.4835 GHz (2.4-GHz band)
• 5.725 - 5.825 GHz (5.8-GHz band)
 2.4 GHz also in Europe and Japan

Interference
• many devices around 900 MHz: cordless
telephones, wireless microphones, and
amateur radio
• fewer devices at 2.4 GHz; microwave oven
• little competition at 5.8 GHz
IEEE 802
Standards
IEEE 802 Terminology
IEEE 802.11 Architecture
 IEEE 802.11 - BSS
 basic service set (BSS) building block
 may be isolated
 may connect to backbone distribution
system (DS) through access point (AP)
 BSS generally corresponds to cell
 DS can be switch, wired network, or
wireless network
 have independent BSS (IBSS) with no AP
 Extended Service Set (ESS)
 possible configurations:
 simplest is each station belongs to single BSS
 can have two BSSs overlap

 a station can participate in more than one BSS

 association between station and BSS dynamic

 ESS is two or more BSS interconnected by DS

 appears as single logical LAN to LLC
IEEE 802 Services
 Services - Message
Distribution
 distribution service  integration service
 primary service used  enables transfer of
by stations to data between 802.11
exchange MAC frames LAN station and one
when frame must on an integrated 802.x
traverse DS LAN
 if stations in same

BSS, distribution
service logically goes
through single AP of
that BSS
Association Related Services
 DS requires info about stations within ESS
 provided by association-related services
 station must associate before
communicating
 3 mobility transition types:
no transition - stationary or in single BSS
BSS transition - between BSS in same ESS

ESS transition: between BSS in different ESS

Association Related Services
 DS needs identity of destination station
stations must maintain association with AP


within current BSS

 Medium Access Control

access
control
reliable
data security
delivery
MAC layer
covers
three
functional
areas:
 Reliable Data Delivery
 can be dealt with at a higher
layer
 more efficient to deal with  802.11 physical and MAC
errors at MAC level layers unreliable
 802.11 includes frame  noise, interference, and
exchange protocol other propagation effects
 station receiving frame result in loss of frames
returns acknowledgment  even with error-
(ACK) frame correction codes, frames
 exchange treated as may not successfully be
atomic unit received
 if no ACK within short

period of time, retransmit

 Four Frame Exchange
 RTS alerts all stations within
range of source that
can use four-frame
exchange is under way
exchange for better reliability
 CTS alerts all stations within
 source issues a Request
range of destination
to Send (RTS) frame
 other stations don’t transmit
 destination responds
to avoid collision
with Clear to Send (CTS)
 RTS/CTS exchange is
 after receiving CTS,
required function of MAC source transmits data
but may be disabled
 destination responds

with ACK
Media Access Control
 Distributed Coordination
Function
 DCF sublayer uses CSMA

if station has frame else waits until

if medium is idle,
to send it listens to current transmission
station may transmit
medium is complete

 no collision detection since on a wireless

network
 DCF includes delays that act as a priority
scheme
 IEEE
802.11
Medium
Access
Control
Logic
 Priority IFS Values

SIFS (short PIFS (point DIFS

IFS) coordination (distributed
• for all immediate function IFS) coordination
response actions • used by the function IFS)
centralized • used as minimum
controller in PCF delay for
scheme when asynchronous
issuing polls frames contending
for access
IEEE 802.11 MAC Frame
Format
 Control Frames
Power Save-Poll (PS- Request to Send Clear to Send (CTS)
Poll) (RTS) • second frame in
• request AP transmit • first frame in four- four-way exchange
buffered frame way frame
when in power- exchange
saving mode

CF-End + CF-Ack:
• acknowledges CF-
Acknowledgment Contention-Free (CF) end to end
(ACK) -end contention-free
period and release
• acknowledges • announces end of stations from
correct receipt contention-free associated
period part of PCF restrictions
 Data Frames – Data Carrying
 eight data frame subtypes
 organized in two groups
• first four carry upper-level data
• remaining do not carry any user data
 Data
 simplest data frame, contention or contention-free use
 Data + CF-Ack
 carries data and acknowledges previously received data
during contention-free period
 Data + CF-Poll
 used by point coordinator to deliver data &request send
 Data + CF-Ack + CF-Poll
 combines Data + CF-Ack and Data + CF-Poll
 Data Frames –
Not Data Carrying

 Null Function
 carries no data, polls, or acknowledgments
 carries power management bit in frame control field to

AP
 indicates station is changing to low-power state

 other three frames (CF-Ack, CF-Poll, CF-Ack +

CF-Poll) same as corresponding frame in
preceding list but without data
 Management Frames

used to manage
communications management of
between stations and associations
Aps
• requests, response,
reassociation, dissociation, and
authentication
802.11 Physical Layer
Original 802.11 Physical Layer
- DSSS
 Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
 2.4 GHz ISM band at 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps
 up to seven channels, each 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps,
can be used
 depends on bandwidth allocated by various
national regulations
 13 in most European countries
 one in Japan

 each channel bandwidth 5 MHz

 encoding scheme DBPSK for 1-Mbps and
DQPSK for 2-Mbps using an 11-chip Barker
sequence
Original 802.11 Physical Layer
- FHSS
 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum
 makes use of multiple channels
 signal hopping between multiple channels based on a

pseudonoise sequence
 1-MHz channels are used

 hopping scheme is adjustable

 2.5 hops per second in United States
 6 MHz in North America and Europe

 5 MHz in Japan

 two-level Gaussian FSK modulation for 1 Mbps

 four-level GFSK modulation used for 2 Mbps
Original 802.11 Physical Layer
– Infrared
 omnidirectional
 range up to 20 m
 1 Mbps uses 16-PPM (pulse position modulation)
 4 data bit group mapped to one of 16-PPM symbols
 each symbol a string of 16 bits

 each 16-bit string has fifteen 0s and one binary 1

 2-Mbps has each group of 2 data bits is mapped

into one of four 4-bit sequences
 each sequence consists of three 0s and one binary 1
 intensity modulation is used for transmission
 802.11b
 extension of 802.11 DS-SS scheme
with data rates of 5.5 and 11 Mbps
 chipping rate 11 MHz
same as original DS-SS scheme
Complementary Code Keying (CCK)

modulation gives higher data rate with same

bandwidth & chipping rate
Packet Binary Convolutional Coding (PBCC)

for future higher rate use

802.11b Physical Frame
 802.11a
 Universal Networking  Advantages over IEEE
Information Infrastructure 802.11b:
(UNNI)
 IEEE 802.11a
 UNNI-1 band (5.15 to
 utilizes more
5.25 GHz) for indoor use
available bandwidth
 UNNI-2 band (5.25 to
 provides much
5.35GHz) for indoor or
higher data rates
outdoor
 uses a relatively
 UNNI-3 band (5.725 to
uncluttered
5.825 GHz) for outdoor
frequency spectrum
 uses OFDM (5 GHz)uses
802.11a Physical Frame
 802.11g
 higher-speed extension to 802.11b
 operates in 2.4GHz band
 compatible with 802.11b devices
 combines physical layer encoding
techniques used in 802.11 and 802.11b to
provide service at a variety of data rates
ERP-OFDM for 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48,
54Mbps rates
ERP-PBCC for 22 & 33Mbps rates
Data Rate vs Distance (m)
 802.11n
 IEEE802.11n has enhancements in three
general areas:
multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) antenna


architecture
• most important enhancement
radio transmission scheme
• increased capacity
MAC enhancements
• most significant change is to aggregate multiple
MAC frames into a single block for transmission
 Access and Privacy Services
- Authentication
 used to establish station identity
 wired LANs assume physical connection gives
authority to useLAN
 not a valid assumption for wireless LANs
 802.11 supports several authentication schemes
 does not mandate any particular scheme
 from relatively insecure handshaking to public-key
encryption
 802.11 requires mutually acceptable, successful
authentication before association
 Access and Privacy Services
Deauthentication & Privacy
 Deauthentication  Privacy
 used to prevent
 invoked whenever an
messages being read by
existing authentication
others
is to be terminated
 802.11 allows optional

use of encryption
 original WEP security
features were weak
 subsequently 802.11i and
WPA alternatives evolved
giving better security
 802.16: WiMAX
point-to-point
 like 802.11 & cellular:
base station model
 transmissions to/from
base station by hosts
with omnidirectional
antenna
 base station-to-base point-to-multipoint
station backhaul with
point-to-point antenna
 unlike 802.11:
 range ~ 6 miles (“city
rather than coffee
shop”)
Lappeenranta University of
Technology / JP, PH, AH
 WPAN
(Bluetooth & ZigBee)
 Bluetooth Overview
• Universal short-range wireless capability
• Uses 2.4-GHz band
• Available globally for unlicensed users
• Devices within 10 m can share up to 720 kbps
of capacity
• Supports open-ended list of applications
– Data, audio, graphics, video
 Bluetooth Application Areas
• Data and voice access points
– Real-time voice and data transmissions
• Cable replacement
– Eliminates need for numerous cable attachments
for connection
• Ad hoc networking
– Device with Bluetooth radio can establish
connection with another when in range
 Bluetooth Standards
Documents
• Core specifications
– Details of various layers of Bluetooth protocol
architecture
• Profile specifications
– Use of Bluetooth technology to support various
applications
 Protocol Architecture
• Bluetooth is a layered protocol architecture
– Core protocols
– Cable replacement and telephony control protocols
– Adopted protocols
• Core protocols
– Radio
– Baseband
– Link manager protocol (LMP)
– Logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP)
– Service discovery protocol (SDP)
 Protocol Architecture
• Cable replacement protocol
– RFCOMM
• Telephony control protocol
– Telephony control specification – binary (TCS BIN)
• Adopted protocols
– PPP
– TCP/UDP/IP
– OBEX
– WAE/WAP
 Usage Models

• File transfer
• Internet bridge
• LAN access
• Synchronization
• Three-in-one phone (Cordless, Phone2Phone,
Cellular)
• Headset
Usage Models
 Piconets and Scatternets
• Piconet
– Basic unit of Bluetooth networking
– Master and one to seven slave devices
– Master determines channel and phase
• Scatternet
– Device in one piconet may exist as master or slave in
another piconet
– Allows many devices to share same area
– Makes efficient use of bandwidth
Wireless Network
Configurations
 Radio Specification
• Classes of transmitters
– Class 1: Outputs 100 mW for maximum range
• Power control mandatory
• Provides greatest distance
– Class 2: Outputs 2.4 mW at maximum
• Power control optional
– Class 3: Nominal output is 1 mW
• Lowest power
 Frequency Hopping in
Bluetooth
• Provides resistance to interference and
multipath effects
• Provides a form of multiple access among co-
located devices in different piconets
 Frequency Hopping
• Total bandwidth divided into 1MHz physical channels
• FH occurs by jumping from one channel to another in
pseudorandom sequence
• Hopping sequence shared with all devices on piconet
• Piconet access:
– Bluetooth devices use time division duplex (TDD)
– Access technique is TDMA
– FH-TDD-TDMA
Frequency Hopping
 Physical Links between
Master and Slave
• Synchronous connection oriented (SCO)
– Allocates fixed bandwidth between point-to-point
connection of master and slave
– Master maintains link using reserved slots
– Master can support three simultaneous links
• Asynchronous connectionless (ACL)
– Point-to-multipoint link between master and all slaves
– Only single ACL link can exist
Bluetooth Baseband format
 Bluetooth Packet Fields
• Access code – used for timing
synchronization, offset compensation, paging,
and inquiry
• Header – used to identify packet type and
carry protocol control information
• Payload – contains user voice or data and
payload header, if present
 Types of Access Codes
• Channel access code (CAC) – identifies a
piconet
• Device access code (DAC) – used for paging
and subsequent responses
• Inquiry access code (IAC) – used for inquiry
purposes
 Access Code
• Preamble – used for DC compensation
– 0101 if LSB of sync word is 0
– 1010 if LSB of synch word is 1
• Sync word – 64-bits, derived from:
– 7-bit Barker sequence
– Lower address part (LAP)
– Pseudonoise (PN) sequence
• Trailer
– 0101 if MSB of sync word is 1
– 1010 if MSB of sync word is 0
 Packet Header Fields
• AM_ADDR – contains “active mode” address of one
of the slaves
• Type – identifies type of packet
• Flow – 1-bit flow control
• ARQN – 1-bit acknowledgment
• SEQN – 1-bit sequential numbering schemes
• Header error control (HEC) – 8-bit error detection
code
 Payload Format
• Payload header
– L_CH field – identifies logical channel
– Flow field – used to control flow at L2CAP level
– Length field – number of bytes of data
• Payload body – contains user data
• CRC – 16-bit CRC code
 Error Correction Schemes
• 1/3 rate FEC (forward error correction)
– Used on 18-bit packet header, voice field in HV1
packet
• 2/3 rate FEC
– Used in DM packets, data fields of DV packet, FHS
packet and HV2 packet
• ARQ
– Used with DM and DH packets
 ARQ Scheme Elements
• Error detection – destination detects errors, discards
packets
• Positive acknowledgment – destination returns
positive acknowledgment
• Retransmission after timeout – source retransmits if
packet unacknowledged
• Negative acknowledgment and retransmission –
destination returns negative acknowledgement for
packets with errors, source retransmits
Bluetooth ARQ
 Logical Channels
• Link control (LC)
• Link manager (LM)
• User asynchronous (UA)
• User isochronous (UI)
• Use synchronous (US)
 Channel Control
• States of operation of a piconet during link
establishment and maintenance
• Major states
– Standby – default state
– Connection – device connected
 Channel Control
• Interim substates for adding new slaves
– Page – device issued a page (used by master)
– Page scan – device is listening for a page
– Master response – master receives a page response from
slave
– Slave response – slave responds to a page from master
– Inquiry – device has issued an inquiry for identity of
devices within range
– Inquiry scan – device is listening for an inquiry
– Inquiry response – device receives an inquiry response
State Transition Diagram
 Inquiry Procedure
• Potential master identifies devices in range that wish
to participate
– Transmits ID packet with inquiry access code (IAC)
– Occurs in Inquiry state
• Device receives inquiry
– Enter Inquiry Response state
– Returns FHS packet with address and timing information
– Moves to page scan state
 Page Procedure
• Master uses devices address to calculate a
page frequency-hopping sequence
• Master pages with ID packet and device access
code (DAC) of specific slave
• Slave responds with DAC ID packet
• Master responds with its FHS packet
• Slave confirms receipt with DAC ID
• Slaves moves to Connection state
 Slave Connection State
Modes
• Active – participates in piconet
– Listens, transmits and receives packets
• Sniff – only listens on specified slots
• Hold – does not support ACL packets
– Reduced power status
– May still participate in SCO exchanges
• Park – does not participate on piconet
– Still retained as part of piconet
 Bluetooth Audio
• Voice encoding schemes:
– Pulse code modulation (PCM)
– Continuously variable slope delta (CVSD)
modulation
• Choice of scheme made by link manager
– Negotiates most appropriate scheme for
application
 Bluetooth Link Security
• Elements:
– Authentication – verify claimed identity
– Encryption – privacy
– Key management and usage
• Security algorithm parameters:
– Unit address
– Secret authentication key
– Secret privacy key
– Random number
 LMP PDUs
• General response
• Security Service
– Authentication
– Pairing
– Change link key
– Change current link key
– Encryption
 LMP PDUs
• Time/synchronization
– Clock offset request
– Slot offset information
– Timing accuracy information request
• Station capability
– LMP version
– Supported features
 LMP PDUs
• Mode control
– Switch master/slave role
– Name request
– Detach
– Hold mode
– Sniff mode
– Park mode
– Power control
 LMP PDUs
• Mode control (cont.)
– Channel quality-driven change between DM and
DH
– Quality of service
– Control of multislot packets
– Paging scheme
– Link supervision
 L2CAP
• Provides a link-layer protocol between entities with a
number of services
• Relies on lower layer for flow and error control
• Makes use of ACL links, does not support SCO links
• Provides two alternative services to upper-layer
protocols
– Connection service
– Connection-mode service
 L2CAP Logical Channels
• Connectionless
– Supports connectionless service
– Each channel is unidirectional
– Used from master to multiple slaves
• Connection-oriented
– Supports connection-oriented service
– Each channel is bidirectional
• Signaling
– Provides for exchange of signaling messages between
L2CAP entities
 L2CAP Packet Fields for
Connectionless Service
• Length – length of information payload, PSM fields
• Channel ID – 2, indicating connectionless channel
• Protocol/service multiplexer (PSM) – identifies higher
-layer recipient for payload
– Not included in connection-oriented packets
• Information payload – higher-layer user data
 Signaling Packet Payload
• Consists of one or more L2CAP commands,
each with four fields
– Code – identifies type of command
– Identifier – used to match request with reply
– Length – length of data field for this command
– Data – additional data for command, if necessary
L2CAP Signaling Command
Codes
 L2CAP Signaling Commands
• Command reject command
– Sent to reject any command
• Connection commands
– Used to establish new connections
• Configure commands
– Used to establish a logical link transmission
contract between two L2CAP entities
 L2CAP Signaling Commands
• Disconnection commands
– Used to terminate logical channel
• Echo commands
– Used to solicit response from remote L2CAP entity
• Information commands
– Used to solicit implementation-specific
information from remote L2CAP entity
 Flow Specification
Parameters
• Service type
• Token rate (bytes/second)
• Token bucket size (bytes)
• Peak bandwidth (bytes/second)
• Latency (microseconds)
• Delay variation (microseconds)
 802.15.4 “Zigbee”
• ZigBee is a low-power wireless
communications technology
• ZigBee uses the PHY and MAC layers defined
by IEEE 802.15.4, which is the short-distance
wireless communication standard for 2.4 GHz
band.
• 250 kbit/s
• Regional operation on 915 MHz (Americas)
and 868 MHz (Europe)
• 20-40 kbit/s
 Zigbee Features
• Low Power
– 1 mW output power and 10-20 m range
• Support for power saving and power
harvesting
• Robust
• Mesh Networking
• Interoperability
• Simple MAC layer
• Secure
 Applications
• Industrial control
• Monitoring
• Smart badges
• Interconnections of environmental sensors
• Remote controls
Thank You...