SPE 70053

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Evaluation of Displacement Efficiency in Volatile Oil Reservoirs under Nitrogen
Injection
Juan E. Rivera de la Ossa/Ecopetrol-ICP, Juan C. Correa Castro/Universidad Industrial de Santander, Cesar A. Mantilla
Uribe/Universidad Industrial de Santander, Cesar Augusto Duarte Prada/E.O.S. Ltda

Copyright 2001, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.

INTRODUCTION
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Permian Basin Oil and Gas Recovery
Conference held in Midland, Texas, 15–16 May 2001.
The volatile oil reservoirs lately found in the Piedemonte
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as
area of Colombia are quite complex not only in geology but in
presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to the fluids composition also. That is why, several analyses have
correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at been done to select the best explotation, production and
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of commercialization strategy.
Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is
prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300
words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous Reservoirs in Piedemonte area are more than 15000 ft
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O.
Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
deep, with pressures and temperatures greater than 5500 psi
and 250 °F. Thermodynamic and phases behavior of this
reservoirs are also unique in the world.
ABSTRACT
Fluids behavior have a great importance in the
It nitrogen injection has been proven as a competitive hydrocarbons volume estimation and therefore in the field
alternative for volatile oil reservoirs lately found in development. There is gas reinjection in the field to keep the
Piedemonte area of Colombia, taking into account the initial reservoir pressure, in an effurt to maintain a single
reservoir fluid nature and the reservoir conditions. A phase fluid and to improve the recovery. Reinjection gas come
laboratory study was carried out by the authors in the from a first stage separator with high methane content.
Enhanced Oil Recovery Laboratory of Colombian Petroleum
Institute. When observing different studies, made by investigators of
world-wide recognition in the area of volatile oil deposits, that
Three corefloods were carried out using Berea sandstone propose the nitrogen injection like an alternative able to
and volatile oil samples from the Piedemonte area and compete with the gas reinjection in this type of deposits, since
nitrogen as displacing agent. One of these corefloods was the characteristics that favor the reinjection of the gas are also
conducted in a long Coreflooding apparatus, and the other propitious for the nitrogen injection, the investigation group
ones, in a short Coreflooding apparatus connected with a slim decided to orient its efforts in the investigation with nitrogen
tube in a order to achieve miscibility conditions. The main as a new form of profitable operation.
variable studied was the flow rate, which represents three
different flow regimes. The scaling criteria taken was a The replacement of the natural gas by nitrogen as injection
dimensionless group, which relates viscous and gravity forces, gas brings advantages that are according to the plans of
called gravity number. economic development of the country.
Displacement efficiencies determined were around 50%, A series of displacements were doneto investigate and to
65% and 80% for each one the tests. The results of these quantify the effect of phases behavior and porous media on the
corefloods were compared to determine the best scheme of efficiency of sweeping with nitrogen. An overhaul about
nitrogen injection. Results have successfully confirmed the experiences of operation with nitrogen in different oil fields
effectiveness of nitrogen as displacing agent for this kind of including the facilities required for a project of nitrogen
oils and the better swept efficiency given by the equilibrium injection, was initially done.
between the governing forces.
The equipment used for the development of the tests, the
followed procedure is described to obtain the
2 JUAN RIVERA, JUAN CORREA, CESAR MANTILLA, CESAR DUARTE SPE 70053

presented/displayed results. Results are analyzed and PHASES BEHAVIOR AND MISCIBILITY
interpreted by using tables and graphs for their better
understanding and a set of conclusions and recommendations The final objective of the processes of miscible displacement
is also given. is to recover the greater volume of hydrocarbons by natural or
by artificial mechanisms, which are limited in effectiveness by
APPLICATIONS OF THE NITROGEN IN IMPROVED the influence of capillary and interface forces. Exist few
RECOVERY processes of miscible displacement in which reliable liquids

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are used and they are known as miscible displacements, in
Nitrogen, like injection gas, has several applications such addition there are processes like miscible displacements gas-
as maintenance of pressure, inmiscible displacement, catched condensed gas. In the operations of gas reinjection, which
oil production and miscible displacement, among others. The have been used in gas condensed reservoirs for many years,
propose application in this work is the miscible volatile oil the second case is had. This process also falls within the
displacement by nitrogen injection. Depending on a the classification of miscible displacement, because the injected
pressure, amount and location, nitrogen can get to cost from gas is completely miscible with the fluid of the reservoir. The
one fourth part to half of the price that is paid by the natural recovery, in these cases, is not affected by capillary forces,
gas. and in theory the displacement efficiency is of the one
hundred percent, that is hydrocarbons which are contacted by
A great number of methods of oil recovery and gas that the miscible pocket are moved totally. The gas recovery of
uses nitrogen, which go from pressure maintenance to ones, as condensed gas in channels of low permeability is difficult to
it is the miscible displacement. In Literature are six methods obtain in operations of reinjection of the gas.
that use nitrogen, these are shown in table 1.
The miscible displacement of the type vaporizing gas was
physically simulated in this research, the use of nitrogen as
SOURCES OF NITROGEN FOR THE OIL INDUSTRY displacement fluid has been studied by several researchers, in
IN OPERATIONS OF IMPROVED RECOVERY which the effects of temperature, reservoir fluid composition,
injection fluid composition, on the minimum miscible pressure
Between the advantages of nitrogen on other injection gases, are considered. The miscibility can be explained like the
like dioxide of carbon and the natural gas, it is its abundance. physical condition between two fluids that allows them to be
This advantage is due to the fact that nitrogen is in the air, and mixed in all the proportions without an interface between the
additionally it can become an economic resource, if appropiate materials forms. If both fluids are not mixed in any proportion,
technology is used to extract it. The operator has two options, then they are not miscible.
(1) to buy the equipment of nitrogen generation so that it is
part of the facilities of the field, or (2) to directly buy nitrogen SCALED PHYSICS MODELS
to a supplier. Historically the second option has been more
economic because it does not require initial investment of Three dimensionless groups exist which are used to define the
capital, and the suppliers have personnel to operate nitrogen regions of flow, these are: group of relation between viscous
plants. In each project the operator must evaluate both and capillary forces; and shape factor. The analysis shows that
alternatives. the relative magnitudes of the forces involved in the system
combined with the properties of the deposit determine the
region of flow and distribution of the fluids in the media. The
At the moment three processes of nitrogen generation are used dimensionless numbers are:
in the the industry, that turn great air volumes into nitrogen (or
at least in a consistent gas of 88% N2 and something of CO2,
call chimney gas). Ngv = ∆ρLkavg v / Hqµo ................................................(1)

Nitrogen production by cryogenic separation of the

components of the air has been used since the beginning of the Ncv = Lpc*k avg v / H2qµo .............................................(2)
century, and is the most economic method to produce pure
nitrogen. The pioneers in this technology were the
petrochemical steel industries in which the wished product M = λw / λo .................................................................(3)
was oxygen. The fundamental concept in cryogenic generation
is to cool the air until its liquefaction and then to distill it. In Ngv and Ncv are the relations of characteristic time so that the
order to reach low temperatures, a cycle of refrigeration is fluid flows in the transverse direction due to the forces of
used that consists of an air compressor, a column of gravity or capillary, with respect to the time of flow in
distillation and a section of compression. horizontal direction due to the viscous forces.
SPE 70053 EVALUATION OF DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY IN VOLATILE OIL RESERVOIRS UNDER NITROGEN INJECTION 3

.
These numbers of gravity and capillary are dimensionless and RESULTS OF THE TESTS
defer from the work presented/displayed by other authors like
Pozzi15 and others. Whereas authors like Peter, Zhou and Because the tests can represent of the best way the
Blunt 14 propose it like advantageous for cases in which the reservoir conditions, the pressure was defined according to
mobility relation is unfavorable. The advantage to use Ngv some values of present pressure of deposit in the area of
and Ncv is that they represent the magnitude of the gravity and Piedemonte. Therefore, the back pressure system was loaded

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capillarity forces in the transverse direction with respect to the to 5700 psi (39,3 Mpa), since this it represents the pressure of
viscous forces in the lenghtwise direction, including the production of the deposit. The temperature of the test is of 244
influence of the shape factor. °F (117.8°C), and also obeys to the temperature of present
deposit. These two conditions help to promote the mechanism
of displacement by multiple contacts between the fluids.
The term miscible displacement refers to displacements with
effects of negligible capillarity (Ncv=0), which also can The main suppositions to initiate the tests are: homogenous
include two phases, since the interface voltage is very low or porous media, only are two phases in flow (oil and nitrogen),
almost zero. When the capillary forces are despised, single consider the effects of the gravity forces, viscoses and the
viscous and gravitational forces contribute to the flow. The mixture mechanisms, the law of Darcy is applicable, the flow
mechanisms of transferences of masses as dispersions and occurs in a single dimension, and the porous media constituted
diffusion influence, since they affect the mixture and the by the nuclei this water wet.
differences of viscosity and density. Nevertheless, the
dispersion usually, is the only factor that contributes in The variable that is going away to analyze is the number
displacements in where the hair forces and gravity are small dimensionless (Ng) that describes the balance between the
and the rates of injection are relatively small. After an viscous and gravitational forces. The obtained results agree
extensive recopilacion of works done on miscibles with the behavior registered in the different articles that make
displacements, Zhou constructed figure 4 with data of reference on this subject. Figure 5 compares the recovery
different investigations, among them Fayers22, Araktingi, factors obtained for each value of number of gravity.
Ingsoy, Christie and Pozzi15.
As it is possible to be observed in figure 5, the best results
were obtained in a regime that balances the two forces that
EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES govern the displacement. In the study made by Peters12 a
OF TEST graph with similar behavior appears, although this graph is
single qualitative but nonquantitative, it express what it is
In the laboratories of the Colombian Petroleum Institute three possible to be appreciated in this work. The best recoveries are
miscibles representative volatile oil displacements were when the Ng is in the middle of the regions where the
carried out using nitrogen to determine the recovery gravitational force and the viscous force act with greater
efficiency, at typical conditions of deposit of this area, that is intensity. As the Ng depends on the rate, also we can assume
pressure of 5700 psi and temperature of 244 °F (39,3 Mpa and that when being the Ng in a balance between the two regions
118°C). One of these displacements was made in the before described, is going to be, also, in the middle of two
coreflooding equipment on an adjustment of nuclei of Berea, problems that desmega the recovery, which are the digitation,
which contained initially saturations of crude recombined and and the gravitational segregation.
synthetic salt. The other two displacements were made in the
equipment coreflooding for steam, connected in series with The digitation happens by the high speed of the fluid injector
slim tube with a length sufficiently long to guaranteeing that and discharge relation of mobilities, that when finding a
the multiple contacts between the fluids take place there, and channel of high permeability begins to flow that way
thus to have a miscible displacement in the nucleus contained preferential, causing an early irruption with the consequent
in the steam equipment. Three different rates from injection diminution in the recovery.
were used, each one of which represents a region of flow in
the balance between the gravitational and viscous forces. In all The gravitational segregation appears due to the low rate of
the cases, the displacement equipment was in horizontal injection of nitrogen and to the smaller density of this with
position. respect to the oil, causing that nitrogen mounts on the oil
causing that the gas flows preferedly by above and leaves
without sweeping the part of down, producing a decrease in
This way, the main factor of displacement studied was the the recovery.
effect of the rate of injection on the recovery efficiency. The
scheme of the equipment is in figure 1 and 2. As much for
coreflooding, as for the steam equipment connected to the
Slim tube.
4 JUAN RIVERA, JUAN CORREA, CESAR MANTILLA, CESAR DUARTE SPE 70053

CONCLUSIONS 8. The transition zone, as a fraction of the distance run by

the sweep front, was 5% in coreflooding, in the slim tube
1. The displacements were miscibles or they were very near system and in the steam equipment was 1%. There is a
to miscibility. This is deduced with base in the higher sweep efficiency when the transition zone is lower.
correlations found in the literature and the results of the
project evaluation of the mechanism of miscibility in
volatile oil reservoirs submissive the nitrogen injection. REFERENCIAS

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The average of the minimum pressure of miscibility
between the fluids for the temperature of test is of 5850
psi. In addition, the high obtained factors of recovery 1. Ahmed, T., Menzie, D., and Crichlow, H.: “Preliminary
make be conceited that the sweeping of the displacement experimental results of high pressure nitrogen injection for EOR
front is miscible by multiple contacts. systems”. SPE Journal 339 – 348, (April 1983).
2. Buchanan, R.D, and Donohoe, C.W.: “Economic evaluation of
cycling gas condensate reservoir with nitrogen”. Journal of
2. The process of nitrogen injection loses all yield after the Petroleum Technology, 263 – 270, (February 1981).
irruption of the front. As I am observed in the tests, the oil 3. Clancy, J.P., Gilchrist, R.E., Cheng, L., and Bywater, D.R.:
production after the irruption is insignificant with respect “Analysis of nitrogen injection projects to develop screening
to the amount that recovers before the irruption. guides and offshore design criteria”. SPE 11902, (September
1983)
3. The nitrogen injection has demonstrated to be an 4. Clark, N.J., Scultz, W.F., Garmz, K., and Moore, J.L.: “Miscible
alternative that is due to consider to improve the recovery drive its theory and application”. Journal of Petroleum
of volatile oil deposits in the obtained area recovery in the Technology 11 – 20, (June 1958)
5. Dindoruk, B., Orr, F.M., and Johns, R.T.: “Theory of multicontact
carried out displacements in this study were of 50,05%, miscible displacement with nitrogen”. SPE 30771, (1995)
65,6% and 79,26% for three different rates from injection. 6. Evison, B., and Gilchrist, R.E.: “New developments in nitrogen in
the oil industry”. SPE 24313, (1992)
4. The assembly made connected to the Slim tube in line 7. Glaso, O.S.: “Miscible displacement: Recovery tests with
with the Berea nucleus it turn out quite favorable to nitrogen”. SPE 17378, (1988)
promote the contacts within slim tube, and to increase the 8. Hudgins, R.J. Llave, F.M., and Chung, F.T-H.: “Nitrogen miscible
efficiency of the displacement. Of to have connected this displacement of light crude oil: A laboratory study”. SPE 17372,
system, the results of the displacement in a short nucleus (1988)
would have been masked, because the space is not the 9. Huygens, R.J., Ronde, H., and Hagoort, J.: “Interfacial tension of
nitrogen/volatile oil systems”. SPE 26643, (1993)
sufficient one to guarantee that the multiple contacts take
10. Lee, S.T., Gomez, P.A., and Toczylkin, L.: An integrated
place in the cores. approach to interpret and quantify Cusiana hydrocarbon
system”. SPE 27029, (1994)
5. The best form to consider the associate gas produced, is 11. Perkins, T.K., and Johnston, O.C.: “A review of diffusion and
by means of the volumetric factor, which considers the dispersion in porous media”. SPE Journal 70 – 84, (March 1963)
conditions of deposit and the volume of oil produced to 12. Peters, B.M., Zhou, D., and Blunt, M.J.: “Experimental
conditions standard. Other proposed methods, like investigation of scaling factor that describe miscible floods in
balance of mass from the injection gas, are not layered systems”, SPE 39624, (June 1998)
recommendable to evaluate the displacement efficiency 13. Plata, E., and Perez, E.: “Evaluacion del comportamiento de fases
en yacimientos de condensados de gas y aceite volatil sometidos
because they start from suppositions not absolutely a la inyeccion de gas. Universidad Industrial de Santander. 1984
certain. 14. Pozzi, A.L., and Blackwell, R.J.: “Design of laboratory models for
study of miscible displacement”. Soc. Pet. Eng. Journal 73 – 80,
6. As shown when comparing the three displacements, as the (March 1966)
irruption of the gas front is delayed, the efficiency of the 15. Rojas, G.: “Scaled model studies of inmiscible carbon dioxide
displacement is greater. This indicates that the best displacement of heavy oil”. The University of Alberta. 1985
sweeping delays but the arrival of the front until the 16. Sayegh, S.G., Wang, S.T., and Fosti, J.E.: “Recovery of crude oil
production point, and this directly related to the regime of using nitrogen. Part 2. Laboratory displacement data”.
flow that predominates and the mixture of fluids. Petroleum Recovery Institute, Report 1986-3. Mayo 1986
17. Sebastian, H.M., and Lawrence, D.D.: “Nitrogen minimum
miscibility pressures”. SPE 24134, (1992)
7. The best obtained result was in the second displacement, 18. Stalkup, F.I.: “Miscible displacement”. Society of petroleum
which indicates a behavior similar to the one found in the Engineers Monograph V8, 1992
literature. It is possible to said that the best result is 19. Warren, J.E., and Skiba, F.F.: “Macroscopic dispersion”. SPE
between the regions of the viscous forces and gravity. Journal 215 – 230, (September 1994)
Also a graph is had, although this is quantitative but 20. Ypma, J.G.: “Compositional effects in gravity – dominated
nonqualitative. nitrogen displacements. SPE Reservoir Engineering, (august
1988)
SPE 70053 EVALUATION OF DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY IN VOLATILE OIL RESERVOIRS UNDER NITROGEN INJECTION 5

21. Zhou, D., Fayers, F.J., and Orr, F.M.: Scaling of multiphase flow
∂φ j
in simple heterogeneous porous media”. SPE 27833, (1994) U j = − k h ( X , Y )λ j ......................( A − 7)
22. Jefri rotating coreholder and stand operating and maintenance ∂X
manual, DB Robinson design & manufacturing Ltd. May 1993
23. Jefri back pressure regulator operating and maintenance manual, 2
 H  k avgh ∂φ
DB Robinson design & manufacturing Ltd. May 1993
  v j = −k v ( X , Y )λ j j .......( A − 8)
 L  k avgv ∂Y

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Appendix-Scale

The nature of the flow in the porous media is determined by Where H and Ls are the thickness and the length of means,
the interaction of the physics properties of the fluids and kav and kah are the permeabilities averages of means in the
porous media, and by the forces involved in the displacement horizontal and vertical direction, and q is the speed of total
process. Several regions of flow in agreement with the forces flow in the horizontal and vertical direction, and q is the speed
are identified that dominate the process. Three dimensionless of total flow in the horizontal direction. Notice that the flow
groups exist that are used to define these regions of flow: these potentials Φj are dimensionless and it is expressed with
are relation between gravitational and viscous forces, relation relation to the oil viscosity, and that dimensionless mobilities
between capillary and viscous forces shape factor. also contain the viscosity of the oil like factor.

∂S w ∂U w ∂Vw The four dimensionless equations converge in equations

φ + + = 0.............................( A − 1) 14, leaving to this like a scale group. Can be regrouped like:
∂T ∂X ∂Y
In agreement with the analysis, the equations of balance of k avgv ∆φ
materials for incompressible flow are: 2
 H  k avgv L Hµ L qv Th
  = = = .........( A − 9)
∂ ∂ k
 L  k avgh H avgh ∆φ H qh Tv
(U w + U o ) + (Vw + Vo ) = 0.................( A − 2)
∂X ∂Y Lµ

And the speeds of Darcy flow for two phases are given by: This scale group relates the time that the fluid throughout a L
distance in the horizontal direction takes, and the time that
k rj ∂ψ j takes the flow from the same fluid to cross a distance H in the
U j = −k h ( X , Y ) ............................( A − 3) vertical direction, to the same difference of potential
µ j ∂X throughout the distance. Rt also is called the effective shape
factor, and represents the relative capacity of flow within
means in the horizontal and vertical directions.
k rj ∂ψ j
V j = −kv ( X , Y ) ..............................( A − 4)
µ j ∂Y Considering that the position of the cores is horizontal, the
viscous forces are in the direction of longitudinal flow,
whereas the gravitational and capillary forces, it is in the cross
Where ψ is the potential of flow in j phase, Uj and Vj are the flow direction. With the purpose of identifying the flow
speeds of flow of phase j in the horizontal and vertical regions, in where each force dominates the movement of the
directions, kv and kh are the permeabilities in the horizontal fluid in the transverse direction, the equations of Darcy for
and vertical directions, respectively. each phase are combined.

Defining the dimensionless variables: x=X/L, y=Y/H, 1

(vw + vo ) = −kv (x, y ) λo ∂Φ o + λw ∂Φ w ...( A − 10)
t=Tq/L, uj=Uj/q, vj=(LVj)/(qH), kv= k avgKv(x,y), kh= k avg
λj=(krj.µ0)/(µj), Φ=(ψj.kavg)/(Lqµo); y. The
(Rt )2
 ∂y ∂y 
hKH(x,y),
dimensionless equations are obtained.
In order to define the relation between Φo and Φw, the
definition of capillary pressure is used to obtain:
∂S w ∂U w ∂Vw
φ + + = 0.....................( A − 5)
∂T ∂X ∂Y ∆ρgHk avgh 1 Pc * k avgh
Φ w = Φo + y− J (S w )....( A − 11)
Lqµ o K v Lqµ o
∂ ∂
(U w + U o ) + (Vw + Vo ) = 0............( A − 6)
∂X ∂Y
 6 JUAN RIVERA, JUAN CORREA, CESAR MANTILLA, CESAR DUARTE SPE 70053

If it is replaced formulates A-11 in formulates A-10, it gives Ngv and Ncv are the relations times characteristic so that the
like result: fluid flows in the transverse direction due to the gravity or
capillary forces, with respect to the time of flow in horizontal
∂Φ o − (vo + vw ) M 
 N gv − N cv 1 ∂J  direction due to the viscous forces.
= −
2
Rt
∂y λo kv (x, y )(1 + M ) 1 + M 
 K v ∂y 

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................................................................................(A-12)

Where:

∆ρLk avgv
N gv = ......................................( A − 13)
Hqµ o

Lpc * k avgv
N cv = ...................................( A − 14)
H 2 qµ o

λw
M= ............................................( A − 15)
λo

TABLE 1 – NITROGEN APPLICATION IN E.O.R.

APPLICATION ° API DEW BUBBLE P (psi) T (F) DEPTH

POINT POINT
Pressure Maintenance
Injection on the ≥ 30 Above Above NR NR NR
gas cap
Inmiscible gas ≥ 30 - - NR NR NR
drive
Gravitational ≥ 25 - - NR NR NR
drainage
Trapped oil ≥ 25 - - NR NR NR
recovered
Miscible
Nitrogen ≥ 41 - - > 4500 NR > 7000
CO2 and N2 ≥ 27 - - > 1300 < 250 > 2300
driven force

NR: No restrictions
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EVALUATION OF DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY IN VOLATILE OIL RESERVOIRS UNDER NITROGEN INJECTION

Fig. 2-Coreflooding system diagram.

Fig. 1-Coreflooding system diagram.
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SPE 70053
JUAN RIVERA, JUAN CORREA, CESAR MANTILLA, CESAR DUARTE

Fig. 3-Slim tube and Coreflooding system diagram.

Fig. 4 Flow regions.

8
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EVALUATION OF DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY IN VOLATILE OIL RESERVOIRS UNDER NITROGEN INJECTION

Fig.5-Gravity number Vs. Recovery factor.

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