SG/9.

Starlink Project
Starlink Guide 9.2

Martin Clayton
11 December 1996

Introduction to Echelle Spectroscopy

SG/9.2—Contents ii

Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Other Sources of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 An Echelle Spectrum 2

3 Preparing for Observation 3

3.1 What CCD Data Do You Need? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2 Detector Pre-processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3 Flat Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.4 Order Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.5 Wavelength Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.6 Flux Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4 The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction 5

4.1 Image Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.1.1 Software for CCD Data Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2 Order Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3 Order Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.4 Slit Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.5 Flat Fielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.6 Background Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.7 Extraction of Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.8 Wavelength Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.9 Finishing Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.9.1 Blaze Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.9.2 Flux Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.9.3 Re-binning Spectra—Scrunching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.9.4 Combining Orders—Merging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.10 Handling Cosmic Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5 Data Reduction Facilities 17

5.1 Available Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1.1 STARLINK—ECHOMOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.1.2 IRAF—ECHELLE/DOECSLIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.1.3 MIDAS—CONTEXT ECHELLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2 Choosing a Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

6 Glossary 23

References 29
1 SG/9.2 —Introduction

1 Introduction

Echelle spectrographs are available as common-user instruments at several observatories and

satellites. These spectrographs offer the observer both a reasonably high resolution and a wide
wavelength-coverage; at the expense of a fairly complex data-reduction procedure.
This document is intended as an introductory guide for observers new to échelle work. Experi-
enced observers may wish to consult §5 for outline information on the main packages available
for échelle data reduction.

1.1 Other Sources of Information

This Guide complements the Starlink Echelle Data Reduction Cookbook (Starlink document
SC/3) which contains examples of data-reduction scripts, including templates for fully auto-
mated data reductions with ECHOMOP.
A significant part of the process of successful spectrum extraction is the preliminary handling
of the CCD data frames. Those planning to use IRAF1 should consult A User’s Guide to CCD
Reductions with IRAF (UGCRI) by Philip Massey. UGCRI is quite a good document for any user
of CCD data, even those planning to use e.g. CCDPACK or FIGARO to do the preparation—the
CCD Reduction Cookbook (SC/5) is the definitive introduction to this type of work.
IRAF users should look at the two documents for échelle data reduction within IRAF: A User’s
Guide to Reducing Echelle Spectra With IRAF, and Guide to the Slit Spectra Reduction Task
DOECSLIT. These give a comprehensive description of the IRAF approach to échelle data. There
is also a hypertext tutorial for DOECSLIT at

• http://www.starlink.ac.uk/iraf/web/tutorials/doecslit/doecslit.html

You may be able to access a local copy of this tutorial; consult your system manager.
There is an excellent guide tailored to the reduction of échelle data taken using the Hamilton
Spectrograph: Introduction to Echelle Data Reduction Using the Image Reduction Analysis
Facility, which is a Lick Observatory Technical report. (A PostScript copy is available from the
Starlink Echelle Support Pages.) This is a complete step-by-step run through of échelle data
reduction using IRAF—from CCD data to calibrated spectra.
The primary documentation for ECHOMOP is in ECHOMOP—Echelle data reduction package
(Starlink document SUN/152). This document explains each of the data-reduction steps using
ECHOMOP and includes some general advice and tips. There is also additional information
and advice in the on-line HELP for ECHOMOP if you get stuck.
An up-to-date set of hypertext documents for Starlink échelle data reduction and related infor-
mation; including hypertext help, bug reports, comments and news, is maintained at

• http://www.star.ucl.ac.uk/~mjc/echelle/
1 IRAF documents can be found in your IRAF installation; you do not need to get them from Tucson or a mirror.

Check with your manager for details.

SG/9.2 —An Echelle Spectrum 2

Terms in the body text of this Guide in bold are described in the glossary later in this document;
if you cannot find the term you want there, you might try the NASA Thesaurus:

• http://www.sti.nasa.gov/nasa-thesaurus.html

2 An Echelle Spectrum

In ‘traditional’ spectrographs a dispersing element—typically a diffraction grating or prism—is

used to produce the spectrum. This results in a single spectrum which can be imaged using a
CCD or other type of camera. The data can then be extracted using a suitable program. The
recordable part of the wavelength range covered by this type of spectrograph is limited by the
size of available image sensors, i.e., CCDs.
A quick inspection of a CCD image of such a spectrum will also reveal that much of the detector
area away from the spectrum itself is unused. One method of optimising the use of the available
detector area is to use an échelle spectrograph.
An échelle is a diffraction grating in which the rulings are much further apart than usual.
This leads to spectra of very high dispersion, but only over a short wavelength range in each
order. As well as being ‘short’, the high orders will overlap. To overcome this effect a cross-
dispersing element is used to produce an order separation. Figure 1 shows a small part of such
an échellogram recorded with a CCD camera. You can see a short part of three orders which run
from the top to the bottom of the image at a slight angle. In the order to the right you can see a
couple of absorption features. Several cosmic-ray events (bright spots) are also visible.
Echelle spectrographs for astronomy are designed so that the wavelength coverage in one order
will overlap the coverage of the adjacent orders. (That is at least for the middle orders in the
full échellogram—there may be some gaps at the extremes of the image.) Using a suitable
detector–usually a CCD—these spectral orders can be recorded.
The extraction of an échelle spectrum from a set of images is, in principle, similar to the extraction
of a single-order spectrum. Additional complexity arises because:

• There are more data to extract.

• The orders can have a more complex shape than those from a single-order instrument.

• The high dispersion used can make it difficult to distinguish between true spectral features
and cosmic-ray events.

• Flat fielding the data can be difficult.

• In some cases adjacent orders overlap slightly in the spatial direction (there can be several
reasons for this) making accurate background subtraction difficult.

Fortunately, there are several dedicated software packages available which address these specific
features of échelle data reduction.
3 SG/9.2 —Preparing for Observation

Figure 1: Echelle Image: Part of an échelle image produced with UCLES and a CCD
camera.

3 Preparing for Observation

There is a comprehensive Starlink Guide for those preparing for an observing run—Preparing
to Observe (Starlink document SG/10).
In this section some notes on what to be aware of prior to an observing run are given. In outline:
to successfully extract and calibrate an échelle spectrum a complete set of reference frames
should be obtained at the telescope.
You might want to refer to the more extensive discussion of CCD data calibration in: A User’s
guide to CCD Reductions with IRAF, the section entitled “How Many and What Calibration
Frames Do You Need?”

3.1 What CCD Data Do You Need?

This is what you need to attempt ‘textbook’ échelle data preparation:

Bias frames Zero-second exposures taken with no signal light entering the instrument but with
any pre-flash used for the object exposures present.
Dark frames Long exposures taken with the shutter closed. Typically, the exposure time used
is similar to that selected for the object frames.
SG/9.2 —Preparing for Observation 4

Flat-field frames Exposures taken with a suitable continuum lamp (usually Tungsten) as light
source.

Arc frames Exposures taken with an arc lamp (usually Thorium-Argon) as light source, to be
used for wavelength reference.

Object frames Exposures taken with a target object or reference object as the ‘light source’.

The arc and object frames will be processed by the échelle data reduction software. The bias and
flat-field frames are used in the preparation of the CCD data.

3.2 Detector Pre-processing

A more complete introduction to the handling of CCD data can be found in the CCD Reduction
Cookbook (SC/5), a brief outline is given here.
In order to remove detector-related effects a complete set of bias, dark, and flat-field frames
should be obtained. It is important to bracket the science data exposures with complete sets of
CCD characterisation frames. A post-observation review of these will reveal any image shifts.
Having bracket frames allows the data to be accurately prepared even in the event that some
time-dependent variation is found (as long as its a small, slow-varying effect).
See §4.1 for outline details of CCD data preparation.
In some cases it may be possible to not use any bias frames. Instead, a median value for the
bias level is obtained by inspecting the overscan region in some or all of the object/arc frames.
You can use fewer bias frames when you have a high signal-to-detector-noise ratio.
For exposure times limited by cosmic-ray event counts, the dark current in most CCD cameras
is not a significant factor. The simplest way to decide whether to take dark frames is to take one
of exposure time similar to that you are using for object frames, and check the signal level.

3.3 Flat Fields

Beware of flat fielding in échelle spectroscopy. For a stable spectrograph (e.g. UCLES which
is in the AAT coudé room) you can take flat-field frames at any suitable time. For less-stable
instruments it may be difficult to get a useable flat field. The problem is getting the object and
flat-field orders to fall on the detector in the same place. In this case, the best procedure is to take
flat fields immediately before and after each science exposure in the same way as you would
take arcs.
When preparing flat-field frames for your data ensure that a dekker size (length) larger than
that used for the science exposures is used—avoid order overlap in the image, though. This
ensures that a reasonable flat-field is available across the complete profile of each order. If a
choice of gratings is available, use the one which will give you the widest order separation.
In some areas of the échellogram the brightness of a single flat-field may fall off or vary rapidly
due to the characteristic spectrum of the arc lamp used or variations in the efficiency of the
detector (some front-illuminated CCDs have 20–30% variations in efficiency over a small wave-
length band). There are two ways to overcome these effects: use a different lamp to produce
the flat field in those orders—but usually a different lamp is not available—or, obtain as many
unsaturated flat fields as possible and sum or average them.
5 SG/9.2 —The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction

It may not always be necessary to flat field; a flat-field frame taken with a modern CCD can
be flat in response to only a few percent. You may only need to flat field if the signal-to-noise
ratio you require is particularly high. The precise figures will depend upon several factors, and
should be estimated for each science object.

3.4 Order Tracing

Accurate determination of the path of the échelle orders across the images is vital to achieving
the best extractions. Processing software requires a bright, clean (i.e., cosmic-ray free) image
from which to trace the orders.
For well-exposed continuous spectra the object frame can be used for tracing. However, in the
case of faint objects, or objects with strong absorption features in their spectra, tracing of object
frames will not be easy. A flat-field frame can be used for tracing as this is likely to give a good
signal. Therefore, if necessary, obtain a few flat fields with a narrow dekker to improve the
traces. It may be worth having several possible frames for tracing—in case some of them are
badly contaminated by cosmic rays and so difficult to use.

3.5 Wavelength Calibration

As with the CCD characterisation frames, wavelength-scale reference (arc) frames should be
taken bracketing the science exposures if precise wavelength scales are required. At the high
dispersions used in échelle spectrographs a small change in the optical system can lead to a
detectable shift between the bracketing images. Using both arc spectra, a time-weighted mean
wavelength scale can be produced and applied to the science data.

3.6 Flux Calibration

Existing standard star data is often based upon a system in which the band size is much larger
than the wavelength coverage of a single échelle order. In practice, this can make the application
of proper flux calibration to high-resolution échelle spectra difficult or infeasible. Proper high-
resolution spectral standards are now starting to become available (notably for HST). If you
intend to flux calibrate your data you should ensure that suitable standards are available.
Refer to §4.9 for more information on the problems associated with flux calibration.

4 The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction

Figure 2 is a flow chart which maps out the main steps in the échelle data reduction process.
ECHMENU is a menu-driven program in which each of the natural steps in the reduction
process is handled by a task. This is the top-level menu presented by ECHMENU:

0. HELP/HYPER (ASCII or hypertext help).

1. Start a reduction. 16. Check trace consistency.
2. Trace orders. 17. Post-trace Cosmic Ray locate.
3. Clip fitted traces. 18. Image cosmic ray pixels.
4. Determine dekker/object extent. 19. Quick-look Extraction.
SG/9.2 —The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction 6

5. Model flat field. 20. Check wavelength scales.

6. Model sky. 21. Scrunch and merge multiple.
7. Model object profile. 22. Model scattered light.
8. Extract orders 1-D. 23. ADJUST tuning parameters.
9. Locate arc line candidates. 24. Set single-order operations.
10. Identify features. 25. Set all-order operations.
11. Flatten order shape. 26. DISABLE an order.
12. Scrunch to linear scale. 27. PLOT reduction arrays.
13. Model/Extract orders 2-D. 28. Full MENU.
14. Save reduced data. 29. System ($) commands.
15. Plot order traces. 30. Output balance-factor frame.
31. EXIT (alias Q/E/QUIT/EXIT/99).

In this section each of the major steps is outlined and some of the important and perhaps tricky
considerations are mentioned. Most of the steps are similar to those which would be used for
extraction of a single-order spectrum, plus a few additional elements to deal with the multiple
orders. The handling of cosmic-ray removal is described separately at the end of this section as
there are several different approaches to the problem.

4.1 Image Preparation

Most échelle data will be obtained using a CCD to record the image. Careful preparation of
the CCD data prior to attempting extraction of spectra is essential. In this Guide the basic
procedures are outlined (very!) briefly. Those points relevant to échelle data reduction are
included.
The basic steps in the preparation are:

Generate bias frame Typically done by finding the median of several frames taken at the
telescope.

Generate flat-field frame Again, done by finding the median of several frames taken at the
telescope. Before taking the median of the frames, the median bias frame and a zero-offset
constant are subtracted (see below).

Subtract bias frame The median bias frame is subtracted from each arc frame and each object
frame.

Subtract zero-offset A selected area of the CCD overscan region is used to find the ‘zero-level’
of the camera electronics. This is usually a number in the range 20–200 ADU. The median
value of the selected region should be used (to avoid cosmic-ray contamination). This
constant value is then subtracted from every pixel in the CCD image.

Crop images Regions—such as the overscan—are not used during the extraction process and
should be removed (the same as cropping a photograph) as they may confuse some of the
algorithms in the échelle data reduction engine. Very often CCD images will have ‘rough’
edges, i.e. non-useable data, which should also be trimmed off at this point.

Depending on your source data and choice of reduction software you may need to:
7 SG/9.2 —The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction

 
raw CCD


?
CCD processing

 ? 
prepared images


?
order location

?
order tracing

?
slit set-up

?
normalise
flat field

?
choose
background

scattered light sky subtract

?
model
?
model
scattered light sky

 
- background

model


?
extract

arcs objects

?
locate arc lines

?
fit wavelength
scales

 
- wavelength 

calib’d objects  
- single-order

spectra

? ?
blaze correct flux calibrate

?
- scrunch/merge 

 ? 
merged spectra

Figure 2: Outline of the échelle data reduction process.

SG/9.2 —The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction 8

Rotate and orient the image All the major packages constrain the orientation of the échelle
orders in some way. The images may have to be adjusted to meet these constraints. In
general, if the échelle orders in your data run roughly horizontally (parallel to the X-axis)
and the wavelength increases from left to right you will be alright. In other situations, you
may need to use some image utilities to re-orient the data. This may involve rotating and
perhaps reflecting the images.

You may have data which contain ‘dead columns’ or few-pixel hot-spots. Handling of these is
discussed in the documentation for the CCD data preparation packages.
Once the set of arc and object images have been prepared in this way the échelle data reduction
process can begin.

4.1.1 Software for CCD Data Preparation

There are quite a few different packages for preparing CCD data. All these packages offer
similar functionality. You’ll probably find that it’s easiest to use the preparation package
which complements the échelle reduction software you choose, e.g., noao.imred.ccdred for
IRAF doecslit. There are two popular Starlink packages which you might use, FIGARO and
CCDPACK. CCDPACK includes some tools for conveniently managing the preparation of many
frames and supports error propagation.

4.2 Order Location

Order location is simply the process of finding the approximate position of each of the orders
in an échelle image. You can select which of the located orders should then be extracted. This
saves time if there is no useful data in some of the orders. Location is achieved by taking a slice
across the dispersion direction which when plotted appears similar to the graph in Figure 3.
This example is a section across an IUE é image. You can see about 60 orders are present in this
case. In practice, the section across the image will use data from several columns (in the case of
a roughly horizontal dispersion), rather than a single column.

4.3 Order Tracing

Once the required orders have been selected the next step is to determine the path of each of
them across the image. This process is order tracing. Typically the tracing procedure will involve
sampling each order in steps along the dispersion direction. The reduction program will attempt
to estimate the centre of the order at each sample point. Once an order has been traced in this
way you will have the option to fit a curve to the sample data. If all is well, the curve should
represent the true path of the order across the frame. In practice, some of the sample points may
have to be ignored to get a good fit. This is particularly the case if the trace frame is strongly
contaminated with cosmic rays, if the orders are not very bright, or if the spectrum being traced
contains strong absorption features.
If many images are taken with the same spectrograph configuration it may well be possible to
use a single trace frame for all the extractions.
Figure 4 shows a polynomial (solid line) fitted to the sample points (dots) of a single échelle
order.
9 SG/9.2 —The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction

Figure 3: Order Location: cross-dispersion section through an IUE échelle spectrum.

4.4 Slit Definition

In each order of an échelle spectrogram an image of the spectrograph slit is projected onto the
final image. The physical length of the slit is determined by the dekker. In a flat-field frame
the entire slit should be illuminated, and so the length of the projected image (in the dispersed
direction) will be limited by the dekker setting. (The dekker setting should be made sufficiently
small that adjacent orders don’t overlap in the spatial direction.)
Using a flat-field frame we can determine which pixels on the detector lie inside the projected slit
and which pixels lie outside the slit. A reduction program will use the previously determined
order traces to build a cross-dispersion profile of each order in the frame. These profiles can
then be used to decide where the ‘software’ dekker limits are.
Once the ‘software’ dekker has been set, the object frame is inspected in a similar way, this
time to choose which pixels should contribute to the signal from the object and which (if any)
are sky (or ‘local’) background. Figure 5 shows a typical plot during object and background
definition using the ECHMENU program. This procedure leads to a pair of pixel-selecting
masks—sometimes called channels—one marking the object, one marking the sky background.
If there is a sky signal present in the spectrum it is advisable (if possible) to select pixels on both
sides of the object spectrum to contribute to the sky signal. Refer to the next subsection for more
information on handling of the background signal.
In the above procedures it may be satisfactory to use dekker/object profiles determined using
data from all the orders in the spectrum. This will depend on the nature of the object spectrum
SG/9.2 —The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction 10

Figure 4: Order Tracing: Fitting a polynomial to an order trace in ECHMENU.

and the chosen extraction method. Basically, if the spatial profiles are similar in all the orders
then a single set of profiles can be used. If there are significant order-to-order variations in the
profile then some or all of the orders will have to be profiled separately. To be useful, the optimal
extraction method requires an accurate cross-dispersion profile.

4.5 Flat Fielding

The flat-fielding of échelle data is handled in different ways by the major reduction packages.
The resulting spectra should, however, be essentially the same.
The flat-fielding process removes pixel-to-pixel variations in the response of the detector and
any interference fringes (due to either the detector electrode structure or internal reflections in
thinned detectors).
Statistical extraction methods (such as optimal extraction) require that the flat field be normalised
to remove the colour of the lamp used.
IRAF and MIDAS both provide tasks for the preparation of normalised flat-field frames (respec-
tively, noao.imred.echelle.apflatten and flat/echelle). These frames can be viewed in the
same way as any other image. ECHOMOP can use such a normalised flat-field frame, or the
normalised apertures can be computed by ECHOMOP and stored within the data reduction
structure.
Normalised flat-fields are generated by fitting a polynomial to the shape of each order along the
dispersion direction and, in some cases, fitting polynomials to the profile in the spatial direction
11 SG/9.2 —The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction

Figure 5: Slit Definition: Selecting the object and background channels in ECH-
MENU.

as well. Pixels in any inter-order gaps—where there will be no signal—are set to a value of one
in the normalised flat-field.

4.6 Background Handling

The background signal in an échelle image consists of:

• A constant offset from the CCD output processing electronics.

• An optional pedestal produced by pre-flashing the CCD to overcome charge transfer

inefficiency at low-signal levels.

• The thermally generated CCD dark signal.

• General scattered light.

• Diffuse light in the inter-order space from adjacent orders.

• Sky background.

The first two contributions are removed in the CCD data preparation phase. The signal due to
dark current is usually small for short (the order of minutes) exposures in cryogenically-cooled
CCD systems.
SG/9.2 —The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction 12

There are two approaches to determining the background signal level in an échelle image (three
if you include not bothering with any background subtraction). These are: use the sky pixels
as determined previously in the ‘slit definition’ step or, use a surface fitted to the inter-order
background over the whole image. In many cases the first method will be adequate, however,
sometimes a suitable background channel cannot be defined. An example of this is an image in
which the signal from the object channel of one or more orders has spread out into the inter-order
area, perhaps to the extent that some of the orders overlap in the spatial direction. In such a case
it may be better to construct a global model for the background over the whole image, rather
than trying to use inter-order background channels which are contaminated with light from the
object or from an adjacent order. Figure 3 shows how the short-wavelength orders (left-hand
side) of an IUE spectrum start to overlap—the inter-order background has clearly risen in this
region.
Even if no sky background signal is present in the échelle image it may still be acceptable to
use background channel masks as defined in the ‘slit definition’ step. In this case the channels
should be selected to lie in the inter-order gaps and so sample the scattered light.
The fitting of a single surface to the background over the whole image is a computationally
intensive process and so should be avoided accept for those cases where no useable local
background can be determined.

4.7 Extraction of Spectra

Having produced a set of models for our data we can proceed to the extraction of the spectral
information in the image.
In previous steps we have produced models of:

• The path of each order across the image.

• The profile of the object spectrum in each order.

• The background signal: either globally for the whole image or for each order.

There are several approaches to the extraction of the spectral data. The most commonly used are
the optimal, and linear (sometimes called ‘normal’ or ‘simple’).
Linear extraction is simply the integration of all pixels selected in the profiling step with equal
weighting. The corresponding signal in the background channel is subtracted. The disadvantage
of this method (as compared to optimal extraction) is that no attempt is made to allow for the
fact that pixels at the edges of the order profile contain a smaller part of the signal than those in
the middle of the order profile. These pixels will consequently have smaller signal-to-noise ratio
and should carry reduced weighting for the ‘best’ possible extraction. Linear extraction is less
computationally demanding than weighted extraction methods and is useful for checking data
quickly or situations where it is not possible to prepare the data for optimal extraction (e.g., you
don’t have the CCD readout noise details).
Optimal extraction is designed—in theory at least—to achieve the best possible signal-to-noise
ratio with CCD spectral data. The method uses the Poisson statistics of photons, information
about the CCD signal processing electronics transfer function, and the modelled profile for the
object to weight contributions to the signal. To use the optimal extraction method you will need
13 SG/9.2 —The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction

to know the readout noise and gain for the CCD camera used to obtain the spectra. The main
limitation of optimal extraction algorithms is the requirement that the spatial profile of the object
is a smooth function of wavelength. This means that optimal extraction is unlikely to be useful
if spatial (cross-dispersion) resolution is required and/or the spatial profile of the object varies
rapidly with wavelength, as for objects with spatially-extended emission-line regions.
Optimal extraction only gives significant improvements over linear extraction at low signal-to-
noise levels. However, it has the advantage that the profile models can be used to reject cosmic
rays which are incident upon the object or background channels.
There are other extraction weighting-schemes available, refer to §5 for information.
The extraction process is applied to both arc spectra and any standard-star spectra, as well as to
object spectra.

4.8 Wavelength Calibration

From the preceding extraction step we have a set of data frames sometimes called collapsed
échelle spectra. For each object or arc CCD frame we have a three-dimensional dataset: order,
sample number and intensity. (You may also have variance information for each sample of
each order.) Sample number is simply an index for each integration bin along the order (e.g.,
the X-axis in Figure 6). The next step in the reduction process is to attempt to determine the
relationship between wavelength and sample number for these data.
The basic steps here are:

• Look at the arc (or comparison) spectrum and try to identify features of known wavelength.

• Fit a low-order polynomial to the arc wavelength-sample relation.

• Paste the wavelength-sample relation from the comparison spectrum to the object spec-
trum.

The wavelength-sample relation can be fitted separately for each order (1-D solution) or a model
for the whole échellogram can be built (2-D solution). The success of the latter technique will
depend to some extent on how many lines you can identify and where they lie in the spectrum.
Which ever reduction software you choose to use, you should find that a list of spectral feature
wavelengths for common arc reference lamps is available on-line (refer to the package docu-
mentation for details). You may also be able to lay your hands on a hardcopy of a ‘mapped’
comparison spectrum for your selected arc lamp, perhaps obtained using the same spectro-
graph as your data. For example, UCLES Spectrum of the Thorium-Argon Hollow-Cathode
Lamp should be available at most UK Starlink sites (a UES version is also available). This
document also gives the free spectral range and wavelength coverage for each order of the
UCLES which can be used to estimate the wavelengths in other orders once you have identified
features for your first order—the same trick can be used for other instruments if you have similar
data available. Some people prefer the ESO arc-line atlas in which the line wavelengths are more
clearly printed: An Atlas of the Thorium-Argon Spectrum for the ESO Echelle Spectrograph in
the λλ 3400–9000Å Region.
Ideally each order to be fitted should contain at least three or four identifiable spectral lines,
preferably with one close to each end of the order and one or more spread in the middle of the
SG/9.2 —The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction 14

Figure 6: Line Identification: typical plot during interactive fitting with ECHMENU.

order. For some orders it may be useful to refer to the object and/or reference star spectra to
look for strong features of known, or approximately known, wavelength. These can be used to
help you ‘home-in’ on other features in the arc spectrum for that order. When a fit is made to
these features you will be advised of the goodness-of-fit, usually in the form of a plot of line
versus deviation-from-fit or RMS deviation values for each line. You will be able to adjust the fit
parameters and reject any lines which seem so deviant that they have been mis-identified, then
re-fit the data.
Figure 6 shows a plot of a single order during interactive line-identification using ECHMENU.
If attempting a 2-D solution to the wavelength relation for your data you should 1-D fit at least
three or four orders before trying a 2-D fit. In a similar manner to the 1-D fits, you’ll get the best
result if you use an order at each end of the échellogram and one or more from the middle.
Once you have a complete wavelength-calibrated comparison spectrum you can ‘copy’ the
wavelength scale onto you object spectra. It may be useful to calibrate two arcs which bracket
the object exposure in time. This will show any time-dependent variation in the wavelength
scale. If there is some change (and it is reasonably small) you can take a time-weighted mean
of the two bracketing wavelength scales and use this for the object spectrum. A method for
applying this technique with ECHOMOP-reduced data is given in the Echelle Data Reduction
Cookbook (SC/3).
15 SG/9.2 —The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction

Order and blaze-corrected order

1.05

1.00

.95

.90

.85
Flux

.80

.75

.70

.65

.60
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

X Pixel

Figure 7: Blaze correction: the top spectrum is the blaze-corrected version of the
lower spectrum. Note that the flux values in the uncorrected order have been scaled
and shifted for this plot.

4.9 Finishing Reduction

It may be the case that a set of wavelength-calibrated, individual-order spectra is suitable for
your scientific purposes. At this point, you can also perform flux calibration or correct for the
blaze function (a grating-dependent variation in the brightness along orders). You might also
want to combine the individual orders into a single spectrum and/or re-bin the data onto a
fixed-step wavelength scale.

4.9.1 Blaze Correction

The per-order normalised flat-field models generated earlier can be divided into extracted order
spectra to remove the blaze function of the échelle. This can aid the process of fitting line profiles
as instrumental effects are removed.
Figure 7 shows a plot of a single-order spectrum and a blaze-corrected version of the same order.

4.9.2 Flux Calibration

An alternative to applying the blaze correction is to fully flux-calibrate the data. As mentioned
earlier, there may not be reference standards of sufficiently small band-pass size to enable a
useful flux calibration to be applied. In échelle spectra a velocity difference between the reference
SG/9.2 —The Basics of Echelle Data Reduction 16

standard and the object can lead to an effective change in the band-pass wavelength which
invalidates the calibration—particularly where strong features are present in the spectrum.
You will probably have to apply a correction for observation of the object and standard star
through differing air masses.
The flux calibration process is conceptually straightforward: the object and standard star spectra
are summed in the same pass bands as the reference tables. The correction factors can then be
calculated by comparing the standard star spectrum with the reference tables.

4.9.3 Re-binning Spectra—Scrunching

Use of a fixed bin of the spectra allows spectra from separate exposures to be co-added. There
are many options for the re-binning of the data to a fixed wavelength scale. Two basic options
are: bin to a fixed wavelength interval, or bin to a fixed velocity interval. The latter is equivalent
to using a logarithmic wavelength scale.
Scrunching the data is equivalent to applying a filter to the data. You might want to investigate
the possibility of applying different weighting schemes during the binning process. For example,
FIGARO SCRUNCH offers both simple linear interpolation and a quadratic option.

4.9.4 Combining Orders—Merging

Once individual échelle orders have been blaze-corrected and scrunched to a fixed-bin wave-
length scale they can me combined into a single spectrum. This process might also involve
combining spectra from different exposures to overcome dropouts due to cosmic-ray hits etc.
Although there are plenty of utilities available for splicing together spectra, the best option here
is to use one of the merging utilities included in an échelle data reduction package. This will
allow you to apply a weighting strategy in the regions where the wavelength coverage of orders
overlaps; e.g., ignore data where one order is much fainter than the other, use flux-weighted
mean etc.

4.10 Handling Cosmic Rays

In the previous descriptions cosmic rays have only been occasionally mentioned. The successful
reduction of échelle data requires careful attention to be paid to the location and handling of
cosmic-ray hits in the data. There are several strategies for the detection of cosmic rays, here
are some of them:

Inspection by eye This is the simplest method—display an image and you will probably be
able to see some cosmic-ray hits. This is less useful for object frames than, say, dark frames
as real data can appear similar to a cosmic-ray hit.

Median Filtering Two median filters are applied to each image; one along rows, one along
columns. These are then divided into the original image and a histogram of the result is
produced. If there are lots of cosmic-ray hits in the image then a clear cut-off point in the
histogram will be visible. Pixels above the threshold can be flagged as cosmic-ray hits.
17 SG/9.2 —Data Reduction Facilities

Profile Modelling This technique can be applied in several ways. Most commonly it is imple-
mented as part of the optimal extraction of spectra. Essentially, by constructing a profile
of the ‘real’ science data, unexpected—i.e., statistically unlikely —cosmic-ray hits can be
found, even when they fall on the spectrum itself. This method can require a large amount
of processing time for a large échelle image.

Comparison of ‘Identical’ frames This is another simple method. It can be used where you
have several frames of the same object taken in the same configuration. A median image
can be generated and pixels which deviate strongly from the median are probably cosmic-
ray hits. This method works best when the images are all of the same exposure time.

Depending on the particular frame involved it may be possible to interpolate across a cosmic-ray
hit. The alternative is to simply flag the cosmic-ray pixels found so that they are not used in the
spectrum extraction.
You should ensure that cosmic rays in your CCD bias, dark, and flat-field frames are removed
prior to attempting reduction—a median filter is suitable. It is particularly important that cosmic
rays do not severely degrade the frame used for order tracing—otherwise the whole reduction
will be unsuccessful.
Once slit-definition is complete any bright pixels lying outside the slits are almost certainly
cosmic-ray hits.
Some implementations of the optimal spectrum extraction method allow you to select whether
profile-based cosmic-ray rejection is applied during the extraction process (as is the norm) or
post-extraction (e.g., ECHOMOP).
Whichever cosmic-ray removal/flagging strategy you choose to adopt, it is wise to check the
results by displaying the original image with detected events flagged—sometimes bright sky
lines can be mistakenly flagged as cosmic-ray events.

5 Data Reduction Facilities

Like any form of data reduction, there are as many ways of handling échelle spectra as there are
people doing it. This section introduces some of the échelle data reduction packages available
and offers advice on selecting the package most suitable for your work.

5.1 Available Packages

There are three substantial packages designed for the general reduction of échelle data; the IRAF
ECHELLE package, the MIDAS ECHELLE context and the Starlink ECHOMOP package. The
main packages offer similar facilities including the ‘optimal’ extraction of spectral data. FIGARO
can also be used to do complete échelle data reductions but most of the routines available have
been superceded by ECHOMOP.
SG/9.2 —Data Reduction Facilities 18

5.1.1 STARLINK—ECHOMOP

ECHOMOP development was funded specifically for the reduction of data from the AAT coudé
échelle spectrograph UCLES. The author made the package sufficiently flexible that it can be
used for reduction of data from other instruments.
Part of the package is an interactive menu interface, echmenu, which guides you through the
steps of a reduction. The individual tasks required for a reduction can alternatively be accessed
from the user’s preferred command shell.
The package provides a complete set of tasks for échelle data reduction. CCD-related processing
is not included and must be done using a suitable package (e.g., CCDPACK or FIGARO). echmenu
guides you through the complete reduction process covering; order location, order tracing, slit
definition, flat-fielding, sky background subtraction or scattered light modelling, extraction, and
wavelength calibration. Input/output data are held in Starlink NDF format files. Internal data
are held in a reduction structure which is an ECHOMOP-specific format HDS file.
ECHOMOP has facilities which include: an automated arc-line-location algorithm, interactive
plotting of intermediate data, automated cosmic-ray location and removal, and full propagation
of variance data through an extraction.
The ECHOMOP user may use a package such as FIGARO to perform flux calibration.
The internal ECHOMOP reduction file keeps all the housekeeping data for a particular reduction
in one place. This means a reduction can be stopped and resumed at the same point without
difficulty. A ‘cloning’ system is provided which allows template data from previous reductions
to be inherited by similar, new reductions.
The documentation for ECHOMOP is in two primary sources; a paper document ECHOMOP—
Echelle data reduction package (a Starlink User Note) which is also available in hypertext form,
and on-line HELP.
The on-line help for ECHOMOP is available in two formats: a simple hypertext version accessed
using a Web browser (e.g., Mosaic or Netscape) and a standard Starlink HELP library. The help
text is very thorough including algorithm descriptions and detailed parameter details.
ECHOMOP is supported by the Starlink Application Programming team.
ECHOMOP provides three extraction weighting schemes:

• Simple.
Weights all object pixels equally.

• Profile weighted.
Weights each pixel by P(i, j)2 where P(i, j) is the calculated normalised profile at spatial
offset j (sub-sampled) from the trace centre and i is the column number.

• Optimal.
Weights each pixel by the product of the calculated profile P(i, j) and an estimate of the
uncertainty of the pixel intensity.
19 SG/9.2 —Data Reduction Facilities

5.1.2 IRAF—ECHELLE/DOECSLIT

IRAF contains a set of tasks for échelle data reduction in the package noao.imred.echelle, the
extraction being carried out by the main task doecslit. This is a ‘mature’ software package in
that it has not undergone significant changes in recent IRAF releases.
The software inherits its user interface from IRAF and as such should be easy to use for those
familiar with the IRAF shell cl, parameter entry and editing, and IRAF image file handling.
An IRAF task similar to doecslit, dofibers, with instrument-specific variants is available. This
task is quite similar to doecslit except that the aperture for each object must be individually
defined.
Facilities to carry out all the procedures required for reduction of échelle data are provided.
Initial processing of CCD images is done using tasks in noao.imred.ccdred. These tasks are
also used in the flat-field generation process. doecslit, which is an IRAF script, guides a user
through the data reduction process carrying out; sky background or scattered light subtraction,
extraction, wavelength calibration, and flux calibration (if needed). Data are input/output in 2-
or 3-dimensional IRAF images.
There is no special facility provided for merging of the orders from an échellogram into a single
spectrum, the scombine task provides a simple facility for merging the orders.
Parameters required for flux calibration (relating to the position of the observatory) must be
provided by the user with non-NOAO data (i.e., most UK astronomers) using the observatory
task. Suitable extinction data are also required.
Data processing with doecslit can be interrupted and restarted without a problem. The pattern
of one data processing run can be inherited by another run to speed up common or similar
reduction tasks.
The echelle package has a full documentation set in the same style as other IRAF packages.
On-line help describing the tasks and the parameters for each are available and accessible from
the IRAF cl shell.
The paper document A User’s Guide to Reducing Echelle Spectra With IRAF is an excellent
introduction to the processing of échelle data using IRAF. Pointers to other IRAF documents
relevant to the inexperienced user are included. This document works through the steps of a
reduction (flat-field, order location, extraction, wavelength calibration) in enough detail to get
users started. Use of related tasks for plotting the data—of which IRAF has many—is described.
doecslit usage and parameters are documented in Guide to Slit Spectra Reduction Task DOEC-
SLIT. This is the paper reference document for the task.
IRAF is supported by a team at NOAO.
noao.imred.echelle, supports two extraction weighting schemes:

• None.
Weights all object pixels equally.

• Variance.
An alternative name for the optimal extraction weighting method. Scheme weights each
pixel by the product of the calculated profile P(i, j) and an estimate of the uncertainty of
the pixel intensity.
SG/9.2 —Data Reduction Facilities 20

5.1.3 MIDAS—CONTEXT ECHELLE

ESO MIDAS provides a suite of commands and options for the reduction of data from échelle
instruments. The software is contained within the MIDAS context ECHELLE.
In a similar manner to the IRAF tasks in noao.imred.echelle, the MIDAS ECHELLE context
inherits command and parameter style from the host environment.
Like noao.imred.echelle, a full range of facilities for échelle data reduction are provided. The
processing of CCD data into a format suitable for the ECHELLE context to work with is carried
out using other tasks from MIDAS. ECHELLE provides a set of about 30 commands arranged in
five procedures to carry out the reduction. Facilities for order location, extraction, wavelength
calibration, and instrument response correction are provided. Data can be read from FITS
or IHAP formats only. MIDAS tables are used at some stages in the reduction process (e.g.,
wavelength calibration).
Although the MIDAS échelle data reduction software is primarily intended for processing data
from ESO instruments (e.g., CASPEC on the 3.6m telescope), it can be adapted to process data
from other instruments.
The documentation for MIDAS is integrated in a three volume set which includes information
about the ECHELLE context. Within the documentation are three areas particularly relevant to
ECHELLE, these are:

• Chapter 7 of Volume B (Data Reduction), Echelle Spectra.

This contains outline descriptions of some of the algorithms used, pointers to other
documents and some technical description of the MIDAS tables used by the context.

• Appendix D of Volume B, Echelle Reduction.

This is a guide suitable for use by MIDAS novices, covering all basic aspects of a data
reduction run.

• Appendix D of Volume C, Standard Reduction Commands Context: echelle.

This is the reference document for the tasks and parameters used by the context.

The MIDAS Users Guide Volumes A and B are now available in a hypertext form (converted
from LATEX source) at the central ESO Web server. Volume C which is the unified on-line help
text can be accessed via the MIDAS GUI xhelp at an installation.
As part of MIDAS, the échelle data reduction tasks are supported by the team at Garching.
Three extraction weighting schemes are available:

• Linear.
Weights all object pixels equally.

• Average.
Uses a weighting 1/L where L is the length of the slit.

• Optimal.
Weights each pixel by the product of the calculated profile P(i, j) and an estimate of the
uncertainty of the pixel intensity. Algorithm based on paper by Mukai (1990).
21 SG/9.2 —Data Reduction Facilities

5.2 Choosing a Package

The three packages briefly described above can meet most échelle data reduction requirements.
There are, however, other factors to be considered with basic functionality etc.
Here’s a table which lists some useful commands for each of the three packages mentioned
previously:
The availability of a package is important—it may be difficult to get started with a package not
already available at your site—don’t let this put you off, but be aware that some effort may have
to be expended before you start to work with any data. If you are already an expert at the IRAF
cl then you may get ‘up-to-speed’ more quickly with the IRAF échelle package as compared to
learning a new environment from scratch. Similarly, it may be useful to use a package which a
local colleague is already familiar with—ask to look over their shoulder next time they’re using
the package.
It is worth considering the format of the data that you will receive from the observatory. Most
data will be provided in FITS format. Most software (all the above) can read FITS data. (To
get FITS information to a format accessible by ECHOMOP you should use KAPPA FITSIN or
FITSDIN.)
Bear in mind that if you intend to propagate variance information from the processed échelle
data you may be restricted in the choice of software. ECHOMOP supports the output of data
with variance information in a format which other Starlink software can read (NDF) at each stage
of the reduction process. The available conversion utilities for switching between IRAF/FITS
and NDF formats will not normally propagate variance data in an immediately usable way—or
even at all—in some cases.
A point worth considering is the provision of bad-pixel masks. ECHOMOP allows the individual
pixels to be excluded from an extraction by reference to the quality component of an NDF. In
IRAF you will have to interpolate across any cosmic rays etc., prior to performing the extraction.
SG/9.2 —Data Reduction Facilities 22

IRAF commands are from the noao.imred.echelle package unless otherwise stated.
Starlink commands are part of ECHOMOP unless otherwise stated.
All MIDAS commands are accessible once set/context echelle has been done.

Task IRAF STARLINK MIDAS

Rotate image images.rotate FIGARO IROT90 ROTATE/ECHELLE

KAPPA ROTATE
Subtract constant images.imarith FIGARO ICSUB COMPUTE/IMAGE
from image KAPPA CSUB
Divide images images.imdivide FIGARO IDIV COMPUTE/IMAGE
pixel-by-pixel KAPPA DIV
Generate median of noao.imred. FIGARO MEDSKY AVERAGE/IMAGES
several images ccdred.combine
Order location apfind ech_trace SEARCH/ORDER
Order tracing aptrace ech_trace DEFINE/ECHELLE
ech_fitord DEFINE/HOUGH
Slit definition apdefault ech_spatial DEFINE/HOUGH
apedit ech_profile
Normalise apnormal ech_ffield FLAT/ECHELLE +
flat field apflatten COMPUTE/IMAGE
Model scattered apscatter ech_mdlbck BACKGROUND/ECHELLE
light
Model per-order ech_sky DEFINE/SKY +
‘sky’ background EXTRACT/SKY
Extract apsum ech_extrct EXTRACT/ECHELLE
Locate arc lines ecidentify ech_linloc SEARCH/ECHELLE
Fit wavelength ecidentify ech_idwave IDENTIFY/ECHELLE
scales
Blaze correct continuum ech_blaze RIPPLE/ECHELLE
flux calibrate calibrate FIGARO SPFLUX RESPONSE/ECHELLE
Scrunch ech_scrunch REBIN/ECHELLE
Merge scombine ech_mulmrg MERGRE/ECHELLE
23 SG/9.2 —Glossary

6 Glossary

• ADU
Literally, Analogue-to-Digital Units. These are the raw numbers which emerge from a
digitiser—the “counts” per pixel read out from a CCD.

• Arc lamp
A lamp which burns with a characteristic spectrum which is used as a reference or com-
parison for the wavelength scale of a spectrum.

• AAO/AAT
Anglo-Australian Observatory/Anglo-Australian Telescope.

• Bias frame
An image generated from several raw CCD frames taken with no light incident upon the
detector and of ‘zero’ exposure time.

• Blaze, blaze angle

Literally, to cut in this context. Arises from the nature of some gratings where the grooves
are non-symmetrical to concentrate the incident light in one or several orders on one side
of the zero order of the image.

• Blaze correction
Process of normalising each order in an échelle spectrum to remove the brightness variation
due to the blaze angle. Sometimes called ripple removal or simply normalisation.

• Bracketing
A term from photography. Simply means taking reference exposures before and after the
‘main’ exposure bracketing it in time. Can be used to apply to a pair of series of exposures
taken before and after science data. For example, arc frames, flat-field frames etc., are
usually collected both before and after observing to allow any time dependency to be
found and, at least to a first order, compensated for.

• Centroiding
Process of estimating the true position of the centre of a spectral order in the spatial
direction, where the shape of the profile of the order can be predicted and the profile is
under-sampled.
A similar process occurs in IPCS cameras to locate photon “events” (usually with sub-pixel
accuracy).

• Collimator
Optical element which produces a light beam in which the rays are (at least very nearly)
parallel.

• Comparison Spectrum
A spectrum from a known source, typically an arc lamp, used as a reference for the
modelling of the wavelength scale of spectra.

• Cosmic-ray hit
Extra signal present in CCD images due to the incidence of a cosmic ray on the detector
SG/9.2 —Glossary 24

during an integration. Cosmic-ray hits appear as bright spots, usually occupying only
a few pixels on the detector. (Unless the ray is travelling nearly parallel to the surface
of the detector in which case a streak may be produced.) In spectroscopy cosmic-ray
identification is a particular problem as real features in a spectrum can similarly occupy
only a few pixels in the image.
The most effective method of detection is to take two or more exposures of the same
spectrum in the same instrument configuration and compare them or take a median.

• Cross-dispersion
The direction perpendicular to that in which a spectrum is dispersed. In an échelle
spectrograph a cross-dispersing optical element is used to separate orders in the direction
perpendicular to the dispersion.

• CCD
Charge-Coupled Device. For astronomy, the most commonly used optical imaging sensor.

• CCDPACK
A Starlink package for the preparation of CCD data for reduction. Includes tools for
managing the processing of large numbers of images. Described in SUN/139.

• CONVERT
A Starlink utility package for converting between different image formats. Described in
SUN/55.

• Dark current
Electrons released in a detector (often a CCD) by the action of the thermal energy of the
body of the detector.

• Dark Frame
An exposure taken with the shutter closed. Typically, the exposure time used is similar to
that selected for the object frames in an observing run. Dark frames give an estimate of the
background level due to dark current in a CCD.

• Dekker
A fork-shaped part of the slit assembly of a spectrograph which sets the length of the slit.
This limits the size of the light beam in the direction perpendicular to the spectrograph
dispersion.

• Dispersion
A measure of the ‘power’ of a spectrograph. A dimensionless number, typically given in
Åmm−1 . This number arises by dividing the true length of a section of an order in the
output image (in the dispersion direction) by the wavelength range covered.
Also the act of splitting light into its components by wavelength.

• DIPSO
A self-styled “friendly spectral analysis program” in widespread use in the community.
Described in SUN/50.

• DST
A data format used by early versions of FIGARO. The CONVERT utility provides facilities
for translating DST files to NDF.
25 SG/9.2 —Glossary

• Echelle
Literally, from the French, Ladder. A grating in which the lines are ruled much further
apart than those of an ordinary diffraction grating. This gives the échelle a very high
resolution over a short wavelength range when the high orders are used.

• ESO
European Southern Observatory.

• FIGARO
A general astronomical data reduction package. Available in several flavours. The Starlink
version is described in SUN/86.

• FITS
Flexible Image Transport System. The most commonly used format format for astronomical
image data storage.

• Flat field, flat fielding

A flat field is one illuminated with some uniform source. Used to determine the relative
sensitivity of the elements (pixels) in a system.
Flat fielding is the process of dividing by a normalised flat-field to remove the sensitivity
variations of a system.

• Free Spectral Range (FSR)

The part of an échelle order spectrum which “belongs” to that order, i.e., the wavelength
range over which this order is the brightest of the orders in the échellogram.

• Gain, Output transfer function

The number of ADU counts per electron (i.e. per photon) in the output signal from a CCD
camera.

• Grating, diffraction grating

Optical element ruled with (usually) thousands of fine parallel lines which produce
interference patterns when light is incident upon them. Can be used as the main dispersing
element in a spectrograph.
The equation mλ = d sin θ describes the diffraction pattern produced by the grating.
Where: m is the order number, λ is a selected wavelength, d is the rule spacing, and θ is
the angle of incidence of light.

• GHRS
Goddard High-Resolution spectrograph. An instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope.

• Halation
A term originally used in photography to denote the process by which the image in a
developed emulsion is spread beyond the bounds of the incident light. Is used to describe
the spreading of light from one order to the next in an échelle spectrogram.

• HST
Hubble Space Telescope.

• IDS
Intermediate Dispersion Spectrograph. An instrument at the ING.
SG/9.2 —Glossary 26

• IHAP
An image format used by MIDAS. This format is available for input to MIDAS for
backward-compatibility with some of the data acquisition systems at the La Silla Ob-
servatory.

• ING
The Isaac Newton Group of telescopes at the RGO on La Palma.

• INT
Isaac Newton Telescope at the La Palma Observatory.

• IPCS
Image Photon Counting System. A common optical image sensor, has zero readout noise
and good blue response.

• IRAF
Image Reduction and Analysis Facility.

• ISIS
A twin spectrograph at the WHT. The two ‘arms’ are optimised for response in the red
and blue regions of the optical waveband.

• IUE
International Ultraviolet Explorer.

• JKT
Jacobus Kapteyn Telescope at the La Palma Observatory.

• KAPPA
The Starlink Kernel Application Package. A suite of facilities for processing and viewing
astronomical images. Described in SUN/95.

• MIDAS
Munich Image Data Analysis System. A complete package for the handling of astronomical
data written and maintained by a team at ESO.

• NDF
The Standard Starlink data storage format. An hierarchical format for multi-dimensional
data storage. Accessed using libraries supported by Starlink. NDF is described in SUN/33.

• NOAO
National Optical Astronomical Observatories.

• Order separation
The gap between adjacent orders in an échelle image. There is a compromise between the
spectral range covered and the distance between orders. (If the orders are close together
more fit on the detector and so a larger spectral range is covered.) When working with non-
starlike objects a larger order separation is desirable otherwise the signal from adjacent
orders may overlap.

• Overscan, overscan region

The action of clocking a raster sensor (e.g., CCD) for more cycles than the number of signal
collection sites in the detector line. This leads to additional ‘empty’ pixels in the row as
27 SG/9.2 —Glossary

read out from the detector. On an image display this will appear as a band along the
edge of the image, the overscan region. Used to determine the zero-point of the analogue
circuit of the camera, i.e., for no signal input to the system from the detector.
• Periscope(s)
Optical arrangement which feeds light (usually from the sky background) into the slit of a
spectrograph. These can be used when the object being observed would otherwise fill the
slit and so no sky signal would be recorded.
• Prism
Usually, a wedge-shaped optical element which disperses light passing through it. The
name arises from the Greek prisma prismatos, ‘thing sawn’ (well that’s what it says in the
dictionary anyway. . . )
• Quantum Efficiency, QE
The ratio of the number of photoelectrons produced to the number of photons incident
upon a detector. CCDs have QEs of about 50% or greater at optical wavelengths.
• RAL
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory. The Starlink project is run from RAL.
• Readout noise
In this context, usually means the signal measured for no input signal for a detector such
as a CCD.
• Resolution
The difference in wavelength between two (notional) features which can be just distin-
guished in the spectrum.
• Resolving power
The value λ/∆λ where λ is the wavelength at some point in a spectrum and ∆λ is the
resolution at that wavelength.
• Scan, scanning
Process of determining the approximate position of orders in a spectral image. In the case
of échelle spectra this allows you to select which orders you wish to extract.
• Slit
Usually narrow entry point for light to a spectrograph. The slit is often made from a pair
of ordinary razor blades which can be machined to achieve very straight edges. This gives
a precisely determined light source for the instrument.
• Spectrograph
An instrument for separating and recording the spectral components of light. Contempo-
rary instruments use electronic cameras to record the spectra.
• Starlink
UK national network of computers for astronomical data reduction and the organisation
which manages the network.
• Stray light
Light which arises within an instrument due to reflections from surfaces not intended to
act as optical elements.
SG/9.2 —Glossary 28

• SDF
Starlink Data File. A file with the extension .sdf accessible via Starlink software or
libraries.

• STSDAS
Space Telescope Science Data Analysis System. A package written for HST data reduction,
closely integrated with IRAF.

• Template, order
A description of the position of spectral orders in an image as determined by tracing the
orders. The traced orders in one image being used to predict the position of the orders in a
second image taken with the same instrumental configuration.

• Template, reduction
A set of commands and/or parameter values which are appropriate for a general type
of data reduction operation. Usually in the form of a data reduction script which can be
quickly tailored for a particular reduction task.

• Throughput
A measure of the overall efficiency of an optical system. For optical telescope/spectrograph
combinations this will be of the order of a few to tens of percent.

• Tracing
The Process of finding the path of a spectrum or order of a spectrum across an image
frame.

• UCLES
University College London Echelle Spectrograph. A medium-resolution instrument in the
coudé room at the AAT.

• UES
Utrecht Echelle Spectrograph. Northern hemisphere ‘twin’ of the UCLES at the WHT, has
a different control system but similar optical design.

• UHRF
Ultra-High Resolution Facility of the UCLES. An (up to) diffraction-limited resolution
spectrograph for the AAT. Uses some of the optics of the UCLES.

• VICAR
Literally Video Image Communication and Retrieval. A format used for some images
notably those for most data from the IUE satellite.

• VLT
Very Large Telescope. Usually refers to the ESO VLT, but can also refer to very-large
telescopes in the general sense.

• WHT
William Herschel Telescope. 4.2m telescope at the RGO on La Palma.

• Zero subtraction
Process of the removal of the instrument zero-signal level as determined by measuring the
signal in the overscan region of a CCD image.
29 SG/9.2 —References

References

[1] L. Achmad and L. Pasquini,

CASPEC Thorium-Argon Atlas in the 3050–3650Å Region,
ESO Document ASD-MAN-SCI-000-001, May 1995.

[2] S. D’Odorico, M. Ghigo and D. Ponz,

An Atlas of the Thorium-Argon Spectrum for the ESO Echelle Spectrograph in the λλ 3400–
9000Å Region,
ESO, 1987.

[3] Michael Bessell and Max Pettini,

UCLES Spectrum of the Thorium-Argon Hollow-Cathode Lamp,
AAO UM 28.1, January 1991.

[4] Christopher W. Churchill,

Introduction to Echelle Data Reduction Using the Image Reduction Analysis Facility,
Lick Observatory Technical Report No. 74, February 1995.

[5] Christopher W. Churchill and S. L. Allen,

A Treatment for Background Correction on the Hamilton Echelle Spectrograph,
pp. 193–198, Pub. A. S. P. Vol. 107, February 1995.

[6] Martin Clayton,

Echelle data reduction cookbook,
Starlink Cookbook 3.1, January 1996.

[7] Malcolm J. Currie,

KAPPA — Kernel Application Package,
Starlink User Note 95.8, August 1992.

[8] Peter W. Draper,

CCDPACK — CCD data reduction package,
Starlink User Note 139.4, November 1995.

[9] Keith Horne,

An Optimal Extraction Algorithm for CCD Spectroscopy,
pp. 609–617, Pub. A. S. P. Vol. 98, June 1986.

[10] Image Processing Group, ESO,

MIDAS Users Guide,
Volumes B. and C., November 1994.

[11] Tom Marsh,

The Extraction of Highly Distorted Spectra,
pp. 1032–1037, Pub. A. S. P. Vol. 101, November 1989.

[12] Philip Massey,

A User’s Guide to CCD Reductions with IRAF,
Central Computer Services, NOAO, June 1992.
SG/9.2 —References 30

[13] Horst Meyerdierks,

FIGARO – A general data reduction system,
Starlink User Note 86.10, October 1995.

[14] Dave Mills, John Webb and Martin Clayton,

ECHOMOP – Echelle data reduction package,
Starlink User Note 152.2, December 1995.

[15] Koji Mukai,

Optimal Extraction of Cross-Dispersed Spectra,
pp. 183–189, Pub. A. S. P. Vol. 102, February 1990.

[16] J. G. Robertson,
Optimal Extraction of Single-Object Spectra from Observations with Two-Dimensional
Detectors,
pp. 1220–1231, Pub. A. S. P. Vol. 98, November 1986.

[17] Francisco Valdes,

Guide to the Slit Spectra Reduction Task DOECSLIT,
Central Computer Services, NOAO, April 1992.

[18] Francisco Valdes,

Guide to the Multifiber Reduction Task DOFIBERS,
Central Computer Services, NOAO, April 1992.

[19] Francisco Valdes,

IRAF Tutorials: Echelle Slit Reductions with DOECSLIT,
http://www.starlink.ac.uk/iraf/web/tutorials/doecslit/doecslit.html,
April 1994.

[20] Daryl Willmarth and Jeannette Barnes,

A User’s Guide to Reducing Echelle Spectra With IRAF,
Central Computer Services, NOAO, May 1994.