Principle of Organic Medicine Chemistry-Ramarao

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Copyright © 2005, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
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PREFACE
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Principles of Organic Medicinal Chemistry is concerned with chemistry, synthesis, struc-
ture activity relationships, properties and uses of drugs of carbon compounds. This book has
primarily been written with the aim of meeting the needs and interests of undergraduate and
graduate pharmacy course according to syllabi of various Indian Universities. The book is a
concise form covering all newer drugs will help the readers to a great extent.
Though several books are available on medicinal chemistry, the material in most of them
is present in a diffused form or highly specialized. In the ever expanding knowledge of the
chemistry of drugs it is very difficult to go through the various textbooks, journals, and
pharmacopoeias. The major objective of writing this book is to present the information in a
lucid, condensed and cohesive form, to cater specially the needs of undergraduate and graduate
students of pharmacy.
It is impossible to express my indebtedness to those authors of various books, articles
and monographs mentioned in bibliography, which became a major source of information for
writing this text. I wish to recall my gratitude to Sri Y.V. Anjaneyulu, Chairman, Chalapathi
Education Society, Guntur, members of Siddhartha Academy, Vijayawada, staff members of
Chalapathi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guntur, and Principal and staff members of
KVSR Siddhartha College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vijayawada for their kind cooperation.
I am also wish to acknowledge indebtedness to all who have assisted with the completion of the
book. The cooperation of publishers, Messrs New Age International (P) Limited and publishers
is very much appreciated in bringing out this book. The contribution that I received by sus-
tained cooperation of my wife and daughter cann’t be ignored.
I have made every effort to avoid printing errors. However, despite best efforts, some
might have crept in inadvertently. I shall be oblished if these are brought to my notice. Con-
structive suggestions, comments and criticism on the subject matter of the book will be grate-
fully acknowledged, as they will certainly help to improve future editions of the book.
It is hoped that the book will be received favorably as an effective text book by both
students and teachers of pharmacy, science and medical scientists.
Author
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CONTENTS
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1. Introduction to medicinal chemistry ........................................................................... 1
2. General priciples of drug action ................................................................................... 3
3. Physico chemical properties of organic medicinal agents ........................................ 14
4. Chemistry of prodrugs ................................................................................................ 31
5. Drug metabolism ......................................................................................................... 41
6. General anesthetics .................................................................................................... 52
7. Sedative-hypnotic drugs ............................................................................................. 61
8. Psychoactive drugs...................................................................................................... 77
9. Antiepileptic agents .................................................................................................. 102
10. Cholinergic and anticholinergic drugs .................................................................... 121
11. Adrenergic drugs ....................................................................................................... 149
12. Adrenoreceptor blocking drugs ................................................................................ 170
13. Skeletal muscle relaxants ........................................................................................ 180
14. Antihistamines .......................................................................................................... 184
15. Narcotic analgesics ................................................................................................... 211
16. Narcotic antagonists ................................................................................................. 225
17. Antitussives ............................................................................................................... 229
18. Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs ................................................................... 232
19. Local anesthetics ....................................................................................................... 249
20. Diuretics .................................................................................................................... 259
21. Hypoglycemic agents ................................................................................................ 270
22. Thyroid and antithyroid drugs ................................................................................. 282
Practice Questions ..................................................................................................... 290
References .................................................................................................................. 315
Index .......................................................................................................................... 317
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Introduction to Medicinal
1 Chemistry
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The subject of medicinal chemistry explains the design and production of compounds that can
be used for the prevention, treatment or cure of human and animal diseases. Medicinal chem-
istry includes the study of already existing drugs, of their biological properties and their struc-
ture-activity relationships.
Medicinal chemistry was defined by IUPAC specified commission as “it concerns the
discovery, the development, the identification and the interpretation of the mode of action of
biologically active compounds at the molecular level”.
Medicinal chemistry covers the following stages:
(i) In the first stage new active substances or drugs are identified and prepared from
natural sources, organic chemical reactions or biotechnological processes. They are
known as lead molecules.
(ii) The second stage is optimization of lead structure to improve potency, selectivity and
to reduce toxicity.
(iii) Third stage is development stage, which involves optimization of synthetic route for
bulk production and modification of pharmacokinetic and pharmaceutical properties
of active substance to render it clinically useful.
Medicinal chemistry is the application of chemical research techniques to the synthesis
of pharmaceuticals. During the early stages of medicinal chemistry development, scientists
were primarily concerned with the isolation of medicinal agents found in plants. Today, scien-
tists in this field are also equally concerned with the creation of new synthetic compounds as
drugs. Medicinal chemistry is almost always geared toward drug discovery and development.
Medicinal chemists apply their chemistry training to the process of synthesizing new
pharmaceuticals. They also work on improving the process by which other pharmaceuticals
are made. Most chemists work with a team of scientists from different disciplines, including
biologists, toxicologists, pharmacologists, theoretical chemists, microbiologists, and
biopharmacists. Together this team uses sophisticated analytical techniques to synthesize and
test new drug products and to develop the most cost-effective and eco-friendly means of pro-
duction.
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2 General Principles of Drug Action
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DEFINITION OF DRUGS
A very broad definition of a drug would include “all chemicals other than food that affect living
processes.” If the affect helps the body, the drug is a medicine. However, if a drug causes a
harmful effect on the body, the drug is a poison. The same chemical can be a medicine and a
poison depending on conditions of use and the person using it.
Another definition would be “medicinal agents used for diagnosis, prevention, treatment
of symptoms, and cure of diseases.” Contraceptives would be outside of this definition unless
pregnancy was considered a disease. All drugs have the potential for producing more than one
response. Some adverse drug responses which are unavoidable are appearing at therapeutic
doses are termed as side effects. Incontrast, adverse drug effects appearing at extreme drug
doses are described as toxic effects.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
Drugs can be classified according to various criteria:
1. By origin—sources of drugs
Drugs may be obtained from 1. Plants 2. Animals 3. Minerals or 4. Microorganisms. The
drugs may also be semisynthetic or synthetic compounds. The sources of drugs are summa-
rized as follows:
A. Synthetic. Most of the drugs in use today are synthetic in origin. Such drugs are
chemically pure and it is easy to maintain supply line.
Ex. : Aspirin, Paracetamol.
B. Natural. There are number of natural sources. They are:
(a) Plants. A number of plant based drugs such as vincristine, taxol, digoxin, quinine,
reserpine, ergotamine, ephedrine, colchicine etc. are still a part of standard therapy.
Most of these don’t have any synthetic substitutes. Several other plant products are
used in formulations that are sold across the counter in several countries.
(b) Animal. Some modern drugs continue to be derived from animal sources because the
synthesis of such chemicals is very cumbersome and expensive. Ex. : Gonadotrophins,
heparin, insulin, thyroid extracts and enzymes.
(c) Microorganisms. Following the accidental discovery of penicillin from a mould in
1928 and its successful use in chemotherapy in 1940, a large number of antibiotics
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4 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
have been discovered from a variety of soil fungi and some bacteria. These drugs form
the most important group of chemotherapeutic agents used against infective diseases.
Ex. : Penicillin, Streptomycin, Tetracycline.
(d) Minerals. Minerals or mineral-containing medicated springs have been in use since
time immemorial. Several such hot water springs with medicinal value are popular
in India. Ex. : Rajgrin (Bihar), Sahashradhara (Dehradun). Minerals of medicinal
value are iron, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, sodium, potassium etc.
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C. Semi-synthetic. In some cases, especially with complex molecules, the synthesis of
a drug may be very difficult or expensive and uneconomical. At the same time, the ones de-
rived from natural sources may be impure. In these cases semisynthetic processes are used.
Ex. : 6-Aminopenicillanic acid is obtained from the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum.
D. Biosynthetic. Several drugs are complex polypeptides. It is difficult to obtain these
drugs in pure form from natural sources and are very expensive to synthesize in the labora-
tory.
Ex: Biosynthetic human insulin, interferon, erythropoietin, hepatitis vaccine.
Amongst all these, synthetic drugs are used most widely because of their inexpensive-
ness, ease of quality control, mass production and therapeutic efficacy. The synthetic drugs
are prepared by chemical processes.
Ex: Chloroquine, acetylsalicylic acid, chlorpromazine, ephedrine etc.
2. By Action
According to similarity of drug effects: Ex: marijuana and atropine both increase heart
rate and cause dryness of the mouth. Thus, marijuana would be classified as atropine-like
drug.
3. By therapeutic use
These drugs mainly affect the normal dynamic processes of the body. They are;
(i) Anti-arrhythmics
(ii) Antianginals
(iii) Vasodialators
(iv) Anti-hypertensives
(v) Cardiotonics
(vi) Hypocholesteric agents
(vii) Antiallergic agents
(viii) Drugs acting on GIT
(ix) Drugs influence renal function
(x) Drugs acting on central nervous system
(xi) Drugs acting on peripheral nervous system
4. By site of drug action
Ex: Alcohol is a depressant drug because of its depresant CNS action. This system is
limited when a drug has an effect at several body sites (e.g., the CNS stimulant cocaine also
has local anesthetic (pain reducing) effects.
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GENERAL PRINICPLES OF DRUG ACTION 5
5. By Chemical Structure
Drugs are classified according to the chemical moiety or functional group. They may be
further subclassified as:
(i) Hydrocarbons
(ii) Halogenated compounds
(iii) Alcohols
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(iv) Carboxylic acids
(v) Phenols
(vi) Nitro compounds
(vii) Amides
(viii) Amines
(ix) Sulphonamides, sulphones, stilbenes, thioureas, ureides etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRA-

TION
Most drugs can be administered by a variety of routes. The choice of appropriate route in a
given situation depends both on drug as well as patient related factors. Drugs my be adminis-
tered locally or systemically. The drugs administered through systemic routes are intended to
be absorbed into blood and distributed all over the body.
1. Oral/swallowed. Oral ingestion is the oldest and commonest mode of drug adminis-
tration. Most drugs in this route of administration are absorbed in small intestine. Full stom-
ach delays absorption (e.g. alcohol). Several drugs may subject to first-pass metabolism by
liver (Ex: Aldosterone, corttsol, acetyl salicylic acid). The drug candidates may undergo exten-
sive metabolism before reaching target receptors. It is safer, more convenient, noninvasive,
often painless, the medicament need not be sterile and so cheaper. Both solid dosage forms
and liquid dosage forms can be given orally.
2. Oral/sublingual. The tablet or pellet containing the drug is placed under the tongue
or crushed in the mouth and spread over the buccal mucosa. In this mode of administration
fast systemic absorption is observed which, bypass gastrointestinaltract entry. It avoids ab-
sorption and first-pass metabolism in the liver and is useful for those likely to vomit from
swallowed medication.
3. Rectal. Here the drugs are absorbed directly from the rectum. It partially avoids
first-pass metabolism by liver and also for those likely to vomit and lose swallowed medica-
tion. Certain irritant and unpleasant drugs can be put into rectum as suppositories or reten-
tion enema for systemic effect. Ex: Aminophylline, indomethacin, paraldehyde, diazepam,
ergotamine, and few other drugs are some times given rectally.
4. Epithelial. In this technique drugs are absorbed through the skin. This route is
useful for those likely to vomit (e.g. nicotine patch). Highly lipid soluble drugs can be applied
over the skin for slow and prolonged absorption. The drug bypasses the liver by this route of
administration. The drug can be incorporated in an ointment and applied over specified area
of skin.
5. Inhalation. Volatile oils and gases are given by inhalation ex: general anesthetic,
amylnitrite. The drugs enter the bloodstream very rapidly from the lungs. Here no absorption
or first-pass metabolism problems occur. This route is potentially dangerous because it is so
fast and direct.
6. Parenteral Route. Parenteral administration refers to administration by injection
into tissue fluid or blood without having to cross the intestinal mucosa. This route can be
employed even in unconscious, uncooperative or vomiting patient. The important parenteral
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routes are subcutaneous (SC); intramuscular (IM); intravenous (IV). The rate of absorption
depends on blood flow through injection site. SC or IM exert effects more quickly than oral
administration. IV is the fastest route and most certain in terms of obtaining desired concen-
tration of drug in blood plasma.
SITES OF DRUG ACTION

l. Enzyme inhibition. Drugs act within the cell by modifying normal biochemical reac-
tions. Enzyme inhibition may be reversible or non-reversible; competitive or non-competitive.
Antimetabolites may be used which mimic natural metabolites.
2. Drug-Receptor interaction. Drugs act on the cell membrane by physical and/or
chemical interactions. This is usually through specific drug receptor sites known to be located
on the membrane. A receptor is the specific chemical constituents of the cell with which a drug
interacts to produce its pharmacological effects. Some receptor sites have been identified with
specific parts of proteins and nucleic acids. In most cases, the chemical nature of the receptor
site remains obscure.
3. Non-specific interactions. Drugs act exclusively by physical means outside of cells.
These sites include external surfaces of skin and gastrointestinal tract. Drugs also act outside
of cell membranes by chemical interactions. Neutralization of stomach acid by antacids is a
good example
MODE OF DRUG ACTION

It is important to distinguish between actions of drugs and their effects. Actions of drugs are
the biochemicals, physiological mechanisms by which the chemical produces a response in
living organisms. The effect is the observable consequence of a drug action. For example, the
action of penicillin is to interfere with cell wall synthesis in bacteria and the effect is the death
of bacteria.
One major problem of pharmacology is that no drug produces a single effect. The pri-
mary effect is the desired therapeutic effect. Secondary effects are all other effects beside the
desired effect which may be either beneficial or harmful. Drugs are chosen to exploit differ-
ences between normal metabolic processes and any abnormalities, which may be present. Since
the differences may not be very great, drugs may be nonspecific in action and alter normal
functions as well as the undesirable ones, this leads to side effects.
The biological effects observed after a drug has been administered are the result of
interaction between that chemical and some part of the organism. Mechanisms of drug action
can be viewed from different perspectives, namely, the site of action and the general nature of
the drug-cell interaction.
l. Killing foreign organisms. Chemotherapeutic agents act by killing or weakening
foreign organisms such as bacteria, worms, and viruses. The main principle of action is selec-
tive toxicity, i.e. the drug must be more toxic to the parasite than to the host.
2. Stimulation and depression. Drugs act by stimulating or depressing normal physi-
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ological functions. Stimulation increases the rate of activity while depression reduces it.
3. Irritation. It is a non-specific action of a drug that can occur in all the body tissues.
Certain drugs act by causing irritation. Ex: Drugs like senna and castor oil show their laxative
effects by their irritant action on gastrointestinal tract.
4. Replacement. Drugs serve as replacement of essential body chemicals that are ei-
ther absent or present in less than required quantity due to disease. Ex: Insulin is used in
diabetes. Levodopa therapy in Parkinson’s disease.
MECHANISM OF DRUG ACTION

A drug act by virtue of its various properties like physical, chemical, physiological etc. The
fundamental mechanisms of drug action can be distinguished into following categories.
1. Physical Properties
A physical property of the drug is responsible for its action.
(i) Taste. Bitter taste drugs increase the flow the hydrochloric acid reflexly in the stom-
ach. Ex: Quassia, Chirata
(ii) Mass. By increasing the bulk of drug in intestine produce laxative effect. Ex: Isapgol
(iii) Adsorption. Certain drugs like kaolin adsorb water on to its surface and there by
reduce gastric motility
(iv) Radioactivity. The radioactive substances are commonly used to treat cancer. Ex: 125.
2. Chemical Properties
The drugs react extracellularly according to simple chemical reactions like neutraliza-
tion, chelation, oxidation etc. Ex:
(i) Aluminium hydroxide neutralizes acid in stomach
(ii) Toxic heavy metals can be eliminated by chelating agents like EDTA, BAL,
penicillamine etc.
(iii) Oxidising agents are germicidal.
3. Through Enzymes
Enzymes are very important targets of drug action because almost all biological reac-
tions are carried out under the influence of enzymes. Drugs may either increase or decrease
enzymatic reactions. Ex:
(i) Adrenaline stimulates adenyl cyclase
(ii) Pyridoxine acts as a cofactor and increases decarboxylase activity
(iii) Allopurinol competes with hypoxanthine for xanthine oxidase

(iv) Physostigmine and neostigmine compete with acetylcholine for cholinesterase.
4. Through Receptors
A large number of drugs act through specific macromolecular components of the cell,
which regulate critical functions like enzymatic activity, permeability, structural features,
template function etc. These macromolecules, which bind and interact with the drugs, are
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called receptors.
DRUG-RECEPTOR INTERACTIONS
Introduction
The concept of proteins as drug targets is not novel and was suggested at the end of the
19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries. Ehrlich and Langley both contributed the idea
that compounds displayed biological activity by binding to cellular constituents (Ehrlich: ‘cor-
pora non agunt, nisi fixata’, which tells us that ‘agents do not work, unless bound’) that were
soon named ‘receptors’ (Langley: ‘receptive substances’). One could consider that every protein
that acts as the molecular target for a certain drug should be called a receptor. A receptor is a
component of a cell or organism that interacts with a drug and initiates the chain of biochemi-
cal events leading to the drug’s observed effects.
Drug-Receptor Complex Nomenclature
1. Agonist—A drug that activates a receptor is knows as agonist, which has following
properties;
l Agonists can differ in both affinity and efficacy for the receptor
l High efficacy agonists are full agonists because they elicit maximal effects
l Low efficacy agonists are partial agonists because they cannot elicit a maximal effect
at receptors even at high concentrations (false transmitters)
l Direct agonists act on receptors, while indirect agonists facilitate the actions of the
endogenous agonist (the neurotransmitter, itself)
2. Antagonist—A drug that does not activate the receptor is antagonist, which possess
the following features ;
l· Antagonists also prevent the activation of the receptor by an agonist, thus antago-
nists are essentially zero efficacy drugs
l Competitive antagonists bind to the same binding site as the agonist and therefore
compete with the agonist for that binding site
l Non-competitive antagonists have a different binding site to the agonist and there-
fore do not compete with the agonist. Some non-competitive antagonists have a bind-
ing site within the ion channel associated with the receptor complex.
Chemical Nature of Receptors
For many years receptors, remained hypothetical structures, until in the 1970s the de-
velopment of radioactive ligand led to the visualization and quantification of binding sites
for drugs in tissues or isolated cells. Nowadays, structural information (X-ray, NMR) of a
variety of receptor proteins is known and this has led to the development of detailed insights
in the molecular processes involved in drug–receptor interactions.
Receptors are no longer hypothetical. Hundreds of receptor poteins have been isolated,
purified, cloned, and their primary amino acid sequence has been established. It has been
possible to study the receptor by binding assay, biochemical characterization, immunological
characterization and molecular biological characterization.
Most of the receptors like regulatory enzymes (dihydrofolate reductase enzyme)
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acetylcholinesterase transport proteins and structural proteins (Tubulin) are protein in na-
ture and some are glycoproteins (G-protein coupled receptors) or nucleic acids.
Types of Receptors
However, the overall structure of receptor proteins is often not so divergent, suggesting
that signal transmission via receptor proteins is governed by a limited number of basic mecha-
nisms that are utilised in an extremely efficient way. One distinguishes four super-families of
receptor proteins, which cover most of the relevant receptor proteins. These four receptor
families are:
(i) Ligand-gated ion channels. Ligand-gated ion channels, which are membrane-bound
receptors, directly linked to an ion channel. They are also known as ionotropic receptors.
Examples include the nicotine acetylcholine receptor, glutamate receptor and the GABA-A
receptor.
NH2
NH2 HO
+
N
MeCOOCH2CH2N Me3
Acetylcholine N
N H
H serotonin
Histamine
(5-Hydroxytryptamine)
H2NCH2CH2CH2COOH
GABA (γ-Aminobutyric acid)
Thrombin
Structures of selected ligands for G-protein coupled receptors.
(ii) G-protein (Guanine nucleotide-regulatory protein) coupled receptors. G-

protein coupled receptors, which are membrane-bound receptors coupled to G-proteins. After
activation of the G-proteins a variety biochemical signal transduction pathways can be acti-
vated. Many chemical messengers, like hormones and various neurotransmitters, act through
G-protein coupled receptors. They are also known as metabotropic receptors or 7-
transmembrane receptors. Ex: Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors and adrenergic receptors.
(iii) Tyrosine Kinase-linked Receptors. Tyrosine kinase-linked receptors, are mem-
brane bound receptors and contain an intrinsic enzymatic function (tyrosine kinase activity)
in their intracellular domain. Upon combination with ligand like insulin, the receptor is acti-
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vated and is able to phosphorylate tyrosine residues of other intracellular proteins. Protein
phosphorylation is one of the underlying mechanisms of the regulation of protein function. Ex:
Receptors for insulin and various cytokines and growth factors.
Kinase-linked G-protein coupled Ligand-gated

receptors receptors Ion-channels
N N
N
C
tyrosine
kinase 4X
C
C
Intracellular steroid receptor

C N
ligand DNA
binding binding
Schematic representation of the four major classes of receptor

proteins. Except for the steroid receptors, the receptor proteins
are localised in the cell membrane. The ligand-gated ion channels
are made up of an assembly by 4–5 subunits, which each contain
four transmembrane domains.
(iv) Intracellular receptors regulating gene transcription: Intracellular receptors

regulating gene transcription, which are located in the cytosol. Upon binding of the appropri-
ate chemical e.g. steroid hormones, the activated receptors translate to the nucleus and initi-
ate gene transcription. These are also known as nuclear receptors. Ex: Receptors for steroid
hormones, thyroid hormones and vitamin D.
Drug Receptor Interactions
Majority of drugs show remarkably high correlation of structure and specificity to pro-
duce pharmacological effects. A minimum three-point attachment of a drug to a receptor site is
required. In most cases specific chemical structure is required for the receptor site and a com-
plementary drug structure. Slight changes in the molecular structure of the drug may drasti-
cally change specificity. To initiate a biological response, the drug must form bond with the
receptor surface. Different types of binding forces that may exist in drug-receptor interactions
are as follows:
(i) Covalent interactions. These chemical forces may result in a temporary binding of
the drug to the receptor. Frequently, a covalent bond is firm and described as essentially
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“irreversible” under biological conditions. Since by definition the drug-receptor interaction is
reversible, covalent bond formation is rather rare except in a toxic situation. Examples:
(a) A covalent bond is formed between the activated form of phenoxybenzamine
(α-adrenergic receptor antagonist)
(b) Antineoplastic or antibiotic drugs act mainly through the formation of covalent bonds
(c) The DNA-alkylating chemotherapeutic agents are chemically highly reactive, form-
ing covalent bonds with DNA functional groups. Such covalently modified DNA may
be incompatible with successful tumor cell division
(ii) Ionic interactions. Since many drugs contain acid or amine functional groups,
which are ionized at physiological pH. Ionic bonds are formed by the attraction of opposite
charges in the receptor site with the ionized groups of the drug molecule. They are strong
electrostatic interactions (5-10 kcal/mol) and are responsible for relative orientation of the
drug to its binding site. Electrostatic interactions tend to be much more common than the
covalent bonding in drug-receptor interactions. Attraction between ions of opposite charge is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Strong electrostatic inter-
actions occur between permanently charged ionic molecules. The overall contribution of ionic
interactions may be overemphasized due to desolvation. Ionic bonds have a relatively high
stability.
Ex: In acetylcholine molecule, the positively charged quaternary nitrogen may be
attracted to the negative charged ionized carboxyl group present in the receptor site.
(iii) Hydrogen bonding interactions (non-ionic/neutral). Polar-polar interactions
are the attraction of opposite charges. The drug-receptor reaction is essentially an exchange of
the hydrogen bond between a drug molecule, surrounding water, and the receptor site. The
hydrogen bond strength is distance dependent may range from 5 – 7 kcal/mol, depending on
the binding environment.
(iv) Vander Waals interaction. These forces have the following characteristic feutures:
(a) Interactions at a close range
(b) The Vander Waals interaction forces occur less frequently than hydrophobic forces
(c) Interactions are much weaker (~ 0.5-1 kcal/mol) than other electrostatic interactions
(d) Close contacts (attractive forces) over a large surface area i.e. at the interface of ligand
and binding site, may contribute to binding
(v) Hydrophobic/Lipophilic interactions. Finally hydrophobic bonds are formed be-
tween non-polar hydrocarbon groups on the drug and those in the receptor site. These
bonds are not very specific but the interactions do occur to exclude water molecules.
Most of the drug molecules have a non-polar portion (alkyl or aryl groups) which may
combine with non-polar portion of the receptor site through hydrophobic forces. Hy-
drophobic interactions are generally weak, but important. Hydrophobic interactions
are probably significant in driving interactions
(a) Between lipophilic drugs and the lipid component of biological membranes
(b) Between drugs and relatively nonpolar (non charged) receptor regions
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Receptor site theories
After attachment of drug molecule to a receptor site, a drug may either initiate a re-
sponse or prevent a response from occurring.
This concept can be easily understood if one considers the ‘lock-and-key’ principle for
ligand–receptor interaction. Only keys (ligands) that fulfil all criteria for fitting into the lock
(receptor) can open the door (produce an effect). Some keys can fit in the lock but not perfectly,
consequently they cannot open the door yet. By fitting into the lock, these keys prevent the
original key from fitting into the lock and opening the door. The concept of receptor antago-
nism is extremely important in medicinal chemistry and is very often the underlying mecha-
nism of drug action e.g. to prevent the constriction of airway smooth muscle in asthmatic
conditions one can administer receptor antagonists that prevent the actions of the signalling
molecules causing muscle contraction (e.g. histamine and leukotriene antagonists).
effect
Lock-and-key principle for receptor–ligand interactions. Only one of the keys (ligands)
fits perfectly into the lock (receptor) and will be able to open the lock (give a re-
sponse). The small difference between the two keys is indicated by the circle. The
‘imperfect’ key will fit in the lock, but is not able to open the lock. By sitting in the
lock the imperfect key prevents the perfect key getting into the lock. One could
regard an antagonist as an imperfect key and a receptor agonist as the perfect key.
(i) Occupation theory. In fact, similar mathematical models have been applied to the
receptor–ligand interaction. Clark’s occupation theory was the first model that could describe
the observations of drug action on isolated tissues. In this theory the receptor–ligand interaction
is considered to be a bimolecular interaction, in which the receptor–ligand complex is responsible
for the generation of the biological effect. Clark assumed that the effects of a drug were
proportional to the fraction of receptors occupied by the drug. Consequently, for a maximal
effect the drug has to occupy all receptors. In Clark’s theory, the agonist (A) interacts in a
reversible way with the receptor (R) and the formed complex (AR) gives rise to the effect:
A+R AR → effect
In equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction of an agonist A reversibly bound to its
receptor R is proportional to the concentration of A and R, and the proportionality constant is
denoted by k1
rate of association = k1[A][R]
Similarly, the rate of the backward reaction, in which the agonist–receptor complex
dissociates again, is proportional to the concentration of the AR complex
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rate of dissociation = k2 [AR]
At equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate at which existing AR
complexes dissociate i.e. k1[A][R] = k2[AR]. In other words, within a certain period of time the
same number of molecules A will bind to and dissociate from the receptor. At equilibrium the
dissociation constant K can be described as follows:
k1 [A][R]
K= =
k2 [AR]
(ii) Rate theory. Rate theory was proposed by Paton and Rang in 1965. According to
this theory the most important factor in determining drug action is the rate at which drug
receptor combination takes place. The rate theory can be explained by the formula:
k2
Rate of receptor occupation =
KA
1+
[A]
(iii) Induced-fit theory. This theory states that after combination, the substrate in-
duces a change in conformation of the enzyme, leading to an enzymatically active orientation
of groups. Ex: Acetylcholine may interact with the regulating protein and alter the normal
forces. Macromolecular perturbation theory and activation-aggregasion theories are the ex-
tension of induced fit theory.
Physico-chemical Properties
3 of Organic Medicinal Agents
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At the most fundamental level, the ability of a chemical compound to elicit a pharmaco-
logical/therapeutic effect is related to the influence of various physical and chemical (physico-
chemical) properties of the chemical substance on the biomolecule(s) that it interacts with.
Among the most pharmacologically influencial physico-chemical properties of organic medici-
nal agents are;
1. Solubility 2. Partition coefficient
3. Dissociation constant (pKa) 4. Hydrogen bonding
5. Molar refractivity (MR) 6. Ionization
7. Drug shape 8. Complexation
9. Surface activity 10. Protein binding
11. Bioisosterism.
SOLUBILITY
The solubility of a substance at a given temperature is defined as the concentration of the
dissolved solute, which is in equilibrium with the solid solute. Solubility depends on the solute
and solvent as well as temperature, pressure, and pH. The solubility of a substance is the ratio
of these rate constants at equilibrium in a given solution.
The solubility of an organic medicinal agent may be expressed in terms of its affinity/
philicity or repulsion/phobicity for either an aqueous (hydro) or lipid (lipo) solvent.
kSOL
K SOLUBILITY =
kPPT
The atoms and molecules of all organic substances are held together by various types of
bonds (e.g. London forces, hydrogen bonds, dipole-dipole, etc.). These forces are intricately
involved in solubility because it is the solvent-solvent, solute-solute, and solvent-solute inter-
actions that govern solubility.
14
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC MEDICINAL AGENTS 15
KSOL
H2O H2O
H2O
H2O H2O
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KPPT
The most important intermolecular attractive forces (bonds) that are involved in the
solubilization process are;
1. Vander Waals attraction (induced dipole). They are weakest intermolecular forces
(0.5–1.0 kcal/mole) which occur between nonpolar groups (e.g. hydrocarbons). They are highly
distance and temperature dependent.
2. Dipole-Dipole Bonding. These forces occur when electronegative elements are
attached to carbon. They are stronger (1.0 to 10 kcal/mole) and occur electrostatically between
electron deficient and electron rich atoms (dipoles). Hydrogen bonding is a specific example of
this bonding and serves as a prime contributor to hydrophilicity.
3. Ionic Bonding. Ionic bond is electrostatic attraction between cations and anions.
These ionic attractions are common in inorganic compounds and salts of organic molecules
and are relatively strong (5 kcal/mole).
Probably the most important factor in the prediction of water solubility in ionic drugs is
their ability to ionize. The degree of ionization of a drug is by far the best predictor of solubility
for most compounds, which are acidic or basic.
4. Ion-Dipole Bonding. This is electrostatic force between a cation/anion and a dipole.
It is relatively strong (1-5 kcal/mole) and is low temperature and distance dependent. Ion-
dipole bonding is an important attraction between organic medicinal agent and water.
Hence, the relative solubility of an organic medicinal agent is a function of the presence
of both lipophilic and hydrophilic features within its structure, which serve to determine the
extent of interaction of the organic medicinal agent with lipid and/or aqueous phases.
Methods to Improve the Solubility of Drugs
1. Structural Modifications
(a) One method to increase solubility of a drug is to alter the chemical structure of the
molecule. The addition of polar groups like carboxylic acids, ketones and amines can
increase solubility by increasing hydrogen bonding and the interaction with water.
(b) Another structural modification can be to reduce intramolecular forces. An example
of structural modification to enhance solubility by this method is methyl dopa
(solubility ~10 mg/ml) and methyl dopate (solubility 10-300 mg/ml) depending on
pH. The addition of the ethyl ester to methyldopa reduces the intramolecular hydrogen
bond between the carboxylic acid and primary amine. Therefore, this addition reduces
the melting point and increases solubility.
(c) Use of Co-solvents. Another method to increase solubility is the use of co-solvents.
The co-solvents can increase solubility by several orders of magnitude. Some com-
monly used co-solvents are propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, ethanol and sorbitol.
The addition of a co-solvent can increase solubility of hydrophobic molecules by re-
ducing the dielectric constant of the solvent. Some problems with the use of co-sol-
vents are precipitation of the drug with dilution of solvent mixture and tissue dam-
age or pain upon injection. This dilution occurs after administration of the drug into
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the body.
(d) Employing surfactants. Surfactants can also be used to enhance solubility. A
surfactant or surface active agent is amphiphilic, meaning it has polar end (the cir-
cular head) and a nonpolar (the tail). When a surfactant is placed in water it will
form micelles. A nonpolar drug will partition into the hydrophobic core of the micelle
and will get solubilized.
(e) Complexation. There are many types of complexing agents. Complexation relies on
relatively weak forces such as London forces, hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic
interactions. As the concentration of complexing agent is increased, so is the solubility,
up to a point. In some cases however, the complex can precipitate out from solution
as the concentration of complexing agent is increased.
Importance of Solubility
(a) The concept of solubility is not only important to a pharmacist because it governs the
preparation of solutions as a dosage form but also because a drug must be in solution
before it can be absorbed by the body or have any biological activity.
(b) Drugs must be in solution to interact with receptors. Drugs have some degree of
solubility in both aqueous and lipid compartments. In order for a chemical compound
to dissolve in a particular solvent/medium the compound must establish attractive
forces between itself and molecules of the solvent. Hence, it is possible to estimate
the solubility properties of an organic medicinal agent (hydrophilic vs. lipophilic) by
examining the structure of the organic medicinal agent and noting whether its struc-
tural features promote affinity for aqueous or lipid media.
PARTITION COEFFICIENT
The ability of a drug to dissolve in a lipid phase when an aqueous phase is also present, often
referred to as lipophilicity. The lipophilicity can be best characterized by partition coefficient.
Partition coefficient can be defined as the equilibrium constant of drug concentrations for
“unionizable” molecules in the two phases:
[drug]lipid
P=
[drug]water
and for “ionizable” molecules (acids, bases, salts), where alpha (α) is the degree of ionization in
aqueous solution. It is basically a constitutive property.
[drug]lipid
P=
(1 − α) [ drug]water
Naturally, the partition coefficient is one of the several physicochemical parameters
influencing drug transport and distribution. The contribution of each functional groups and
their structural arrangement help to determine the lipophilic or hydrophilic character of the
molecule. Partition coefficient majorly influence drug transport characteristics; the way in
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which the drugs reach the site of action from the site of application (e.g. injection site,
gastrointestinal tract, and so forth). Since the blood distributes drugs, they must penetrate
and traverse many cells to reach the site of action.
Compound Lipid/water partition coefficient
Ethanol 0.03
Morphine 0.40
Barbitone 1.40
Phenobarbitone 5.90
Phenobarbitone has a high lipid/water partition coefficient of 5.9. Thiopentone sodium
has a chloroform/water partition coefficient of about 100, so it is highly soluble in lipid and can
easily pass through blood brain barrier.
Partition coefficient measurement
Since partition coefficients are difficult to measure in living systems, they are usually
determined in vitro using 1-octanol (n-octanol) as the lipid phase and a phosphate buffer of pH
7.4 as the aqueous phase. The partition coefficient, P is dimensionless, and its logarithm (log
P) is widely used as the measure of lipophilicity. The LogP is determined by following meth-
ods:
(i) Log P by shake flask. The shake flask method is the oldest and most tedious way
of measuring log P values. The UV absorbance of an aqueous solution is measured before and
after being shaken with a known volume of octanol. The method is messy and smelly but is the
only method that can be used in cases of very low Log P values. One advantage of the method
is that the appearance of compound in the octanol may be checked against the disappearance
from the aqueous phase to see if any surface effects have occurred. Some molecules may form
effective surfactants. It is very important to pre-saturate the solvents in prolonged shake-
flask experiments. The experiment must be performed over 3 days or more to ensure equilib-
rium is reached, although the actual time taken in doing the experiment is about 0.5 day.
(ii) Log P by HPLC. HPLC may be used to estimate Log P values. Compounds with
known Log P’s are injected onto a C18 reverse phase HPLC column to create a calibration
curve. Unknown compounds are then injected to predict Log P. Strictly this technique is only
valid for neutral molecules. Charged molecules have far more complex retention behaviour
than simple partition.
The chromatographic methods suffer the disadvantage that the retention time is lin-
early related to the partition coefficient, i.e. for a doubling of the LogP, there is a tenfold
increase in the retention. This often requires different length columns to be used, short ones
for high LogP values and long ones for low values.
Relationships between Log P and activity
The partition coefficient is also a very useful parameter that may be used in combination
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with the pKa to predict the distribution of a drug compound in a biological system. Factors
such as absorption, excretion and penetration into the CNS may be related to the Log P value
of a drug. Drugs should be designed with the lowest possible Log P, to reduce toxicity, non-
specific binding, increase ease of formulation and bioavailability.
Relationships between Log P and activity are often found in series where structural
modifications have not significantly affected the pKa values. Hansch in 1964 showed that
these relationships were often parabolic hence the relationship often leads to an optimum
value for the log P for a desired activity or selective distribution. Relationships of the following
types are generated using regression analysis to correlate observed biological activity with
measured partition coefficients.
Activity = m log P + k′ (linear)
Activity = m log P – c(log P)2 – k(parabolic)
Activity = m log P – c(blog P +1) – k(rectilinear) (where m, k and c are constants)
The best way of relating LogP, pKa and other physico-chemical properties to biological
activity is using multivariate techniques such as Principal Components Analysis and Partial
Least Squares regression.
DISSOCIATION CONSTANTS
The dissociation constant is one of the most important characteristics of a pharmaceutical
compound. Majority of drugs are weak acids or weak bases and like acetic acid or ammonia,
they react with water to form conjugate pairs. The pKa or ‘Dissociation constant’ is a measure
of the strength of an acid or a base and is sometimes called the acidity constant or the ioniza-
tion constant. It is a numerical representative of the relative proton transfer for that sub-
stance, or the likelihood of that compound donating a proton. It is calculated in the same
fashion as the equilibrium constant.
Weak acid drug + Water H3O+ + Weak base drug anion–
acid base conjugate acid conjugate base
Weak base drug + Water OH– + H+ Weak base drug

base acid conjugate base conjugate acid
Let us consider equation for the protolysis of water by an acidic drug (HA).
HA + H2O H3O+ + A–
At equilibrium, the velocity of the reaction proceeding to the ionized components (k1) is
equal to the velocity of the reaction resulting in the unionized HA and H2O (k2).
(k1) = [HA][H2O]
(k2) = [H3O+][A–]
Weakly acidic and basic drugs ionize only slightly in the presence of water. That being
the case, the concentration of water in the above equation may be taken as a constant, by
rearranging the equation to yield:
Ka = k2 (55.53)/k1 = [A–][H3O+]/[HA]
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where 55.53 is the number of moles of water per liter at 25°C.
This value, Ka, gives us numeric value to express the degree to which a compound ion-
izes, or dissociates, in aqueous solution. Dissociation constants are determined by experimen-
tal data, and are unique to each molecule. Conductivity, freezing point depression, pH of solu-
tion, and spectrophotometric data may be used to determine a compound’s dissociation con-
stant.
Ex: Acetaminophen is an acidic drug with a Ka of 1.2 × 10–10, and is thus much less likely
to ionize in aqueous solution than aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid), which has a ka of 3.27 × 10–4.
Often it is cumbersome to deal with exponential forms, so pKa may be used to describe
the tendency of a weak acid to ionize. The following equation should be used to calculate the
pka of a substance.
pKa = – log [[A–][H3O+]/[HA]]
Relationship to pKa and acid strength: For almost all the drugs, the dissociation
constants are reported as pKa, regardless of whether the drug is a weak acid or a weak base.
For acids, Ka refers to the ability of the acid to give out the proton. Therefore, the higher the
tendency of an acid to give out the proton, the stronger is the acid (or the lower the pKa value).
For bases, Ka refers to the ability of the conjugated acid form of the base to give out the proton.
Therefore, the higher the conjugated acid’s (of the base) tendency to give out the proton (the
lower the pKa value), the weaker the original base. In other words, the conjugated acid of a
stronger base has a lesser tendency to give out the proton because a strong base attracts the
proton more than a weak base does.
Some examples of acidic and basic drugs;
Acidic Drugs : HA + H2O H3O+ + A–
Ka Kb pKa pKb
Penicillin V 2.0 × 10–3 5.4 × 10–12 2.7 11.3
Acetylsalicylic Acid 3.3 × 10–4 3.1 × 10–11 3.5 10.5
Ascorbic Acid 5.0 × 10–5 2.0 × 10–10 4.3 9.7
Zidovudine 2.0 × 10–10 5.0 × 10–5 9.7 4.3
Basic Drugs : A + H2O HA+ + –OH
Ka Kb pKa pKb
Caffeine 2.5 × 10–4 4.0 × 10–11 3.6 10.4
Zalcitabine 6.3 × 10–5 1.6 × 10–10 4.2 9.8
Theophylline 3.4 × 10–6 1.6 × 10–9 5.2 8.8
Morphine 7.4 × 10–7 7.4 × 10–7 7.9 6.1

Erythromycin 2.0 × 10–9 6.3 × 10–6 8.8 5.2
Importance of pKa. It is because pKa affects the proportion of drug molecules in the
ionized and unionized forms. The ratio of ionized over unionized form affects drug’s solubility,
permeability, binding, and other characteristics. The pKa allows to determine the charge on a
molecule at any given pH. pKa and Log P measurements are useful parameters in under-
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standing the behavior of drug molecules.
HYDROGEN BONDING
The hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom in
a polar bond such as N—H, O—H, or F—H and an electronegative atom O, N, or F atom. This
interaction is written as A—H ·············B.
A and B represent O, N or F. A—H is one molecule (or) part of a molecule and B is a part
of another molecule; and the dotted line represents the hydrogen bond. These three atoms
usually lie along a straight line, but the angle AHB can deviate as much as 30° from linearity.
Ex: Hydrogen bonding in NH3, H2O and HF
H H
H—O ············· H—O H—N ············· H—O H—N ············· H—F
H H H H H
H2O—H2O NH3—H2O NH3—HF
Generally the hydrogen bonding is classified into 2 types
(A) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding
(B) Intramolecular hydrogen bonding
(A) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding. In this type, hydrogen bonding occurs be-
tween two or more than two molecules of the same compound and results in the formation of
polymeric aggregate.
H H H
H—N ············· H—N ············· N—H H—O ············· H—O ············· H—O
H H H H H H
Hydrogen bonding in ammonia Hydrogen bonding in water
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding increases the boiling point of the compound and also
its solubility in water. The molecules that are able to develop intermolecular hydrogen bond-
ing improve their solubility by the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonding with water.
Ex: Ethanol shows higher boiling point and higher solubility in water than dimethyl ether
even though both have the same molecular weight.
Molecular Weight Boiling Point

Ethanol (C2H6O) 46 78°C
Dimethyl ether (C2H6O) 46 – 25°C
Diethyl ether (C4H10O) 74 61°C
1-Butanol (C4H10O) 74 118°C
(B) Intramolecular hydrogen bonding. In this type, hydrogen bonding occurs with
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in two atoms of the same molecule. This type of hydrogen bonding is commonly known as
chelation and frequently occurs in organic compounds. Sometimes intramolecular hydrogen
bonding develops a six or 5-membered ring. Ex:
H
H O O
O H O O H C H
Cl N=O O O
Hydrogen bonding in Hydrogen bonding in Hydrogen bonding in

o-chlorophenol o-nitro phenol 2, 6 dihydroxy benzoic acid
Intramolecular hydrogen bonding decreases the boiling point of the compound and also
its solubility in water. This is because of the fact that the chelation between the ortho substi-
tuted groups restricts the possibility of intermolecular hydrogen bonding with water and thus
prevents association of the molecules, which would have raised the melting point, boiling point.
Compound Boiling Point
o-Nitrophenol
H
O O
N=O
215°C
Intra molecular
hydrogen bonding in
o-nitro phenol
p-Nitrophenol
OH
279°C
NO2
Intermolecular
hydrogen bonding
m-Nitrophenol
OH
279°C
NO2
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Effects of hydrogen bonding. Almost all physical properties are affected by hydro-
gen bonding. Here only those properties that are prominently altered such as boiling points,
melting point, water solubility etc., are discussed. In addition to physical properties several
chemical properties like acid character, basic character, properties of carbonyl group are also
affected by hydrogen bonding.
(i) Boiling and melting points. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding increases the boiling
point of the compound due to association of several molecules of the same compound. As a
result the intermolecular forces are increased and hence more energy (large amount of heat) is
required to dissociate the molecules for vaporization. Intramolecular hydrogen bonding
decreases the boiling point of the compound because of the fact that the chelation between the
groups of same molecule restricts the possibility of intermolecular hydrogen bonding and thus
prevents association of the molecules, which would have raised the melting point and boiling
point.
(ii) Water solubility. Solubility of a substance increases tremendously when hydrogen
bonding is possible between the solvent and the solute. Ex: Methanol and ethanol are highly
soluble in water due to hydrogen bonding between molecules.
R—O ············· H—O ············· H—O

H R R
The high solubility of polyhydric phenols and sugars may be attributed to the fact that
these compounds make available greater number of —OH groups for hydrogen bonding.
(iii) Strength of acids. Any structural feature that contributes for the greater stability
of anion in comparison to free acid will shift the ionization equilibrium to the right. Thus if the
anion of acid were stabilized due to intramolecular hydrogen bonding, there would be marked
increase in the strength of acid. Ex: The ionization constant of salicylic acid is higher than the
other two isomers and is 17 times more acidic than benzoic acid.
(iv) Spectroscopic properties. The hydrogen bonding shifts the position of bands in
infrared and NMR spectra of organic compounds. Ex: Infrared spectrum of ethyl alcohol in
vapour phase shows absorption band at 3700 cm–1 due to free hydroxyl group. In solution this
band is completely replaced by a broad band around 3500 cm–1 which is characteristic of hy-
drogen bonded hydroxyl groups.
(v) Surface tension and Viscosity. The compounds which possess hydrogen bonding
are found to have higher surface tension and viscosity. Glycerol, glycol, sulphuric acid, sugar
syrup, phosphoric acid, etc., are viscous liquids due to extensive hydrogen bonding between
their molecule. Due to more number of hydroxyl (—OH) groups, the extent of hydrogen bond-
ing is more in glycerol. So, it is more viscous than glycol.
(vi) Biological products. The three dimensional structures of proteins and nucleic
acids is due to hydrogen bonding. In α-helices, hydrogen bonds extend from the hydrogen
atoms of polar N—H units in peptide group to oxygen atoms of polar carbonyl units.
—N—H ················· O = C
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Hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bonds are extremely important in the chemistry of the genetic code. The dou-
ble strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds. The replication of DNA depends on
hydrogen bonds which selectively connect specific base pairs, as do the several steps by which
the genetic message determines the specific order of amino acids in a protein.
(vii) Drug-Receptor interactions. Hydrogen bonding is also a secondary binding force
in drug-receptor interactions.
MOLAR REFRACTIVITY (MR)

The molar refractivity is the molar volume connected by the refractive index. It represents
size and polarizability of a fragment or molecule. Originally proposed by Pauling and Pressman
as a parameter for the correlation of dispersion forces involved the binding of haptens to
antibodies. It is determined from the refractive index, n, the molecular weight, and the
density of a crystal, d.
(n 2 − 1) MW
MR = .
(n 2 + 1) d
Since refractive index doesn’t change much for organic molecules, the term is domi-
nated by the MW and density. Larger MW, larger the steric effect and greater the density. A
smaller MR for the same MW indicates stronger interactions in the crystal (larger density
indicates that the packing is better due to stronger interactions).
IONIZATION OF DRUGS
The accumulation of an ionized drug in a compartment of the body is known as”ion trapping”.
The ionization of a drug is dependent on its pKa and the pH. The pKa is the negative Loga-
rithm of Ka. The Ka is the acidity constant of a compound, its tendency to release a proton. The
ratio of ionized/ non ionized drug may be determined by the Henderson- Hasselbalch relation-
ship,
pH – pKa = log ([A–]/[HA])
= log ([ionized]/[non ionized]) for acids
pH – pKa = log ([B]/[HB+])
= log([non ionized]/[ionized]) for bases
Fraction non-ionized = [HA]/ ([HA]+[A–])
= 1/1 + ([A–]/[HA])) = 1/(1 + antilog(pH – pKa))
This may be used to derive an Effective partition coefficient :

Ex: Phenobarbital pKa is 7.4. It is evident that phenobarbital would be predominantly
in the unionised form in acidic environment.
Importance of ionisation of drugs
1. The lower the pH relative to the pKa greater is the fraction of protonated drug
(protonated drug may be charged or uncharged)
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2. weak acid at acidic pH : more lipid-soluble, becauses it is uncharged—the uncharged
form more readily passes through biological membranes.
Note that a weak acid at acidic pH will pick up a proton and become uncharged
RCOO– + H+ → RCOOH
3. weak base at alkaline pH : more lipid-soluble, because it is uncharged—the uncharged
form more readily passes through biological membranes.
Note that a weak base at more alkaline pH will lose a proton, becoming uncharged
RNH3+ → RNH2 + H+
DRUG SHAPE
The shape of the drug is an important factor in defining the nature of the drug-receptor inter-
action. The three-dimensional shape of the drug is thought to interact with a complementary
structural binding region of the receptor, typically a protein. The specific nature of the interac-
tion defines whether the drug acts as an agonist promoting a change in cellular function or as
an antagonist, which blocks the receptor usually resulting in no direct biological effect.
For example, consider acetylcholine or a synthetic analogue bethanechol (Urecholine).
Interaction of these molecules with receptor (nicotinic or muscarinic cholinergic receptor) causes
a physiological response i.e a decrease in heart rate for instance. Incontrast, a muscarinic
antagonist such as atropine may bind even more tightly than acetylcholine to muscarinic
receptor but causes no direct effect. However, following administration of antagonist a biologi-
cal response may be observed as a result of receptor blockade.
COMPLEXATION
Complexes or coordination compounds result from a donor-acceptor mechanism (donating-
accepting electron or, rather, an electron pair) or Lewis acid-base reaction (donating-accept-
ing protons). Any non-metallic atom or ion, whether free or contained in a neutral molecule
or in an ionic compound, that can donate an electron pair, may serve as the donor. The
acceptor, or constituent that accept the pair of electrons, can be a metallic ion or sometimes
also a neutral molecule. In addition to “coordinate covalence” (i.e., bonds formed by the
classical electron donor-acceptor mechanism), intramolecular forces can also be involved in
the formation of complexes.
Complexes may be divided broadly into two classes depending on whether the acceptor
compound is a metal ion or an organic molecule.
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A third class, the inclusion complexes, involve the entrapment of one compound in the
molecular framework of another.
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4
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Chemistry of Prodrugs
THE PRODRUG CONCEPT

The prodrug concept was first proposed by Albert in 1958. Albert and his co-workers
described prodrugs as pharmacologically inactive chemical derivatives that could be used to
alter the physicochemical properties of drugs, in a temporary manner, to increase their useful-
ness and/or to decrease associated toxicity.
“Enzyme”
+
Drug + Cap = Prodrug Drug Cap

(synthesis in the lab)
(released at the site of action)
Pro + Drug
Pro Drug
This is done in the laboratory.

(Chemistry)
31
Drug Drug Pro
Normally this is the situation
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Enzymatic or
chemical
Biological Barrier
transformation
Pro Drug Pro Drug
This is happening in the body.

(In vivo)
They have also been called ‘latentiated drugs’, ‘bioreversible derivatives’, and ‘conge-
ners’. Ideally, the prodrug is converted to the original drug as soon as the derivative reaches
the site of action, followed by rapid elimination of the released derivatizing group without
causing side effects in the process.
Ex:
O
(CH3)3CCO— —CH—CH2—NH—CH3
O
OH
(CH3)3CCO
Dipivefrin (Prodrug)
(inactive)
Esterase
HO— —CH—CH2—NH—CH3
OH
HO
Epinephrine (Drug)
Prodrugs are pharmacologically inactive derivatives of active drugs. They are designed
to maximize the amount of active drug that reaches its site of action, through manipulation of
the physicochemical, biopharmaceutical or pharmacokinetic properties of the drug.
CHEMISTRY OF PRODRUGS 33
APPLICATIONS OF PRODRUGS
Prodrugs are converted into the active drug within the body through enzymatic or non-enzymatic
reactions. The various applications of prodrug approach are;
1. Improved physicochemical properties (e.g., better solubility in the intended formula-
tion)
2. Enhanced delivery characteristics and/or therapeutic value of the drug
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3. To improve drug penetration through biological membranes
4. To increase site specificity of the drug
5. To improve the drug’s stability and solubility
6. To increase duration of pharmacological activity
7. To decrease the drug’s toxicity and adverse effects
8. To improve patient acceptence.
IDEAL REQUIREMENTS OF PRODRUGS

An ideal prodrug must meet the following requirements;
1. The prodrug is inactive or less active than the parent compound
2. The linkage between the drug and the carrier must be cleaved in vivo
3. The carrier molecule released in vivo must be non-toxic
4. The metabolic fragments of carrier molecule, apart from the drug should be non-toxic
CLASSIFICATION OF PRODRUGS
The prodrugs are classified according to the functional group. They are;
1. Carboxylic acids and alcohols. Prodrugs of carboxylic acid and alcohol
functionalities can be prepared by conversion to an ester. The ester can be easily hydrolysed
by esterase enzymes (ester hydrolase, lipase, cholesterol esterase, acetylcholinesterase,
carboxypeptidase) present in plasma and other tissues to give active drug.
Ex:
OH H OH H
CH——C—NH—C—CHCl2 CH——C—NHCOCHCl2
O
O CH2OH
CH2—O—C—(CH2)14CH3 + CH3(CH2)14—C—OH
O
NO2 NO2
Chloramphenicol palmitate Chloramphenicol Palmitic acid

Antibiotic prodrugs comprise the largest group of prodrugs developed to improve oral
absorption.
Ex: Pivampicillin, talampicillin and bacampicillin are prodrugs of ampicillin, all result-
ing from the esterification of the polar carboxylate group. The absorption of these prodrugs is
nearly complete (98-99%) whereas that of ampicillin is < 50%.
Enalapril, the most widely prescribed ACE inhibitor, is the ethyl ester prodrug of the
active diacid, enalaprilat. Enalaprilat is poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract (<
10%), but absorption of the prodrug enalapril is greatly improved (60%).
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2. Amines. Due to high chemical stability of amide linkage and lack of amidase en-
zymes amines are not derivatised to amide prodrugs. A more common approach has been to
utilize mannich bases as a prodrug form of the amines.
NH2
NH S CH3 H3C
CH3 + O=C
O
N H3C
O COOH
CH3
Ampicillin Acetone
HN CH3
N S CH3
CH3
O
N
O COOH
Hetacillin
3. Azo Linkage. Amines are derivatised to azolinkage prodrugs.

Ex: Prontosil
Azoreductase
H2N— —N = N— —SO2NH2 H2N— —SO2NH2
NH2 Sulfanilamide
Prontosil
+ H2N— —NH2
NH2
4. Carbonyl compounds. Carbonyl functionalities such as aldehydes and ketones are

converted to prodrugs. However this approach has not found wide clinical utility. These have
generally involved derivatives in which the sp2 hybridized carbonyl carbon is converted to an
sp3 hybridised carbon attached to two heteroatoms such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. These
prodrugs are reconverted to the carbonyl compounds by hydrolysis.
Ex: Methenamine releases HCHO in the urine, which acts as an antibacterial agent.
N
CH2 +
H2 H
6HCHO + 4NH3
C N CH2
N N Formaldehyde Ammonia
Methenamine
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DEVELOPMENT OF PRODRUGS:
The successes of prodrug design are many, and a large variety of such compounds have
proven their therapeutic value. Some important prodrug concepts are described below;
1. To Improve patient acceptance. One of the reasons for poor patient compliance,
particularly in case of children, is the bitterness, acidity or causticity of the drug. Two ap-
proaches can be utilized to overcome the bad taste of drug. The first is reduction of drug solu-
bility in saliva and the other is to lowers the affinity of drug towards taste receptors.
Ex. : Clindamycin has bitter taste, so it is not well accepted by children. It was found
that by increasing the chain-length of 2-acylesters of clindamycin, the taste improved from
bitter to non-bitter taste (phosphate ester).
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

CH3
+
N N
+ H Cl H Cl
C3H8 C3H8
C———NH H C———NH H
H O HO O HO
H
O O
Phosphatase
HO HO + H3PO4
O HO
SCH3 SCH3
Clindamycin Clindamycin
O = P—OH
phosphate
–
O
2. To reduce gastric irritation. Several drugs (NSAIDS, nicotinic acid, kanamycin,

diethylstilboestrol) cause irritation and damage to gastric mucosa. These problems of drugs
can be overcome by changing to prodrugs.
Ex. : Salicylic acid to aspirin
Nicotinic acid to nicotinic acid hydrazide
O
COOH C—NHNH2
N N
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3. To improve chemical stability. Several drugs may decompose during their shelf
life or in the GIT when used orally. The prodrug approach of such drugs is a good technique to
improve stability.
Ex. : Azacytidine (antineoplastic drug) in aqueous solution is readily hydrolyzed but its
bisulphite prodrug is stable.
NH2 NH2
N N N N
SO3H
O N O N H
Ribose Ribose
Azacytidine Bisulphite prodrug of azacytidine
4. Prodrugs for increased water solubility. Drugs with hydroxyl functional group
can be converted into their hydrophilic forms by use of half-esters such as hemiglutarates or
hemiphthalates ; the other half of these acidic carriers can form sodium, potassium or amine
salts and render the moiety water soluble.
Ex. : Prednisolone and methylprednisolone are poorly water-soluble corticosteroid drugs.
Prednisolone phosphate is a water-soluble prodrug of prednisolone that is activated in vivo by
phosphatases.
CH2OH – +
CH2O–PO3 Na
C O
C O
OH OH
H3C H3C
HO OH
H3C H3C
H H H H
O O
Prednisolone Prednisolone sodium
phosphate
5. To decrease drug’s toxicity and adverse effects. An important objective of drug
design is to develop drugs with high activity and low toxicity.
Ex. : Dipivaloylepinephrine prodrug instead of epinephrine to treat glaucoma.
OH
OH H
H—C—CH2—NH—CH3
H—C—CH2—N—CH3
CH3
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O—C—C—CH3
OH CH3 O
OH O CH3
H3C—C——C = O
Epinephrine Dipivaloyl
CH3 epinephrine
Esterification of aspirin greatly suppresses gastric uterogenic activity.
6. To improve membrane transport. Barbiturates are a group of compounds respon-

sible for profound sedative and hypnotic effect. They are weakly acidic in nature and are con-
verted to the corresponding sodium salt in aqueous sodium hydroxide. The sodium salt is
extensively employed for intravenous anesthetic properties. Barbituric acid is the parent mem-
ber of this group of compounds. Various barbiturates differ in the time required for the onset of
sleep and in the duration of their effect.Hexobarbitone was found to be an effective drug but its
membrane permeability was found to be low. However N-methylhexobarbitone a simple de-
rivative of the parent drug was found to have better permeability characteristics. After intake,
the N-methyl group is cleaved in the liver to release the physiologically active drug.
CH3
H H
O N O O N O O N O
H3C H3C
NH NCH3 NCH3
O O O
Barbituric acid Hexobarbitone N-Methylhexobarbitone

Similarly, membrane transportation characteristics of the neurotransmitter dopamine
used for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease can be improved by administering its prodrug L-
3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (Levo-DOPA). This derivative has better blood-brain permeation
characteristics since it uses amino acid channels for transportation. Once inside the cell,
decarboxylase enzyme removes the acid group to generate dopamine.
NH2 NH2
COOH
HO HO
OH OH
Dopamine Levo-DOPA
7. Prolonged Activity. The prodrug by its improved characteristics gets closer to the
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receptor site for a longer period of time, and conversion to the parent drug takes place at the
site of action.
Nordazepam is a drug used for sedation, particularly as an anxiolytic. It is also used as
a muscle relaxant. However, it loses activity too quickly due to metabolism and excretion. A
prodrug introduced to improve the retention characteristics is (diazepum). Due to presence of
N-methyl group the prodrug resists quick degradation. Slow release of the nordazepam in the
liver by demethylation prolongs body retention characteristics.
CH3
O H O
N N
N N
Cl Cl
Diazepam (Valium) Nordazepam
O Phosphatase O
In vivo
HN N O O HN N OH
P
O O O O
Fosphenytoin : aq. solubility = 350 mM (—CH2O)

Prodrug (i.v. injectable)
HN NH
O
Phenytoin : aq. solubility = 0.08 mM
Drug (anticonvulsant)
8. Tissue specific prodrug design. The site-specific drug delivery can be achieved by
the tissue activation, which is the result of an enzyme unique to the tissue or present in higher
concentration. Dexamethasone and prednisolone are corticosteroids used for anti inflammatory
properties. They are steroid drugs and are hydrophobic in nature. They are absorbed efficiently
in intestinal tract and as such do not reach colon area for treatment. However, when produgs
dexamethasone-21-β-glucoside and prednisolone-21-β-glucoside were used they were absorbed
in colon more efficiently compared to their parent drugs. The prodrugs are hydrophilic in
nature and therefore are absorbed poorly in intestine. The glucosidase enzymes present in the
bacteria located in colon release the parent hydrophobic drugs for absorption in the area.
O β-D-glucose OH
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O O
CH3 CH3
OH OH
HO HO
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
F H F H
O O
Prodrug of dexamethasone Dexamethasone

9. Prodrug design based on site specific conditions. Tumor cells associated with
cancer can be differentiated from normal cells. The blood vessels in the tumor tissue often lack
regularity and systematic connectivity leaving unvascularized zones, especially in the interior
areas leading to unstable blood flow. Cells that do not have blood supply die as a result of lack
of oxygen supply and also the intermediate regions get deficient supply of oxygen. This area is
called hypoxia region.
For example, tyrapazamine has been developed as a cytotoxic agent. It has two N-oxide
moieties, which on reduction gets converted to highly reactive diradicals. The diradicals are
responsible for cleavage of DNA.
10. Enzyme specific prodrug design. Cancer cells due to differing physiological con-
ditions, enzyme groups such as glucuronidases, proteases receptors show activity in excess in
cancer cells compared to normal cells. Several prodrugs have been developed taking advan-
tage the excessive activity of the above enzymes in tumor tissues.
Derivatives of doxorubicin and paclitaxel were prepared wherein active sites are blocked
by strategically attaching suitable polypeptide to the drug but separated by spacer. The spacer
was used to expose the polypeptide chain open for plasmin activity. Both the prodrugs were
found to be inactive and stable under biological pH conditions but they were readily cleaved
with the release of parent drugs in the presence of plasmin enzymes present in tumor cells.
The prodrugs were synthesized by blocking important functional group in the molecule with a
polypeptide-capping agent to make them inactive. The spacer group was designed to self elimi-
nate after hydrolysis of the polypeptide chain by the enzyme.
O OH O
OH
OMe O OH O O OH O
O
OH
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H2N OH
OMe O OH O
Doxorubicin
NH3Cl
O
O (CH2)4
H
N N HN OH
ClH3N N H
H
O O O O
Plasmin targeted doxorubicin based prodrug having a spacer
SOFT DRUGS
The soft drugs are defined as therapeutically beneficial agents characterised by a predictable
and controllable invivo metabolism to non-toxic moieties, after they achieve their therapeutic
role. The application of soft drugs concept is necessary to overcome and to improve (a)
pharmacokinetic insufficiencies (b) transportability and (c) site specificity. The designed soft
drug is transformed by facile and predicted routes of metabolism ultimately resulting in the
delivery of the active drug at the expected sites of action.
The soft drug concept was successfully applied to local delivery of steroids, drugs acting
on specific areas in eyes, brain and testes.
Soft Drug (active)
Metabolism
Inactive Moiety Activator
Soft drug concept
5 Drug Metabolism
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INTRODUCTION
Metabolism is the body’s mechanism for processing, using, inactivating, and eventually
eliminating foreign substances, including drugs. Drug exerts its influence upon the body, it is
gradually metabolized, or neutralized. The liver, the blood, the lymph fluid, or any body tissue
that recognizes the drug as a foreign substance can break down or alter the chemical structure
of drugs, making them less active, or inert. Drugs also can be neutralized by diverting them to
body fat or proteins, which hold the substances to prevent them from acting on body organs.
Once a drug is metabolized, it is the kidneys that normally filter the neutralized particles,
called metabolites, as well as other waste and water, from the blood. Drugs can also be excreted
out of the body by the lungs, in sweat, or in feces.
Drug metabolism is basically a process that introduces hydrophilic functionalities onto
the drug molecule to facilitate excretion. Metabolism is defined as the process of polarization
of a drug. This results in the formation of a metabolite that is more polar and, thus, less able to
move into tissues and more able to be excreted from the body. Drug metabolism is a detoxifica-
tion function the human body possesses to defend itself from environment hostility. Metabo-
lism is a major mechanism of drug elimination.
Drug H
in Ke U
Drug
Body
in
Urine
Km = Knr
Drug as M
Air metabolite
Sweat in Body Kmu Mu
Bile Metabolite
Metabolism in
Urine
The first human metabolism study was performed in 1841 by Alexander Ure, who
observed the conversion of benzoic acid to hippuric acid and proposed the use of benzoic acid
for the treatment of gout.
41
SITES OF METABOLISM
Liver
Liver is the primary site for metabolism. Liver contains the necessary enzymes for
metabolism of drugs and other xenobiotics. Metabolic processes may either decrease or increase
the effects of drugs.
For example, the liver enzymes help to convert ethanol, (the active ingredient in alcohol),
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into water, oxygen and carbon dioxide, which are then excreted from the body through the
kidneys, sweat glands, and lungs. However, metabolic processes occasionally increase the effects
of psychoactive drugs. Diazepam is transformed by the liver enzymes into 3 or 4 compounds
which are more active than the original drug.
Since isoniazid is active and N-acetylisoniazid is not, the rate and extent of metabolism
will affect the efficacy of the drug in treating tuberculosis.
O
H H
O N O N—C—CH3
NH2 H3C O
+ S → + CoASH
N CoA N
Isoniazid AcetylcoenzymeA N-Acetylisoniazid
Other main organs of biotransformation

Although liver is the primary site for metabolism, virtually all tissue cells have some
metabolic activities. Other organs having significant metabolic activities include the
gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, and lungs. Recently, it has become apparent that metabolism
may occur in the epithelial cells lining the gastrointestinal tract.
METABOLIC REACTIONS
Metabolic conversions are classified as either Phase I (oxidation, reduction or hydrolysis), or
Phase II (conjugation).
PHASE I : REACTIONS
Phase I metabolism is likely to be the predominant pathway of biotransformation. The
enzymes involved in Phase I reactions are primarily located in the endoplasmic reticulum of
the liver cell, they are called microsomal enzymes. Phase I reactions are non-synthetic in
nature, and generally produce more water soluble and less active metabolite. The most com-
mon phase I reactions are oxidative processes (aromatic hydroxylation; aliphatic hydroxylation;
N—, O—, and S-dealkylation; N-hydroxylation; N-oxidation; sulfoxidation; deamination; and
dehalogenation), reductive (azodye-reduction, nitroreduction) and hydrolytic reactions.
Oxidation. Oxidation is normally the first step of drug metabolism. Mixed-function
oxidases or monooxygenases is an important complex enzyme catalyses metabolic oxidation of
DRUG METABOLISM 43
a large variety of endogeneous substances (steroidal hormones) and exogeneous substances

(drugs). Some important metabolic oxidations are represented here:
Oxidation of carbon-heteroatom systems. Carbon-heteroatom systems (N, O, S)
are commonly present in many drugs. They are metabolized by any of the following oxidation
processes :
(a) Oxidation or hydroxylation of heteroatom: Ex: N-oxidation, N-hydroxylation, S-
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oxidation.
(b) Hydroxylation of carbon atom attached to the heteroatom followed by cleavage of
carbon-heteroatom bond. Ex: N-dealkylation, S-dealkylation, O-dealkylation.
N-Hydroxylation
Drugs containing non-basic nitrogen atom (amides), non-basic aromatic amines and basic
amines are metabolized by N-hydroxylation. Ex:
CH3 CH3
O C2H5 O C2H5
 
(i) NH—C—CH2—N → N—C—CH2—N

C2H5 OH C2H5
CH3 CH3
Lidocaine N-Hydroxylidocaine
(ii) H2N SO2 NH2 → H2N SO2 NHOH
Dapsone 
 N-Hydroxydapsone
↓
H2N SO2 N=O
Nitrosocompound
CH3 CH3
 
(iii) CH2—C—NH2 → CH2—C—NHOH
 
CH3 CH3
phentermine  N-Hydroxyphentermine

↓
CH3

CH2—C—N = O

CH3
Nirtosocompound
N-Oxidation
Compounds possessing of basic nitrogen are metabolized by N-oxidation process.
Ex: Tertiary amines yield N-oxides
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N N
→

N CH3 N O CH3
Nicotine Nicotine-1′-N-oxide
S-Oxidation
Compounds possessing of carbon-sulfur bonds are metabolized to sulfoxides by S-oxida-
tion. The sulfoxides may be excreted as urinary metabolites or oxidized to sulfones (—SO2—).
O O ↓ O
↓
↑ 

S S S
→ →
N N N
  
R R R
Phenothiazine Phenothiazine sulfoxide Phenothiazine sulfone
Dealkylations. The second type of oxidative biotransformation comprises dealkylations.

S-Dealkylation. S-Dealkylation involves oxidative cleavage of alkyl carbon-sulfur bonds.
S—CH3 S—CH2OH S—H
N N N N N N
→ → + HCHO
N N N N N N
H H 
H
6-(Methylthio)-purine Hydroxylated intermediate 6-Mercaptopurine
N-Dealkylation. In the case of primary or secondary amines, dealkylation of an alkyl

group starts at the carbon adjacent to the nitrogen; in the case of tertiary amines, with
hydroxylation of the nitrogen (ex: Lidocaine).
DRUG METABOLISM 45
CH3 CH3
 
CH2—CH—NHCH3 → CH2—C—NH2 + HCHO

H
Mephenteramine Amphetamine
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H OH R1 H
R1 R1
 (O) 
N—C—R → N—C—R → N—H + O C
R2  R2  R2 R
H H
The intermediate products are labile and break up into the dealkylated amine and
aldehyde.
O-Dealkylation. O-Dealkylation of drugs possessing C—O bond involves hydroxylation
of α-carbon to form an unstable hemiacetal or hemiketal intermediates. These intermediates
spontaneously cleave to form alcohol and carbonyl compound.
H5C2O NHCOCH3 → HO NHCOCH3
Phenacetin Paracetamol
Aromatic Hydroxylation (Oxidation of Aromatic Carbon Atoms)

Aromatic hydroxylation is oxidation of aromatic compounds into phenols through the
intermediate formation of highly reactive immediate i.e. arene oxide.
R R R
→ →
O
OH
Aromatic Arene oxide Phenol
compound
Ex: Many drugs containing phenyl groups (phenylbutazone, phenytoin, amphetamine,
phenformin etc.) are metabolized by aromatic hydroxylation.
CH2—CH—NH2 CH2—CH—NH2
 
CH3 CH3
→
Amphetamine
OH
4-Hydroxyamphetamine
NH NH NH NH
   
CH2—CH2—NH—C—NH—C—NH2 CH2—CH2—NH—C—NH—C—NH2
→
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Phenformin
OH
4-Hydroxy phenformin
Oxidation of benzylic carbons

The carbons directly attached to aromatic rings are oxidized to aldehydes and carboxylic
acids via alcohols.
Ex:
CH3 CH2OH CHO
→ →
SO2NH—C—NHC4H9 SO2NH—C—NHC4H9 SO2NH—C—NHC4H9

  
O O O
Tolbutamide COOH
→
SO2NH—C—NHC4H9

O
Acid metabolite
DRUG METABOLISM 47
Oxidation of olefins
Drugs possessing carbon-carbon double bonds are oxidized to 1,2-diols through forma-
tion of epoxides.
Ex: Carbamazepine is oxidized to trans-10, 11-dihydroxy carbamazepine via car-
bamazepine-10, 11-epoxide.
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Alcofenac is oxidized to dihydroxyalcofenac.
Reductive reactions
Drugs containing carbonyl, nitro, and azo groups are metabolized by reduction to alcohols
and amines respectively. The reduced compounds are conjugated and eliminated from the
body. Ex :
Cl H Cl
  
Cl—C—C = O → Cl—C—CH 2OH
 
Cl Cl
Chloral hydrate Trichloroethanol
O O
H  H 
N C N C
Reduction
→
N N
O2N  H2N 
C 6H 5 C 6H 5
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Nitrazepam 7-Aminometabolite
NH2 NH2
Reduction
H2N N=N SO2NH2 → H2N NH2
Prontosil 2, 4-Diaminoaniline
+ H2N SO2NH2
p-Aminobenzene sulfonamide
PHASE II : REACTIONS
Conjugation reactions are also known as phase-II reactions. Phase II pathways are syn-
thetic reactions where the product or the metabolite from Phase I gets conjugated. This always
produces a large, polar, metabolite that is readily excreted from the body. Some drugs are
mainly conjugated and undergo very little oxidative metabolism. Phase II occurs by
glucuronidation, sulfation, aminoacid conjugation, acetylation, methylation or glutathione con-
jugation to facilitate elimination.
Phase II conjugation introduces hydrophilic functionalities such as glucuronic acid,
sulfate, glycine, or acetyl group onto the drug or drug metabolite molecules. These reactions
are catalyzed by a group of enzymes called transferases. Most trasferases are located in cytosol,
except the one facilitates glucuronidation, which is a microsomal enzyme. This enzyme, called
uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase (UGTs), catalyzes the most important phase II
reaction, glucuronidation.
Glucuronidation. Glucuronidation involves conjugation of metabolite or drug mol-
ecule with glucuronic acid. In these reactions glucuronic acid molecule is transferred to the
substrate from a cofactor (uridine-5 1-diphospho-α-D-glucuronic acid). Glucuronidation is
catalyzed by various microsomal glucuronyl transferases. Glucuronides are generally inactive
and are rapidly excreted into the urine and bile. Molecules associated with phenolic hydroxyl,
alcoholic hydroxyl, and carboxylic acid groups undergo glucuronidation reaction.
DRUG METABOLISM 49
O O
 
R—C—OH → R—C—O—Glu
Carboxylic acid
COOH COOH
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OH OC6H9O6
→
Salicylic acid
Sulfate Conjugation
Sulfate conjugation involves transfer of a sulphate molecule from the cofactor (31-
phosphoadenosine-51-phosphosulfate) to the substrate (metabolite or drug moiety) by the en-
zymes (sulfotransferases). Sulphate conjugation is the common conjugation reactions of
substrate molecules possessing of alcoholic hydroxyl, phenolic hydroxyl and aromatic amine
groups. Ex:
Hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is also observed for a wide variety of drugs. The enzymes involved
in hydrolysis are esterases, amidases, and proteases. These reactions generate hydroxyl or
amine groups, which are suitable for phase II conjugation.
O C2H5

H2N C—NH—CH2CH2—N →
Procainamide C2H5
C2H5
H2N COOH + H2N—CH2—CH2—N
C2H5
Para aminobenzoic acid
Acetylation. Acetylation is an important metabolic pathway for drugs containing

primary amino groups. The acetylated conjugates are generally non-toxic and inactive. Ex:
histamine, procainamide, para aminosalicylic acid (PAS), hydralazine, isoniazid.
OH OH
O O
 N-Acetyl 
HOOC NH2 + CH3—C—SCOA → HOOC NH—C—CH3
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transferase
4-Aminosalic cylic acid 4-Acetamidosalicylic acid
CYTOCHROME P450 REDUCTASE

The cytochromes P450s [CYPs] are membrane bound proteins with an approximate molecular
weight of 50 kD, and contain a heme moiety. There are about 30 human cytochrome P450
enzymes out of which only six, CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1 and CYP3A4
are the metabolising enzymes. The following table shows the major CYPs involved in the me-
tabolism of some known drugs.
Enzyme Substrates
CYP1A2 Amitriptyline, Betaxolol, Caffeine, Clomipramine, Clozapine, Chlorpromazine,

Fluvoxamine, Haloperidol, Imipramine, Olanzapine, Ondensetron,
Propranolol, Tacrine, Theophylline, Verapamil, (R)-Warfarin
CYP2A6 Coumarin, Betadiene, Nicotine
CYP2C9 Amitriptyline, Diclofenac, Demadex, Fluoxetine, Ibuprofen, Losartan,
Naproxen, Phenytoin, Piroxicam, Tolbutamide, (S)-Warfarin
CYP2C19 Amitriptyline, Citalopram, Clomipramine, Diazepam, Imipramine,
Omeprazole
CYP2D6 Amitriptyline, Betaxolol, Clomipramine, Codeine, Clozapine, Desipramine,
Fluoxetine, Haloperidol, Imipramine, Methadone, Metoclopramide, Metoprolol,
Nortriptyline, Olanzapine, Ondansetron, Paroxetine, Propranolol, Risperidone,
Sertraline, Timolol, Venlafaxine
CYP2E1 Acetaminophen, Caffeine, Chlorzoxazone, Dextromethorphan, Ethanol,
Theophylline, Venlafaxine
CYP3A4/5 Alprazolam, Amiodarone, Amitriptyline, Astemizole, Bupropion, Buspirone,
Caffeine, Carbamazepine, Ceruvastatin, Cisapride, Clarithromycin,
Clomipramine, Codeine, Cyclosporine, Dexamethasone, Dextromethorphan,
DHEA, Diazepam, Diltiazem, Donepazil, Doxy cycline, Erythromycin,
Estradiol, Felodipine, Fluoxetine, Imipramine, Lansoprazole, Lidocaine,
Loratadine, Lovastatin, Midazolam, Nicardipine, Nifedipine, Omeprazole,
Orphenadrine, Paroxetine, Progesterone, Quinidine, Rifampin, Sertraline,
Sibutramine, Sildenafil, Simvastatin, Tacrolimus, Tamoxifen, Terfenadine,
Testosterone, Theophylline, Verapamil, Vinblastine, (R)-Warfarin
DRUG METABOLISM 51
The cytochromes P450, involves in the metabolism of many drugs and dietary substances,
and in the synthesis of steroid hormones and other extracellular lipid signalling molecules.
FACTORS AFFECTING DRUG METABOLISM

A number of factors may influence the rate of drug metabolism. They are ;
1. Physicochemical properties of drugs. Molecular size, shape, acidity or basicity,
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lipophilicity, pKa, and steric and electronic characteristics of drugs influence its interaction
with the active sites of enzymes.
2. Chemical factors. A large number of chemical substances such as drugs, insecti-
cides etc. can increase the rate of drug metabolism due to increased rate of formation of newer
enzymes or decreased rate of degradation of drug metabolising enzymes. Ex. Alcohol enhances
metabolism of phenobarbitone, phenytoin etc.
3. Diet. The enzyme content and activity is altered by a number of dietary compounds.
Fat free diet depresses cytochrome P450 levels since phospholipids, which are important com-
ponents of microsomes become deficient.
4. Genetic or hereditary factors. Genetic and hereditary factors are the most signifi-
cant factors in drug metabolism. Genetic differences among individuals or ethnic groups can
lead to an excessive or prolonged therapeutic effect or toxic overdose.
Ex: The enzyme CYP2D6 metabolises a large number of drugs. The activity of this enzyme
varies widely among ethnic groups. About 1% of Arabies, 30% Chinese and 7-10% caucasions
are poor metabolizers of CYP2D6 drugs.
5. Environmental factors: Environmental factors such as smoking, alcohol
consumption and concomitant drug therapy also influence the outcome of drug metabolism.
Ex: Cigarette smoke produces polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. CYP1A2 metabo-
lises the polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons to carcinogens responsible for lung and colon
cancer.
6 General Anesthetics
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INTRODUCTION
General anesthetics are the drugs, which produce controlled, reversible depression of the func-
tional activities of the central nervous system producing loss of sensation and consciousness.
Stages of General Anesthesia. When an inhalation anesthetic is administered to a patient
some of the following well defined stages are produced by increasing the blood concentration of
the agent. They are ;
l Stage I (Stage of analgesia): This is the period from the beginning of anesthetic ad-
ministration to the loss of consciousness. The patient progressively loses pain. This
stage is also called stage of analgesia.
l Stage II (Stage of delirium): This period extends from the loss of consciousness through
a stage of irregular and specific breathing to the reestablishment of regular breath-
ing. Respiration is normal and regular. The patient may laugh, vomit or struggle and
for this reason it is called the stage of excitement.
l Stage III (Stage of surgical anesthesia): In this stage excitement is lost and skeletal
muscle relaxation is produced. Most types of surgeries are done in this stage.
l Stage IV (Stage of medullary depression): Overdose of the anesthetic may bring the
patient to this stage. Respiratory and circulatory failure occur in this stage.
CLASSIFICATION OF GENERAL ANESTHETICS

The general anesthetics are classified according to their nature (volatile or non-volatile) at
room temperature. They are:
A. Volatile Inhalation general anesthetics. They are administered by inhalation
and are further subdivided as;
l Gases: Ex: Cyclopropane: Ethyl chloride, Nitrous oxide
l Liquids: Diethyl ether, Halothane, Chloroform, Trichloroethylene
B. Non-Volatile or Intravenous anesthetics. They are non-volatile at room tem-
perature and are administered by intravenous route. They are;
l Barbiturates : Thiopental sodium, Methohexital sodium.
l Non-barbiturates : Propanidid, Propofol.
52
GENERAL ANESTHETICS 53
INDUCTION OF GENERAL ANESTHESIA

Barbiturates induce general anesthesia rapidly and pleasantly (painlessly). They have maxi-
mum effect in about 1 minute and duration about 5-8 minutes. Induction doses produce the
highest blood concentration, the greatest effects on body systems and the most side effects.
Usual, recommended induction doses of thiopental:
adults 2.5-4.5 mg/kg
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children 5-6 mg/kg
infants 7-8 mg/kg
Since, some individuals seem “particularly sensitive” to thiopental, a conservative tech-
nique might be to inject 1/4 of the calculated (above) dose and observe patient response. If this
smaller dose has great effect, reduce calculated subsequent dose.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF IDEAL GENERAL ANESTHETIC

An ideal general anesthetic should possess the following characteristic features:
l It should be inert
l It should be potent and non-inflammable
l It should be non-irritating to mucous membrane
l It should produce rapid and smooth anesthesia
l It should produce analgesia and muscle relaxation in addition to anesthesia
l It should not produce severe hypotension
l It should not produce nausea and vomiting
l It should be compatible with adjuvant drugs used in anesthesia
l It should be economical
l It should be stable to heat, light and alkalies
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF GENERAL ANESTHETICS

The general anesthetics inhibit CNS neuronal activity. But their precise mechanism of neuronal
inhibition is not clear. Several mechanisms were proposed to explain general anesthesia. They
are:
(i) Lipid Theory. According to this theory the more lipid soluble general anesthetics
concentrate in hydrophobic regions of neuronal cell membrane and causes swelling of these
membranes. Due to this swelling of structure of membrane alters, thereby blocks the Na+
channels. Thus the generation of action potential is inhibited and produces anesthesia. In
1901, Meyer and Overton correlated the potency of general anesthetics with their lipid solubil-
ity. The higher the value of partition coefficient of the compound, more will be its general
anesthetic potency.
(ii) Protein Theory. According to this theory the anesthetic bind to the hydrophobic
sites of protein molecules of neuronal cell membrane, thus the membrane function is altered
and produces anesthesia.
SPECIFIC GENERAL ANESTHETICS

CYCLOPROPANE
Chemistry. Cyclopropane is a cyclic aliphatic hydrocarbon. It is prepared from 1, 3-
dibromopropane with zinc and alcohol in absence of water.
CH2—CH2—CH2 CH2
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Zn / C H OH
  →
2 5
Br Br H2C CH2
1,3-Dibromopropane Cyclopropane
Properties
l Cyclopropane is a colourless flammable gas with characteristic odour and pungent
taste. It is supplied in compressed form in metal cylinders
l Cyclopropane forms explosive mixture with air
l The cylinders of cyclopropane are painted red
Uses. Cyclopropane is used as general anesthetic. It produces rapid and smooth induc-
tion, good muscle relaxation and has wide margin of safety. It is administered by inhalation.
ETHYL CHLORIDE:
Chemistry. Ethyl chloride is a chloro derivative of ethane. It is gas at normal condi-
tions and is available in compressed form. Ethyl chloride is prepared from ethyl alcohol by
passing dry hydrogen chloride into it.
ZnCl
CH3—CH2 + HCl →
2
CH3—CH2 + H2O
 
OH Cl
Ethylalcohol Ethylchloride
Properties
l Ethyl chloride is a volatile liquid having a pleasant ethereal odour and burning taste
l It is slightly soluble in water and also miscible with alcohol and ether
Uses. Ethyl chloride is used as a general anesthetic administered by inhalation.
NITROUS OXIDE
Chemistry. Nitrous oxide was the first anesthetic. Joseph Priestly first reported ni-
trous oxide preparation in 1772. It is prepared by heating ammonium nitrate to 2000C.
NH4NO3 → N2O + H2O.
Properties
l Nitrous oxide is available as a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas
l It is supplied in blue coloured metal cylinders
l It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether
Uses
l Sir Humphry Davy in 1800 was first recognized its anesthetic properties. Nitrous
oxide is used to induce anesthesia and is followed by ether, halothane or methoxy
flurane
l It is also used for short dental operations
DIETHYL ETHER
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Chemistry. Diethyl ether was the first compound to be used as an anesthetic by Ameri-
can doctor. In 1846, James Simpson popularized the use of ether as an anesthetic in surgical
operations. It is prepared in the laboratory and on the large scale by heating mixture of ethyl
alcohol in presence of H2SO4 and purified with sodium hydroxide followed by drying on anhy-
drous calcium chloride.
2CH3CH2OH + HOSO3H → CH3CH2—O—CH2CH3 + H2SO4 + H2O
Properties
l Diethyl ether is a colourless, volatile, highly inflammable liquid, having sweet burn-
ing taste and characteristic odour
l The anesthetic ether should be stored in well-closed, light resistant containers in a
cool place
l Stabilizers like sodium pyrogallate, hydroquinol, or propylgallate are added to
anesthetic ether
Uses
l It is a safe general anesthetic
l It is inexpensive
HALOTHANE
Chemistry. Chemically halothane is 2-bromo, 2-chloro, 1,1,1-trifluoroethane. It is pre-
pared from trichloroethylene by the following chemical reactions.
HCl HF
Cl2C CHCl Cl3C—CH2Cl
Trichloroethylene
F H
Br2
F3C—CH2Cl F—C———C—Cl
F Br
Halothane
Properties
l Halothane is a colourless, non-inflammable liquid having chloroform like odour
l It is non-irritant to the skin and mucous membrane
Uses
l Halothane is one of the most widely used potent anesthetic agents (2-2.5%). It is
usually administered through N2O-air mixture. It has more rapid induction and
recovery compared to ether (generally discouraged as an explosive hazard) and

methoxyflurane
l It is more potent than chloroform and ether
Some disadvantages of halothane are;
l It reduces cardiac output
l It causes peripheral vasodilation leading to hypotension or low blood pressure
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l It is a dose-dependent respiratory depressant
CHLOROFORM
Chemistry. Chloroform is an important halogenated hydrocarbon. It is prepared from
bleaching powder and ethyl alcohol by the following chemical reactions.
OCl
Ca + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
OCl
CH 3CH2OH + Cl2 → CH3CHO + 3HCl
CH3CHO + 3Cl2 → CCl3CHO + 3HCl
CCl3CHO + 3Cl2 → 2CHCl3 + Ca(HCOO)2
Properties
l Chloroform is a colorless, volatile liquid having characteristic odour and burning taste
l It is non-inflammable and is freely miscible with ether and ethyl alcohol
l Chloroform must be protected from light and air, otherwise poisonous phosogene is
formed
Uses
l Chloroform is a widely used general anesthetic agent
l It is used as solvent for fats and oils
TRICHLOROETHYLENE
Chemistry. Trichloroethylene is a trichloro derivative of ethane. It is prepared by the
alkaline decomposition of tetrachloroethane.
H H H
CaO
Cl—C——C—Cl → H—C C—Cl
—HCl
Cl Cl Cl
Tetrachloroethane Trichloroethylene
Properties
l Trichloroethylene is a clear colorless liquid, having chloroform like odor and taste
l It contains about 0.008% of thymol as preservative
l It is insoluble in water but it is miscible with alcohol, chloroform and ether
Uses
l It is a weak volatile anesthetic
l It possesses potent analgesic action
l It is recommended for dental extractions, orthopedic manipulations and short surgi-
cal procedures
METHOXYFLURANE
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Methoxyflurane is the most potent of all inhalation anesthetics. Chemically methoxy-
flurane is 2,2-dichloro-1,1-difluoro-1-methoxyethane. It is available as a colorless liquid with
sweet odor.
Cl F
H—C——C—O—CH3
Cl F
Methoxyflurane is nonflammable, nonexplosive, and a potent analgesic. Low vapor pres-
sure makes it the only agent suitable for the open drop method. A disadvantage of
methoxyflurane, compared to other inhalents, is a relatively slow induction phase that can
result in a modest respiratory and cardiovascular depression. Perhaps the biggest disadvan-
tage is that metabolization leads to flouride ion release which is nephrotoxic. An appropriate
scavanging system must be in place to protect personnel.
ENFLURANE
Chemically enflurane is 2-chloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethyldifluoromethylether. Enflurane is
available as a clear, colourless non-inflammable liquid with sweet odor.
F F F
H—C——O—C—C—Cl
F F H
The induction and emergence from anesthesia of enflurane is smooth and moderately
rapid.
It is used as an alternative to halothane.
ISOFLURANE
Isoflurane is an isomer of enflurane. Chemically isoflurane is 2-chloro-2-(trifluoro-
methoxy)-1,1,1-trifluoroethane. It is available as clear, colourless liquid at room temperature,
with sweet taste. It is miscible with organic liquids including fats and oils. Isoflurane is non-
flammable and nonexplosive.
F Cl F
F—C——C—O—C—F
F H F
Isoflurane has a more rapid induction and emergence than halothane.

It has higher margin of safety than enflurane or halothane.
Compared to halothane, isoflurane causes :
l less depression of cardiopulmonary function
l less sensitization of the heart to catecholamine (β-adrenoceptor agonist) release
l less profound respiratory depressant effect
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Isoflurane reduces renal blood flow, glomerular filtration rate and urinary flow.
Isoflurane’s metabolism to organic and inorganic flourides is less than any other halogenated
agent available, so if a minimally metabolized anesthetic is needed, isoflurane is the choice.
THIOPENTONE
Chemistry. Thiopentone is an intravenous anesthetic. It is a barbituric acid derivative
and is synthesized by condensing thiourea with ethyl (ethyl 1-methyl butyl) malonate.
H5C2 COOC2H5 H2N H

N
C + C = S → O=C S
H3C—H2C—H2C—CH COOC2H5 H2N H5C2

NH
 C
CH3 H3C—H2C—H2C—CH 
 O
CH3
Thiopentone
Properties
l Thiopentone is available as thiopentone sodium
l It is a yellowish hygroscopic powder, having characteristic odour and bitter taste
Uses
l Thiopentone sodium solutions (2.5%) are administered by intravenous route to pro-
duce anesthesia. It has short duration of actions
l It is also used to control convulsions
METHOHEXITAL
Chemistry. Methohexital is also a derivative of barbituric acid. It is prepared by con-
densation of ethylcyanoacetate with 2-chloro-3-pentyne in presence of sodium ethylate yields
ethyl-1-methyl-2-pentnyl cyanoacetate which on further condensation with allylbromide yields
ethyl(1-methyl-2-pentynyl)allylcyanoacetate. Reaction with N-methyl urea yields the
iminobarbituric acid which on acid catalyzed hydrolysis forms methohexital.
H CN H CN
H3C—CH2—C ≡ C—CH—CH3 + C → C

Cl H C—OC2H5 C—CH3 COOC2H5
 H
O C
H3C—H2C—C
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CH2—CH = CH2
H2C = CH—CH2 CN O

Br
→ C 
(i) NH—C—NH2
H3C—H2C—C ≡ C—CH—CH3 C—O—OC2H5 
CH3
(ii) H+ / H2O
↓
CH3
 O
N CH2—CH = CH2
HO
N CH—C ≡ C—CH2CH3
O 
CH3
Methohexital
Properties
l Methohexital is available as methohexital sodium
l It is a colourless or slightly yellowish crystalline powder
l Methohexital sodium is freely soluble in water
Uses
l It is used as a general anesthetic and hypnotic. It is administered either by intrave-
nous route or intramuscular route
l It is more potent than thiopentone sodium
PROPANIDID
Chemistry. Propanidid is a non-barbiturate general anesthetic. It hs the following struc-
ture:
Properties
l Propanidid is available as a colourless or pale greenish-yellow hygroscopic liquid and
having a faint odor
l It is slightly soluble in water but miscible with alcohol, chloroform and ether
Uses
l Propanidid has been used as a short acting general anesthetic
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l It also possesses local anesthetic activity
KETAMINE
Ketamine is a cyclohexanol derivative. Chemically ketamine is (+) 2 (o-chlorophenyl)-2-
methylaminocyclohexanone. Ketamine is prepared by Griganard reaction of o-chloroben-
zonitrile with bromocyclopentane in presence of strong alkali to form an expoxy compound,
which converts to an imine by the action of methylamine. The imine rearranges to ketamine
on heating with HCl.
Ketamine is available as colorless crystalline compound having characteristic odor. It

melts at 258°C.
Uses :
Ketamine is used as a general anesthetic
It also has analgesic effect
Ketamine relaxes skeletal muscles
PROPOFOL
Propofol is a liquid short-acting general anesthetic. Chemically it is 2, 6-diisopropylphenol.
7 Sedative-Hypnotic Drugs
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INTRODUCTION
In general sedative-hypnotics are drugs used to slow down mental and physical functions of
the body. These are also referred to as the CNS depressants. Sedatives are chemical agents
tend to produce a calming effect, relax muscles, and relieve feelings of tension, anxiety, and
irritability.
At higher doses, most of these sedative drugs will also produce drowsiness and eventu-
ally produce sleep. Drugs that have such a sleep-inducing effect are called hypnotic drugs or
hypnotics. There is, no sharp distinction between sedative and hypnotic and the same drug
may have both actions depending on the method of use and the dose employed. However, the
combination of the terms sedative-hypnotic appropriately identifies the major pharmacologi-
cal effects of these drugs. In reality, almost any drug that calms, soothes, and reduces anxiety
is also capable of relieving insomnia.
Although the narcotics and sedative-hypnotics share many of the same actions, the lat-
ter drugs have no practical pain-relieving properties. Unlike the narcotics, intoxicating doses
of the sedative-hypnotics almost always result in impaired judgement, slurred speech, and
loss of motor function.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEDATIVE-HYPNOTICS
Due to chemical differences, the sedative-hypnotics include several related families of drugs
having common characteristics but somewhat diverse effects and therapeutic uses. These drugs
are classified as follows ;
1. Barbiturates : Ex: Phenobarbitone, pentobarbitone, amobarbitone etc.
2. Non-barbiturates : They are further classified as follows ;
(a) Aldehydes and their derivatives : Chloral hydrate, paraldehyde, triclofos
sodium
(b) Piperidine derivatives : Glutethimide, methyprylone
(c) Quinazoline derivatives : Methaqualone
(d) Alcohols and their carbamate derivatives : Ethchlorvynol, meprobamate, ethina-
mate
(e) Benzodizepine derivatives : Chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, oxazepam,
alprozolam, flurazepam, triazolam,
prazepam, halazepam, temazepam,
lorazepam
61
BARBITURATES
Description
Barbiturates are central nervous system (CNS) depressants (medicines that cause drow-
siness). Barbiturates produce a wide spectrum of CNS depression, from mild sedation to coma,
and have been used as sedatives, hypnotics, anesthetics and anticonvulsants. But, they can be
addictive and abused. Excessive doses can cause depression, slurred speech, slowed reflexes
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and confusion.
Barbiturates were first introduced for medical use in the early 1900s. More than 2,500
barbiturates have been synthesized, and in the height of their popularity about 50 were mar-
keted for human use. Today, only about a dozen are used.
Barbiturate Development
In 1864 von Baeyer synthesized the first barbiturate, barbituric acid. The first hypnotic
barbiturate, diethylbarbituric acid, was synthesized by Fischer and Mering in 1903. A
number of other hypnotic-sedative barbiturates were developed and tested, but all had too
slow onset and too long duration of action. In 1932 Weese and Schapff synthesized the first
rapid onset, short duration barbiturate, the methylated oxybarbiturate hexobarbital.
Unfortunately, hexobarbital caused undesirable excitatory side effects. Thiopental was first
administered by Waters (Wisconsin) and Lundy (Mayo Clinic) in 1934. Thiopental proved to be
fast and brief acting and devoid of excitatory side effects. In 1950 Brodie et al demonstrated
that barbiturate hypnotic-sedative activity was terminated not by metabolism, but by
redistribution from central neural sites of action to other body tissues. It was later shown
(Price, 1960) that during prolonged infusions, redistribution becomes less effective because
redistribution sites approach equilibrium.
Classification of Barbiturates
Barbiturates are classified as ultra short, short, intermediate and long acting based on
their duration of action ;
(i) Ultra short acting barbiturates: The ultra short acting barbiturates produce anesthesia
within about one minute after intravenous administration. Those in current medical
use are methohexital, thiamylal and thiopental.
(ii) Short acting barbiturates: Action starts within 1/2 hour and lasts for about 4 hours.
Ex: Pentobarbitone, quinalbarbitone, secobarbitone, cyclobarbitone
(iii) Intermediate acting barbiturates: Action starts within 1/2 hour and lasts for about 6
hours. Ex: Allobarbitone, butobarbitone, amylobarbitone
(iv) Long acting barbiturates: Action starts within 1/2 hour and lasts for 8 hours. Ex:
Barbitone, phenobarbitone and methylphenobarbitone. They are primarily used for
daytime sedation and the treatment of seizure disorders or mild anxiety.
Barbiturates, are usually taken orally but are sometimes injected intravenously or
intramuscularly. They are absorbed rapidly; 30-40% is bound to plasma protein, and the rest
is distributed to muscle, fat, and the liver (where they are ultimately inactivated).
SEDATIVE-HYPNOTIC DRUGS 63
Chemistry of Barbiturates
1. Barbiturates are derivatives of barbituric acid (2,4,6-trioxyhexahydropyrimidine) which
is devoid of hypnotic and sedative activities.
OH O
H
N1 N1
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HO 2 5 → O 2 5
N N
H
OH O
Keto-enol tautomerism of barbituric acid
2. Barbituric acid may be described as a “cyclic ureide of malonic acid”. Barbituric acid
can be made by condensing urea with ethyl malonate in presence of sodium ethoxide.
O O
H
NH2 H5C2O C2H5ONa N1
O + → O 2 5
NH2 H5C2O N
H
O O
Urea Ethylmalonate Barbituric acid
3. Clinically important hypnotic-sedative barbiturates have substitutions at sites 1, 2

and, especially, 5 of barbituric acid.
4. Keto-enol tautomerism of barbituric acid and barbiturates allows formation of water-
soluble salts with a strong base.
O O
N1 +
N1
–
NaOH + HO 2 5 → HOH + NaO 2 5
N N
H H
O O
Barbituric acid Sodium salt of
barbituric acid
5. The barbiturates do not dissolve readily in water, their sodium salts dissolve readily
in water.
6. Buffering action of Na2CO3 plus atmospheric CO2 maintains pH at 10 to 11. In less
alkaline solutions, these barbiturates may precipitate as the free acids; so do not reconstitute
barbiturates with normal saline and do not mix with acidic solutions of other drugs.
Structure-Activity Relationships of Barbiturates
1. Hypnotic activity. Side chains at position 5 (especially if one of them is branched) is
essential for activity.
2. Potency and duration of action. Length of side chain at position 5 influences

potency and duration of action. Ex: Secobarbital and thiamylal are slightly more potent
than pentobarbital and thiopental, respectively.
3. More rapid onset and shorter duration of action. Sulfur instead of oxygen atom
at postion 2 has more rapid onset of action but shorter duration. Ex: thiamylal and
thiopental have more rapid onset and shorter duration of action than secobarbital
and pentobarbital, respectively.
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4. Increased incidence of excitatory side effects. Methylation at position 1
(methohexital) enhances excitatory side effects.
5. Increased potency, rate of onset and short action. Generally an increase in the
lipophilicity of the compound results in more rapid onset of action accompanied with
an increase in potency.
6. Introduction of polar groups (hydroxyl, keto, amino, or carboxyl) into C-5-alkyl side-
chain makes the compound more hydrophilic in nature. Due to the polar nature,
hydrophilic barbiturates do not dissolve in microsomal membranes of liver and are
excreted.
7. Branched, cyclic or unsaturated side chain at C-5 position generally reduce the dura-
tion of action due to an increased ease of metabolic conversion to a more polar, inac-
tive metabolite.
8. Stereoisomerism. Though their l-isomers are nearly twice as potent as their d-
isomers, barbiturates are marketed as racemic mixtures. Methohexital has two
asymmetric carbon atoms, so exists as 4 stereoisomers (alpha,beta-d, l-methohexital).
The beta isomers are associated with extensive motor activity, so methohexital is
marketed as racemic alpha-d, l-methohexital. Different activities among differ-
ent stereoisomers (enantiomers or enantiomorphs) is consistent with site of action at
a chiral center of a receptor or enzyme.
Mechanism of Action of Barbiturates
Most likely site of action of barbiturates is gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor
complex. GABA is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS. GABA
receptor complex is made of 4 to 6 glycoprotein subunits assembled to form a ligand-gated
chloride ion channel
Barbiturates enhance and mimic the action of GABA at the GABA receptor complex.
Barbiturate binding to this receptor decreases the rate of GABA dissociation and increases the
duration of GABA-acitivated chloride channel opening. At slightly higher concentrations, bar-
biturates directly activate chloride channel opening even in the absence of GABA, leading to
“barbiturate anesthesia.”
GABA site
Agonists
Antagonists
– BARBITURATE site
Cl
Depressants (also ethanol)
Excitants
BENZODIAZEPINE site
Agonists (depressants)
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Antagonists
inverse agonists
STEROID site
Anesthetics
Chloride
Excitans
channel
PICROTOXININ site
Convulsants
Depressants
Gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor
Side-effects of Barbiturates
Side effects of barbiturates include hangover with drowsiness, dizziness, ataxia, respi-
ratory depression, hypersensitivity reactions, headache, particularly in elderly; paradoxical
excitement and confusion occasionally preceed sleep.
Uses of Barbiturates
1. Barbiturates may be used before surgery to relieve anxiety or tension.
2. In addition, some of the barbiturates are used as anticonvulsants to control seizures
in certain disorders or diseases, such as epilepsy.
3. The barbiturates have been used to treat insomnia (trouble in sleeping); but if they
are used regularly (for example, every day) for insomnia, they are usually not effec-
tive for longer than 2 weeks.
4. The barbiturates have also been used to relieve nervousness or restlessness during
the daytime. However, the barbiturates have generally been replaced by safer
medicines for the treatment of insomnia and daytime nervousness or tension. If too
much of a barbiturate is used, it may become habit-forming. Barbiturates should not
be used for anxiety or tension caused by the stress of everyday life. These medicines
are available in the following dosage forms: capsules, tablets, elixir, injection,
suppositories.
Phenobarbitone
Phenobarbitone is 5-ethyl-5-phenylbarbituric acid. It occurs as sodium salt.
Properties. Phenobarbitone sodium is hygroscopic, bitter taste, water soluble, odorless,
white crystalline powder.
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Synthesis. Phenobarbitone is synthesized by the following steps:
1. In the first step a β-keto ester (Ethyl oxalophenylacetate) is prepared by Claisen
condensation reaction of ethylphenylacetate with ethyloxalate in presence of sodium.
O
O O 
  Na
C6H5—CH—C—OC2H5
C6H5CH2—C—OC2H5 + C2H5—O—C—C—O—C2H5 → 
 O C—C—OC2H5
O 
O
Ethylphenylacetate Dithyloxalate Ethyloxalophenylacetate
2. The ethyl oxalophenylacetate is then decomposed by distillation to form ethyl
phenylmalonate. The ethyl phenylmalonate is further ethylated to form ethyl
ethylphenylmalonate with ethyl bromide and ethanol.
O
 O
C6H5—CH—C—OC2H5 —CO 
 → C6H5—CH—C—OC2H5
∆
O C—C—OC2H5 
 COOC2H5
O
H5C2 COOC2H5
C2H5ONa
C ←
C2H5Br
H5C6 COOC2H5
3. The above formed ethyl ethylphenylmalonate is then condensed with urea to form
phenobarbitone.
C6H5—CH—C
H5C2 COOC2H5 COOC2H5
C →
H5C6 COOCH5
Methylphenobarbitone (Mephobarbital)
Chemistry. Methylphenobarbitone is 5-ethyl-1-methyl-5-phenylbarbituric acid synthe-
sis. Hephobalbyl is prepared by condensing ethylphenylethylmalonate with monomethylurea.
Properties. Mephobarbital is white crystalline, water insoluble powder. It is soluble in
aqueous solutions of alkali hydroxides and carbonates.
O CH3 CH3 O
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   
H5C2 C—OC2H5 H—N N——C C2H5
1
C + C = O → O C2 5 C
3
H5C6 H—N N——C C6H5
C—OC2H5
  H 
O H O
Methylphenobarbitone
Pentobarbitone
Chemistry. Pentobarbitone is 5-ethyl-5-(1-methylbutyl) barbituric acid. Pento-barbitone
is available as pentobarbitone sodium salt. It is prepared by condensing ethyl 1-
metylbutylethylmalonate with urea.
Properties. Pentobarbitone and its sodium salt is available as white, crystalline pow-
der. Pentobarbitone is slightly soluble in water, whereas its sodium salt is freely soluble in
water.
Cyclobarbitone
Chemistry. Cyclobarbitone is a barbituric acid derivative. Chemically it is 5-ethyl-5-(1-
cyclohexenyl) barbituric acid.
O
H 
N—C C2H5
1
O C2 5C
3
N—C
H 
O
Properties
1. It is available as colorless, bitter taste crystals having the melting point of 174°C.
2. It is very slightly soluble in cold water but freely soluble in hot water. It is also solu-
ble in alcohol, ether etc.
Synthesis. Cyclobarbitone is prepared by the following steps:
1. In the first step ethyl cyclohex-1-enylcyano acetate is synthesized by condensing
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ethylcyanoacetate with cyclohexanone in presence of sodium ethoxide followed by
alkylation with C2H5ONa and C2H5I.
2. The above-formed cyanoester is condensed with urea to get open chain cyanoureide.
O
H 
CN O NH2 N—C
  C2H5
C—C–OC2H5 + C = O → O = C
 C
H2N N—H
C 2H 5
H
NC
3. The open chain cyanoureide is hydrolyzed to carboxylic acid and cyclized to

cyclobarbitone
O O
H  H 
N—C C2H5 N—C C2H5
O=C C → O=C C
NH2NC N—C
H 
O
Cyclobarbitone
Barbitone
Chemistry. Barbitone is 5,5-diethylbarbituric acid.
Properties. Barbitone is a white crystalline powder. It is slightly soluble in water but
freely soluble in aqueous solutions of alkali hydroxides and carbonates.
It is prepared by condensation of ethyl diethylmalonate with urea
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Butobarbitone
Chemistry. Butobarbitone is 5-isobutyl-5-ethylbarbituric acid.
Properties. It is white crystalline powder, slightly soluble in water.
It is prepared by condensation of ethylisobutylethylmalonate with urea
CH3—CH2—CH

H5C2
CH3
C
O

C—OC2H5
C—OC2H5

O
+
H2N
H2N
C = O → O = C
H
O

N——C
N——C
H 
O
C
Butobarbitone
C2H5
CH—CH2—CH3

CH3
Amobarbitone
Chemistry. Amobarbitone is 5-ethyl-5-isopentylbarbituric acid.
Properties. It occurs as white crystalline powder. It is slightly soluble in water but
freely soluble in alkali hydroxide and carbonate solutions.
It is prepared by condensation of ethylisopentylethylmalonate with urea
O O
 H 

H5C2 C—OC2H5 H2N N——C C2H5
C + C = O → O = C C
H2N N——C CH2CH2CHCH3
CH3—CH—CH—CH2 C—OC2H5
H  
  CH3
CH3 O O
Amobarbitone
Quinal barbitone (secobarbitone)

Chemistry. Quinalbarbitone is (RS)-5-allyl-5- (1-methylbutyl) barbituric acid. It is pre-
pared by condensing equimolar mixture of urea with ethyl 1-methylbutylmalonate and alkyl
bromide.
Properties. Quinalbarbitone occurs as its sodium salt. Quinalbarbitone sodium is a
white powder. It is freely soluble in water.
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O O
 H 
H C—OC2H5 H2N N——C H
C + C O → O C C
C—OC2H5 H2N N——C CH—CH3
H3C—H2C—H2C—CH H
  
 O
CH3 O CH2
O
CH2 = CHCH2—Br 
H  CH2
N C CH2CH = CH2 
O C C CH3
N C CH—CH3
H  
O CH2
Quinalbarbitone 
CH2

CH3
NON-BARBITURATES
Numerous heterocyclic derivatives with low toxicity for hypnotic and sedative properties were
synthesized. The following are some most important non-barbiturate sedative-hypnotics among
piperidines, quinazolinones, aldehydes, benzodiazepines etc.
Glutethimide
Chemistry. Glutethimide is a pyridine derivative. Chemically it is 2-ethyl-2-phenyl-
glutarimide and is a substitute for barbiturates, to treat insomnia. It is fast acting sedative (30
minutes) with a long duration (6 hrs.). Effectiveness lasts for longer a period (5–7 days).
Glutethimide is prepared by the following steps ;
(i) Glutethimide is prepared by treating benzyl cyanide with ethyl chloride in presence
of sodamide to yield α-ethyl benzyl cyanide
NaNH
CH2CN + C2H5Cl →
2
CH—CN

C2H5
(ii) The above formed α-ethyl benzyl cyanide is condensed with α-bromopropionic ester
to form substituted hexanoic acid.
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(iii) Cyclization. Substituted hexanoic acid forms the amide on treatment with 80% H2SO4
which spontaneously cyclizes to glutethimide.
Properties. Gultethemide is colorless or white colored, water insoluble powder. It should

be stored in light protected containers.
Uses. Gultethimide is used as hypnotic in all types of insomnia. It induces sleep with-
out depressing respiration.
Methyprylone
Chemistry. Methyprylone is a piperidinedione derivative. Chemically methyprylone is
3, 3-diethyl-5-methylpiperidine-2, 4-dione.
Properties. Methyprylone is a white crystalline powder having characteristic odor. It
is sparingly soluble in water but freely soluble in alcohol, chloroform and ether. It should be
stored in well-closed containers.
O O
O
 OH 
C2H5  C2H5
C  C C2H5 H2/Ni C
C HCHO
 → H2C → H3C 5 3
C2H5 NaOH  C2H5 1 C2H5
N O N O
H N O
H H
3.3-diethyl-2, 4-pyridinedione Methyprylone
It is prepared by treatment of 3, 3-diethyl-2, 4-pyridinedione with formaldehyde in al-
kaline medium and catalytic hydrogenation
Uses. Methyprylone is used as a hypnotic to treat insomnia.
Methaqualone
Chemistry. Methaqualone is a quinazolinone derivative. Chemically methaqualone is
2-methyl-3-(2-methylphenyl)-4-quinazolinone. It is prepared by condensation of N-acetyl
anthranilic acid with o-toluidine in presence of phosphoryl chloride.
Properties. Methaqualone is white crystalline, water insoluble powder. It should be

stored in a light protected container.
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Uses. Methaqualone is used as a hypnotic and as daytime sedative.
Chloral Hydrate (Trichloroacetaldehyde)
Chloral hydrate is a sleep-inducing drug used in the early 1900’s but seldom used today.
It is not an abused recreational drug, but is often misused by the elderly as a sleep aid. Chloral
hydrate is colorless, slightly bitter taste, characteristic odor, and white crystalline powder.
Chloral hydrate is prepared by hydration of chloral, which is obtained by the action of chlorine
on ethyl alcohol. Chloral hydrate is used as hypnotic to treat insomnia and to allay anxiety as
sedative.
H H
CH3CH2OH 3Cl2
CH3CH2OH → CH3CHO → H3C—C—OH → CCl3—C—OH
Ethylalcohol Reduction
OC2H5 OC2H5
Hemiacetal Chloral alcoholate
Paraldehyde
Chemistry. Paraldehyde is a cyclic trimer of acetaldehyde. Chemically paraldehyde is
2,4,6-trimethyl-1, 3, 5-trioxane. It is a colorless liquid having strong characteristic odor. It is
prepared by condensing 3 molecules of acetaldehyde in presence of small quantities of a cata-
lyst (SO2 or HCl or ZnCl2).
Properties. Paraldehyde is available as colorless or pale yellow color liquid. It has
strong characteristic odor and is soluble in water. Paraldehyde should be stored in airtight,
light protected containers.
O
H3C—HC CH—CH3
H2SO4
3 CH3CHO →
O O
Acetaldehyde
CH

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CH3
Paraldehyde
Uses. Paraldehyde is one of the oldest hypnotic. It is used as a hypnotic and sedative.
Triclofos Sodium
Triclofos is 2,2,2-trichloroethylhydrogen orthophosphate, which occurs as its sodium
salt. Triclofos sodium is hygroscopic, white colored, water soluble powder. Triclofos is used as
hypnotic and sedative.
Meprobamate
Chemistry. Meprobamate is 2-methyl-2-propyl trimethylene dicarbamate. Meprobamate
is propanediol derivative.
Properties. Meprobamate is an odorless, white colored crystalline aggregate with bit-
ter taste. It is insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol and slightly soluble in ether.
Meprobamate is prepared by condensing 2-methyl 2-n-propyl-1,3-propanediol with
phosgene at 0°C to get chloroformate diester
(ii) The chloroformate diester is subjected to ammonolysis to form meprobamate.
O O
CH2O—C—Cl CH2—O—C—NH2
NH3
H3C—C—CH2—CH2—CH3 → H3C—C—CH2—CH2—CH3
CH2—O—C—Cl CH2—O—C—NH2
O O
Meprobamate
Uses. Meprobamate is used to induce sleep in anxiety and tensive patients. It also
possesses anticonvulsant and muscle relaxant properties.
Ethchlorvynol
Ethchlorvynol is 1-chloro-3-ethyl-1-penten-4-yn-3-ol. It is prepared from ethyl chlorovinyl
ketone by following chemical reactions under strict anhydrous conditions.
Properties. Ethchlorvynol is a yellow colored liquid with characteristic odor. It is light
sensitive drug hence should be protected from light.
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Uses. Ethchlorvynol is a short term hypnotic used to treat insomnia. It has rapid onset,
short duration of action and effective for 1–2 weeks.
Flurazepam
Flurazepam is a widely used benzodiazepine derivative to treat all types of insomnia. It
is 7-chloro-1-[2-(diethylamino)ethyl]-5-(2-fluorophenyl)-1,3-dihydro-2H-1, 4-benzodiazepin-2-
one. Flurazepam is synthesized by condensing benzodiazepinone with 2-chlorotriethylamine.
Properties. Flurazepam occurs as hydrochloride salt. Flurazepam hydrochloride is
odorless, water soluble, white or yellow crystalline powder.
O
NH—C C2H5
+ Cl—CH2—CH2—N
N C2H5
Cl
F
C2H5
↓
CH2—CH2—N
O C2H5
N—C
N
Cl
F
Flurazepam
Uses. Flurazepam is a hypnotic or minor tranquilizer that can have long lasting effects
of up to 1 month.
Diazepam
Chemistry. Diazepam is 7-chloro-1, 3-dihydro-1-methyl-5-phenyl-2H-1, 4-benzodiazepin-
2-one.
Properties. It is white or colorless crystalline, water insoluble powder. It should be
stored in a well closed container, protected from light.
Mechanism of Action. Diazepam binds and modifies the GABA receptor chloride
ionphore complex in the central nervous system as an agonist, facilitating the physiological
effects of GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) on the GABA receptor complex. Of the α, β, γ and subunits
of the receptor, α, β subunit determines the function of anxiolysis or sedation, while the γ
subunit renders the receptor itself sensitive to benzodiazepines.
CH3 O
 
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Cl N——C
Alprazolam
Chemistry. Alprazolam is a triazolo analogue of 1,4-benzodiazepine. Chemically
alprazolam is 8-chloro-1-methyl-6-phenyl-4H-s-triazolo [4,3-a] [1,4] benzodiazepine.
Mechanism of Action. Alprazolam is a short acting benzodiazepine receptor agonist

acting at various sites in the CNS. It has been used for short term relief of anxiety and mental
depression.
Temazepam
Chemistry. Temazepam is 2H-1,4-benzidiazepin-2-one. Chemically temazepam is 7-
chloro-1, 3-dihydro-3-hydroxy-1-methyl-5-phenyl-1, 4-benzodiazepin-2-one.
Properties. Temazepam occurs as white crystals melting at 120°C. It is very slightly

soluble in water and sparingly soluble alcohol.
Uses. Temazepam is a hypnotic drug used for the treatment of insomnia. It has long
duration of sedative action.
Prazepam
Chemistry. Prazepam is a benzodiazepine derivative. It is a central nervous system
depressant. Chemically it is 7-chloro-1-(cyclopropylmethyl)-1,3-dihydro-5-phenyl-2H-1,4-
benzodiazepin-2-one. Prazepam differs from diazepam in possessing of cyclopropyl methyl group
for 1-methyl group in diazepam.
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Properties. Prazepam occurs as colorless, crystalline powder. It is practically insoluble
in water but soluble in alcohol and chloroform.
Uses. Prazepam is used for symptomatic relief of anxiety.
Chlorazepate
Chemistry. Chlorazepate is a benzodiazepine derivative. It is available as chlorazepate
dipotassium.
Cl
H
N——C
N
O
—COO K
– +
Uses. Chlorazepate is used for symptomatic relief of anxiety associated with neurosis,
phsychoneurosis.
Triazolam
Chemistry. Triazolam is another widely used benzodiazepine used for short term treat-
ment of insomnia. However serious side effects have caused this drug to be banned in UK and
Canada. (anorexia, aggressive behavior, depression). Triazolam is synthesized by condensing
a thioamide intermediate possessing benzodiazepine nucleus with acetyl hydrazide.
H3C N
S
H  N
O
N——C N

+ H3C—C—NHNH2 →
N N
Cl Cl
Cl
Cl
Triazolam
8 Psychoactive Drugs
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INTRODUCTION
Psychoactive or psychotropic drugs are also known as tranquilizers. These drugs are used in
the treatment of psychiatric disorders i.e. abnormalities of mental function. The psychoactive
drugs render the patient calm and peaceful by reducing agitation and anxiety.
Psychoactive drugs does not cure mental disorders but the available drugs do control
most symptomatic manifestations and behavioral deviances, facilitate the patient’s tendency
toward remission and improve the capacity of patient for social, occupational, and familial
adjustment. The primary characteristic feature of these drugs is that they alter the mental
state and behavior in a predictable way.
CLASSIFICATION OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

The psychoactive drugs are classified as ;
1. Antipsychotic drugs
2. Anti depressant drugs
3. Anti anxiety drugs
ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENTS
INTRODUCTION
Anti psychotic drugs are used to treat psychoses like schizophrenia, mania, senile dementia
and behaviour disorders in children. These drugs act by depressing the central nervous sys-
tem (by decreasing dopamine levels) and by producing sedation without producing sleep. Thus
the antipsychotics are employed to reduce excitation, agitation, agressiveness and impulsive-
ness. Hence they are also known as antischizophrenic drugs or neuroleptic drugs or major
tranquilizers.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS

The drugs used in the treatment of psychoses are classified as follows ;
1. Phenothiazine derivatives. Chlorpromazine, prochlorperazine, trifluoperazine,
trifluopromazine, promazine.
77
2. Butyrophenones. Haloperidol, droperidol.

3. Miscellaneous. Pimozide, molindone.
PHENOTHIAZINES
INTRODUCTION
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Phenothiazines act exclusively on specific postsynaptic receptors and block the postsynaptic
dopamine receptors. They work on the positive symptoms of psychosis such as hallucinations,
delusions, disorganized speech, looseness of association, and bizarre behavior.
Phenothiazines are chemically constituted by a lipophilic, linearly fused tricyclic sys-
tem having a hydrophilic basic amino alkyl chain. The following is the general structure of
antipsychotic drugs.
6 5 4
7
S 3
8 2
9
N 1
H
10
STRUCTURE ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIPS OF PHENOTHIAZINES

Phenothiazines are the derivatives of phenothiazine tricyclic hetetocyclic moiety. The central
ring possesses nitrogen and sulphur heteroatoms.
1. Substitution at the second position of phenothiazine nucleus by electron withdraw-
ing substituent increases antipsychotic activity.
Ex: Chlorpromazine (chlorine)
2. Substitution at the 3-position of phenothiazine nucleus increases antipsychotic activ-
ity than unsubstituted derivatives but not by substitution at 2-position.
3. Substitution at 1 and 4 positions of phenothiazine nucleus reduces the antipsychotic
activity.
4. Phenothiazines must have a nitrogen-containing side-chain substituent on the ring
nitrogen for antipsychotic activity. The ring and side-chain nitrogens must be sepa-
rated by a three carbon chain.
5. The side chains are either aliphatic, piperazine, or piperidine derivatives. Piperazine
side chains confer the greatest potency and the highest pharmacological selectivity.
6. Fluphenazine and long chain alcohols form stable, highly lipophilic esters, which pos-
sess markedly prolonged activity.
7. Substitution on the side chain with a large or polar groups such as phenyl,
dimethylamino or hydroxyl results in loss of tranquilizing activity.
8. The phenothiazines produce a lesser degree of central depression than the barbitu-
rates or benzodiazepines.
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS 79
CHLORPROMAZINE
Chemistry. Chlorpromazine hydrochloride is a phenothiazine derivative and has a
chemical formula of 2-chloro-10-[3-(-dimethylamino) propyl] phenothiazine monohydrochloride.
The molecular formula is C17H19CLSHCl. Chlorpromazine is synthesized by cyclization of 3-
chlorodiphenylamine with sulphur in presence of small amount of iodine as catalyst.
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Properties. Chlorpromazine hydrochloride is an odorless, white crystalline powder. It
is freely soluble in water, alcohol, chloroform and insoluble in ether and benzene. It decom-
poses on exposure to air and light hence it should be stored in airtight containers and protect
from light.
Mechanism of Action. Exact neural mechanism by which this drug has its anti-psy-
chotic effects is not absolutely determined. Chlorpromazine is thought to block dopamine at
D2 receptor sites in the mesolimbic medullary chemoreceptor trigger zone areas of the brain.
It causes inhibitory post-synaptic effects by reducing the flow of dopamine as the dopaminergic
ion channels are closed.
Uses.
1. Chlorpromazine is used in the management of psychotic conditions. It also controls
excitement, aggression and agitation.
2. It has antiemetic, antipruritic, anti-histaminic and sedative properties.
Common side effects.
Extra pyramidal symptoms, hypertension, orthostatic hypotension, blurred vision, dry
mouth, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, constipation, diarrohea, weight gain, impotence,
amenorrhea, photosensitivity.
PROCHLORPERAZINE
Chemistry. Prochlorperazine is a phenothiazine derivative associated with piperazine.
Chemically prochlorperazine is 3-chloro-10-[3-(4-methyl-1-piperazinyl) phenothiazine. It oc-
curs as maleate and mesylate salts.
Prochlorperazine is prepared by refluxing 1-(3-chloro propyl)-4-methylpiperazine with
2-chlorophenothiazine in presence of sodamide in toluene.
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Properties. Prochlorperazine is a pale yellow colored, viscous liquid and is very slightly
soluble in water but freely soluble in alcohol.
Uses
1. Prochlorperazine is an antipsychotic and tranquilizing agent. It is used to treat vari-
ous psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, mania, involution psychoses, senile
and tonic psychoses.
2.It also has antiemetic properties
TRIFLUOPERAZINE
Chemistry. Trifluoperazine is a fluorinated phenothiazine derivative. It also possesses
a piperazine nucleus. Chemically trifluoperazine is 10-[3-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)propyl]-
2-trifluoromethyl methylphenothiazine. It is prepared by refluxing 2-trifluoromethyl
phenothiazine and 3-(4-methylpiperazinyl) propyl chloride in presence of sodamide as a base.
H
N CF3
+ ClCH2CH2CH2—N N—CH3
S NaNH2
2-Trifluoromethyl phenothiazine
↓
CH2CH2CH2—N N—CH3

N CF3
S
Trifluoperazine
Properties. Trifluoperazine occurs as hydrochloride salt. Trifluoperazine HCl is white

to pale yellow, crystalline powder. It is freely soluble in water and should be protected from
light and moisture.
Uses. Trifluoperazine has been used to control psychotic disorders. It is effective to
control excessive anxiety, tension, aggressiveness and agitation.
TRIFLUPROMAZINE
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Chemistry. Triflupromazine is a fluorinated phenothiazine derivative. Chemically
triflupromazine is 10-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]-2-(trifluoromethyl) phenothiazine.
Trifluopromazine is synthesized by condensing 2-(trifluoromethyl) phenothiazine with
(3-chloropropyl) dimethylamine in dry benzene in presence of sodamide.
Properties. Triflupromazine occurs as hydrochloride salt. Triflupromazine hydrochlo-

ride is white, crystalline powder. It is freely soluble in water, alcohol and insoluble in ether.
Uses.
1. Triflupromazine is used to treat psychotic disorders
2. It also has antiemetic properties
PROMAZINE
Chemistry. Promazine is a phenothiazine derivative. Chemically it is 10-[3-(dimethyl
amino)-propyl] phenothiazine. Promazine is prepared by condensing 3-chloro-N, N-dimethyl-
propylamine with phenothiazine in presence of sodium hydride.
Properties. Promazine is available as hydrochloride salt. Promazine HCl is white or

slightly yellow crystalline powder, and is freely soluble in water and chloroform. It should be
protected from air.
Uses
1. Promazine has antipsychotic properties
2. It is also used to control nausea and vomiting
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BUTYROPHENONES
1. The antipsychotic properties of butyrophenones is due to the presence of the follow-
ing general structure :
O H R
  
Ar—C—C—CH2—CH2—CH2—N—R

H
General structure of butyrophenone
2. Intact carbonyl group of butyrophenones is necessary for antipsychotic activity.
Replacement of carbonyl group by functional groups such as CH(OH), —CH (X),
—O—, —S, —SO2— etc., decreases activity.
3. All butyrophenones must have a fluorine atom in para-position of aryl group. The
antipsychotic activity is markedly decreased by introducing H, Cl, CH3, OCH3 or Ar
instead of fluorine at para position in aryl group.
4. Propylene bridge is required for antipsychotic properties. Shortening or lengthening
or branching of propylene bridge decreases antipsychotic activity.
5. Incorporation of basic nitrogen into 6-membered rings is important for CNS depres-
sant activity.
Ex: Haloperidol
O
 OH
F C—CH2—CH2—CH2—N
Cl
Droperidol
O O
 NH
F C—CH2—CH2—CH2—N N
HALOPERIDOL
Chemistry. Haloperidol is a butyrophenone derivative with antipsychotic properties
that has also been found as effective in lowering levels of hyperactivity, agitation, and mania.
It has chemical formula of 4-[4-(p-chlorophenyl)-4-hydroxypiperidino]-4′-fluorobutyrophenone.
Haloperidol is synthesized by condensing 4-(4-chlorophenyl-4-piperidinol with 4-chloro-4′-
fluorobutyrophenone:
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O
OH

F C—CH2—CH2—CH2—Cl + H—N
→
Cl
O
OH

F C—CH2—CH2—CH2—N
Haloperidol
Cl
Mechanism of action. The mechanism of action of haloperidol has not been entirely
elucidated, but has been attributed to the inhibition of the transport mechanism of cerebral
monoamines, particularly by blocking the impulse transmission in dopaminergic neurons. Peak
plasma levels of haloperidol reaches within 2 to 6 hours of oral administration.
Uses.
1. Haloperidol is effective in the management of hyperactivity, agitation, and mania.
2. Haloperidol is an effective neuroleptic and also possesses antiemetic properties ; it
has a marked tendency to provoke extrapyramidal effects and has relatively weak
alpha-adrenolytic properties.
3. It may also exhibit hypothermic and anorexiant effects and potentiates the action of
barbiturates, general anesthetics, and other CNS depressant drugs.
ANTIANXIETY AGENTS (ANXIOLYTICS)
INTRODUCTION
Anxiety is a multisystem response to a perceived threat or danger. It reflects a combination of
biochemical changes in the body, the patient’s personal history and memory, and the social
situation. It is important to distinguish between anxiety as a feeling or experience, and an
anxiety disorder as a psychiatric diagnosis. A person may feel anxious without having an
anxiety disorder.
Antianxiety drugs are medicines that calm and relax people with excessive anxiety,
nervousness, or tension, or for short-term control of social phobia disorder or specific phobia
disorder. They may be used to treat mild transient bouts of anxiety as well as more pronounced
episodes of social phobia and specific phobia. They are some times called as ‘minor tranquilizers’.
A wide range of antianxiety drugs are available and are classified as :
(i) Benzodiazepines : Ex: Lorazepam, diazepam

(ii) Barbiturates : Ex: Phenobarbitone, secobarbital
(iii) Non-barbiturate sedatives : Ex: Chloral hydrate, meprobamate
Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepines are the most commonly used anxiolytics and hypnotics. They act at
benzodiazepine receptors, which are associated with gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
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receptors. Clinically useful benzodiazepines to treat anxiety are diazepam, chlordiazepoxide,
oxazepam, prazepam, alprazolam, lorazepam, chlorazepate.
Mechanism of Action
These drugs are not fully understood in their actions. The benzodiazepine receptor was
announced in 1977. Today it is recognized that there are at least three distinct binding sites
for the benzodiazepines. Furthermore, these receptors are not isolated, but rather are parts
of a macromolecular complex that includes (1) the GABA-A receptor (2) the benzodiazepine
receptor, (3) the binding site for the barbiturates. Benzodiazepines modulate the activity of
gama-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain and may be responsible for the inhibitory effect.
Anxiolytics potentiate a major inhibitory neurotransmitter called gama-aminobutyric acid
(GABA). This causes a reduction in the excitability of the central nervous system.
When the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) binds to its
binding site, the result is that the chloride channel opens and allows Cl– ions in, hyperpolarizing
the cell and making it less excitable. Now, the benzodiazepine site, when bound, allosterically
alters the shape of the GABA site so that it fits GABA better, it has a greater affinity for the
GABA molecule.
Structure-Activity Relationships of benzodiazepines
1. There are several benzodiazepines. The benzodiazepines produce a wide range of
effects, and are used for all sorts of things. In medicine, they are usually used for
anxiety and insomnia, though they are occassionally used in musculoskeletal inju-
ries, alcohol detoxification, Three of their effects are considered hallmarks (1) anti-
convulsant effect, (2) muscle relaxant effect and (3) anti-anxiety effect.
2. Almost all active benzodiazepines, except those possessing a fused heterocyclic ring
or a thionyl group, have a carbonyl group at position 2.
3. A benzene ring, separated from the heterocyclic benzodiazepine ring system by a single
bond. A benzene ring is called a phenyl group when it is part of a larger molecule.
There must be an electron withdrawing substituent at position 7. The halogens :
chlorine, flourine, bromine, and iodine are nice attractors of electrons.
CH3
O
N
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N
Cl
Electron-attracting
group at 7
N-methyl-7-chloro-5-phenyl-1, 4-benzodiazepin-2-one
(diazepam)
4. Addition of methyl group to the nitrogen at position 1, yields a prototype benzodiazepine

diazepam. This drug exhibits all three of the basic benzodiazepine effects (1) skeletal
muscle relaxation (2) anticonvulsant activity and (3) antianxiety effects at doses far
lower than those that cause ataxia (loss of balance).
5. The first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide, is a 2-amino benzodiazepine. This com-
pound quickly metabolizes into several benzodiazepin-2-ones, and is more potent.
Eventually, triazolobenzodiazepines (alprazolam and triazolam) were found to be much
more potent. The triazolo compounds do not require any substitution at position 7.
6. Positions 6, 8, and 9 should be left unsubstituted.
7. The presence of a phenyl at the 5-position increases activity, and all benzodiazepines
have this substituient. 5-Phenyl ring with electron-attracting (generally halogen at-
oms) groups at the 2′ position show greatly increased activity, and produce greater
amnesia (lorazepam, and compare alprazolam and triazolam) while 4′ (para) substi-
tution decreases or abolishes activity.
8. The 4,5 double bond should not be moved or saturated.
9. The N-substituient at position 1 should be small for higher intrinsic activity; how-
ever, drugs with large substituients at this position have been prepared and mar-
keted (e.g., flurazepam, prazepam, halazepam, not shown). They owe their activity to
metabolic dealkylation, often to nordazepam.
Lorazepam. Lorazepam is 7-chloro-5-(2-chlorophenyl)-1,3-dihydro-3-hydroxy-1,4-
benzodiazepin-2-one.
Properties. It occurs as white, crystalline, water-insoluble powder.
Following is an outline of the synthesis of lorazepam.
EtOOC OEt
O
COOEt
NH2 NH2 C
H2N
→
O N
Cl Cl COOEt
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Cl Cl
H
 O H
N  O
N COOEt
∆ COOEt Br2
→ N →
Cl
Cl Cl N Br
Cl
H H
hydrolysis and O
 O 
N decarboxylation N—C
CH3OH COOH of the β-ketoacid H
→ → C
Cl N OCH3 Cl C=N OH
Cl Cl
(C)
Lorazepam
DIAZEPAM
Chemistry. Diazepam is a benzodiazepine derivative. Chemically it is 7-chloro-1,
3-dihydro-1-methyl-5-phenyl-2H-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one
Properties. A white or almost white, crystalline powder, very slightly soluble in water,
soluble in alcohol.
Synthesis
Step 1. The amine nitrogen of 4-chloro-N-methylaniline is first protected by treatment
with acetic anhydride.
Step 2. Friedel-Craft’s acylation is directed by the amide nitrogen, which is activating
and ortho, para directing. Chlorine is also ortho, para directing but it is deactivating and,
therefore, the amide nitrogen takes precedence in directing the position of further electrophilic
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aromatic substitution.
CH3 CH3
O O
N N
→
NH2 (6)
Cl O Cl N
Diazepam
Step 3. The acetyl-protecting group of A is removed by treatment with aqueous NaOH
to give (B).
Step 4. Treatment of the amino group of (B) with chloroacetyl chloride results in
acetylation to form (C).
Step 5. Treatment of (C) with ammonia results in nucleophilic displacement of chlorine
by an SN2 reaction to form a primary amine.
Step 6. Intramolecular reaction of the ketone and 1° amine groups results in formation
of an imine (a schiff base) and completes the synthesis of diazepam.
Clinical uses. Diazepam is the drug of first choice for the treatment of status epilepticus
(a particular type of convulsive disorder) when it is given intravenously.
Uses of benzodiazepines.
1. Benzodiazepines are indicated for the short-term relief (two to four weeks only) of
anxiety that is severe, disabling or subjecting the individual to unacceptable distress,
occurring alone or in association with insomnia or short-term psychosomatic, organic
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or psychotic illness.
2. The use of benzodiazepines to treat short-term mild anxiety is inappropriate and
unsuitable.
Common side effects of benzodiazepines:
Mental slowing, sedation, blurred speech, blurred vision, anorexia, nausea, vomiting,
dry mouth, diarrhoea, and constipation.
Newer Benzodiazepines. The following are some newer benzodiazepines :
H CH3
O O
 
N—C H N—C OH
C C
Cl C=N OH Cl C=N H
Oxazepam Temazepam
 N
CH2 H3C
O
  N
N—C N
CH2
Cl C=N Cl C=N
Prazepam Alprazolam
ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENTS
INTRODUCTION
Sadness, helplessness, inferiority, despair, worthlessness, crying, guilt, suicidal tendencies,
and episodic frequency characterize depression. Major depression is one of the most common
psychiatric disorders affecting humankind. It has been estimated that 7 to 12% of men and 20
to 25% of women will experience a major depressive episode in their lifetime. Major depression
is believed to arise from disturbances in brain neurotransmitter systems.
Antidepressants are a class of psychotherapeutic drugs that are used to treat major
depression. The therapeutic effect of antidepressants aims at the restoration of mood and
behavior. They are also effective for dysthymia (lower grade chronic depression). Antidepres-
sant drugs are not generally effective in milder forms of acute depression but a trial may be
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considered in cases refractory to psychological treatments.
HISTORY OF ANTIDEPRESSANTS
Most antidepressant drugs were discovered by serendipity. Iproniazid, the first modern anti-
depressant, was originally developed as an antitubercular drug in the early 1950’s. In addition
to its ability to treat tuberculosis, iproniazid was observed to elevate mood and stimulate ac-
tivity in many patients.
These effects led researchers to investigate the ability of iproniazid to treat the symp-
toms of depression. After promising preliminary findings reported in 1957, iproniazid was
prescribed widely to patients with major depression. Within the first year it was available as
an antidepressant, four hundred thousand depressed people were treated with iproniazid.
Subsequent studies demonstrated the ability of this drug to block the activity of monoamine
oxidase, the enzyme that destroys the monoamine neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, serotonin
and dopamine). Although iproniazid is no longer used as an antidepressant because of toxic
side-effects, the effectiveness of this drug led to further interest in the idea that depression
might be alleviated by appropriate drugs.
The first tricyclic antidepressant, imipramine, was originally developed in a search for
drugs useful in the treatment of schizophrenia. Although clinical trials demonstrated lack of
effect in treating schizophrenia. Early studies in 1957 and 1958 reported that imipramine
significantly alleviated symptoms in patients with major depression. Interestingly, although
imipramine elevated mood and increased energy in depressed patients, the drug proved to be
sedating in individuals without major depression. These effects led to the idea that imipramine
was selectively reversing the depression, rather than simply producing a general activating
effect. Subsequent biochemical studies on imipramine demonstrated that this drug increased
the activity of the monoamine neurotransmitters, norepinephrine and serotonin, by inhibiting
their reuptake into neurons.
10 11
9 1
8 2
5
N 3
7
6 4
CH3
N
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CH3
Imipramine
The monoaminooxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs),
although having different modes of action, their primary effect is to increase the activity of
monoamines in the brain. This observation, together with other findings, led to monoamine
theory of depression—the idea that depression arises from a deficit in norepinephrine and/or
serotonin activity, and that antidepressants work by normalizing this deficit. This theory led
to the development of the next major class of antidepressants, the selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRIs). In order to develop an antidepressant that worked effectively on the
symptoms of depression, but that did not have the side effects of the MAOIs or the tricyclics, a
systematic search was begun for drugs that selectively enhance activity of one monoamine,
but not others. The first SSRI, fluoxetine was released in 1987. This drug and other SSRIs, as
the name implies, selectively inhbit the reuptake of serotonin, and there by increase serotonin
activity in the brain.
CLASSIFICATION
Compounds that exhibit antidepressant activity are called thymoleptics. The major types of
drugs included in this class are the monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants,
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and atypical antidepressants. Either tricyclic and re-
lated antidepressants or SSRIs are generally preferred because MAOIs may be less effective
and show dangerous interactions with some food and drugs.
Generic Name Usual Dosage in mg. Half Life

(hours)
TCAs
Amitryptaline 50—300 31—46
Protryptiline
Imipramine
Trimipramine
Desipramine 50 —300 12—24
MAOIs
Phenelzine 30—90 1.5—4
Isocarboxazid 30—50 —
Tranyl cypromine 20—60 1.5—3.2
SSRIs
Fluoxetine 1—100 2—5 days
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Fluvoxamine 25—300 4—6 days
Paroxetine 10—50 5—21
Sertraline 12.5—200 24
Citalopram 10—60 23—45
Miscellaneous
Trazodone 50—400 4—9
Venlafaxine 25—375 3—7
Bupropion 200—300 8 days
Nefazodone 100—600 2—5
TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANTS
Tricyclic antidepressants inhibit the reuptake of the neurotransmitters, serotonin and
norepinephrine into their respective nerve terminals. Reuptake is the first step in the process
Norepinephrine and
serotonin are normally
Norepinephrine Synapse removed from the synapse by Serotonin Synapse
reuptake sites.
Transmitting Transmitting
Tricyclic antidepressants
(Presynaptic) tricyclic antidepressants (Presynaptic)
Neuron block norepinephrine and Neuron
serotonin reuptake sites,
allowing these neuro-
transmitters to remain active
in the synapse longer
Reuptake sites
(or Transporters)
Neurotransmitter
Receiving Receptors Receiving
(Postsynaptic) (Postsynaptic)
Neuron Neuron
of deactivating these neurotransmitters in the brain. After serotonin and norepinephrine are
released from neurons, they are removed from the extracellular space by transporters (also
known as reuptake sites) located on the cell membrane. These compounds block the reuptake
of monoamines, thereby elevating levels of noradrenaline and 5-HT. By inhibiting reuptake,
the drugs allow serotonin and norepinephrine to remain active in the synapse longer, thereby
correcting a presumed deficit in the activity of these neurotransmitters.
Chemistry of Tricyclic Antidepressants
1. The name tricyclic is a little misleading, referring to the three ring chemical struc-
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ture but many of the drugs included in this class may actually contain anywhere from
one to four rings.
2. Because they are similar in structure to the neuroleptics (with three rings), there are
instances of overlapping activities. Note the differences in structure of the central
ring. In general, the tricyclic antidepressants are mood-elevating drugs. Imipramine
and amitriptyline are examples of tricyclic antidepressants.
3. The activity of the tricyclic drugs depends on the central ring of seven or eight atoms,
which confers an angled or twisted conformation. The side chain must have at least 2
carbons although 3 appear to be better. The amine group may be either tertiary or
secondary.
4. Tricyclic Antidepressants have a characteristic ring structure compared to pheno-
thiazines.
10, 11-Dihydrocycloheptene 5, 10-Phenothiazine
5. All tricyclic antidepressants block the reuptake of norepinephrine at nerve termi-

nals. However, the potency and selectivity for the inhibition of the uptake of
norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine vary greatly among the agents. The terti-
ary amine tricyclics seem to inhibit the serotonin uptake pump, whereas the second-
ary amine ones seem better in switching off the norepinephrine pump.
Chlorimipramine
Chlorimipramine is 3-chloro-5-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenz-[b, f]-
azepine. Chlorimipramine blocks the reuptake of 5-HT better than any of the other tricyclic
antidepressants. Chlorimipramine selectively block the re uptake of serotonin, thereby in-
creasing the levels of serotonin in the central nervous system. It is useful in the treatment of
obsessive-compulsive disorders.
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10 11
9 1
8 f b 2
N
7 5 3
6 4 Cl
CH3
N
CH3
Chlorimipramine
Amitriptyline
Amitriptyline is 5-(3-dimethylaminopropylidene)-5H-[a,d]- dibenzo-10,11-dihydro-
cycloheptene. However, it is more potent in blocking the reuptake of norepinephrine (NE)
than 5-HT and much less potent in blocking the reuptake of dopamine. It causes high sedation
and high weight gain.
In synthesis of amitriptyline, the ketone (A) is treated with the Grignard reagent formed
from 3-dimethylaminopropyl bromide to give a tertiary alcohol. Acid-catalyzed dehydration of
the alcohol gives amitriptyline.
CH3
N
BrMg
CH HCl
→
3
→
HO CH3 CH3
O N N
Ketone (A)
Tertiary alcohol CH Amitriptyline CH
3 3
Imipramine
Imipramine is the parent tricyclic antidepressant. Imipramine is 5-(3-dimethylamino-
propyl)-10, 11-dihydro-5H- dibenz-[b, f]-azepine. It has weak D2 postsynaptic blocking,
anticholinergic and sedative activities.
10 11
9 1
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8 f b 2
N
7 5 3
6 4
CH3
N
CH3
Imipramine
Desipramine
Desipramine is 5-(3-methylaminopropyl)-10, 11-dihydro-5H-dibenz-[b, f]-azepine.
Imipramine metabolism to desipramine is fast and desipramine levels are higher than
imipramine. It causes low sedation, low weight gain.
Nortriptyline
Nortriptyline is 5-(3-methylaminopropylidene)-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo-[a,d]-cyclohep-
tene. Secondary amines have much greater selectivity for blockade of reuptake of norepine-
phrine (NE) compared to 5-HT.
Clozapine
This tricyclic dibenzodiazepine derivative has a chemical formula of 8-chloro-11-(4-me-
thyl-1-piperazinyl)-5H-dibenzo [b, e] [1, 4] diazepine. Clozapine is administered orally. It in-
terferes with the binding of dopamine molecules at the D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5 dopamine
receptors.
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N
Cl N—
N N—CH3
Clozapine
Uses of tricyclic antidepressants

1. Tricyclic antidepressants elevate mood, increase physical activity, normalize appe-
tite and sleep patterns, and reduce morbid preoccupation in 60%–70% of patients
with major depression.
2. Like the other classes of antidepressants, therapeutic effects of the tricyclics may
take from two to six weeks to appear. Often, the first symptom to subside is insomnia,
followed a few days later by an increase in activity and an improvement in
concentration and memory.
SELECTIVE SEROTONIN REUPTAKE INHIBITORS

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) represent a relatively new class of antidepres-
sant drugs. These drugs are referred to as “clean” drugs because they primarily affect only
serotonin (in contrast to MAOIs and tricyclics which affect other monoamines). Because SSRIs
are more targeted, they have a lower incidence of some of the side effects associated with
tricyclic antidepressants and MAOIs (e.g., blurred vision, dizziness, constipation, dry mouth).
Transmitting Serotonin is normally removed

(Presynaptic) from the synapse by reuptake
sites on the presynaptic neuron.
Serotonin Neuron
SSRIs block the serotonin
reuptake sites, allowing
serotonin to remain active
in the synapse longer
Serotonin reuptake site

Synapse (or Transporter)
Serotonin
receptor
Receiving
(Postsynaptic)
Neuron
The SSRIs, inhibit reuptake of serotonin. Reuptake is the first step in the process of
deactivating this neurotransmitter in the brain. After serotonin is released from neurons, it is
removed from the extracellular space by transporters, or reuptake sites, located on the cell
membrane. SSRIs block serotonin reuptake sites, allowing serotonin to remain active in the
synapse longer, thereby correcting a presumed deficit in the activity of this neurotransmitter.
Fluoxetine
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Fluoxetine is the most widely used drug in this class. It is N-methyl-3-phenyl-3-(p-
trifluoromethyl)-phenoxy-propylamine. It is a potent selective inhibitor of 5-HT reuptake.
Synthesis. Following is an outline for the synthesis of fluoxetine

CH3 CH3 CH3
O CH3 O N HO N Cl N
CH3 CH3 CH3
N
H CH3 NaBH SOCl
→ →
4
→
2
(1)
O OEt
OH CH3 C
O
F3C O N O N
CH3 Cl OEt CH3
→ →
CH3ONa
F3C F3C
COOH
H
1. NaOH, H2O O N O N
2. HCl, H2O CH3 ∆ CH3
→ →
(—CO2)
F3C F3C
N-substituted
carbamic acid Fluoxetine
Paroxetine
Paroxetine is (-)-trans-4-(p-fluorophenyl)-3-((3,4- (methylenedioxy)phenoxy)methyl)
piperidine. It is also a potent selective inhibitor of 5-HT reuptake.
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OCH2
O N
O
H
Paroxetine
Fluvoxamine
Fluvoxamine has the shortest half-life of all the SSRIs. Sedation is more common with
fluvoxamine than with other SSRIs. Anorexia and weight loss is less of a concern with
fluvoxamine than with fluoxetine.
CF3
O N
H2N
CH3
O
Fluvoxamine
Zimelidine
Zimeldine is (Z)-3-[1(p-bromophenyl)-3-(dimethylamino) propenyl]pyridine. It is a potent
selective inhibitor of 5-HT reuptake.
Sertraline
Sertraline is (1S, 4S)-4-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1, 2, 3, 4-tetrahydro-N-methyl-1-naphthy-
lamine. It is a potent selective inhibitor of 5-HT reuptake.
Cl
Cl
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H
H
HN
CH3
Sertraline
Venlafaxine
Venlafaxine is N,N-dimethyl-2-cyclohexanol-3-(p-methoxyphenylpropylamine. It is po-
tent inhibitor of 5-HT and norepinephrine reuptake.
Uses of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors

In recent years, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have been introduced for the
treatment of depression.
ATYPICAL ANTIDEPRESSANTS
Atypical antidepressants are the newer classification of neuroleptics. The conventional and
atypical antidepressants work equally well at treating the positive symptoms of schizophre-
nia. But the conventional neuroleptics have minimal effects on the negative symptoms, the
atypical drugs work well to treat this cluster of symptoms. The neurological effects are a result
of antagonism at D2 receptors. There are side effects (tardive dyskinesia) which appears mostly
with chronic administration of the conventional antipsychotics. Ex: Venlafaxine, Trazodone,
Nefazodone, Fluoxetine
Cl H
N O N
N N—CH2CH2CH2—N N—
C
F3C
O
Trazodone Fluoxetine
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MONOAMINE-OXIDASE INHIBITORS
INTRODUCTION
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), inhibit the activity of monoamine oxidase (MAO),
enzyme. Monoamine oxidase (MAO) causes the oxidative deamination of norephinephrine,
serotonin, and other amines thus destroys monoamine neurotransmitters (norepinephrine,
dopamine or serotonin) in synapses. This oxidation is the method of reducing the concentra-
tion of the neurotransmitter after it has sent the signal at the receptor site. Normally,
neurotransmitters carry signals from one brain cell to another. Some neurotransmitters, such
as serotonin and norepinephrine, play important role in controlling mood. But other substances
in the brain may interfere with mood control by breaking down these neurotransmitters. MAO
inhibitors work by blocking the chemicals that break down serotonin and norepinephrine. The
inhibition of this enzyme allows these neurotransmitters to remain active in the brain longer,
which in turn causes a stimulation effect, thereby correcting a presumed deficit in monoamine
function.
These drugs are less effective and produce more side effects than the tricyclic antide-
pressants. For example, they lower blood pressure and were at one time used to treat hyper-
tension. Their use in psychiatry has also become very limited, as the tricyclic antidepressants
have come to dominate the treatment of depression and allied conditions. Thus, MAOIs are
used most often when tricyclic antidepressants give unsatisfactory results.
Most MAO inhibitors are hydrazine derivatives. Hydrazine is highly reactive and may
form a strong covalent bond with MAO with consequent inhibition for up to 5 days. Some
commonly used MAO inhibitors are isocarboxazid, phenelzine, and tranylcypromine.
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Phenelzine
Phenelzine is 2-phenylethyl hydrazine. It is the hydrazine analog of phenylethylamine,
a substrate of MAO. Phenelzine and several other MAOIs, such as isocarboxazide, are struc-
turally related to amphetamine and were synthesized in an attempt to enhance central stimu-
lant properties.
Selegiline
Selegiline is (R)-(—)-N, α-dimethyl-N-2-propynyl- phenethylamine. It is selective MAO
inhibitor. Requires up to 2-4 weeks for therapeutic response.
Tranylcypromine
Tranylcypromine is (±)-trans-2-phenylcyclopropylamine. It is Non-selective, reversible
MAO inhibitor. Generally, tranylcypromine has a more rapid onset than other MAO inhibi-
tors. Cis isomer is less active.
NH2
CH
CH2
Tranylcypromine
Uses of monoamine-oxidase inhibitors

MAOIs are antidepressants, which are efficacious in the treatment of atypical depres-
sion (vegitative symptoms, anxiety, initial insomnia), panic disorder, anxiety and recently
discovered borderline personality disorder.
MAO inhibitors are a type of antidepressant and are used to treat mental depression.
Like other antidepressant drugs, MAO inhibitors help to reduce the extreme sadness, hope-
lessness, and lack of interest in life that are typical in people with depression.
MAO inhibitors are especially useful in treating people whose depression is combined
with other problems such as anxiety, panic attacks, phobias, or the desire to sleep too much.
Side Effects of Monoamineoxidase Inhibitors
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MAO inhibitors also affect other chemicals throughout the body, these drugs may pro-
duce many unwanted side effects.
They can be especially dangerous when taken with certain foods, beverages and medi-
cines. MAO inhibitors produce harmful side effects known as the “cheese effect” (The cheese
effect occurs when a person treated with MAO inhibitors eats food containing pressor amines.
These amines stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, increasing heart rate and blood pres-
sure. This reaction can cause blood pressure to increase enough to produce intra cranial bleed-
ing or cardiovascular collapse. Therefore, unless strict dietary guidelines are followed, risk of
hypertensive crisis is significant.
9 Antiepileptic Agents
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INTRODUCTION
The epilepsies are a group of disorders characterized by chronic, recurrent, paroxysmal changes
in neuralgic function caused by abnormalities in electrical activity of the brain. They are one of
the common neuralgic disorders, estimated to affect 0.52% of the population and can occur at
any age. The terms convulsion and seizure are often used interchangeably and basically have
the same meaning. For many years, treatment options for epilepsy were limited. Over the last
decade, however, many new pharmacological therapies have been introduced, and several more
are in development.
TYPES OF EPILEPSY
There are four types of epilepsy. Certain signs and symptoms characterize each type ;
(a) Grand Mal. Grand Mal is the most common type of epilepsy. In this type of epilepsy,
the person often experiences an aura (this can consist of certain sounds, fear discomfort)
immediately before a seizure. Then the patient loss consciousness and has tonic-clonic
convulsions. The seizures generally last from 2 to 5 minutes.
(b) Petit Mal. This type of epilepsy is most frequently found in children. Brief periods of
blank spells or loss of speech characterizes petit mal. During the seizures, which usually last
from 1 to 30 seconds, the person stops what he is doing and after the seizure resumes what he
was doing before the seizure. Many persons are not aware that they have had a seizure.
(c) Jacksonian (Focal). This type of epilepsy is rare. It is usually associated with le-
sion of a certain part of the brain (cerebral cortex). Jacksonian epilepsy is characterized by
focal or local clonic type convulsions of localized muscle groups (for example, thumb, big toe,
and so forth). The seizures normally last from 1 to 2 minutes.
(d) Psychomotor. Psychomotor epilepsy is rare. It is characterized by periods of abnor-
mal types of behavior (for example, extensive chewing or swallowing). Psychomotor seizures
occur most often in children 3 years of age through adolescence. The individual may experi-
ence an aura with perceptual alterations, such as hallucinations or a strong sense of fear. The
localized seizures may advance to generalized convulsions with resultant loss of conscious-
ness.
102
ANTIEILEPTIC AGENTS 103
CLASSIFICATION OF ANTICONVULSANTS
The anticonvulsants are classified as :
1. Barbiturates : Phenobarbital, methylphenobarbitone
2. Hydantoins : Phenytoin sodium, ethotoin, mephenytoin
3. Oxazolidine diones : Trimethadione, paramethadione
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4. Succinimides : Phensuximide, methsuximide, ethosuximide
5. Urea and monoacyl ureas : Phenacemide, carbamazepine
6. Miscellaneous antiepileptics : Clonazepam, diazepam, primidone, sodium valproate
7. New generation of antiepileptics : Lamotrigine, gabapentin, vigabatrin and function-
alized amino acids
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTICONVULSANTS

Seizures are caused by abnormal stimulation of nerves in the brain by other nerves. Gener-
ally, anticonvulsants reduce the excitability of the neurons (nerve cells) of the brain. When
neuron excitability is decreased, seizures are theoretically reduced in intensity and frequency
of occurrence or, in some instances, are virtually eliminated. For some patients, only partial
control of the seizure disorder may be obtained with anticonvulsant drug therapy. The mode
and the site of action of anticonvulsants are not known for sure. However, it is believed that
the anticonvulsants suppress seizures by depressing the cerebral (motor) cortex of the brain,
thereby raising the threshold of the central nervous system (CNS) to convulsive stimuli. There-
fore, the person is less likely to undergo seizures.
SPECIFIC ANTICONVULSANT DRUGS

PHENOBARBITAL
Chemistry. Phenobarbital is 5-ethyl-5-phenyl-1H, 3H, 5H-pyrimidine-2, 4, 6-trione.
Properties. Phenobarbital occurs as a white, crystalline powder or colourless crystals,

very slightly soluble in water, freely soluble in alcohol, soluble in ether. It forms water-soluble
compounds with alkali hydroxides, carbonates and with ammonia. Phenobarbital sodium oc-
curs as a white, crystalline powder, hygroscopic, freely soluble in carbon dioxide-free water,
soluble in alcohol, practically insoluble in methylene chloride and in ether.
Clinical uses. Mechanism is likely related to the potentiation of GABA inhibition in
the CNS. Barbiturates also antagonize glutamate excitation.
1. Phenobarbital is orally administered in the treatment of grand mal epilepsy.
2. It is less effective in the treatment of petit mal and psychomotor epilepsies. The in-
jectable from of the drug is used to treat other types of convulsions.
Adverse effects. The most common adverse effects associated with phenobarbital are
sedation, dizziness, drowsiness, ataxia (lack of muscular coordination), and nystagmus (a rapid
involuntary movement of the eyeball).
HYDANTOINS
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1. Hydantoins are cyclic monoacylureas. They possess imidazoline-2, 4-dione heterocyclic
system. Hydantoins are structurally related to barbiturates, differing in lacking the
6-oxo moiety.
O 4 3 NH
5 2
1 O
N
H
Hydantoin
2. Hydantoins are weakly acidic than barbiturates. Thus aqueous solution of sodium
salts provide strongly alkaline solutions.
3. A clinically useful hydantoin possess an aryl substituent at the 5-position.
O N—C2H5 H
N O N—CH3
C6H5 O H5C2
H5C6 O C6H5 O
N NH H5C6
H N
O H
Ethotoin
Phenytoin Mephenytoin
4. Hydantoin derivatives possessing of lower alkyl substituents have antiabsence activity.

5. Hydantoins activate Na+-K+-dependent and Ca++-dependent ATPase and increase Na+
transport.
PHENYTOIN
Chemistry. Phenytoin occurs as phenytoin sodium, chemically phenytoin is 5, 5′-diphe-
nylhydantoin.
H
N
C5 C=O
3
C N
 H
O
Phenytoin
Mechanism of action. Phenytoin probably works by maintaining the deactivation of
voltage-sensitive sodium channels, thereby blocking the repetitive firing of neurons.
Properties. Phenytoin occurs as white, crystalline powder, slightly hygroscopic, solu-

ble in water and in alcohol, practically insoluble in ether and in methylene chloride.
Synthesis. Phenytoin may be synthesized by heating α-bromodiphenylacetylurea with
alcoholic ammonia.
Br
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C NH
NH2
C=O + NH3 → O

O N
O C NH H
α-Bromodiphenyl acetylurea Phenytoin
Clinical uses
1. Phenytoin is used alone or in combination with phenobarbital in the treatment of
grand mal and psychomotor epilepsy.
2. It is also used in the treatment of other types of convulsions.
Adverse effects. Adverse effects associated with phenytoin include ataxia, nystagmus
and slurred speech.
MEPHENYTOIN
Chemistry. Mephenytoin is a hydantoin derivative. Chemically it is 5-ethyl-3-methyl
5-phenylhdantoin.
Properties. Mephenytoin is water insoluble, colorless crystalline solid. It forms a wa-

ter soluble sodium salt which has an alkaline reaction.
Synthesis. Mephenytoin is prepared by the following steps :
1. In the first step cyanoethylphenyl acetamide is prepared from cyanophenyl acetamide
by treatment with sodium ethoxide and ethyliodide
C6H5 C6H5
 C2H5ONa 
NC—CH → NC—C—C2H5
C2H5I
 
C O C O
 
NH2 NH2
2. The product obtained by oxidation with alkaline hypobromite solution converts cyano
group of cyanoethylphenyl acetamide to amide group, which isomerizes and cyclized
spontaneously.
C6H5 O C6H5 C6H5

 KBr   
NC—C—C2H5 → H2N—C—C—C2H5 Isomerisation
→ O C N—C—C2H5
KOH
 
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
C O C O C O
 
NH2
NH2 NH2
C6H5
HN
Cyclization
C2H5
→
O N O
H
3. The above cyclized product (5-ethyl 5-phenyl hydantoin) yield mephenytoin by
methylation of the nitrogen atom (which is present between two carbonyl group) with
methyl sulfate or methyliodide.
Clinical uses
1. Mephenytoin is used to control seizures in combination with phenytoin
2. It is used as a reserve drug (only when phenytoin has failed), because the metabolic
product (5-ethyl-5-phenylhydantoin) of mephenytoin is highly toxic.
OXAZOLIDINEDIONES
Oxazolidinediones were introduced as anticonvulsants in 1948. They possess the follow-
ing heterocyclic system :
Oxazolidine-2, 4-dione is analogous to hydantoin differs in having of oxygen atom at

position 1 instead of NH. Ex: Trimethadione, paramethadione.
TRIMETHADIONE (Troxidone)
Chemistry. Trimethadione is an oxazolidinedione derivative. Chemically it is 3, 5, 5-
trimethyloxazolidine-2,4-dione
CH3

O N
O
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O
H3C
CH3
Properties. Trimethadione is colourless or almost colourless crystals, soluble in water,
very soluble in alcohol and in ether. It should be protected from light.
Synthesis. Trimethadione is an oxazolidinedione derivative. It is synthesized by the
following steps :
(a) Ethyl-α-hydroxy-α-methyl propionate is condensed with urea to yield 5, 5-dimethyl
oxazolidine-2, 4-dione, which treatment with a strong base followed by methylation
with methyl sulphate gives trimethadione.
CH3
OH O H2N H3C—5
  1O
H3C—C——C—OC2H5 + C = O → 4
3
2
O O (i) C2H5ONa
 N
CH3 H2N  (ii) (CH3)2SO4
H
H3C ↓
H3C O
O N O

CH3
Clinical uses. Troxidone is used in the treatment of absence seizures

PARAMETHADIONE
Chemistry. Paramethadione is 5-ethyl-3, 5-dimethyl oxazolidine-2, 4-dione. Structur-
ally it is very closely related to trimethadione
Properties. Paramethadione is available as clear, colourless liquid. It is partially mis-

cible with water. It should be stored in a well-closed container.
Clinical Uses
Paramethadione is used in the treatment of absence seizures.
SUCCINIMIDES
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Oxazolidinediones are toxic hence to replace them with less toxic drugs succinimides
were introduced in 1951 as antiepileptics. The precise mechanism of action of succinimides is
unknown. It has been postulated that succinimides enhances inhibitory processes in the brain,
by some effect on specific inhibitory neurotransmitter systems.
PHENSUXIMIDE
Chemistry. Phensuximide is a 2,5-pyrrolidinedione derivative. Chemically it is N-me-
thyl-2-phenylsuccinimide.
Properties. Phensuximide is white to off-white, crystalline, slightly water-soluble com-

pound. It is freely soluble in methanol and ethanol. Aqueous solutions of phensuximide are
fairly stable at pH 2-8.
Synthesis. Following is the outline for this synthesis of phensuximide :
(a) Ethyl cyanoacetate on treatment with sodium ethoxide, is converted to its enolate
anion and then, in a carbonyl condensation related to the aldol reaction and the Claisen
condensation adds to the carbonyl carbon of benzaldehyde to give a tetrahedral
carbonyl addition compound. Dehydration of this addition compound gives an α, β-
unsaturated cyanoester (A).
(b) Treatment of (A) with KCN results in Michael addition of cyanide ion to the β-carbon
of the α, β-unsaturated cyanoester (B).
(c) Treatment of (B) with NaOH, H2O results in base-promoted hydrolysis of the ester
and cyano groups to carboxylic salts. Acidification with HCl and heating results in
the formation of the β-dicarboxylic acid (C).
(d) Treatment of the dicarboxylic acid with ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst
such as p-toluenesulfonic acid converts each carboxyl group to an ethyl ester (D).
(e) Treatment of the diester with methylamine results phensuximide.
1. NaOH, H O +
→
2 EtOH, H CH3NH2
→ →
2. HCl, H2O
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3. heat
HOOC COOH EtOOC COOEt O O
(C) (D) N

CH3
Phensuximide
In an even more direct route to phensuximide, phenylsuccinic acid is treated with
methylamine to give an ammonium salt and then heated to form the imide.
Clinical uses. Phensuximide is a succinimide antiepileptic agent used to treat convul-

sions but it is reported to be less effective.
ETHOSUXIMIDE
Chemistry. Ethosuximide is 2-ethyl-2-methylsuccinimide.
Ethosuximide has hydrogen on the imide nitrogen. It is the most acidic and has acidity
comparable to that of succinimide (pKa ;11). The imide anion is stabilized by resonance inter-
action with the carbonyl groups on either side of it.
Properties. Ethosuximide occurs as a white colored, odorless powder or waxy solid
having bitter taste. It is freely soluble in water.
Synthesis. Synthesis of ethosuximide, uses 2-butanone as the starting material and
ammonia as the amine to form the five-membered imide ring.
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Clinical uses
(a) Ethosuximide is the drug of first choice for the treatment of petit mal epilepsy.
(b) To treat other types of epilepsy it may be used with other antiepileptic drugs.
Adverse effects. Drowsiness, ataxia, and gastrointestinal irritation are adverse ef-
fects associated with the use of ethosuximide.
METHSUXIMIDE
Chemistry. Methosuximide is a succinimide antiepileptic drug. It is N, 2-dimethyl-2-
phenylsuccinimide.
Properties. Methosuximide is a white to greyish white crystalline compound and is

freely soluble in methanol.
Synthesis. Synthesis of methsuximide uses acetophenone as the starting compound.
Clinical use. Methsuximide is a succinimide antiepileptic agent used to treat complex

partial seizures. It is thought to owe its activity to its major metabolite N-desmethyl-
methsuccimide.
MISCELLANEOUS ANTIEPILEPTIC DRUGS
CLONAZEPAM
Chemistry. Clonazepam is 5-(2-chlorophenyl)-3-dihydro-7-nitro-2H-1,4-benzodialzepin-
2-one.
HO
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Properties. Clonazepam is slightly yellowish, crystalline powder, practically insoluble
in water, slightly soluble in alcohol and in methanol, very slightly soluble in ether. It melts at
about 239°C.
Synthesis
Step 1. 2-Chlorobenzoic acid is treated with thionyl chloride to give an acid chloride.
Step 2. p-Nitroaniline is treated with acetic anhydride to form an amide, thus protect-
ing the amino group.
Step 3. Friedel-Crafts acylation gives a diaryl ketone.
Cl
SOCl2
Cl O
Cl
→ O
(1) 
2-Chlorobenzoic NHCCH3
acid AlCl3
→ NaOH
(3) O →
(4)
O2N Cl
O

NH2 NHCCH3
AC O
→
2
(2)
O2N O2N
p-Nitroaniline
Step 4. Removal of the amine protecting by hydrolysis of the amide in aqueous base
gives the free amine.
Step 5. Treatment of the amine with chloroacetyl chloride gives an α-chloroamide.
Step 6. Nucleophilic displacement of the primary chloride by ammonia gives a primary

amine.
Step 7. Reaction of the primary amine with the nearby ketone gives an imine and closes
the seven-membered ring of clonazepam.
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Clinical uses. Clonazepam is used in the treatment of grand mal epilepsy. It is the
alternate drug for the treatment of petit mal in patients who fail to respond to ethosuximide
therapy. It suppresses various types of status epilepticus seizures but because of its
cardiorespiratory depressant effect, it is second to diazepam.
Adverse effects. The primary side effect associated with clonazepam is central nerv-
ous system depression. Drowsiness is frequently seen in patients who take this medication.
DIAZEPAM
Chemistry. Diazepam is a benzodiazepine derivative. Chemically it is 7-chloro-1-me-
thyl-5-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one.
CH3
 O
N
1 2
3
4
5
Cl 7
6
N
soluble in alcohol.
Synthesis
Step 1. The amine nitrogen of 4-chloro-N-methylaniline is first protected by treatment
with acetic anhydride.
Step 2. Friedel-Crafts acylation is directed by the amide nitrogen, which is activating
and ortho, para directing. Chlorine is also ortho, para directing but it is deactivating and,
therefore, the amide nitrogen takes precedence in directing the position of further electrophilic
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aromatic substitution.
Step 3. The acetyl-protecting group is removed by treatment with aqueous NaOH to

give (A).
Step 4. Treatment of the amino group of (A) with chloroacetyl chloride results in
acetylation to form the amide group of (B).
Step 5. Treatment of (B) with ammonia results in nucleophilic displacement of chlorine
by an SN2 reaction to form a primary amine.
Step 6. Intramolecular reaction of the ketone and 1° amine of (B) results in formation of
an imine (a Schiff base) and completes this synthesis of diazepam.
CH3 CH3
 O  O
N N
→
O NH2 (6)
Cl Cl N
Diazepam
Clinical uses. Diazepam is the drug of first choice for the treatment of status epilepticus
(a particular type of convulsive disorder) when it is given intravenously.
Adverse effects. Drowsiness, fatigue, and ataxia are the most common adverse effects
seen with diazepam.
CARBAMAZEPINE
Chemistry. Carbamazepine is an azepine derivative possess dibenzazepine nucleus.
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Carbamazepine is 5H-dibenz[b, f] azepine-5-carboxamide
Properties. A white or almost white, crystalline powder, practically insoluble in water,

freely soluble in methylene chloride, sparingly soluble in acetone and in alcohol, practically
insoluble in ether. It shows polymorphism.
Synthesis. It is prepared by the following steps :
(a) 10, 11-Dihydro-5H-dibenz [b, f] azepine by acetylation followed by bromination with
N-bromosuccinimide gives N-acetyl-11-bromo dibenz [b, f] azepine.
Br
(i) Acetylation
→ →
(ii) Allylicbromination
N (NBS) N
 
H C—CH3

O
(b) Dehydrohalogenation of N- acetyl-11-bromo dibenz [b, f] azepine followed by saponi-
fication with potassium hydroxide in ethanol leads to dibenz [b, f] azepine.
Br
→
N N
 
C—CH3 H

O
(c) Treatment of dibenz [b, f] azepine with phosgene followed by heating with ammonia
produces carbamazepine.
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Uses. Carbamazepine is an antiepileptic drug used to control grandmal and focal sei-
zures. It is also used in the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia and the treatment of manic
depression.
PHENACEMIDE
Phenacemide is phenylacetylurea.
Properties. It is available as crystalline, slightly water soluble solid. Phenacemide is
synthesised by acylation of urea with phenylacetyl chloride.
Use. Phenacemide is used as an anticonvulsant drug.

PRIMIDONE
Chemistry. Primidone is an antiepileptic agent related to barbiturates. Primidone is a
diketone derived from hexahydropyrimidine. Chemically it is 5-ethyl-2, 3-dihydro-5-phenyl-4,
6-(1H, 5H)-pyrimidine dione.
slightly soluble in alcohol, practically insoluble in ether.
Synthesis. It is prepared from diethyl ethyl phenylmalonate by following steps :
(a) Diethyl ethyl phenylmalonate is converted into its amide derivative by the action of
ammonia.
O O
 
H5C2 C—OC2H5 H5C2 C—NH2
C → C
H5C6 C—OC2H5 H5C6 C—NH2
 
O O
(b) Amide is refluxed with formamide to yield primidone.
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Uses. Primidone is an antiepileptic agent used to control grandmal and psychomotor
seizures. It is administerd orally, which is partly metabolized to phenobarbitone in the body
and owes some of its actions to this metabolite.
VALPROIC ACID
Chemistry. Valproic acid was discovered as an anticonvulsant in 1963, and it was ap-
proved by the FDA for seizures in 1978. Valporic acid is 2-propylpentanoic acid. It is available
as sodium valproate. Valproic acid is not chemically related to other anticonvulsants.
CH3—CH2—CH2
CH—COOH
CH3—CH2—CH2
Valproic acid
Properties. Sodium valproate is hygroscopic, white, crystalline powder. It is freely
soluble in water and should be stored in an airtight container.
Valproic acid is rapidly absorbed after oral administration. Peak serum levels occur
approximately 1 to 4 hours after a single oral dose. Valproic acid is primarily metabolized in
the liver to the glucuronide conjugate.
Synthesis. Valproic acid may be synthesized from 4-heptanol by successive conver-
sions to 4-bromoheptane with HBr, to 4-cyanoheptane with HCN and to 2-propyl pentanoic
(valproic) acid by alkaline hydrolysis of the 4-cyanoheptane.
CH3—CH2—CH2 CH3—CH2—CH2
HBr HCN
H—C—OH → H—C—Br 
→
CH3—H2C—H2C H3C—H2C—H2C
4-Heptanol 4-Bromoheptane
CH3—CH2—CH2 Alkaline CH3—CH2—CH2

hydrolysis
CH ← H—C—CN
H3C—H2C—H2C COOH H3C—H2C—CH2

Valproic acid 4-Cyanoheptane
(iv) Mechanism of action. Sodium valproate has anticonvulsant effect. Although the
exact mechanism of action is not clear, it is believed that valproic acid prevents the stimula-
tion of nerves by increasing the concentrations in the brain of the neurotransmitter, gamma-
aminobutyric acid (GABA). It acts by increasing the concentration of γ-aminobutyric acid by
inhibiting the enzyme, which degrades γ-aminobutyric acid.
Uses :
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1. Valproic acid is used for different types of seizures including absence seizures (petit
mal seizures), generalized tonic-clonic seizures, complex partial seizures, and
myoclonic seizures.
2. Sodium valproate may be effective against myoclonic and atonic seizures in young
children and considered as the agent of choice.
3. Valproic acid also is used for treating bipolar mania and migraine headaches. Valproic
acid is used for different types of seizures including absence seizures (petit mal sei-
zures), generalized tonic-clonic seizures, complex partial seizures, and myoclonic sei-
zures.
SIDE-EFFECTS OF ANTI-EPILEPTICS
1. Although various drugs are used effectively as anticonvulsants, they have numerous
important side effects like sedation (seen with phenobarbitone, phenytoin and
carbamazepine), gum hypertrophy and hirsutism (seen with phenytoin).
2. Majority of these drugs interfere with their own metabolism and of many other drugs,
emphasizing the need for plasma level monitoring and adjustment of dosage from
time to time.
3. Moreover, some patients fail to respond to these drugs both as monotherapy and
combination therapy. Thus, there is a need for better anti-epileptic drugs.
NEWER ANTIEPILEPTIC DRUGS
The following new drugs are available for epilepsy, which is refractory to conventional
drugs :
1. Lamotrigine, 2. Vigabatrin
3. Gabapentin 4. Functionalized amino acids.
Advantages of newer anti-epileptics :
1. simpler, predictable pharmacokinetics
2. fewer adverse events
3. less effect on cognitive function
4. Low dose of drug
LAMOTRIGINE
Lamotrigine is a 1, 2, 4 triazine compound with antiepileptic profile in experimental
models of epilepsy similar to phenytoin and carbamazepine. Chemically it is 6-(2,3-
dichlorophenyl)-1,2,4-triazine-3, 5-diyldiamine. Lamotrigine is an interesting broad-spectrum
agent, chemically unrelated to conventional agents. It acts by inhibiting release of excitatory
neuro-transmitters, especially glutamate. It has proved useful as add-on therapy in resistant
partial seizures, especially those whose seizures become generalised.
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Up to 70% of patients appear to derive some benefit. It also shows promise in primary
generalised seizures and in refractory childhood multiple seizure types. Preliminary studies
suggest equivalent efficacy in monotherapy to carbamazepine and phenytoin. Side effects ap-
pear to be less than with phenytoin or carbamazepine and are often not greater than placebo.
The most important side effect is skin rash.
VIGABATRIN
Vigabatrin is chemically 4-amino-5-hexenoic acid. As the name suggests, this drug is a
structural analogue of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. It acts as an inhibitor of the
enzyme GABA transaminase that degrades GABA, thereby enhancing GABA activity. Be-
cause of irreversible inhibition, the effects last longer than suggested by the half-life, enabling
once or twice daily administration.
H2C CH—CH—CH2—CH2—COOH

NH2
It is usually given twice daily. The same reasoning suggests that therapeutic drug
monitoring will not be useful. It has proved useful as an add-on therapy in patients with
partial seizures with or without secondary generalisation, with promise as monotherapy.
Performance in primary generalised seizures and severe childhood seizures and myoclonic
seizures is less impressive.
GABAPENTIN
Gabapentin containing primary amino and carboxyl groups, is better represented as an
internal salt resulting from proton transfer from the acidic carboxyl group to the basic amino
group.
Intramolecular +
NH2 acid/base reaction
NH3
–
COOH COO
Gabapentin
The name and structure again suggests GABA mediated pharmacology but surprisingly
the mechanism of action remains unknown.
The synthesis of gabapentin involves two carbon-carbon bond-forming steps.
Step 1. When treated with sodium ethoxide, diethyl malonate is converted to its enolate
anion and then, in a carbonyl condensation related to the aldol reaction and the Claisen con-
densation, adds to the carbonyl carbon of cyclohexanone to give a tetrahedral carbonyl addi-
tion compound. Dehydration of this addition compound gives an α,β-unsaturated diester.
Step 2. Base-promoted hydrolysis of the diester in aqueous base followed by acidifica-
tion with HCl gives an α, β-unsaturated dicarboxylic acid.
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COOC2H5 – +
(i) CH2 C2H5O Na
COOC2H5
COOC2H5
(ii) Dehydration
C = O → C=C
(1)
COOC2H5
(i) NaOH/H2O
(ii) HCl
COOH heat EtOH, H
+
→ → →

(2) (3) (4)
COOH COOH COOEt
Step 3. Heating the β-dicarboxylic acid results in decarboxylation and gives an α, β-
unsaturated carboxylic acid.
Step 4. Treatment of the carboxylic acid with ethanol in the presence of p-toluenesulfonic
acid catalyst (Fischer esterification) converts the carboxyl group to an ethyl ester.
Step 5. Michael addition of cyanide ion to the α, β-unsaturated ester gives a β-cyanoester.
Step 6. Treatment of the cyano group with hydrogen over a platinum on charcoal cata-
lyst reduces the cyano group to a primary amine.
Step 7. Hydrolysis of the ester group using either aqueous NaOH or HCl gives
gabapentin.
NH2 ester NH2

CN
NaCN Pt/C hydrolysis
→ → →
(5) (6) (7)
COOEt COOEt COOH
Gabapentin
Uses. As add-on therapy in resistant partial epilepsy with or without generalisation

some improvement is seen in up to 70% of patients. It has potential benefit in a wide variety of
seizure types but limited experience as monotherapy. Gabapentin is well tolerated compared
with conventional antiepileptics but has CNS effects such as dizziness (18%), ataxia (13%),
fatigue (11%).
Functionalized amino acids as antiepileptic agents
Antiepileptic agents are ineffective in about one-third of epileptic patients. Significant
antiepileptic activity exists in several functionalized amino acids (FAAs). Over 250 different
FAAs have been synthesized and tested over the years. Different functional groups lead to
increases (or decreases) in antiepileptic activity. Placement of an acetyl moiety at the amino
terminus and N-benzylamide at the carboxyl terminus has shown to increase the activity.
Replacement of the tetrahedral carbon atom (C2) with a trivalent nitrogen atom has shown to
decrease antiepileptic activity. One important discovery was that a small, substituted
heteroatom moiety positioned at C2 site had a greatly increased antiepileptic activity. Also,
the activity of these agents tends to reside primarily in the R-stereoisomer. The backbone of
the functionalized amino acids can be generalized as follows:
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2
O R
3
1 NHR
2
R N
H O
Cholinergic and
10 Anticholinergic Drugs
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INTRODUCTION
The nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system, which controls organs under
voluntary control (mainly muscles) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) which regulates
individual organ function and homeostasis, and for the most part is not subject to voluntary
control. The autonomic nervous system is also known as the visceral or automatic system. The
ANS is predominantly an efferent system transmitting impulses from the central nervous
system (CNS) to peripheral organ systems. The autonomic nervous system consists of sensory
neurons and motor neurons that innervates between the central nervous system (especially
the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata) and various internal organs such as the : heart,
lungs, viscera, glands (both exocrine and endocrine). Thus it is responsible for monitoring
conditions in the internal environment and bringing about appropriate changes in them.
The ANS is divided into two separate divisions called the parasympathetic and sympa-
thetic systems, on the basis of anatomical and functional differences. Both of these systems
consist of myelinated preganglionic fibres which make synaptic connections with unmyelinated
postganglionic fibres, and it is these which then innervate the effector organ. These synapses
usually occur in clusters called ganglia.
The main nerves of the parasympathetic system are the tenth cranial nerve, the vagus
nerve, which originate in the medulla oblongata. Other preganglionic parasympathetic neu-
rons also extend from the brain as well as from the lower tip of the spinal cord. Each
preganglionic parasympathetic neuron synapses with just a few postganglionic neurons, which
are located near or in the effector organ, a muscle or major gland. Acetylcholine (ACh) is the
neurotransmitter of all the pre and many of the postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic
system.
Parasympathetic stimulation causes slowing down of the heart beat, lowering of
blood pressure, constriction of the pupils, increased blood flow to the skin and viscera, peristal-
sis of the GI tract
121
CNS Ganglion
TARGET
P ACh Post-ganglionic
Pre-ganglionic ACh
N and
S AChE ACh
Ganglion
Post
Nervous NE
system A ACh NE
TARGET
N Pre
and NE
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S AChE NE
S NE
4N NE
S Adrenal medulla
Peripheral ACh
RN epinephrine
nervous
AChE
system Neuro
Somatic nervous system
ACh Muscular
Junction
Anatomical and pharmacological characteristics of peripheral nervous sys-

tem.
ANS = autonomic nervous system, PNS = parasympathetic nervous system,
SNS = sympathetic nervous system, ACh = acetylcholine, AChE =
acetylcholinesterase, NE = norepinephrine.
The Sympathetic Nervous System

The preganglionic motor neurons of the sympathetic system arise in the spinal cord.
They pass into sympathetic ganglia, which are organized into two chains that run parallel to
and on either side of the spinal cord. The neurotransmitter of the preganglionic sympathetic
neurons is acetylcholine (ACh). It stimulates action potentials in the postganglionic neurons.
The neurotransmitter released by the postganglionic neurons is noradrenaline (also called
norepinephrine). The release of noradrenaline stimulates heartbeat, raises blood pressure,
dilates the pupils, dilates the trachea and bronchi, stimulates the conversion of liver glycogen
into glucose, shunts blood away from the skin and viscera to the skeletal muscles, brain, and
heart, inhibits peristalsis in the GI tract, inhibits contraction of the bladder and rectum.
NEUROCHEMISTRY
A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger used by neurons to communicate in one
direction with other neurons. Communication between neurons is accomplished by the recog-
nition by a receptor for a specific chemical messenger, picture a ball (neurotransmitter) in a
cup (receptor). They are synthesized primarily in the nerve terminals, stored in vesicles of
nerve terminals and are released in to the extracellular space using calcium ions. Their action
is terminated by reuptake into presynaptic terminal or glial cells by specific transporter pro-
teins or by catabolism in synaptic cleft or in presynaptic terminal.
Neurotransmitters : Chemically, there are four classes of neurotransmitters. They
are :
1. Acetylcholine
2. Biogenic amines : Indolamines (serotonin and tryptamine are synthesized from
tryptophan), and the catecholamines (dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine are
synthesized from tyrosine).
CHOLINERGIC AND ANTICHOLINERGIC DRUGS 123
3. Excitatory amino acids : There are three major amino acid neurotransmitters in the
nervous system ; γ-Amino butyric acid (GABA), glycine, glutamic acid and aspartate.
4. Neuropeptides, over 50 are known.
Amino acid neurotransmitters are the most numerous except for the neuropeptides,
which are synthesized in the nerve cell body and transported in vesicles along the axon to the
axon terminals. All other neurotransmitters are synthesized at the axon terminals and stored
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in synaptic vesicles. These synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters when the presynaptic
neuron’s electrical properties change sufficiently (i.e. arrival of an action potential).
Neurotransmitters are released from the vesicles into a tiny space between neurons called the
synapse. A bit of the released neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic space and binds to
receptors on the adjacent neuron. The whole process takes about one millisecond.
When a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on another neuron, ion channels open and
ions move in or out of that neuron. This causes a net change in the electrical properties (mem-
brane potential) of that neuron and determines its activity. The change may be inhibitory or
excitatory, and is determined by the receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. The electrical cur-
rents that denote inhibition or excitation in a single neuron can be measured with an
intracellular electrode.
ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh)
The chemical transmitter at both pre and postganglionic synapses in the parasympathetic
system is acetylcholine (Ach). Ach is also the neurotransmitter at sympathetic preganglionic
synapses, some sympathetic postganglionic synapses, the neuromuscular junction (somatic
nervous system), and at some sites in the CNS. Acetylcholine is the most widespread auto-
nomic transmitter present in the body.
(a) Synthesis of acetylcholine (ACh). It was first synthesized by Bayer in 1867.
Acetylcholine virtually has no therapeutic effect because of its differences of action and
+
CH3 SCoA + HOCH2CH2N(CH3)3 →
Choline Acetyl transferase
(ChAT or CAT)
Acetyl CoA Choline
O CH3
+
N
CH3 O
 CH3 + HSCoA
CH3
Acetylcholine (ACh)
susceptability to hydrolysis by acetylcholinesterase and plasma butyrylcholinesterase. The

synthesis of acetylcholine involves the reaction of choline with active acetyl (CoA). The active
acetyl CoA being formed by the combination of acetate with Coenzyme A (CoA). The reaction
between acetyl Coenzyme A and choline is catalyzed by the enzyme cholineacetylase. There is
considerable evidence that the enzyme cholineacetylase is synthesized within the neuronal
perikaryon, then transferred along the axon to its terminals where the formation of acetylcholine
is believed to occur.
Pre-synaptic cell
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A
C
oA
Synapse
+
ch
ol
in
e
1
Acetate
5
+ choline
ACh
2
hE
C
A
4
3
s c
or ti
pt ap
ce n
re t-sy
s
Po
hE
C
A
Post-synaptic cell
(neuron or neuroeffector)
Synthesis and release of acetylcholine
Synthesis of acetylcholine in response
(b) Storage and release of ACh. ACh is stored in synaptic vesicles, which is released
as discrete “Quanta” in response to depolarization of the nerve terminal and an increased
influx of Ca++. When a nerve impulse occurs, depolarization of nerve terminal causes influx of
Ca++, which facilitates the fusion of the axonal and vesicular storage membranes, and release
formed acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis. The released acetylcholine combines
with the receptors at target organ, remains bound for less than a millisecond and is quickly
hydrolysed by acetycholinesterase enzyme into choline and acetate.
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(c) Chemistry of Acetylcholine
Conformational Aspects of Acetylcholine :
(i) The following figure illustrates structure and functional groups of the acetylcholine
molecule
Quaternary
O H H CH3 ammonium
⊕ group
α N CH3
H3C O β
CH3
H H
Ester group
Ethylene
bridge
(ii) Conformational isomers of ACh derived from rotation around the -O-C-C-N axis and
their nomenclatures [the receptor-bound conformation of ACh is (+) ac]
(d) Acetylcholine Receptors. There are number of different ACh receptors through-
out the body. Acetylcholine acts on two different classes of receptors-nicotinic receptors and
muscarinic receptors (widely distributed within both peripheral and central nervous systems).
Nicotinic Receptors. Nicotinic receptors are selectively activated by nicotine and
blocked by tubocurarine or hexamethonium. These are rosette like pentameric structures which
enclose a ligand gated cation channel, their activation causes opening of the channel and rapid
flow of cations resulting in depolarization and generation of action potential. On the basis of
location and selectivity. They are divided into two types;
N1 : These are present at skeletal muscle endplate and mediate skeletal muscle contrac-
tions. They are selectively stimulated by phenyltrimethyl ammonium and are blocked by
tubocurarine.
N2 : These are present in ganglionic cells, adrenal medullary cells, in spinal cord and in
certain areas of brain. They are primarily stimulated by dimethylphenylpiperazine and blocked
by hexamethonium.
Muscarinic Receptors. Although five muscarinic receptors have been identified, help-
fully labelled M1 to M5, only three are well-characterised. The prototype agonist for these
receptors is muscarine, derived from the poisonous fly agaric, Amanita muscaria.
HOCH—CH2
  +
H3C—CH CH—CH2—N(CH3)3
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O Muscarine
M1 receptors are mainly found in the nervous system. They mediate excitatory effects,
lowering transmembrane potential by a decrease in K+ ion conductance; as an added wrinkle,
they mediate increased gastric acid secretion seen with vagal stimulation. M1 receptors work
via phospholipase C, increasing IP3 and DAG levels.
M2 receptors mediate the cardiac effects of vagal stimulation. They are inhibitory
(hyperpolarizing membranes by increasing potassium conductance). M2 receptors are found
presynaptically in a variety of situations. This fits on cardiac cells and smooth muscle. M2
receptors lower intracellular cAMP levels.
M3 receptors are responsible for all the other effects of parasympathetic stimulation,
as they are the cholinergic excitatory receptors found on glands and smooth muscle. M3 receptors
are similar to M1 in their use of phospholipase C. Physiology is however never simple, vascular
smooth muscle relaxes in some situations due to M3 receptor stimulation. This relaxation is
mediated by endothelial release of nitric oxide (NO), and occurs in some vascular beds that
appear devoid of parasympathetic innervation.
M4 are similar to M2 ; M5 receptors seem similar to M1 and M3 in their effects.
PARASYMPATHOMIMETIC AGENTS
The terms cholinergic and parasympathomimetic are not equivalent but are generally
considered as synonyms. Compounds that mimic the action of arch at parasympathetic system
are called as cholinergic parasymathomimetic agents. Thus these drugs stimulate the effect of
cells innervated by postganglionic parasympathetic cholinergic nerves. They are classified as
directly acting and indirectly acting cholinergics.
Directly acting Cholinergic Drugs. There are two classes of the drugs : (A) choline
esters and (B) cholinomimetic alkaloids
A. Choline Esters
Choline esters are synthetic derivatives of choline. They stimulate muscarinic receptors
affecting the cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, exocrine glands and the eye. Choline esters are
lipid insoluble and do not readily enter the CNS (effects occur primarily in the periphery).
They are highly resistant to being destroyed by acetylcholinesterase (AChE).
The choline esters differ in their relative sensitivity to hydrolysis and in their relative
nicotinic and muscarinic effects. Thus, methacholine, while still susceptible to hydrolysis, is
much more stable than ACh, and carbachol and bethanechol are resistant to hydrolysis by
AChE. Carbachol has a high level of nicotinic activity, methacholine with little nicotinic activ-
ity, and bethanechol essentially of no nicotinic activity.
Structure Activity Relationships :

• ACh is the acetyl ester of choline, and is a quaternary ammonium compound which
possesses a cationic (positively charged) head joined by a two carbon chain to an ester
group.
• The chemical structures of the important choline esters are given below,
CH3 O
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– +
Cl . CH3—N —CH2—CH2—O—C—CH3
CH3
Acetylcholine chloride
CH3 CH3 O
+ –
CH3—N—CH2—CH—O—C—CH3Cl Methacholine—Cl–
CH3
Carbachol—Cl–
CH3 CH3 O
+
Bethanechol—Cl–
–
CH3—N—CH2—CH—O—C—NH2Cl
CH3
• These may differ from ACh in any of three ways,
1. relative muscarinic activity
2. relative nicotinic activity
3. resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis
• The degree of muscarinic activity decreases by replacement of acetyl group, however,
some substitutions result in resistance to hydrolysis
• Carbachol, where the acetyl group is replaced by a carbamyl, has both muscarinic
and nicotinic properties, but is almost entirely resistant to hydrolysis by AChE or
BuChE
• Bethanechol is similarly resistant to hydrolysis ; however, it possesses mainly
muscarinic activity as methacholine, due to the β-methyl substitution
• Although both carbachol and bethanechol possess muscarinic activity, their effects
on the heart are minimal and their GIT effects predominate
• Methacholine, conversely, has its effects predominantly on the heart.
SPECIFIC CHOLINEESTER DRUGS

Bethanechol. Bethanechol is a synthetic derivative of choline. Bethanechol is a carbomic
ester of β-methylcholine. It is not rapidly hydrolysed by acetycholinesterase and has strong
muscarinic actions but little nicotinic actions.
O
+

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(CH3)3N CH2CHOCNH2

CH3
Carbamyl-beta-methylcholine/β-Methyl choline carbamate
(bethanechol)
It produces smooth muscle contractions. It is not well absorbed from GI tract (large
doses required). It can be given subcutaneously but not by IM or IV routes because of severe
adverse effects. It is used in the relief of urinary retention and abdominal distention after
surgery.
Bethanechol is prepared from propylenechlorohydrin. This on reaction with phosgene
yields 2-chloro-1-methylethylchloroformate.
CH3 O CH3 O
   
CH2—CH—OH + Cl—C—Cl → CH2—CH—O—C—Cl
 
Cl Cl
2-Chloro-1-methyl ethyl chloroformate
2-Chloro-1-methylethylchloroformate on treating with ammonia in ether solution forms
urethane which on heating with trimethylamine forms bethanechol.
O
CH2—CH—O—C—Cl
Cl CH3
CH3 O CH3 O NH3
–
CH2—CH—O—C—NH2 . Cl ← CH2—CH—O—C—NH2 ←
CH3
+
H3C—N—CH N CH3 Cl
3
CH3
CH3
Carbachol. Carbachol is an ester of carbamic acid. In carbachol, the terminal methyl
group of acetylcholine is replaced by amino (—NH2) group. Carbachol is a poor substrate for
acetylcholinestrerase and therefore is not readily hydrolysed than acetyl choline,. It has both
muscarinic as well as nicotinic actions.
O
+


(CH3)3N CH2CH2OCNH2
Carbamylcholine (carbachol)
Carbachol was first synthesized by Kreitmar in 1932. Carbachol is prepared from

ethylenechlorohydrin by reacting with phosgene, the resulting chloroethyl chloroformate treated
with ammonia in ether solution forms urethan, which on heating with trimethylamine forms
carbachol.
O

NH3/ether
H2C—CH2 + Cl—C—Cl → H2C—CH2—Cl 
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  Phosgene 
OH Cl O—C—Cl
Ethylene chlorohydrin 
O
Chloroethyl chlorofornate
CH3
N—CH3
CH3
+ – CH
H2C—CH2—N—CH3 . Cl ←
3
Η2C—CH2—Cl
 CH3 
O—C—NH2 O—C—NH2
 
O O
Carbachol
Uses. Carbachol is used to reduce intraocular pressure. Carbachol is used to induce
miosis (pupil constriction) and relieves intraocular pressure of glaucoma.
Methacholine. Methacholine is available as methacholine chloride. Chemically
methacholine is 2-acetoxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chloride.
CH3 CH3 O
+ –
H3C—N—CH2CH—O—C—CH3 . Cl
CH3
(2-hydroxypropyl) trimethyl
ammonium chloride acetate
Hunt and coworkers in 1929 synthesized methacholine. It is synthesized from
chloroacetone by following steps :
O O CH3
 CH3  + –
CH3—C—CH2—Cl + N CH3 → H3C—C—CH2—N—CH3Cl
CH3 
CH3
Reduction
H2/catalyst
↓
H CH3 H CH3
 + –
(CH 3CO)2O  + –
H3C—C——CH2—N—CH3Cl ← H3C—C—CH2—N—CH3Cl
   
O—C—CH3 CH3 OH CH3

O
Methacholine chloride
Methacholine chloride is a deliquescent crystalline solid. It is freely soluble in water.

Methacholine is hydrolysed slowly than acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase enzyme. It is
used to treat Raynaud’s syndrome and glaucoma.
Therapeutic uses of cholinester drugs :
1. Methacholine was used in the past to control supraventricular tachycardia and is re-
placed with ectrophonium and other drugs, which are safer.
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2. Bethanechol is used as a G.I. tract stimulant to relieve a variety of conditions and to
relieve urinary retention when there is no physical obstruction so that catheterization
may be avoided.
3. ACh is used to produce brief periods of miosis during extraction of cataracts.
Methacholine, bethanechol and carbachol are used in treatment of glaucoma to cause
miosis which enhances drainage of aqueous humor.
4. Methacholine is also used for diagnosis of belladonna (i.e., muscarinic antagonist) poi-
soning, for diagnosis of familial dysautonomia, and for diagnosis of bronchial hyper
reactivity (i.e., supersensitivity to bronchoconstriction in patients with asthma).
B. Cholinomimetic alkaloids
Muscarine, arecoline, pilocarpine are natural alkaloids; oxotremorine and aceclidine
are of synthetic. Pilocarpine, muscarine, and oxotremorine are relatively specific for muscarinic
acetyl choline receptors, while arecoline can activate nicotinic receptors.
The pharmacological actions of the alkaloids are similar to that of the choline esters:
miosis, increased tone and motility of G.I. and urinary tracts, increased secretion of the exo-
crine glands, hypotension and bradycardia. Unlike the choline esters, these drugs cross the
blood-brain barrier and therefore have profound CNS side effects.
Therapeutic Uses Cholinomimetic alkaloids. These drugs (essentially only
pilocarpine) is in the treatment of glaucoma.
O

—C—OCH3 H5C2—CH—CH—CH2—C—N—CH3 HOCH—CH2
     
N +
O=C CH2 HC CH H3C—CH CH—CH2—N(CH3)3
CH3 O N O Muscarine
Arecoline Pilocarpine
N
O
CH2
O H2C—C CH2—CH2
  N—CH2C ≡ CCH2N 
CH2 OCCH3 H2C—CH2 CH2—CH2
Aceclidine Oxotremorine
Pilocarpine. Pilocarpine is the chief constituent of the leaves of the Pilocarpus jaborandi
of South America. It is available as hydrochloride and nitrate salt. Chemically it is 3-
ethyldihydro-4[(1-methyl-1H-imida zol-5-yl)-methyl] furan-2(3H)-one.
Pilocarpine hydrochloride is an odourless, colourless, crystalline solid. It is soluble in

water and alcohol. It is hygroscopic in nature and should be stored in air tight containers,
protected from light.
H5C2—CH—CH—CH2—C——N—CH3
   
O=C CH2 HC CH
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O N
Pilocarpine
Pilocarpine, unlike many of the other quaternary agents, which penetrate membranes
poorly. It can penetrate the eye when applied topically and is unaffected by acetylcholinesterase.
It mainly exhibits muscarinic activity. Its use today is limited to topical miosis for the treat-
ment of glaucoma and the reversal of mydriasis to relieve intraocular pressure of glaucoma.
INDIRECT ACTING CHLONERGIC AGONISTS (ACETYL

CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITORS)
Acetylcholinesterase is a tetrameric protein which catalyzes the hydrolysis of acetylcholine.
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) has two important sites. The anionic site and esteratic site. The
anionic site possesses a glutamate residue, and in esteratic site histidine imidazole ring and a
serine hydroxyl group are present. The imidazole group of histidine accepts a proton from a
serine hydroxyl group at the esteratic site, creating a strong nucleophilic area. The anionic site
of enzyme binds with the quaternary nitrogen of the Ach through ionic and hydrophobic forces.
The activated serine (strong nucleophile) attacks on the carbonyl carbon atom of acetyl choline,
resulting into a tetrahedral intermediate. A tetrahedral transition state is reached, which
results in serine acetylation and the loss of free choline. The acetyl group binds to histidine as
an N-acetate, but is hydrolyzed rapidly to yield free choline, acetate, and the free enzyme.
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors have been used clinically in the treatment of myasthenia

gravis. They are also employed to treat glaucoma and more recently in Alzheimer’s disease. In
addition, cholinesterase inhibitors are widely utilized as pesticides and, if misused, can pro-
duce toxic responses in mammals and man.
There are several classes of agents that inhibit AChE, raising ACh levels in the synapse.
A. Reversible anticholinesterase. All these drugs are structurally resemble to
cholinesterase enzyme and have greater affinity for the active sites which results into a tem-
porary inhibition of the enzyme. Hence they are termed as reversible anticholinesterases.
Carbamates: Carbamates can be represented by the following general formula ;
R O
1 +
  3
R —N—C—O—R
2 1 2
Where, R, R , R = H or alkyl groups
R 3
R = Aromatic amine ring containing quaternary nitrogen
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Ex : Neostigmine, physostigmine and pyridostigmine.
Physostigmine. Physostigmine, a tertiary amine, is an alkaloid obtained from the
Calabar bean of West Africa (physostigma venenosum). Chemically it is 1, 2, 3, 3α, 8, 8α-
hexahydro-1,3α,8-trimethyl-pyrrolo [2,3-b] indol-5-ol-methylcarbamate. Physostigmine is avail-
able as physostigmine salicylate and physostigmine sulphate. Physostigmine is colourless,
odourless, crystalline solid. It is slightly soluble in alcohol, ether and water but freely soluble
in chloroform. Physostigmine decomposes on exposure to air and light and hence it should be
stored in airtight containers protected from light.
H3C
H3CHN O
N
O CH3
N
Physostigmine CH3
Physostigmine is prepared from powdered seeds of physostigma venenosum by extrac-

tion with hot alcohol. Distill off the alcohol from alcoholic extract, mix the obtained residue
with sodium carbonate solution and extract into ether. Finally isolate physostigmine from
ether extract after dilution with sulphuric acid.
Physostigmine reversibly inhibits acetycholinesterase thus results in potentiation of
cholinergic activity. It stimulates muscarinic, nicotinic sites of ANS and nicotinic receptors of
neuromuscular junction.
Physostigmine has been used in the treatment of glaucoma, atropine intoxication and
overdose with the tricyclic antidepressants.
Neostigmine. Neostigmine is a cholinesterase inhibitor. Chemically neostigmine is 3-
(dimethylcarbamoyloxy)-N, N, N-trimethylaniline. Neostigmine is available as a bromide and
methyl sulphate salt. Neostigmine bromide is an colourless or white coloured, odourless crys-
talline powder. It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether. It should be protected form light.
CH3 H3C
 +
N O N CH3
H3C
CH3
O
Neostigmine
Neostigmine is synthesizesd from 3-hydroxy N, N-dimethylaniline as follows :
CH3 CH3
 
N—CH3 N—CH3
O
 CH3
+ Cl—C—N → O
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 CH3
CH3
OH O—C—N
CH3Br
CH3
N, N-Dimethylcarbonyl chloride
↓
CH3
– +
Br H3C—N—CH3
O
 CH3
O—C—N
CH3
Neostigmine inhibits both AchE and butylcholineesterase reversibly and potentiates
nicotinic and muscarinic effects of acetylcholine. It exists as cations at physiological pH, thus
enhancing their association with the active site.
Uses. It is used to treat myasthenia gravis.
It is also used to treat constipation, post-operative distention and urinary retention.
Pyridostigmine. Pyridostigmine is a pyridine analogue of neostigmine, which is also
used for the reversal of neuromuscularjunction blockade and may posses a number of advan-
tages over neostigmine. It is 3-dimethylcarbamoyloxy-1-methylpyridinium and is available as
a bromide salt. Pyridostigmine bromide is a white, deliquescent, crystalline powder, having
characteristic odour and bitter taste. It is soluble in water, alcohol, chloroform but very slightly
soluble in ether and petroleum. It should be stored in airtight containers and protected from
light.
O
 CH3
O—C—N
–
+ Br CH3
N

CH3 Pyridostigmine bromide
Pyridostigmine bromide can be synthesized from 3-hydroxy-1-methylpyridinium bro-

mide by condensation with dimethylcarbamonyl chloride.
O
OH O  CH3
 CH3
O—C—N
+ Cl—C—N →
+ Br
–
+ – CH3
N CH3 N Br
 
CH3 CH3
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Pyridostigmine is a potent reversible inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase. By inhibiting the
enzyme it permits free transmission of nerve impulses across the neuromuscular junction. It is
hydrolyzed by acetylcholinesterase but much more slowly than acetylcholine itself.
Pyridostigmine intensifies both the nicotinic and muscarinic effects of acetylcholine.
Uses. Pyridostigmine is used in the treatment of myasthenia gravis. It is also used in
paralytic ileus or postoperative urinary retention.
Quaternary ammonium compounds

Quaternary ammonium compounds inhibit the enzyme reversibly by either binding with
the esteratic site, or with a site spatially removed, termed the peripheral anionic site.
Edrophonium. Edrophonium is available as edrophonium chloride. Edrophonium chlo-
ride is Ethyl-(m-hydroxyphenyl) dimethylammonium chloride. It is water soluble, white crys-
talline powder.
Edrophonium chloride is prepared from m-dimethylaminophenol as follows ;

m-dimethylaminophenol is treated with ethyliodide in an organic solvent to get dimethylethyl
(m-hydroxyphenyl)ammonium iodide which on treatment with moist siver oxide followed by
addion of hydrochloric acid forms edrophonium chloride
Edrophonium chloride is an anti-AChE agent with a rapid onset but short duration of
action. Edrophonium binds reversibly and selectively to the active center; this reversible bind-
ing and its rapid renal elimination result in its short duration of action. It has been used in the
investigation of myasthenia gravis.
Demecarium. Demecarium is available as demecarium bromide. Demecarium bromide

is a diester of (m-hydroxyphenyl) trimethyl ammonium bromide with decamethylene bis
(methylcarbamic acid). It consists of two neostigmine molecules linked by a chain of 10 meth-
ylene groups.
CH3 CH3
 +
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H3C—N—CH3 H3C—N—CH3
+ – –
Br Br
O O
 
O—C—N—(CH2)10—N—O—O
 
CH3 CH3
Demecarium bromide
Demecarium bromide is a colorless, slightly hygroscopic, water soluble solid. It is a po-
tent, long acting mitotic used to treat glaucoma.
Ambenonium. Ambenonium occurs as ambenonium chloride. Chemically it is
[oxalylbis(iminoethylene)] bis[(o-chlorobenzyl)diethylammonium]dichloride. It is white, odour-
less, water soluble solid.
Ambenonium is used to treat myasthenia gravis. It acts by suppressing the activity of

acetylcholinesterase.
B. Irreversible inhibitors
Organophosphates. Organic esters of phosphoric acid were first shown to inhibit AChE
in 1937 and were subsequently used as insecticides in agriculture. All of the organophosphates
irreversibly bind AChE. These compounds form reversible complex with enzyme at the esteratic
site. The reversible complex then immediately converts into an irreversible complex.
Organophosphates are usually represented by the following formula :
A R1 = Alkoxyl
↑
R1—P—X R2 = Alkoxyl, alkyl or 3° amine
 A = Oxygen/Sulphur/Selenium
R2 X = Good leaving group (Ex. F, CN etc.)
Organophosphate insecticides can enter the human body through skin absorption, in-
halation and ingestion. They can affect cholinesterase activity in both red blood cells and in
blood plasma, and can act directly, or in combination with other enzymes, on cholinesterase in
the body. Accidental or suicidal intoxication may lead to ;
(a) Central nervous system effects

(b) Neuromuscular and respiratory paralysis
(c) bronchorrhoea, bronchospasm and pulmonary oedema
(d) bradycardia, circulatory collapse, and depressed cardiac function
Examples of drugs in this group includes :
• Echothiophate
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• Pralidoxime
• Malathion
• Parathion Echothiopate
Echothiopate. Echothiopate is an organophosphate available as echothiopate iodide.
Echothiopate iodide is white, crystalline characteristic odor, (mercaptan like odous) hygroscopic
powder. It is soluble in water.
CH3 OC2H5
+  –
H3C—N—CH2—CH2—S—P—OC2H5 I
 
CH3 O
Echothiopate is a long acting irreversible anti-AChE drug that is used in the treatment
of glaucoma.
Malathion. Malathion is another effective pesticide, which is more effective on insects
than on humans because it requires biotransformation to the phosphate form, which can only
be carried out by insects. Malathion is a phosphodithioate ester. Chemically it is 2-
[(dimethoxyphosphinothioyl)thio]-butanedioic acid diethyl ester. It is a poor irreversible in-
hibitor of choline esterase enzyme. Malathion is available as a light amber colored liquid,
having sulphur like odour.
Malathion is used extensively for controlling insects on vegetables, fruits, and cereal
crops. It is also used for controlling insects affecting man and animals.
Isofluorphate. Isofluorphate is an organophosphate. Isofluorphate covalently binds to
acetylcholinesterase and inhibits acetyl cholinesterase irreversibly. Isofluorphate is a colorless,
water-miscible liquid.
CH3

HC—CH3

H3C—CH—P = O
 
CH3 F
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Uses. Isoflurophate is used to treat glaucoma.
Parathion. Parathion is O, O-diethyl O-p-nitrophenyl phosphorothioate. It is a weak
cholinesterase inhibitor. Parathion occurs as a brown colored liquid.
OC2H5

H5C2O—P—O NO2

S
Parathion is used as an agricultural insecticide. It is especially used for controlling
aphids, spider mites, and scale insects.
Pralidoxime. Pralidoxime is an aldoxime and available as pralidoxime chloride. Chemi-
cally it is 2-formyl-1-methylpyridinium chloride oxime. Pralidoxime chloride is colorless or
light yellow colored, water soluble, and crystalline powder.
Pralidoxime chloride is synthesized from picolinal as follows :

Picolinal is converted into its oxime. The formed oxime is converted to pralidoxime
methosulfate with dimethylsulphate, which on treatment with hydrochloric acid forms
pralidoxime chloride
Uses. The molecule pralidoxime is a useful antidote for intoxication with cholinesterase
inhibitors such as the organophosphates. The molecule removes the inhibitor from the active
site in the form of an oxime phosphonate.
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Cholinergic blocking agents
Cholenergic antagonists inhibit the actions of endogenous acetyl choline and muscarinic
agonists at muscarnic receptor sites in peripheral tissues and in the CNS.
These drugs are highly specific reversible competitive antagonists for muscarinic ACh
receptors. The pharmacological effects are blockage of parasympathetic stimulation at effector
organs. They are rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, slowly absorbed when ap-
plied locally on eye or skin.
The potent anticholinergics are used to control the secretion of saliva and gastric acid,
slow down gut motility, and to prevent vomiting. They also have a limited therapeutic use for
the treatment of Parkinson’s disease.
Structure-activity Relationships of Muscarinic Antagonistis :

1. Anticholinergic agents are bulky. They combine with muscarinic receptors and shield
the binding site from acetylcholine. The general structure of the compounds in this
category is
X R
N
R1 R2 R
2. Substituent R1 should be carbocyclic or heterocyclic ring for maximal antagonist activ-

ity
3. Substituent R2 should be a hydrogen atom, hydroxy group, hydroxymethyl group, or
methyl group
4. The nature of the group X effects only the duration of action, the physicochemical prop-
erties and the side effects of the drug molecule but not its ability to bind with the receptor
5. There is a limitation for the N-substitution. Optimal potency is associated with 2-3 ethyl
groups
6. The stereochemistry at the benzylic carbon is critical for muscarinic antagonist activity.
Any compound that can place the phenyl group in the same absolute configuration as
depicted in the general formula above will have potent muscarinic antagonist activity
7. The phenyl ring cannot tolerate any their substituent than F at the p-position without
losing its antagonist activity
8. A negative site for binding of the positive charged N ; quaternary amines have formal
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positive charge while tertiary amines have a positive charged proton
9. Atropine is a racemic mixture (equal number of d- and l-isomers) and like most chemi-
cals acting on the peripheral nervous system, atropine is stereospecific; l-isomer
(l-hyoscyamine) is 250 times more active than the d-isomer
l-Isomer a OH →
c
Muscarinic
receptor
d
d-Isomer HO a
c
Optical isomers
of atropine
10. The presence of an N-methyl group on atropine or scopolamine changes the activity of
the ligand, possibly by preventing a close interaction between the ligand and the mem-
brane or lipophilic sites on the receptor. The methyl group also prevents the penetration
into the brain.
Therapeutic uses of anticholinergic drugs

1. Peripheral: Therapeutic uses following inhibition of parasympathetic transmission, e.g.,
mydriasis with cycloplegia, decrease saliva production, decrease motility of smooth
muscle, inhibition of vagal transmission to heart, decrease bronchial secretions, decrease
in urinary incontinence, etc.
2. Central: Anti-parkinson and anti-motion sickness
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3. If anticholinergic drugs are non-quaternary amine derivatives, they will cross the blood-
brain barrier. They may have therapeutic actions, or side effects, involving the central
nervous system; if anticholinergic drugs are quaternary amines, they will not cross the
blood brain barrier, thus they are devoid of CNS activity.
4. Expected ‘side effects’ of anticholinergic therapy include: peripheral-photophobia,
cycloplegia, dry mouth, tachycardia, difficult urination, red skin (‘atropine flush’), and
increase in skin temperature, central-sedation or excitement.
ANTI-CHOLINERGICS DRUGS
Scopolamine or Hyoscine. Scopolamine is an alkaloid isolated from various members
of solanaceae. It is an optically active compound and levoform is potent. (–) Scopolamine is
slightly water miscible viscous liquid. Scopolamine occurs as Scopolamine hydrobromide salt,
which is a colorless, odorless, water soluble powder.
Scopolamine has pronounced CNS sedative effects, and may also be useful in prevent-
ing nausea and vomiting, especially due to motion sickness. It is also given as pre-anesthetic
medication. Scopolamine has antispasmodic activity.
Homatropine Hydrobromide. Homatropine is a synthetic alkaloid and is official as
homatropine hydrobromide or homatropine methylbromide. Homatropine hydrobromide is (1R,
3R, 5S)-3-([RS]-2-hydroxy-2 -phenylacetoxy)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo [3.2.1]octane hydrobromide.
Homatropine hydrobromide and homatropine methylbromide are available as colorless

crystalline, odorless powder. They are hygroscopic in nature and are soluble in water and
alcohol.
It is an ester of tropine with (±) mandelic acid, and is prepared by the interaction of
tropine and mandelic acid.
CH2——CH————CH2 OH
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 H 
N—CH3 C + HOOC—CH
 OH
CH2——CH————CH2
Tropine Mandelic acid
↓
CH2——CH————CH2 O OH
 H  
N—CH3 C—O—C—CH

CH2——CH————CH2
Uses :
1. Homatropine is mainly used as mydriatic and is preferred over atropine due to its
more rapid and short duration of action
2. Homatropine is used to treat peptic ulcer and gastro-intestinal spasm
Hyoscyamine Sulphate. Hyoscyamine sulphate contains not less than 98.0 per cent
and not more than the equivalent of 100.5 per cent of bis[(1R,3R,5S)-3-[(S)-(3-hydroxy-2 -
phenylpropionyl)oxy]-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane] sulphate, calculated with reference
to the dried substance.
Me
N
H H4SO4
H C6H5
O
OH
O 2
Hyoscyamine sulphate is available as white, crystalline powder or colorless needles,
very soluble in water, sparingly soluble or soluble in alcohol, practically insoluble in ether. It
melts at about 203°C, with decomposition. It should be stored in an airtight container, pro-
tected from light.
Use. Hyoscyamine is an anticholinergic drug used to treat peptic ulcers
Glycopyrrolate. Chemically glycopyrrolate is 3-hydroxy-1, 1-dimethylpyrrolidinium
bromide α-cyclopentylmandelate.
C6H5 O
 
HO—C——C—O
–
+ Br
N
H3C CH3
It is available as white, crystalline powder. Glycopyrrolate is soluble in water and alco-
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hol but insoluble in chloroform and ether. It should be stored in a tightly sealed container
away from heat and direct light.
Glycopyrrolate is an anticholinergic, and antispasmodic agent. Thus it diminishes gas-
tric, pancreatic, saliva secretions. Glycopyrrolate inhibits gastrointestinal nerve receptor sites
that stimulate both the secretion of gastric acid and smooth muscle activity in the digestive
tract.
Glycopyrrolate may cause side effects; dry mouth, decreased sweating, difficulty urina-
tion, blurred vision, vision problems, loss of taste, headache, nervousness, confusion, drowsi-
ness, weakness, dizziness, difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, upset stomach, vomiting,
constipation, bloated feeling.
Propantheline Bromide. Propantheline bromide is (Methyl)bis(1-methylethyl)[2-[(9H-
xanthen-9-ylcarbonyl) oxy]ethyl]ammonium bromide. It is available as white or yellowish white
powder. It is slightly hygroscopic, very soluble in water, in alcohol and in methylene chloride.
CH3 CH3
O CH
+
O —C—O—CH2—CH2—N—CH3
–
Br CH
CH3 CH3
Use. Propantheline bromide has high ratio of ganglionic blocking activity to muscarinic
activity. It is used as antispasmodic and in the treatment of peptic ulcers. In very high doses it
can block skeletal neuromuscular junction.
Trihexyphenidyl Hydrochloride. Trihexyphenidyl Hydrochloride is 1-cyclohexyl-1-
phenyl-3-piperidinopropan-1-ol hydrochloride. It is an M1 receptor antagonist.
OH
+
—C—CH2—CH2—N –
. Cl
H
Trihexyphenidyl hydrochloride is synthesized from acetophenone by Mannnich reac-

tion as follows ;
O O
 HCHO/HCl  +
C—CH3 →
–
C—CH2—CH2—N Cl
N—H H
MgBr
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(i)
+
(ii) H
↓
OH
 + –
C—CH2—CH2—N Cl
Trihexyphenidyl hydrochloride
It is white or creamy white, crystalline powder, odorless. Slightly soluble in water, solu-
ble in chloroform , in ethanol (96%) and in methanol .
Use. Used in treatment of Parkinson’s disease.
Isopropamide iodide. Isopropamide is an aminoamide and occurs as ispropamide io-
dide. Chemically isopropamide is (3-carbamoyl-3, 3-diphenyl propyl) diisopropylmethyl am-
monium iodide.
Isopropamide iodide is pale yellow coloured, bitter taste crystalline powder. It is spar-
ingly soluble in water and freely soluble in chloroform and alcohol.
Uses :
1. Isopropamide is a potent anticholinergic drug.
2. It has antispasmodic and antisecretory effects.
3. It is used in the treatment of peptic ulcer.
Oxyphencyclimine
Oxyphencyclimine is an aminoalcohol ester occurs as its hydrochloride salt. Chemi-
cally it is (1,4,5,6-terahydro-1-methyl-2-pyrimidinyl) methyl α-phenylcyclohexaneglycolate
monohydrochloride.
OH O
N
 
C——C—O—CH2 HCl
N
CH3
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Oxyphencyclimine is a peripheral anticholinergicantisecretory agent. It has little curare-
like and ganglionic blocking activities. It is used as an antispasmodic agent.
Tropicamide. Tropicamide is (RS)-N-ethyl-2-phenyl-N-(4-pyridylmethyl) hydrocryl-
amide. It is white, crystalline powder, slightly soluble in water, freely soluble in alcohol and in
methylene chloride. It is an effective anticholinergic drug for ophthalmic use. It antagonizes
M4 receptors.
C2H5
N  H CH2OH
N
Tropicamide is synthesized by following reactions ;

In the first step tropic acid is esterified with acetyl chloride to tropic acid acetate, which
is converted to the corresponding acid chloride with thionyl chloride
Condensation of acid chloride of tropic acid acetate with 4-[(ethylamino)methyl]pyridine

in presence of dehydrochlorinating agent yields tropicamide acetate ester. The obtained
tropicamide acetate ester saponofies to tropicamide :
Uses. Tropicamide is a very short acting mydriatic and cycloplegic
Diphemanil. Diphemanil occurs as diphemanil methylsulfate. Chemically it is 4-

(diphenyl methylene)-1, 1-dimethyl piperidinium methyl sulfate.
+ CH3 –
C C N CH3SO4
CH3
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Diphemanil methylsulfate is a potent cholinergic blocking agent which blocks the nerve
impulses at parasympathetic ganglia.
Uses. Diphemanil methylsulfate is used to treat peptic ulcer
Poldine Methylsulfate. Poldine methylsulfate is (RS)–2-benzoyloxymethyl-1, 1-
dimethylpyrrolidinium methyl sulphate. It has antimuscarinic and ganglionic blocking activity.
It is available and a white, crystalline powder, odorless and it is freely soluble in water,
soluble in ethanol, slightly soluble in chloroform and melts at 137° to 142°.
Use. Poldine methylsulfate is used as an antispasmodic at a dose of 10-30 mg.
Procyclidine Hydrochloride. Procyclidine is an effective peripheral anticholinergic
aminoalcohol derivative. It occurs as a white, crystalline, odorless powder. It is sparingly solu-
ble in water ; soluble in ethanol (96%) ; practically insoluble in acetone and in ether. Procyclidine
occurs as procyclidine hydrochloride salt. Procyclidine hydrochloride is (RS)-1-cyclohexyl-1-
phenyl-3-pyrrolidin-1-ol-ylpropan-1-ol hydrochloride.
OH
HCl
N
Use. Procyclidine is used in treatment of Parkinson’s disease

Biperiden Hydrochloride. Biperiden hydrochloride is (RS)-1-[(1RS,2RS,4RS)-
bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-en-2 -yl]-1-phenyl-3-(piperidin-1-yl)propan-1-ol hydrochloride.
N . HCl
HO
Properties. Biperiden hydrochloride is white, crystalline powder, slightly soluble in

water and in alcohol, very slightly soluble in methylene chloride, practically insoluble in ether.
It melts at about 280°C with decomposition. Biperiden is a weak visceral anticholinergic agent.
It has strong nicotinolytic action.
Uses.
1. Biperiden is used to treat parkinson’s disease
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2. It is also used to cure akineasia, rigidity and tremor
Benztropine Mesylate. Benztropine mesylate is an aminoalcoholether. It is (1R, 3R,
5S) –3-benzhydryloxytropane methanesulphonate. It is available as a white, crystalline pow-
der, odourless. Very soluble in water, freely soluble in ethanol, practically insoluble in ether.
Melting point, 142° to 144°
N—
H5C6 CH
3
C
H5C6 H
Uses. Benztropine mesylate has anticholinergic, antihistaminic and local anaesthetic
activities. It is also used in the treatment of Parkison’s disease.
Piperidolate. Piperidolate is a piperidine derivative. Chemically it is o-phenyl-
benzeneacetic acid 1-ethyl-3-piperidinyl ester. Piperidolate occurs as water soluble hydrochlo-
ride salt. It is synthesized by the following steps :
(i) Furfural by reductive amination yields aminomethylterahydro furan
CHO → CH2NHC2H5

O O
(ii) Aminomethylterahydrofuran on treatment with hydrogen bromide in acetic acid
forms 3-hydroxy N-ethylpiperidine, which by acylation with diphenylacetyl chlo-
ride gives piperidolate.
O
 C6H5
Cl—C—CH O
C6H5

HBr OH C6H5 O—C—CH
CH2NHC2H5 → →
C6H5
CH3COOH
O N N
 
C2H5 C2H5
Piperidolate is used as an anticholinergic drug.
Mepenzolate. Mepenzolate is an aminoalcohol ester. Mepenzolate is available as
mepenzolate bromide, chemically mepenzolate bromide is 3-hydroxy-1, 1-dimethyl piperidinium
bromide benzilate.
OH O
  –
C——C—O Br
+
N
CH3 CH3
Mepenzolate bromide
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Mepenzolate has anticholinergic activity. Hence it is used to treat spastic colon, irrita-
ble bowel, ulcerative colitis and duodenal ulcer.
Dicyclomine. Dicyclomine is an aminoalcohol ester and is available as hydrochloride
salt. Dicyclomine hydrochloride is 2-(diethylamino)ethyl bicyclohexyl-1-carboxylate hydro-
chloride. A white or almost white, crystalline powder, soluble in water, freely soluble in alco-
hol and in methylene chloride. It shows polymorphism.
C2H5
O O
N . HCl
C2H5
Dicyclomine is synthesized from cyclohexylnitrile by the following steps :

(a) Cyclohexylnitrile on alkylation with 1, 5-dibromopentane yields a cyclohexane in-
termediate, which is hydrolysed to get acid.
CN HOOC
(i) CH2—CH2—CH2—CH2—CH2
 
Br Br
→
+
(ii) H /H2O
(b) The above acid is esterified with N, N-diethylamino ethanol to get dicyclomine.
Dicyclomine is an anticholinergic and antispasmodic. It relieves smooth muscle spasm

in the GI tract and urinary tract. This effect is due to direct action on the pain muscle. It is
used to treat intestinal, biliary, renal and ureteric colic, irritable bowel syndrome and dysmen-
orrhoea.
Clidinium bromide. Clidinium is another aminoalcohol ester available as bromide.
Clindinium bromide is 3-hydroxy-1-methylquinuclidinium bromide. It is available as colorless,
odorless, crystalline powder. It is an optically active compound. It is soluble in water, and

alcohol.
OH O
 
C——C—O
–
+ Br
N
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
CH3
Uses :
1. Clidinium bromide is an anticholinergic agent
2. It is used for the treatment of peptic ulcer, hyperchlorhydria, and ulcerative or spas-
tic colon
Cyclopentolate hydrochloride. Cyclopentolate is also an aminoalcohol ester.
Cyclopentolate hydrochloride is 2-(dimethylamino)-ethyl-1-hydroxy-α-phenylcyclo
pentane acetate hydrochloride.
H O H
  + –
C——C—O—CH2CH2—N—CH3 Cl
OH 
CH3
Cyclopentolate hydrochloride is available as colorless, odorless, crystalline powder. It is

soluble in water and in alcohol.
Uses :
1. Cyclopentolate hydrochloride is used as a mydriatic agent
2. It is used for the treatment of iritis, keratitis, and choroiditis
Orphenadrine citrate. Orphenadrine is an aminoalcohol ether derivative.
Orphenadrine citrate is (RS)—N, N-dimethyl-[2-(o-methyl-α-phenylbenzyloxy) ethyl
amine citrate. It has anticholinergic and antihistaminic activities.
H
 CH3
C——O—CH2—CH2—N
CH3
CH3
It is available as a white or almost white, odorless, crystalline powder. Sparingly solu-

ble in water, slightly soluble in ethanol, practically insoluble in chloroform and in ether. It
melts at 135° to 138°C.
Uses. Orphenadrine is used for symptomatic treatment of Parkinson’s disease. It is also
used as skeletal muscle relaxant.
11 Adrenergic Drugs
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INTRODUCTION
The sympathetic system activates and prepares the body for vigorous muscular activity, stress,
and emergencies. Adrenergic drugs stimulate the adrenergic nerves directly by mimicking the
action of norepinephrine or indirectly by stimulating the release of norepinephrine.
Therapeutically, these drugs are used to combat life-threatening disorders, which in-
clude acute attacks of bronchial asthma, shock, cardiac arrest, and allergic reactions. In addi-
tion these drugs are used as nasal decongestants and appetite suppressants.
ADRENERGIC NERVE TRANSMISSION

Adrenergic nerves release the neurotransmitters; Norepinephrine (noradrenaline, (NE)),
epinephrine (EP), and dopamine (DA)). Norepinephrine is released from the nerve ending in
response to a nerve impulse or drug (3). NE interacts with alpha and beta-receptor sites at (4).
Its receptor action is terminated by recapture and storage in the original nerve ending or
inactivated by an enzyme.
Pre-synaptic cell
(post-ganglionic fiber)
1
5
M M
C
A T
O
O
Synapse
Pre-synaptic
α2 receptor
4
2
3
4
Re-uptake
s c
or ti
5 transporter
pt ap
ce n
re t-sy
Neurotransmitter
s
Po
(NE, DA, 5-HT)
Post-synaptic cell
(neuron or neuroeffector)
Synthesis and release of neurotransmitters from adrenergic nerves
149
SYNTHESIS, STORAGE AND RELEASE OF CATECHOLAMINES

The following steps in the synthesis of adrenaline were proposed by Blaschko (1939):
COOH COOH HO COOH
NH2 1 NH2 2 NH2 3

HO HO
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Phenylalanine Tyrosine L-β-(3, 4-Dihydroxyphenyl)
-α-alanine (DOPA)
OH OH
HO HO HO
NH2 4 NH2 5 HN
HO HO HO
Dopamine (R)-Noradrenaline (R)-Adrenaline CH3
1. Phenylalanine-hydroxylase, 2. Tyrosine-hydroxylase,
3. Aromatic amino-acid decarboxylase, 4. Dopamine-β-hydroxylase,
5. Phenylethanolamine-N-methyl transferase.
Biosynthesis of catecholamines
Five enzymes are involved in the pathway of the biosynthesis of adrenaline. The first
enzyme is the iron containing phenylalanine-hydroxylase (also called phenylalanine-4-
monooxygenase). The second enzyme, tyrosine-hydroxylase, contains iron, too, and catalyses
the conversion of tyrosine to L-β-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-α-alanine (DOPA). After decarboxylation
of DOPA to dopamine (aromatic amino-acid decarboxylase) the copper-containing enzyme
dopamine-β-hydroxylase converts dopamine to noradrenaline. The final enzyme noradrenaline-
N-methyltransferase then methylates noradrenaline to adrenaline.
The noradrenaline formed in the adrenergic nerve endings remain stored in vesicles as
its adenosine triphosphate complex. The adrenal medulla also synthesizes and stores
noradrenaline and adrenaline.
The neurotransmitters are released by increasing the permeability of nerve terminal
membrane to Ca++. The inflow of Ca++ triggers the fusion of vesicle with the cell membrane,
resulting in exocytosis.
METABOLISM AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE CATECHOLAMINES

The actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline are terminated by three processes ;
1. Re-uptake into the nerve terminal
2. Dilution by diffusion from the junctional cleft and uptake at non-neuronal sites, and
3. Metabolic transformation
Two enzymes namely monoaminooxidase (MAO) and catechol-o-methyl transferase
(COMT) are important in the biotransformations of catecholamines. COMT and MAO are dis-
tributed widely throughout the body, including the brain the highest concentrations of each
are found in the liver and kidney. They differ in their cytosolic locations.
ADRENERGIC DRUGS 151
NE released intraneurally is initially deaminated by MAO to 3,4-dihydroxyphenylglycoal

dehyde (DOPGAL). The aldehyde group is reduced to glycol by aldehyde reductase, yielding
3,4-dihydroxy-phenylethylene glycol (DOPEG). Aldehyde dehydrogenase converts 3,4-
dihydroxyphenyl glycolaldehyde to 3,4-dihydroxy-mandelic acid (DOMA). The final common
metabolites formed by the action of COMT are DOMA (3-methoxy-4-hydroxy mandelic acid) is
VMA (3-methoxy-4-hydroxymandelic acid).
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CHO CH2OH
H—C—OH H—C—OH
H
MAO Aldehyde DOPEG
HO— —C—CH2—NH2
reductase
OH OH OH
OH OH OH COMT
Norepinephrine DOPGAL
HOOC COOH
Aldehyde
dehydrogenase COMT
OH OCH3
OH OH
3, 4-dihydroxymandelic VMA
acid (DOMA)
NHCH3 H3CNH
CH2 CH2 COOH
H—C—OH H—C—OH H—C—OH
COMT MAO
OH OCH3 OCH3
OH OH OH
Epinephrine Metanephrine 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy-
mandelic acid (VMA)
Metabolic pathways of catecholamines
ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR SITES

Adrenergic drugs exert their effects by direct action on adrenergic receptors. There are at least
two adrenergic receptor sites (alpha (α) and beta (β)). Norepinephrine activates primarily al-
pha-receptors and epinephrine activates primarily beta receptors, although it may also acti-
vate alpha receptors. Stimulation of alpha receptors is associated with constriction of small
blood vessels in the bronchial mucosa and relaxation of smooth muscles of the intestinal tract.
Beta receptor activation relaxes bronchial smooth muscles which cause the bronchi of the
lungs to dilate.
In addition beta receptor stimulatory effects cause an increase in the rate and force of
heart contractions. As a result increased amounts of blood leave the heart and is diverted from
nonactive organs to areas that actively participate in the body’s reaction to stress such as
skeletal muscles, brain, and liver.
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Alpha receptor site
Important features of alpha adrenergic receptor sites in order of preference are ;
1. An anionic site. The alpha-adrenergic receptor carries a negatively charged group
(phosphate). The anionic site binds with the positive ammonium group.
2. One hydrogen bonding area
3. A flat area. A non-polar area for the aromatic ring binding.
The alpha receptors fall into two groups;
(i) α1-Adrenergic receptors. They are found in the smooth muscles of iris, arteries,
arterioles and veins.
(ii) α 2 -Adrenergic receptors. They mediate the inhibition of adrenergic
neurotransmitter release.
Beta receptor site
Important features of this receptor site are :
1. An anionic site. It is shown that an anionic negative acid group which binds with
the positive ammonium group.
2. Two hydrogen bonding areas. It is shown as two serine with alcohol (OH) groups
form hydrogen bonding with the phenolic—OH groups of the NE.
Tissue Receptor subtype Agonists Antagonists
Heart beta 1 NE, dobutamine, EP, atenolol,

xamoterol metoprolol
Adipose tissue beta 1, beta 3
Vascular smooth beta 2 EP, salbutamol, Butoxamine

muscle terbutaline, salmeterol
Air way smooth muscle beta 2 Terbutaline, salbutamol, Butoxamine
salmeterol and zinterol
Smooth muscle contrac- alpha 1 NE, EP, phenylephrine, Prazosin, doxazocin

tion oxymetazoline
Inhibition of transmit- alpha 2 Clenbuterol, alpha- Yohimbine, idazoxan,

ter release, hypoten- methylnoradrenaline, atipamezole, efaroxan,
sion, anaesthesia, dexmedetomidine, and and rauwolscine
vasoconstriction mivazerol, clonidine
3. A flat area. A non-polar area for the aromatic ring.

β-Adrenergic receptors are of three types. They are ;
(i) β1-Adrenergic receptors. They are found in the myocardium where their stimula-
tion increases the force and rate of myocardial contraction.
(ii) β2-Adrenergic receptors. These are found in bronchial and vascular smooth mus-
cles where their stimulation causes smooth muscle dilation or relaxation.
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(iii) β3-Adrenergic receptors. These receptors are expressed on fat cells and their stimu-
lation causes lipolysis.
CLASSIFICATION OF ADRENERGIC AGONISTS

Adrenergic agonists are sub-divided into 3 classes; direct acting, indirect-acting and dual-
acting agonists. These agents act on sympathetic nervous system, activates it.
1. Direct-acting agonists. They bind to and activate α1, α2, β1 and β2 receptors. Natu-
rally occurring molecules which bind to these receptors include norepinephrine (NE; a
neurotransmitter which binds to α1, α2 and β1 receptors), epinephrine (EP; a hormone pro-
duced in and secreted from the adrenal medulla which binds to α1,α2,β1 and β2 receptors — EP
is a non-selective adrenergic agonist) and dopamine (DA; also a neurotransmitter which binds
to DA receptors as well as α1, α2 and β1 receptors ).
2. Indirect acting adrenergic agonists: They (i.e. amphetamines and cocaine) pro-
duce NE-like actions by stimulating NE release and preventing its re-uptake and thus its
inactivation.
3. Dual-acting adrenergic agonists: These agents (i.e. ephedrine) act as a direct- and
an indirect-adrenergic agonists (hence dual-acting). They bind to adrenergic receptors and
stimulate NE release
CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURE ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIPS OF

ADRENERGIC DRUGS
1. The sympathomimetic drugs may be divided into catechol and non-catechol amines.
2. All catecholamines, possess the catechol nucleus (o-dihydroxybenzene)
NHCH3 NH2
CH2 CH2
OH
OH
OH OH
OH OH
Catechol Adrenaline Noradrenaline
(Epinephrine) (Norepinephrine)
3. Noncatecholamines consisting of a benzene ring and an ethylamine side chain.

β-phenylethylamine can be viewed as the parent compound, consisting of a benzene ring and
an ethylamine side chain.
CH3
α
CH2—NH2 H—C—NHCH3
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β
CH2 H—C—OH
β-Phenylethylamine Ephedrine
(Non-catecholamine)
4. Separation of the aromatic ring and the amino group by two carbon atom shows the
greatest activity.
5. Substitution on the amino group, increasing the size of the alkyl substituent increases
β receptor activity, e.g. Isoproterenol.
OH H CH3
HO —C—CH2—N—C—CH3
HO H H
Isoproterenol
6. Substitution on the aromatic nucleus, specifically OH groups at the 3 and 4 positions

of the ring are required for maximal α and β activity. When one or both of these groups is
absent, without other aromatic substitution, the overall potency is reduced. Phenylephrine is
thus less potent at both receptors than adrenaline, with β activity almost entirely absent.
7. Hydroxyl (—OH) groups at the 3 and 5 positions, in compounds with large amino
substituents, confers β2 selectivity, e.g. metaproterenol, terbutaline
8. The response of non-catecholamines is largely determined by their ability to release

NE, thus their effects are mainly on α and β1
9. Phenylethylamines lacking both aromatic —OH groups and the β-OH on the ethyl
chain produce almost all of their effects by NA release. Catecholamines have only a brief dura-
tion of action, and are ineffective orally, due to degradation by COMT. Agents lacking —OH
substitution, especially the compounds with 3-OH, are resistant to COMT and have a longer
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duration of action and oral effectiveness
10. Substitution with groups other than —OH, in general, reduces α-adrenergic activity
and almost abolishes β-adrenergic activity
11. Substitution on the β-C atom generally decreases central stimulant action, due to
the lower lipid solubility of these agents. However, this also greatly enhances both α and β
potency. Thus, ephedrine is less potent than methamphetamine as a CNS stimulant, but is
more potent vasoconstrictor and bronchodilator. Absence of the benzene ring reduces the CNS
stimulant action, without reducing peripheral effects, when replaced by a saturated, e.g.
Cyclopentamine the proportion of α : β activity varies with the compound. However, the ab-
sence of benzene confers greater activity and many of these agents are used as nasal decon-
gestants.
12. Optical isomerism is confered by substitution on either of the ethyl carbon atoms
Laevorotatory. Substitution at the β-carbon atom produces naturally occurring NE
and EP, both of which are over 10 times as potent as their isomers
Dextrorotatory. Substitution at the α-carbon atom generally confers greater potency
in CNS stimulation, e.g. d-amphetamine
SPECIFIC ADRENERGIC DRUGS
A. Direct-acting agonists
Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
Chemistry. Adrenaline (C9H13NO3) is a catecholamine and belongs to the family of
biogenic amines. Chemically it is 1-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-2-methylaminoethanol.
Epinephrine is prepared by Friedel Craft’s acylation of catechol with chloroacetyl chlo-

ride to give α-haloacetophenone, followed by nucleophilic substitution with methylamine and
catalytic reduction.
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Adrenaline is available as adrenaline acid tartarate. Adrenaline is a white or creamy
white crystalline and odorless powder. It is slightly soluble in water but freely soluble in min-
eral acids and alkali hydroxides. Adrenaline is insoluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform. It
darkens slowly on exposure to air and light.
Adrenaline is a potent stimulator of both α and β receptors and, as such, its administra-
tion produces effects resembling generalized activation of the sympathetic nervous system
particularly prominent are the actions on the heart and vascular smooth muscle. The occur-
rence of sweating, piloerection and mydriasis depend largely upon the physiological state of
the subject.
Adrenaline is one of the most potent vasopressors known, given by IV route, it evokes a
characteristic rise in blood pressure. The mechanism of the rise in blood pressure with adrena-
line is;
1. Direct myocardial stimulation (positive inotropic effect)
2. An increased heart rate (positive chronotropic effect)
3. Peripheral vasoconstriction
Absorption, fate and excretion. Due to rapid oxidation and conjugation in the GIT
mucosa and liver adrenaline is ineffective after oral administration. Absorption from subcuta-
neous tissues occurs slowly due to local vasoconstriction. Adrenaline is rapidly inactivated in
the body, despite its stability in blood. The liver is rich in both COMT and MAO, however is not
essential in the degradation process. The majority of an administered drug is excreted in the
urine as metabolites.
Uses. The oral intake of adrenaline has no effect. Therefore it has to be administered
parenterally. It is used as sympathomimetic (drugs which support the beating of the heart),
broncholytic (drugs which relax the bronchial muscles) and antiasthmatic (drugs against
asthma). It is also used to prevent bleedings during surgery or in the case of inner organ
bleeding. Because adrenaline leads to constriction of blood vessels, it is administered in combi-
nation with local anesthetics. In this combination, anesthetics have a longer lasting effect and
can be administered in smaller doses.
Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)
Chemistry. Norepinephrine, or l-β-[3,4-dihydroxyphenyl]-α-methyl-aminoethanol is the
chemical mediator liberated at mammalian post-ganglionic adrenergic nerve terminals.
Noradrenaline is available as acid tartarate salt. It is available as odorless, bitter taste, white
crystalline powder. It is soluble in water and slightly soluble in alcohol. Noradrenaline should
be protected from air and light as it darkens on exposure to air and light.
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It differs from adrenaline only by lacking the methyl substitution on the aminoethanol
and, as for adrenaline, the l-isomer is pharmacologically active. Noradrenaline constitutes 10-
20% of the catecholamine content of the adrenal medulla and as much as 97% in some
pheochromocytomas. Norepinephrine bitartrate is a water soluble, crystalline monohydrate
salt, which, like adrenaline, it is readily oxidised. It is available for injection as 0.2% bitartrate,
which is equivalent to noradrenaline 0.1%. It is usually given as a central i.v. infusion at a
concentration of 60 µg/ml.
Pharmacological actions. Both adrenaline and noradrenaline are approximately

equipotent at cardiac β1 receptors. Noradrenaline is a potent agonist for α-receptors but has
little action on β2 receptors. However, noradrenaline is somewhat less potent than adrenaline
at most α-receptors.
Dopamine
Chemistry. Dopamine (3,4-dihydroxyphenylethylamine), differs from the other natu-
rally occuring catecholamines, lacking the β-OH group on the ethylamine side chain. It is the
metabolic precursor of noradrenaline and adrenaline and is a central neurotransmitter.
Pharmacology. Dopamine is a substrate for both MAO and COMT and is thus ineffec-
tive orally. It has minimal effects on the CNS, not crossing the blood brain barrier. Dopamine
exerts a positive inotropic effect on the heart, acting at β1 receptors. Dopamine usually in-
creases the systolic and pulse pressures.
Dosage and administration. Dopamine hydrochloride is a water soluble, crystalline,
light and alkali sensitive white powder marketed in solutions of 40, 80 and 160 mg/ml. Dopamine
is effective only by i.v. infusion, when it is usually diluted to 0.8 to 1.6 mg/ml. The usual adult
dose is 2-5 µg/kg/min.
Uses. Acute congestive cardiac failure with imminent renal failure, septic shock,
cardiogenic shock, surgical shock, acute pancreatitis.
ISOPROTERENOL(ISOPRENALINE)
Chemistry. Isoproterenol, or dl-β-[3,4-dihydroxyphenyl]-α-isopropylaminoethanol, is
a synthetic catecholamine acting almost exclusively at β receptors.
OH
H
HO N CH3
HO CH3
Isoproterenol
Due to the absence of α adrenergic effects, isoproterenol produces most of its effects in
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the heart and the smooth muscle of the bronchi, skeletal muscle vasculature, and the GIT in
addition, it produces marked metabolic effects in adipose tissue, skeletal muscles and in the
liver in some species.
Isoproterenol is available for injection as the water-soluble hydrochloride salt. It is avail-
able as a solution for inhalation, 0.25% to 1%, usually diluted 1:5 with normal saline. It is
synthesized by following method :
HO —C—CH2—Cl + (CH3)2—CH—NH2
O
OH
4-Chloroacetylcatechol Isopropylamine
CH3
HO —C—CH2—NH—CH—CH3
H2/catalyst
O
OH
H CH3
HO —C—CH2—NH—CH—CH3
OH
OH
Isoproterenol
Phenylephrine
Chemistry. Chemically it is 1-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-2-methylaminoethanol. Phenylephrine
differs from adrenaline only by lacking the 4-OH group on the benzene ring and subsequently
is resistant to COMT and has predominantly α-agonist effects.
Phenylephrine is prepared by condensation of 3-chloroacetylphenol with methylamine

followed by catalytic reduction.
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Properties. Phenylephrine is available as hydrochloride salt. It is white, odorless, bit-
ter taste, crystalline powder. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and glycerol. It should be stored in
airtight container to protect from light because it is decomposed by light.
Uses. Phenylephrine is a selective α1-receptor agonist. Oral absorption is not reliable
and so it is given parenterally or topically as eye or nasal drops. phenylephrine predominantly
acts on peripheral arterioles results in a rise in systolic and diastolic pressures accompanied
by a marked reflex bradycardia. Phenylephrine is used as a nasal decongestant, mydriatric
and as a vasopressor agent.
Dobutamine
Chemistry. Dobutamine is a synthetic catecholamine derivative. It resembles dopamine
chemically, but possesses a bulky aromatic residue on the amino group despite the absence of
a β-OH group. Dobutamine is a racemic mixture of two enantiomeric forms. The (+) isomer has
potent β-agonistic actions. The (–) isomer has potent α1-agonistic and poor β-agonistic actions.
Properties. Dobutamine is a white color, sparingly water soluble powder. It is a selec-

tive β1-receptor agonist and has only slight indirect actions. It increases cardiac output with-
out any effect on heart rate and blood pressure. It may activate α1-receptor in higher dose.
Uses. Dobutamine is used in patients of heart failure associated with myocardial
infarction, open heart surgery and cardiomyopathy.
SELECTIVE β2-ADRENERGIC STIMULANTS
Because of their relative selectivity, these agents relax the smooth muscle of the bronchi,
uterus and blood vessels. Generally they have far less action on the heart than isoproterenol
and other agents. Increased β2-agonist activity is conferred by the substitution of increasing
bulky lipophilic groups on the amino group of isoproterenol.
R R1
—CH—CH—CNHR2
General structure for β2-adrenergic stimulants
OH C2H5
CH3
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H—C——CH—NH—CH
H CH3
CH3
HO— —C—CH2—NH—CH—CH3
OH OH
OH OH
Isoproterenol Isoetharine
OH CH3
H
H—C—CH2—N—C—CH3
CH3
HO OH
Terbutaline
Changing the hydroxyl group (—OH) substitutions on phenyl group of isoproterenol
from 3, 4 to 3, 5 results in metaproterenol, which retains its β2-agonistic actions but has re-
duced β1-agonistic activity. Further the shift of the —OH group produces resistance to MAO
and prolongs the duration of action. Such agents include,
(a) Salbutamol (b) Terbutaline
(c) Ritodrine (d) Metaproterenol
(e) Nylidrin (f ) Isoetharine.
Most of these drugs are administered orally or by inhalation.
Terbutaline
Chemistry. Terbutaline is a non-catecholamine, therefore is resistant to COMT. Chemi-
cally terbutaline is N-tert-butyl-N-[2-(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)-2-hydroxymethyl] amine which is
available as sulphate salt.
Terbutaline is prepared by reduction of 2-(tert-butylamino)-3′, 5′-dihydroxyacetophenone

by catalytic hydrogenation :
O CH3 H CH3
HO C—CH2—N—C—CH3 H2/Ni HO C—CH2—N—C—CH3

H H
CH3 OH CH3
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OH OH
Terbutaline
Properties. Terbutaline is a white, odorless, bitter taste crystalline powder. It is solu-

ble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol and practically insoluble in ether and chloroform. It
should be protected from tight.
Isoetharine. Isoetharine is 3,4-dihydroxy-α-[1-(isopropylamino)propyl]benzyl alcohol.
It is available as its methane sulphonate salt. It occurs as white, odorless, bitter taste, water
soluble solid.
OH
H—C———CH—C2H5
CH3
NH—CH
CH3
OH
OH
Uses. Isoetharine has β2-agonistic properties and is used as a bronchodialator.

Nylidrin
Nylidrin occurs as hydrochloride. It is sparingly soluble in water and slightly soluble in
alcohol. Practically insoluble in ether, chloroform and benzene.
H H
HO— —CH—C——N——C—CH2—CH2—C6H5
OH CH3 CH3 CH3

Nylidrin is synthesized from p-hydroxyephedrine by following steps ;
1. p-Hydroxyephedrine is condensed with 4-phenyl-2-butanone to get schiff base.
2. The schiff base is reduced to yield Nylidrin
H H
H2/Ni
HO— —CH—C——N——C—CH2—CH2—C6H5
OH CH3 CH3 CH3
Nylidrin
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Uses. Vasodilator (peripheral).
Ritodrine
Ritodrine occurs as Ritodrine hydrochloride. Ritodrine hydrochloride is water soluble,
odorless, white colored crystalline compound.
Uses. Ritodrine is a short acting β2-stimulant and is used parenterally for delaying
premature delivery of foetus.
Metaproterenol
Metaproterenol occurs as sulphate salt. It is odorless, bitter taste, water-soluble crystal-
line solid. It is photosensitive compound hence should be protected from light and air.
Uses. Metaproterenol possesses strong β2-agonistic properties. It is used in the treat-

ment of bronchial asthma.
SELECTIVE α-ADRENERGIC STIMULANTS

Some adrenergic drugs have selective action on α-adrenergic receptors. Ex: Phenylephrine
and methoxamine.
Methoxamine
Methoxamine is available as hydrochloride. It is white, crystalline, odorless, water solu-
ble solid.
Methoxamine is a parenteral vasopressor and selective for α1-receptors and so have few
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cardiac stimulatory properties. Because it is not substrate for COMT, its duration of action is
significantly longer than that of norepinephrine, but primary use is limited to treat hypoten-
sion during surgery or shock.
Uses. Methoxamine is also used to treat supraventricular tachycardia.
INDIRECTLY ACTING ADRENERGIC DRUGS
This class is comprised of non-catecholamines. Most of these drugs retain
phenylethylamine skeleton.
These compounds are resistant to COMT and MAO enzymes due to lack of phenolic
hydroxyl groups and presence of α-methyl groups. These compounds pass more readily through
blood brain barrier because of increased lipophilicity.
Amphetamine
Chemistry. Amphetamine is an indirect-acting sympathomimetic amine and its action
depends on the release of norepinephrine from adrenergic nerves. It is synthesized by reductive
amination of phenylacetone with ammonia and hydrogen.
Properties. Amphetamine is bitter taste, slightly water miscible, mobile liquid. Am-
phetamine occurs as sulphate salt, which is slightly bitter taste, water soluble solid.
Uses. Amphetamine is one of the most potent sympathomimetic. CNS stimulant effects
are thought to be due to stimulation of the cortex. The d-isomer is 3-4 times more potent than
the l-isomer. Amphetamine causes increased wakefulness, elevated mood, increased initia-
tive, self-confidence and ability to concentrate. In addition to these effects it also has an ano-
rexic action and can be used in the treatment of obesity.
Hydroxyamphetamine
Hydroxyamphetamine occurs as hydrobromide salt. Hydroxyamphetamine hydrobromide
is water soluble, white crystalline compound.
Hydroxyamphetamine is synthesized by reducing p-methoxybenzyl methyl ketoxime

followed by hydrolysis of methoxy group with HI.
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Hydroxyamphetamine possesses α-receptor stimulant activity but lacks CNS activity.
It is a powerful vasoconstrictor.
Uses. Hydroxyamphetamine is used in the following conditions ;
(a) Narcolepsy (sudden attack of sleep in completely inappropriate situations)
(b) Hyperkinetic syndrome in children
(c) As an anorexiant in the treatment of obesity
Propylhexedrine
Propylhexedrine is 1-cyclohexyl-2-methylaminopropane, which occurs as racemic mix-
ture. Propylhexedrine is prepared from methamphetamine by reduction.
Properties. It is an oily liquid having amine odor and boils at 205°C. It is slightly
soluble in water and miscible with alcohol, chloroform, and ether.
Uses. Propylhexedrine is used as 1) Nasal decongestant 2) adrenergic agent (vasocon-

strictor)
Cyclopentamine
Cyclopentamine is a non-catecholamine possessing indirectly acting adrenergic agonistic
activity.
Cyclopentamine is prepared from cyclopentanone by following sequential steps :
(a) Cyclopentanone is condensed with cyanoacetic acid by Knovenagel reaction, followed
by decarboxylation to get an unsaturated nitrile.
NC COOH NC H
O C C
CN
+ CH2
(—CO2)
Cyclopentanone COOH
Cyanoacetic acid
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(b) The unsaturated nitrile is reduced to get 2-cyclopentylmethyl nitrile
NC H
C CH2—CN
Reduction
H2/Ni
(c) 2-cyclopentyl methyl nitrile is allowed to react with methyl magnesium bromide to
afford a methyl ketone which on reductive amination with methylamine yields cyclopentamine.
Naphazoline
Naphazoline is 2-(1-naphthylmethyl)-2-imidazoline. It is prepared by strong heating of
1-naphthaleneacetonitrile with ethylenediamine monochloride at 200°C.
H
N
—CH2—C ≡ N —CH2—
H2N—CH2—CH2—NH2 N
∆ : 200°C
Naphazoline
Uses. Naphazoline is direct acting sympathomimetic drug, which has only α-agonistic
activity. It is used topically as nasal decongestant.
Tetrahydrozoline
Tetrahydrozoline occurs as hydrochloride.
Properties. It is freely soluble in water, and alcohol but very slightly soluble in chloro-
form and practically insoluble in ether. It melts at 256°C.
H
N
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Tetrahydrozoline is prepared by the following reaction :
1. 4-Keto-1, 2, 3, 4-tetrahydro-1-naphthoic acid amide is reduced by catalytic hydro-
genation followed by condensation with ethylenediamine yields tetrahydrozoline.
O
HN N
C—NH2 CN C
Reduction H2N—CH2—CH2—NH2
Tetrahydrozoline
O
Uses. 1. Adrenergic (vasoconstrictor) ; 2. Nasal decongestant.
Xylometazoline
Xylometazoline occurs as hydrochloride which is 2-(4-tert-butyl)2, 6-dimethylbenzyl)-2-
imidazoline.
CH3
H
N
H3C
N
H3C CH3
CH3
It is prepared by strong heating of (4-tert-butyl-2, 6-dimethylphenyl) acetonitrile with
ethylenediamine monochloride at 200°C.
N NH
CH2CN CH2
H3C CH3 H3C CH3
H2N—CH2—CH2—NH2
H3C—C—CH3 H3C—C—CH3
CH3 CH3
Uses. Xylometazoline is a sympathomimetic decongestant. It is a sympathomimetic with
marked alpha-adrenergic action. It acts as a vasoconstrictor when applied topically to mucus
membrane and thus reduces swelling and congestion.
Oxymetazoline
Oxymetazoline occurs as hydrochloride which is 6-tert-butyl-3-(2-imidazolin-2-ylmethyl)-
2,4-dimethylphenolmonohydrochloride.
CH3
H
HO N
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H3C
N
H3C CH3
CH3
Uses. Oxymetazoline is direct acting sympathomimetic drug. It is used topically as na-
sal decongestant.
ADRENERGIC DRUGS WITH MIXED ACTION
These drugs act both directly with the receptor sites and partly by the release of
endogeneous norepinephrine.
OH
H
S NCH3
R
CH3
Ephedrine
Ephedrine
Introduction. Occurs naturally in many plants, being the principal alkaloid of Ma
Huang which has been used in China for over 2000 years. It has agonist activity at both α and
β-receptors. It contain two asymmetric carbon atoms, four compounds are available only racemic
and L-ephedrine are clinically in use. Ephedrine differs from adrenaline mainly by its,
1. effectiveness after oral administration
2. longer duration of action
3. more pronounced central actions
4. much lower potency
It produces a sharp rise in systolic, diastolic and pulse pressures, with a reflex
bradycardia, similar to adrenaline but lasting for 10 times as long.
Structural elucidation of ephedrine
(i) The molecular formula of ephedrine is C10 H15 NO.
(ii) Basic structure. Ephedrine on oxidation gives benzoic acid. Therefore the structure
of ephedrine contains a benzene ring with only one side chain.
Oxidation
C10H15NO —COOH
Ephedrine Benzoic acid
(iii) Nature of nitrogen. Ephedrine on reaction with nitrous acid gives N-nitrosoamine
hence nitrogen atom in ephedrine is 20 amine.
(iv) Nature of Oxygen. Ephedrine on reaction with benzoyl chloride gives dibenzoyl
derivative. This shows that ephedrine contains one hydroxyl group.
O

R—OH + C6H5COCl → R— C —OC6H5
Alcohol Benzoylchloride A benzoyl derivative
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C10H15NO + 2C6H5COCl → C10H13N(COOC6H5)2
Ephedrine Benzoylchloride A dibenzoyl derivative of ephedrine
(v) Hydramine fission. Ephedrine on heating with hydrochloric acid gives methylamine
and propiophenone. These products are formed by hydramine fission of ephedrine.
HCl
C10H15NO → CH3NH2 + C6H5COCH 2CH3
Ephedrine Methylamine Propiphenone
(vi) The following structure was proposed for ephedrine which was able to undergo
hydramine fission
C6 H 5CH — CH — CH 3
 
OH NHCH 3
Proposed structure of ephedrine
(vii) Evidence for proposed structure. The above proposed sturcture yield 1,
2-methylphenyl ethylene oxide on Hofmann’s exhaustive methylatin method :
O
—H2O
C6H5CH(OH)—CH—CH3 H3C—N—H3C +
CH3 – ∆ C6H5CH—CH—CH3
+
N OH CH3
CH3
CH3 Trimethylamine 1, 2-methylphenylethyleneoxide
Quaternary ammonium
hydroxide of ephedrine
(viii) Stererochemistry. The proposed structure contains two chiral centres, hence even
after the removal of hydroxyl group by a hydrogen atom the obtained product is opti-
cally active. The naturally available ephedrine too is optically active. The naturally
isolated ephedrine [(–) ephedrine] gives deoxy ephedrine (by replacement of —OH
group by hydrogen atom), which is still optically active. Since ephedrine molecule
contains two dissimilar chiral centres hence 4 optically active isomers are possible.
H H
 
C 6 H 5 — C — C — CH 3
 
OH NHCH 3
D(-)Ephedrine
Uses. Ephedrine is mainly used as a bronchodialator in asthma. It is used to treat

narcolepsy and depressive state. It is also used as nasal decongestant, mydriatic and in certain
allergic disorders.
Metaraminol
Chemistry. Chemically metaraminol is 3-hydroxyphenylisopropanolamine. Metaraminol
is an isomer of phenylephrine.
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Metaraminol is synthesized from m-hydroxy benzaldehyde by a selective condensation
with nitroethane using tetrabutylammonium fluoride in tetrahydrofuran as a catalyst, fol-
lowed by a reduction with Raney nickel in formic acid.
O (i) Tetrabutylammonium OH H
fluoride
HO— —C + CH2—CH3 → HO— —C——C—CH3
(ii) Ni/HCOOH
H NO2 H NH2
Metaraminol
Uses. Metaraminol is used for its pressor action for maintaining blood pressure during
anesthesia, haemorrhage and other hypotensive states.
Mephentermine
Mephentermine is another general adrenergic agonist with both direct and indirect ac-
tivity. Mephentermine’s therapeutic utility is as a parenteral vasopressor used to treat hypo-
tension induced by spinal anesthesia or other drugs.
CH3
H3C—C—NHCH3
CH2
Adrenoreceptor Blocking
12 Agents
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These agents competitively antagonise the effects of the catecholamines at α and/or
β-adrenergic receptors. Since the sympathetic nervous system is intimately involved in the
modulation of a large number of homeostatic mechanisms, interference with its function im-
pairs the capacity of the organism to generate appropriate physiological responses to provoca-
tive or adverse environmental conditions. Thus, many of the side effects of these agents are
postural hypotension, sedation or depression, increased GIT motility, diarrhoea, impaired ability
to ejaculate, increased blood volume and sodium retention.
β-ADRENERGIC BLOCKING AGENTS

All of the available agents competitively block the effects of endogenous and exogenous
catecholamines. These drugs slow the heart rate (chronotropic) and decrease the force of con-
traction (inotropic) (β1-effect). They also block the sympathetic stimulation of kidney renin
release (β2-effect).
β-Blockers are classified into the following chemical classes based on their structures ;
1. Arylethanolamines. Ex: Dichloroisoproterenol, pronethalol.
2. Aryloxypropanolamines. Ex: Propranolol, nodolol, practolol, metaprolol,
4-hydroxypropranolol.
β-Blockers are structurally similar to β-agonsits. The catechol ring can be replaced by a
variety of ring systems without loss of antagonistic activity. The following are essential re-
quirements for β-blockers;
1. Replacement of catechol hydroxyl (—OH) groups with chlorine (Cl) or phenyl ring
system retains β-blocking activity.
Ex: Dichloroisoproterenol, Pronethalol.
OH
CH3

H—C—CH2—NH—CH OH
CH3
CH3 
CH—CH2—NH—CH
CH3
Cl
Cl
Dichloroisoproterenol Pronethalol
170
ADRENORECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENTS 171
2. N, N-Disubstitution decreases β-blocking activity. Activity is maintained when

phenylethyl, hydroxyphenyl ethyl or methoxyphenylethyl groups are added to amine part of
the molecule.
3. The two-carbon side-chain is essential for activity.
4. Incorporation of —OCH2—group into the molecule between the aromatic ring and the
ethylamine side chain provides β-blocking agents. Ex: propranolol.
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OH CH3

O—CH2—CH—CH2—NH—CH
CH3
5. β1-Selective antagonists are obtained by the introduction of para substituents on the

aromatic ring along with the absence of meta-substituents. Ex: practolol.
H CH3

O—CH2—C—NH—CH
 CH3
OH
O

NH—C—CH3
6. Nitrogen atom should be of secondary amine for optimum β-blocking activity. Gener-
ally bulky alkyl groups (tert-butyl or isopropyl) are found on the amino group.
7. Setereoisomerism. β-Blockers exhibits a high degree of stereoselectivity in the pro-
duction of their β-blocking effects. The carbon of side chain bearing hydroxyl group must be
(s)-configuration for optimal affinity to the β-receptor.
Ex: Levobunolol, Timolol.
Aryloxypropanolamines. There are four size.
Propranolol. Propranolol is 1-(isopropylamino)-3-(1-naphthyloxy)-2-propanol. Black and
co-workers discovered propranolol, which is a structural relative to pronethalol. The levo iso-
mer is 100 times more active than dextro isomer. First pass effect is substantial and 4-OH
metabolite is active. Propranolol is a mixed β-blocker. S-isomer is most active.
CH3
O N CH3
H
OH
Propranolol is a secondary amine. It is available as hydrochloride salt. Propranolol hy-

drochloride is colorless, water soluble solid. It is prepared by the following chemical reactions.
α-Naphthol on reaction with epichlorhydrin provides the glycidic ether which on treat-
ment with isopropyl amine gives propranolol.
O
OH O—CH2—CH—CH2
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O
+ Cl—CH2—CH—CH2
→ CH3
Epichlorhydrin
α-Naphthol
H2N—CH
CH3 CH3
↓
O—CH2—CH—CH2—NH—CH
 CH3
OH
Propranolol
Uses: Propranolol is an effective antihypertensive agent
It is also used to treat arrhythmias
Propranolol potentiates the activity of hypoglycemic agents
HydroxyPropranolol. 4-Hydroxypropranolol is a short acting β-antagonist. It also
posess some intrinsic sympathomimetic activity.
CH3
O NH CH3
OH
OH
Timolol. Timolol is (S)-1-((t-butylamino)-3-(4-morpholino-1, 2, 5-thiadiazol-3-yloxy)-2-
propanol. It has been approved for hypertension and prolonging post-myocardial infarction.
Timolol is a selective β-blocker, acts on β1-adrenergic receptors.
Metoprolol. Metoprolol is 1-(4-(2-methoxyethyl)phenoxy)-3-((1-methylethyl) amino)-

2-propanol. It is moderately lipid soluble. Metoprolol is β1-selective antagonist.
OH CH3
O NH—CH
CH3
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CH3
Atenolol. Atenolol is 1-p-amidomethylphenoxy-3-isopropylamino-2-propanol. It has sig-
nificantly fewer CNS side effects compared to propranolol. Atenolol is hydrophilic β1-selec-
tive antagonist
OH CH3
O NH—CH
CH3
H2N
O
Dichloroisoproterenol. Dichloroisoproterenol, the first β-adrenoreceptor blocking
agent. It inhibits both, the relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle and cardiac stimulant ac-
tions of isoprenaline.
OH CH3
H
Cl N—CH
CH3
Cl
Pronethalol. Pronethalol is a better β-blocker than dichloroisoproterenol. Pronethelol
is synthesized from 2-acetylnaphthalene by the following steps:
O
 CH3
C—CH2Br
C—CH3 Br2/ACOH 
→ + H2N—C—CH3

O 
2-Acetylnaphthalene H
O CH3
OH CH3  
  C—CH2NH—C—CH3
C—CH2—NH—C—CH3 LiAlH4
← 
  H
H H
Pronethalol
Butoxamine. Butoxamine is a selective β-adrenoreceptor blocking agent. Butoxamine

is synthesized from 1, 4-dimethoxybenzene as follows:
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Butoxamine blocks β2-receptors in uterine and bronchial smooth muscles and in skel-
etal muscles. Presently it has been used as a research tool but it doesn’t have any clinical use.
Labetalol. Labetalol is a competitive antagonist at α1-and non-selective β-receptor block-
ing agent. It is optically active, as its structure possesses two optically active centres. Labetalol
is used as an antihypertensive agent.
OH H
 
H—C—CH2—N—C—CH2—CH2
 
H CH3
C—NH2

OH O
Therapeutic uses of the β-blockers:

(a) Hypertension. β-Blockers are often combined with a diuretic agent, or a vasodilator,
but are frequently effective alone not associated with postural or exercise induced hypotension
and seldom disturbs sexual function.
(b) Coronary artery disease. β-blockers were originally developed for the treatment
of angina pectoris.
(c) Arrhythmias. The value of these agents relates to their ability to slow the SA node,
and to decrease atrial and AV nodal conduction.
(d) Dissecting aortic aneurysm. The main aim of treatment is to reduce BP and the
wall shear stress.
(e) Glaucoma. These agents lower intraocular pressure in open angle glaucoma, be-
cause of its lack of local anesthetic (membrane stabilising) effects, timolol, is used topically.
α-ADRENERGIC BLOCKING AGENTS
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The α-receptor blockers in most cases donot show selectivity of action. Thus α-blockers have
limited clinical use. α-blockers have been employed as antihypertensives for decades. These
agents enjoy wide structural variations. On the chemical basis, various α-receptor blockers
can be classified as:
(i) Ergot alkaloids (ii) Imidazolines (iii) β-Haloalkylamines
(iv) Quinazolines (v) Miscellaneous agents.
ERGOT ALKALOIDS. Ergot is the compact mycelium of a fungus Calviceps purpurea,
which can infect rye, and was responsible for outbreaks of poisoning due to consumption of
infected grain which resulted in ergotism (characterized by dry gangrene of limbs and CNS
symptoms). Ergot alkaloids are derivatives of lysergic acid which affect adrenoreceptors, DA
and 5-HT receptors. Ex: Ergotamine, Ergotoxine, Ergonovine.
The semisynthetic derivatives have no action on uterus and posses α-agonistic and
vasoconstrictor actions. Ex: Dihydro ergotamine.
QUINAZOLINES. They are selective α1-adrenergic competitive blockers.
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1. These drugs possess quinazoline, piperazine and acyl moieties. Ex: Prazosin,
Terazosin, doxazosin.
2. The 4-amino group on the quinazoline ring is essential for α1-receptor antagonis-
tic-activity.
3. At 2nd position of quinazoline nucleus any heterocyclic moiety (piperazine or
piperidine) retains α1-receptor binding activity. Ex: Prazosin, terazosin
O

N—C— N—C—
N  O N O
MeO N MeO N
O
N N
MeO MeO
NH2 NH2
Prazosin Terazosin
4. Acyl gropus have profound effect on pharmacokinetic properties.
Prazosin. Prazosin, the first known selective α1-blocker, was discovered in the late
1960s. It is far more potent α1-receptor blocker. Prazosin is 1-(4-amino-6,7-dimethoxy-2-
quinazolinyl)-4-(2-furanylcarbonyl) piperazine.
Uses. Prazosin blocks the postsynaptic α1-adrenoreceptors causing vasodialation and

reduction in blood pressure. Prazosin is used to treat all grades of hypertension.
IMIDAZOLINES
They have competitive (reversible) α-antagonistic activity. Imidazolines are structur-
ally similar to imidazoline α-agonistis ( (naphazoline, xylometazoline).
H
N
CH2
H N
N
CH2
N
Tolazoline Naphazoline
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Naphazoline, oxymetazoline, tetrahydrozoline and xylometazoline are selective
α1-agonists and thus are vasoconstrictors. They all contain a one-carbon bridge between C-2 of
the imidazoline ring and a phenyl substituent, thus, the general skeleton of a phenylethylamine
is contained within the structures. Lipophilic substitution on the phenyl ring ortho to the
methylene bridge appears to be required for agonist activity at both types of α-receptors. Bulky
lipophilic groups attached to the phenyl ring at the meta or para positions provide selectivity
for the α1-receptor by dimin-ishing affinity for α2-receptors. Ex: Tolazoline, Phentolamine.
Phentolamine and Tolazoline are substituted imidazolines, which have a wide range
of pharmacological actions, including, α-adrenergic blockade, sympathomimetic activity,
cholinomimetic activity and histamine-like actions. Slight changes in their structure may make
one or another of these properties dominant.
Tolazoline. Tolazoline is a substituted imidazoline derivative. It is prepared by con-
densation of an aminoether (obtained by methanolysis of phenylacetonitrile) with ethylene
diamine.
H2N—CH2— H
OCH3 N
CH2—NH2
C6H5CH2—CN → CH2—C → CH2
NH N
Tolazoline
Tolazoline has been used in the treatment of persistant pulmonary hypertension of the
newborn. It is mainly used in Raynaud’s disease. Tolazoline is available both as tablet and as
injection.
Phentolamine. Phentolamine is an imidazoline derivative. It is prepared by the fol-
lowing chemical reactions;
N-(4-methylphenyl)-3-hydroxyaniline on condensation with hydrogen cyanide and for-
maldehyde gives N-(4-methylphenyl)-3-hydroxy anilinoacetonitrile which on further treatment
with ethylene diamine gives phentolamine.
CH3 CH3 CH3
HCN H2N—CH2—CH2—NH2
→ →
HCHO
N
NH N—CH2—CN N—CH2
N
H
OH OH OH
Phentolamine has similar affinities for α1 and α2 receptors. It produces vasodialation

and fall in blood pressure. However, very large doses of phentolamine can block other actions
of 5-HT.
Uses. Phentolamine is used for the diagnosis and treatment of pheochromacytoma. It is
also used to treat Raynaud’s syndrome.
β-HALOALKYLAMINES. They are represented by the following formula:
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R — N — CH 2 — CH 2 — X

R′
R or R′ = Arylalkyl group
X = Halogen
Ex: Phenoxybenzamine, dibenamine
(i) β-Haloalkylamines resemble to antineoplastic agents( nitrogen mustard) but have
no cytotyoxic effects.
(ii) The effectiveness of β-haloalkylamines depend upon the nature of R and R1-groups.
(iii) The groups attached to the nitrogen are responsible for the transport of the drug to
the receptor area and binding to the receptor surface.
(iv) These agents are closely related to the nitrogen mustards, and like the later, the
tertiary amine cyclises to form a reactive ethyleniminium intermediate. The molecular
configuration responsible for blockade is probably a highly reactive carbonium compound,
formed when the ring structure breaks, which binds covalently and irreversibly to the receptor.
The formation of these intermediates accounts for the delayed onset of action, even after i.v.
administration.
–
Cl CH2
R
+ α-Receptor
R—N—CH2—CH2—Cl → N → R—N—CH2—CH2—α-Receptor
1 R
1 
CH2
R R′
Ethylene iminium intermediate
(v) They have long duration of action and are non-selective.

Phenoxybenzamine. Phenoxybenzamine is moderately selective for α1-receptors It is
synthesized as follows :
(a) Condensation of phenol with propylene chlorohydrin gives 1-phenoxy-2-propanol,
which on reaction with thionyl chloride produces 1-phenoxy-2-chloro propane.
OH

OH O—CH2—CH—CH3
OH
+ Cl—CH2—CH—CH3 →
SOCl2
↓
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O—CH2—CH—CH3

Cl
(b) 1-Phenoxy-2-chloropropane is condensed with ethaolamine followed by benzyl chlo-

ride yields phenoxybenzamine.
O—CH2—CH—CH3 O—CH2—CH—CH3
 
Cl H2N—CH2CH2Cl NH—CH2—CH2Cl
→
C6H5—CH2—Cl
O—CH2—CH—CH3
 ↓
N—CH2CH2Cl

CH2C6H5
Phenoxybenzamine
Phenoxybenzamine selectively block α1-receptors and have no agonist activity their ef-
fects are due to a direct action on α-receptors.
Dibenamine. Reaction of dibenzylamine with ethylene oxide provides aminoalcohol,
which on treatment with thionyl chloride provides dibenamine.
C6H5—CH2—N—H O
CH2 + CH2—CH2 → C6H5CH2—N—CH2—CH2—OH
→
C6H5 CH2
SOCl2
C6H5
Aminoalcohol
C6H5—CH2—N—CH2—CH2—Cl
CH2
C6H5
Dibenamine
13 Skeletal Muscle Relaxants
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Definition
Skeletal muscle relaxants are used to decrease muscle spasm or spasticity that occurs
in certain neurologic and musculoskeletal disorders. They relax striated muscles (those that
control the skeleton) and are used during intubations and surgery to reduce the need for
anesthesia and facilitate intubation.
Muscle Spasm
Muscle spasm or cramp is a sudden, involuntary, painful muscle contraction that occurs
with trauma or an irritant. Spasms may involve alternating contraction and relaxation (clonic)
or sustained contraction (tonic). It is also encountered with acute or chronic low back pain, a
common condition that is primarily a disorder of posture.
Spasticity
Spasticity involves increased muscle tone or contraction and stiff, awkward movements.
It occurs with neurologic disorders such as spinal cord injury and multiple sclerosis.
Purpose
Skeletal muscle relaxants may be used for relief of spasticity in neuromuscular dis-
eases, such as multiple sclerosis, as well as for spinal cord injury and stroke. They may also be
used for pain relief in minor strain injuries and control of the muscle symptoms of tetanus.
Classification
The muscle relaxants may be divided into only two groups:
(i) Centrally acting muscle relaxants. The centrally acting group, which appears to
act on the central nervous system. Ex: Baclofen, carisoprodol, chlorphenesin, methocarbamol.
(ii) Peripherally acting muscle relaxants. Ex: Dantrolene.
Mechanism of Action
All skeletal muscle relaxants except dantrolene are centrally active drugs. Only
dantrolene has a direct action at the level of the nerve-muscle connection. Pharmacologic
action is usually attributed to general depression of the central nervous system (CNS), but
may involve blockage of nerve impulses that cause increased muscle tone and contraction. It is
unclear whether relief of pain results from sedative effects, muscular relaxation, or a placebo
180
SKELETAL MUSCLE RELAXANTS 181
effect. In addition, although parenteral administration of some drugs (e.g., diazepam,

methocarbamol) relieves pain associated with acute musculoskeletal trauma or inflammation.
Baclofen and diazepam increase the effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid, an inhibitory
neurotransmitter. Dantrolene is the only skeletal muscle relaxant that acts peripherally on
the muscle it self. It inhibits the release of calcium in skeletal muscle cells and thereby de-
creases the strength of muscle contraction.
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BACLOFEN
Baclofen is (RS)-4-amino-3-(41-chlorophenyl)butyric acid.
Properties. A white or almost white powder, slightly soluble in water, very slightly
soluble in alcohol, practically insoluble in acetone and in ether. It dissolves in dilute mineral
acids and in dilute solutions of alkali hydroxides. It shows polymorphism.
Mechanism of action. Baclofen is a central skeletal muscle relaxant. It is an antispastic.
It inhibits both monosynaptic and ploysynaptic reflexes at spinal level. It is an analog of GABA
and exerts its action by stimulating GABAB receptor subtype. Baclofen also acts as a general
CNS depressant.
Uses. Baclofen is used to treat spasticity of skeletal muscles, degenerative traumatic
and neoplastic, multiple sclerosis and spasticity of cerebral origin. The action of oral baclofen
starts in 1 hour, reaches in 2 hours, and lasts for 4 to 8 hours. It is metabolized in the liver and
excreted in urine. Its half-life is 3 to 4 hours.
CARISOPRODOL
Carisoprodol is N-isopropyl-2-methyl-2-propyl-1,3-propanediol dicarbamate.
H O CH 3 O
   
H 3C — C — NH — C — O — CH 2 — C — CH 2 O — C — NH 2
 
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3
Properties. Carisoprodol occurs as white, crystalline powder and melts at 93°C. It has
slight bitter taste.
Mechanism of action. Carisoprodol blocks interneuronal synaptic activity in the as-
cending reticular formation and spinal cord. This results in skeletal muscle relaxation.
Uses. It is used to relieve discomfort from acute, painful, musculoskeletal disorders. It
is not recommended for long-term use and, if used long term or in high doses, it can cause
physical dependence (i.e., symptoms of with-fordrawal if stopped abruptly). Oral drug acts
within 30 minutes, peak levels in 1 to 2 hours and lasts 4 to 6 hours.
CHLORPHENESIN
Chlorphenesin is 4-chlorophenylether of glycerol.
Cl O—CH2—CH—CH2
 
OH OH
Properties. Chlorphenesin occurs as white crystals. It melts at 80°C. Chlorphenesin is
synthesized by condensation of 4-chlorophenol with 3-chloro-1, 2-propanediol.
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Cl OH + Cl—CH2—CH—CH2 → Cl O—CH2—CH—CH2
   
OH OH OH OH
Chlorphenesin
Uses. Chlorphenesin is used to relieve discomfort from acute, painful, musculoskeletal

disorders. Oral drug effects peak in 1 to 3 hours and last 8 to 12 hours; half-life is 3.5 hours.
The drug is metabolized in the liver and excreted in urine. Common adverse effects are drow-
siness, dizziness, confusion, nausea.
METHOCARBOMOL
Methocarbomol is 3-(o-methoxyphenoxy)-1,2-propanediol-1-carbamate.
Properties. Methocarbomol occurs as fine, white colored, odorless powder. It is slightly

soluble in water and freely soluble in alcohol.
Methocarbomol is synthesized by transesterification reaction of 3-(o-methoxyphenoxy)-
1, 2-propanediol with ethyl carbonate in presence of alkali catalyst followed by treatment with
ammonia.
Methocarbomol is a centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxant whose precise mode of

action is not known. It would cause general depression of nervous system.
Uses. Methocarbomol is used in the treatment of muscle spasm resulting from injury,
musculoskeletal disorders. It is also used to treat paralysis agitans, cerebral plasy, multiple
sclerosis and cerebral vascular accidents.
DANTROLENE
Dantrolene acts directly on skeletal muscle to inhibit muscle contraction. It is used to
relieve spasticity in neurologic disorders (e.g., multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury) and to
SKELETAL MUSCLE RELAXANTS 183
prevent or treat malignant hyperthermia. Oral drug acts slowly, peaks in 4 to 6 hours and
lasts 8 to 10 hours. IV drug acts rapidly, peaks in about 5 hours and lasts 6 to 8 hours.
Dantrolene occurs as sodium salt. Dantrolene sodium is 1-[[5-(p-nitrophenyl) furfury-
lidene]amino]hydantoin sodium. It is orange colored, slightly water soluble powder.
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O2N CH N—N NH
O
O
Dantrolene
Side-effects of skeletal muscle relaxants. Frequently sedation, drowsiness, muscu-

lar hypotonia, nausea, urinary disturbances; occasionally lassitude, confusion, speech distur-
bance, dizziness, ataxia, hallucinations, nightmares, headache, euphoria, insomnia, depres-
sion, anxiety, agitation, tremor, nystagmus, paraesthesias, convulsions, myalgia, fever, respi-
ratory or cardiovascular depression, hypotension, dry mouth, gastro-intestinal disturbances,
sexual dysfunction, visual disorders, rash, pruritus, urticaria, hyperhidrosis, angioedema; rarely
taste alterations, blood sugar changes, and paradoxical increase in spasticity.
14 Antihistamines
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WHAT ARE ALLERGIES ?
An allergy is a response by your body to something that is ordinarily harmless. The purpose of
the immune system is to recognize harmful infection-causing invaders and to get rid of them.
However, for some people, the immune system overreacts to ordinarily harmless substances
like indoor allergens such as pet dander, pollen, dust, mold and outdoor allergens such as
pollen from grass, trees and weeds. These people have “allergies.” Their bodies attempt to
expel these ordinarily harmless substances, causing sneezing; a runny nose; itchy, watery
eyes and sometimes hives.
HOW ALLERGIES DEVELOP ?

Nobody knows for sure, although the tendency to develop allergies can be inherited from your
parents. Scientists do know how a person develops allergies. The first thing that happens is
Histamine release from mast cells. (Solid lines-activation dotted lines-inhibition)

184
ANTIHISTAMINES 185
you are exposed to a particular substance-for example, pollen from a ragweed plant. This
substance makes its way to your nose, where your immune system detects it and, considering
it a harmful invader, creates antibodies to fight that particular substance. These antibodies
stay in your system, and bound to the surface of mast cells and results in the release of hista-
mine.
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THE HISTAMINE CONNECTION
Histamine is a major component of many venoms and sting secretions and is produced natu-
rally by the immune system and released in response to tissue damage. In humans, histamine
mediates immediate allergic and inflammatory responses, causes gastric acid release and func-
tions as a central nervous system neurotransmitter.
Systemically, histamine contracts smooth muscle of lungs and gastrointestinal system
and causes vasodilation, low blood pressure (hypotension) and increased heart rate (tachycar-
dia). Histamine attaches to nearby blood vessels, causing them to swell, and secrete more fluid
than usual. Histamine can also irritate nearby nerve endings, causing itching. Ultimately,
histamine causes symptoms such as sneezing; itchy, watery eyes, and a runny nose.
HISTAMINE CONTENT OF HUMAN TISSUES

Histamine is stored in some organs in granules of mast cells, basophils together with heparin
and proteases. It is stored at sites other than mast cells in epidermis, gastric mucosa, neurons,
regenerating tissues, and in basophils of blood. Histamine is rapidly synthesized, but not taken
up by cells. Histamine is 2-(4-imidazoyl)ethylamine is biosynthesized from histidine by the
action of L-histidine carboxylase.
H2C H C H2C NH2

C OH C
HN HN H2
N NH2 Histidine
→
N
Histidine carboxylase Histamine (2-[4-imidazolyl] ethylamine)
Biosynthesis of histamine
HISTAMINE RECEPTORS
Histamine carries its message to a large number of cells by attaching to a special receptor on
the cells’ surfaces. There are two kinds of histamine receptors, H1 and H2. The H1 and H2
receptors both receive histamine as a messenger, but the meaning taken by the different
receptors is different. H1 receptors tend to produce the symptoms already listed and activate
allergic reactions. H2 receptors tend to act as negative feedback receptors and turn the allergic
reaction off. H2 receptors also exclusively activate the acid-producing, parietal cells of the
stomach lining. An H3 receptor, discovered in 1987, appears to exist only in the central nerv-
ous system.
During 2000 and 2001, a new membrane receptor, the H4 has been discovered, which is
located in the immune system.
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Agonist Receptor Location Effect
2-Methylhistamine H1 CNS Cyclic GMP increases,
Blood vessels, Headache ;

endothelial cells Wakefulness,
Bronchi Arterial vasodilation

Postcapillary venules constriction
Ileum Smooth muscle contraction
Heart Smooth muscle contraction
Adrenals Increased coronary blood flow
Nose, bronchi Release of catecholamines
Increased exocrine secretion
4-Methylhistamine H2 Heart Chronotrophy, inotrophy

Mast cells Negative feedback
Stomach Acid production
Blood vessels, Slow drop in pressure
smooth muscles
α-Methylhistamine H3 Brain Negative feedback on histamine

release (sedative action)
Airways, neurons Inhibitory action on some forms of
bronchoconstriction
GI tract Acetylcholine release inhibited
ANTIHISTAMINES 187
PATHWAYS OF HISTAMINE METABOLISM IN HUMANS

Histamine from α-histidine aminoacid, is metabolized by the following pathway in humans :
CH2—CH—NH2
COOH
HN N
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L-histidine
L-histidine
decarboxylase
CH2—CH—NH2
HN N
histamine
diamine
histamine-N-methyl
oxidase
transferase
CH2—CH—NH2
CH2—CHO
H3C—N N N-methylhistamine
HN N
imidazole N-methylhistamine
acetaldehyde oxidase
CH2—COOH
CH2—COOH
H3C—N N N-methylimidazole
HN N
acetic acid
imidazole
acetic acid
conjugates with
ribose-phosphate
Synthesis and metabolism of histamine.
WHAT ARE ANTIHISTAMINES ?

Antihistamines are drugs that block the action of histamine at the H1 receptor sites, responsi-
ble for immediate hypersensitivity reactions such as sneezing and itching. Members of this
class of drugs may also be used for their side effects, including sedation and antiemesis (pre-
vention of nausea and vomiting. H1 antihistamines antagonize all actions of histamine except
for those mediated by H2 receptors. The H2 receptor antagonists are the drugs that inhibit
competitively the interaction of histamine with H2 receptors. H2 receptor antagonists inhibit
gastric acid secretion induced by histamine thus they are used to treat gastric and duodenal
ulcers.
Antihistamines do not cure allergies or prevent histamine from being released. They
also have no effect on other chemicals that the body releases when exposed to allergens. For
these reasons, antihistamines can be expected to reduce allergy symptoms by only about 50%.
In some people antihistamines become less effective when used over a long time. Some times
switching to another type of antihistamine may help to cure allergic reactions.
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HOW DO ANTIHISTAMINES WORK
An antihistamine is not actually the opposite of a histamine. An antihistamine is a drug that
binds to certain sites (receptors on cells) in the body, in order to prevent histamine from bind-
ing. Antihistamines act as competitive inhibitors of histamine (agonist) binding. Antihista-
mines compete for the H1 receptors on blood vessel endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells.
As competitive inhibitors, the antihistamines bind to the receptors because there is more of
the antihistamine than the natural histamine. Antihistamines have no effect on rate of hista-
mine release, nor do they inactivate histamine.
Blocking of H1-histamine receptors
CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIHISTAMINES
Antihistamines are generally categorized as first- and second-generation, which generally based
on whether they cause greater or lesser sedation.
First-Generation antihistamines. The older, so-called first generation antihistamines
include:
1. Aminoalkylethers. Diphenhydramine, carbinoxamine, bromodiphenhydramine,
doxylamine.
2. Ethylenediamines. Tripelennamine, clemastine, pyrilamine, methapyrilene.
3. Propylamine derivatives. Chlorpheniramine, pheniramine, dexchlorpheniramine,
brompheniramine, dexbrompheniramine, triprolidine.
4. Phenothiazine derivatives. Promethazine, trimeprazine, methdilazine.
5. Piperazine derivatives. Cyclizine, chlorcyclizine, meclizine, buclizine.
6. Debenzocycloheptenes. Cyproheptadine, azatadine.
7. Miscellaneous drugs. Diphenyl pyraline, dimethindene, antazoline.
Second-Generation antihistamines. The second-generation antihistamines bind only
to peripheral H1 receptors, and reduce allergic response with little or no sedation. Ex: Cetirizine,
loratidine, fexofenadine.
ANTIHISTAMINES 189
STRUCTURE ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIPS OF HISTAMINE

H1-ANTAGONISTS
The essential pharmacophore for histamine H1 antagonistic activity is:
R
Ar—X—(CH2—CH2)n—N
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R
1. The nitrogen should be 3° in nature for maximum antihistaminic activity. The ‘N’ may
also form a part of heterocyclic moieties like piperidine, or piperazine or diazocine. The
nitrogen amine should be separated by 5-6 A° from aromatic or heteroaromatic group.
2. The group present between nitrogen atom and group X may be saturated or unsatu-
rated or substituted.
3. The Ar group may be aryl or heteroaryl, which may be substituted.
4. The group (X) can be carbon, oxygen or nitrogen.
Aminoalkyl Ether Derivatives

1. The basic structure of aminoalkyl ethers for H1 antihistaminic activity:
R
Ar R
C—O—(CH2)n—N
Ar R
2. The aromatic groups may be phenyl or substituted phenyl or heterocyclic for good
antihistaminic activity. The R group may be methyl or hydrogen.
3. If double bond is introduced between α, β-carbon atoms of propyl chain, drowsiness will
be developed Ex: acrilestine.
DIPHENHYDRAMINE
Diphenhydramine is chemically an ethanolamine, and in addition to its role in reducing
allergic reactions, may be used as a night time sedative, for control of drug-induced
parkinsonism, and, in liquid form, for control of coughs. Diphenhydramine occurs as hydro-
chloride salt which is 2-benzhydryloxyethyldimethyl hydrochloride.
C6H5 CH3
H5C6—C—O—CH2—CH2—N . HCl
H CH3
Diphenhydramine hydrochloride
Diphenhydramine hydrochloride is water soluble white crystalline powder. It should be
stored in light resistant containers. Diphenhydramine is prepared from diphenylmethane by
the following reactions:
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Carbinoxamine
1. Chemistry. Carbinoxamine is available as carbinoxamine maleate. Chemically it is
2-[-p-chloro-(-(2-(dimethylamino) ethoxy] benzyl] pyridine maleate.
N CH3
Cl— —C—O—CH2—CH2—N
CH3
H
Carbinoxamine
2. Characters. It occurs as white, odorless, crystalline powder. It is freely soluble in
water, alcohol, and chloroform.
3. Synthesis. Piconaldehyde by Grignard reaction with p-chlorophenylmagensium bro-
mide gives an intermediate which is converted to carbinoxamine by adding N-dimethyl-
aminoethyl chloride in presence of sodamide.
ANTIHISTAMINES 191
4. Uses. (i) Carbinoxamine is an antihistamine with anticholinergic and antiemetic ac-

tivities.
(ii) It is effective in allergic rhinitis, vasomotor rhinitis, and allergic conjunctivitis.
Bromodiphenhydramine
1. Chemistry. Bromodiphenhydramine is 2[(4-bromophenyl) phenylmethoxy)]-N,
N-dimethylethanamine.
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2. Characters. It occurs as hydrochloride salt. Bromodiphenhydramine HCl is a white
crystalline, water-soluble powder.
3. Synthesis. Bromodiphenhydramine is synthesized from 4-bromobenzaldehyde by
the following chemical reactions:
Dimenhydrinate
Dimenhydrinate is aminoalkyl ether. It is 8-chlorotheophyllinate salt of
diphenhydramine. Dimenhydrinate is a white crystalline, colorless, slightly water-soluble
powder. It is used to treat motion-sickness, nausea and vertigo.
CH3
+
—C—O—CH2—CH2—N
CH3 O
H H
N
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H3C—N
—Cl
O N N
(–)
Dimenhydrinate CH3
Doxylamine
1. Chemistry. Doxylamine occurs as doxylamine succinate. Chemically it is 2-[(-[2-
(dimethylamino) ethoxy]-(-methylbenzyl] pyridine succinate. Doxylamine succinate is white,
characteristic odor, water or alcohol soluble powder.
2. Uses. (i) Doxylamine is an antihistaminic agent but it has sedative effect.

(ii) It is also used with antitussives and decongestants for the relief of cough and cold.
Clemastine
1. Chemistry. Clemastine is an alkyl ether derivative possessing of pyrrolidine nu-
cleus. It occurs as clemastine fumarate. Chemically, clemastine is 2-[2-[1-(p-chlorophenyl)-1-
phenylethoxy]ethyl]-1-methylpyrrolidine.
C6H5
Cl— —C—O—CH2—CH2—
N
CH3
CH3
Clemastine
2. Characters. Clemastine fumarate is white or slightly yellow colored, crystalline pow-

der. It is slightly soluble in water and alcohol.
3. Uses. Clemastine has antihistaminic activity with anticholinergic and sedative effects.
ANTIHISTAMINES 193
ETHYLENEDIAMINES
1. The basic structure of ethylene diamine derivatives of H1 antagonists is:
1
Ar R
N—CH2—CH2—N
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2
R R
2. R and R1 are methyl groups, R2 may be phenyl, benzyl or heteroyclic and Ar may be
phenyl or heterocyclic for antihistaminic activity.
3. All compounds of this series have two 3° nitrogens which are separated by a two
carbon atom chain. Substitution of heterocyclic groups for Ar or introduction of alkoxy groups
into group (R2) produce effective antihistaminic compounds with reduced drowsiness.
4. The ethylenediamines are highly effective H1 antagonists and are useful antihista-
mines. They also exhibit high frequency CNS depression and gastrointestinal side effects.
Pyrilamine
1. Chemistry. Pyrilamine is an ethylene diamine derivative. Pyrilamine occurs as
maleate salt. Chemically it is 2-[[2-(dimethylamino) ethyl] (p-methoxybenzyl) amino] pyridine
maleate.
CH3
–—N—CH2—CH2—N
N
CH3
CH2
OCH3
2. Characters. Pyrilamine maleate is white, characteristic odor, water or alcohol solu-
ble, crystalline powder.
3. Synthesis. The following steps synthesize pyrilamine:
(i) 2-Aminopyridine by alkylation with chloroethyldimethylamine yields diamine.
CH3
–—NH2 + Cl—CH2—CH2—N 
→
N
CH3
2-Aminopyridine
CH3
N H CH3
(ii) Reaction of diamine with p-methoxybenzylchloride gives pyrilamine
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4. Uses. (i) Pyrilamine has antihistaminic activity
(ii) It is also used in cough formulations
Methapyrilene
1. Chemistry. Methapyrilene is an ethylenediamine with pyridine nucleus. It is an
H1-receptor antagonist. It is 2-[[2-(dimethylamino) ethyl] 2-thenylamino]-pyridine.
CH3
N
CH3
CH2
S
2. Properties. Methapyrilene occurs as hydrochloride salt. Methapyrilene hydrochlo-
ride is water soluble, white crystalline powder.
3. Synthesis. Methapyrilene is prepared from 2-aminopyridine by the following steps:
Thonzylamine
1. Chemistry. Thonzylamine occurs as hydrochloride salt. Chemically thonzylamine is
2-((2-(dimethylamino)ethyl) (p-methoxybenzyl)amino) pyrimidine. Thonzylamine hydrochloride
ANTIHISTAMINES 195
is a water soluble, white crystalline powder. It is an Histamine H1-receptor antagonist used

for the symptomatic relief of hypersensitivity disorders.
2. Synthesis. Thonzylamine is prepared from 2-aminopyrimidine by the following steps:
ture: NEI
PROPYLAMINE DERIVATIVES
1. The propylamine antihistamine derivatives possesses the following general struc-
N
—CH—CH2—CH2—N
CH3
CH3
R
2. They are most active H1-antagonists and also produce less sedation.
3. They exhibit significant anticholinergic activity in addition to antihistaminic activity.
4. All propylamine antihistamine derivatives are chiral compounds.
5. Propylamines possesses sp3 or sp2 carbon bridge between terminal tertiary amino
group and diaryl moieties.
Pheniramine
1. Chemistry. Pheniramine is available as pheniramine maleate. It is dimethyl(3-phe-
nyl-3-(2-pyridyl)propyl amine hydrogen maleate.
2. Characters. Phemiramine maleate is water soluble, white, crystalline powder.

3. Synthesis. Phemiramine is prepared by condensation of 2-benzylpyridine with
dimethylaminoethyl chloride in presence of sodamide.
SOCl Reduction
—–CH—OH →
2
—–CH—Cl → —–CH2
N N N
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2-Benzylpyridine
→
(i) NaNH2
(ii) Alkylation with
N-(2-Chloroethyl)
dimethylamine
CH3
—–CH—CH2—CH2—N—CH3
N
Pheniramine
4. Uses. Phaniramine is an antihistaminic agent. It is effective to treat allergic rhinitis,
vasomotor rhinitis, allergic conjunctivitis, mild urticaria and angioedema. It is used widely in
cough preparations.
Chlorpheniramine
1. Chemistry. Chlorpheminamine occurs as chlorpheniramine maleate, which is an
alkylamine derivative. It is (RS)-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(2-pyridyl) propyldimethylamine hydro-
gen maleate. Chlorpheniramine maleate is water soluble, white crystalline powder.
2. Synthesis. Chlorpheniramine is synthesized from p-chlorobenzyl nitrile by following

synthetic route:
CH3
N N
ClCH2CH2—N—CH3
Cl— —CH2CN + Br— → Cl— —CH— →
p-Chlorobenzyl nitrile CN
ANTIHISTAMINES 197
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3. Uses. Chlorpheniramine is a Histamine H1-receptor antagonist used for the sympto-
matic relief of hypersensitivity reactions including urticaria, rhinitis, conjunctivitis and
angioedema. It is a potent antihistamine and causes moderate degree of sedation. It also has
antimuscarinic activity.
Brompheniramine
Brompheniramine maleate is 3-(4-bromophenyl)-3-(2-pyridyl) propyldimethylamine
hydrogen maleate. It is an optically active compound. Dexbrompheniramine is (+)- isomer and
is more potent than (-)-isomer. It is water soluble, white crystalline powder.
Uses. Brompheniramine is an antihistamine with anticholinergic and sedative effects.

It is effective for the relief of hayfever and upper respiratory allergic systems such as itchy,
watery eyes, sneezing, itching nose etc.
Triprolidine
1. Chemistry. Triprolidine is a pyrrolidine derivative. It possesses pyrrolidine and
pyridine moieties. Triprolidine occurs as hydrochloride salt. It is 2-(3-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)-1-p-
tolylprop-1-enyl) pyridine hydrochloride. The following steps synthesize triprolidine:
(i) An amino ketone is synthesized by Mannich condensation of p-methylacetophenone
with formaldehyde and pyrrolidine.
(ii) Aminoketone on reaction with organometallic reagent of 2-bromopyridine gives an

aminoalcohol.
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(iii) Aminoalcohol on dehydration leads to triprolidline.
2. Characters. Triprolidine hydrochloride is a water soluble, white, crystalline powder.

3. Uses. Triprolidine is a potent antihistamine used for the symptomatic relief of
hypersensitivity reactions including urticaria, rhinitis, conjunctivitis and for pruritic skin dis-
orders. It is also used with pseudoephedrine for the treatment of cough and common cold.
PHENOTHIAZINES
1. Phenothiazines possess tricyclic system. They were introduced in 1945.
2. General structure of phenothiazine antihistamines is:
S
N 1
R
CH2—CH—CH2—N
2
R
R
3. Phenothiazine derivatives possess two or three carbon chain bridge between basic
phenothiazine nucleus and terminal nitrogen.
Trimeprazine
1. Chemistry. Trimeprazine is a phenothiazine derivative. It is 10-(3-dimethylamino-
2-methyl propyl)-phenothiazine. It is more active than promethazine and less active than
ANTIHISTAMINES 199
chlorpromazine. Trimeprazine occurs as its tartarate salt. Trimeprazine is synthesized by

alkylation of phenothiazine.
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2. Characters. Trimeprazine tartarate is odorless, white colored crystalline powder. It
should be protected from light.
3. Uses. Trimeprazine is effective for the treatment of pruritic symptoms due to urticaria.
It is also effective to treat a variety of allergic and non-allergic conditions such as contact
dermatitis, allergic dermatitis, drug rash etc.
Promethazine
1. Chemistry. Promethazine possess phenothiazine nucleus. Promethazine is 10-(2-
dimethylaminopropyl) phenothiazine.
2. Characters. It occurs as hydrochloride salt. Promethazine hydrochloride is a white,

colorless powder. It is freely soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, chloroform and practically
insoluble in ether and acetone. It should be stored in airtight container and protect from light.
3. Synthesis. It is prepared by condensation of phenothiazine with 2-(N-dimethylamino)-
1-chloropropane in presence of sodamide
4. Uses. Promethazine is an antihistaminic agent with some anti muscarinic, antiemetic

and local anesthestic properties. It is used for treatment of allergies, anxiety prior to surgery,
as an anti-nauseant, and for control of motion sickness.
Methdilazine
1. Synthesis. Methdilazine is a phenothiazine derivative. Methdilazine is 10-(1-me-
thyl-3-pyrrolidinyl)methyl)phenothiazine. It is prepared from phenothiazine by alkylation with
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N-methyl-3-chloromethyl pyrrolidine.
2. Characters. Methdilazine occurs as hydrochloride salt. Methdilazine hydrochloride

is light tan crystalline powder having slight characteristic odor. It is freely soluble in water
and alcohol.
3. Uses:
(i) It has been used as antihistaminic agent to treat seasonal and perennial allergic
rhinitis, vasomotor rhinitis, and allergic conjunctivites.
(ii) It is also used to treat anaphylaxis.
(iii) Methdilazine also possesses sedative effects and has local anesthetic properties.
Piperazines
(i) Piperazines are derivatives of piperazine nucleus.
(ii) The piperazine derivatives are moderately potent antihistaminics with a lower inci-
dence of drowsiness.
(iii) The general structure of piperazines is
Ar
H—C—N N—R
ANTIHISTAMINES 201
(iii) They are defined as cyclic ethylenediamines because the connecting group (CHN),
the carbon chain (—CH2—CH2) and terminal tertiary nitrogen are part of piperazine moiety.
Ex: Cyclizine, chlorcyclizine, meclizine and buclizine.
Cyclizine
1. Chemistry. Cyclizine is a piperazine derivative. It is 1-(diphenylmethyl)-4-methyl
piperazine. Cyclizine occurs as hydrochloride salt.
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H
—C—N N—CH3
2. Properties. Cyclizine hydrochloride available as a white crystalline powder. It is

slightly soluble in water, alcohol and chloroform.
3. Synthesis. Cyclizine is prepared by reaction of benzhydryl chloride with N-methyl-
piperazine.
4. Uses. Cyclizine is a histamine H1-receptor antagonist given by mouth, or parenterally

to control post-operative and drug induced vomiting, and motion-sickness.
Chlorcylizine
1. Chemistry. Chlorcyclizine is also a piperazine derivative. It is 1-(p-chlorobenzhydryl)-
4-methylpiperazine. The antihistaminic activity of piperazines is reduced if halogen is intro-
duced at 2 or 3 position of phenylring ring structures.
—C—N N—CH3
Cl
2. Synthesis. Chlorcyclizine is prepared by condensation of p-chlorobenzhydryl chlo-

ride with N-methylpiperazine.
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3. Uses. Chlorcyclizine has antihistaminic activity. It is used to treat urticaria, hay
fever and other allergic conditions.
MECLIZINE
1. Chemistry. Meclizine is a piperazine derivative. Meclizine occurs as hydrochloride
salt. It is 1-(p-chlorobenzhydryl)-4-(m-methylbenzyl) piperazine.
—C—N N—CH2—
CH3
Cl
2. Properties. Meclizine hydrochloride is water-insoluble, tasteless, white or slightly
yellowish crystalline powder.
3. Synthesis. It is synthesized by alkylation of p-chloro analog of monosubstituted
piperazine with m-methylbenzyl chloride.
H H
H—C—Cl + H5C6—C—N N—H 

→
CH3
Cl
H
H5C6—C—N N—CH2—
CH3
Cl
Meclizine
ANTIHISTAMINES 203
4. Uses :
(i) Meclizine has moderate antihistaminic activity.
(ii) It is also used to treat nausea and vomiting.
Buclizine
1. Chemistry. Buclizine is another piperazine derivative. It is 1-(p-tert butylbenzyl)-4-
(p-chloro-α-phenylbenzyl) piperazine. Buclizine occurs as hydrochloride salt.
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2. Properties. Buclizine hydrochloride is white or slightly yellow colored, crystalline,
water insoluble powder.
3. Synthesis. Condensation of p-chloro analog of monosubstituted piperazine with
p-tertiary butylbenzyl chloride gives buclizine.
H3C—C—–
CH3
CH3
—CH2Cl + H—N
→
N—C—
Cl
H CH3
H—C—N N—C— —C—CH3
H CH3
Cl
4. Uses. Buclizine has antihistaminic and antiemetic properties.
Debenzocycloheptenes
(i) Debenzocycloheptenes possess H1 antihistaminic activity.
(ii) Debenzocycloheptenes are phenothiazine analogues. The sulfur atom of phenothia-
zine nucleus is replaced by an isosteric vinyl group (—CH = CH— ) or a saturated ethyl bridge
(—CH2—CH2).
(iii) A sp2 hybridised carbon atom replaces the nitrogen of phenothiazine.
Ex: Cyprohepadine, azatadine.
Cyproheptadine
Cyproheptadine is a histamine H1-receptor and serotonin antagonist. It occurs as hy-
drochloride salt. Chemically it is 4-(5H-dibenzo[a,b]cyclohepten-5-ylidene)-1-methylpiperidine.
Cyproheptadine hydrochloride is white to slightly yellow, odorless, crystalline powder.
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The following steps are invoved to synthesize cyproheptadine:
(a) Ketone is brominated with N-bromosuccinimide, followed by debrominated with
triethylamine to get an alkene
(b) Alkene reacts with N-methyl-4-piperidyl magnesium chloride (Grignard reagent) to

yield a complex which is treatred with HCl to get cyproheptadine HCl.
Cyproheptadine is used for the symptomatic relief of hypersensitivity reactions and in

pruritic skin disorders. It is also used to treat migraine, anoerexia and diarrhoea of carcinoid
syndrome.
Azatadine
1. Chemistry. Azatadine is chemically related to cyproheptadine. It differs from
cyproheptadine in having of pyridine ring instead of benzene ring. Azatadine is white crystalline
water-soluble powder occurs as maleate slat. Chemically azatadine is 6,11-dihydro-11 (1-methyl-
4-piperidylidene)-5H-benzo(5,6)-cycloheptal (1, 2-b) pyridine.
ANTIHISTAMINES 205
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Uses:
(i) It is used as an antihistaminic agent to treat perennial and seasonal allergic rhinitis
and chronic urticaria
(ii) It also possesses anticholinergic, antiserotonin and sedative effects
MISCELLANEOUS ANTIHISTAMINES
Phenindamine
Chemistry. Phenindamine occurs as tartarate salt. Chemically it is 2,3,4,9-tetrahydro-
2-methyl-9-phenyl-1H-indeno [2,1-c] pyridine.
N—CH3
Characters. Phenindamine tartarate is odorless, creamy white, water-soluble powder.

The solutions of phenindamine tartarate are slightly acidic to litmus.
Uses. Phenindamine is used for the treatment of hayfever, allergic rhinitis and other
upper respiratory allergies.
Dimethindene
Chemistry. Dimethindene is an indene derivative occurs as maleate. Chemically, it is
2-[1-[2-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl]inden-3-yl] ethyl] pyridine. Dimethindene is synthesized by
adding 1-(2-pyridyl)ethyl lithium to 2-[2-(dimethyl amino)ethyl] indan-1-one.
CH3
CH2CH2N +
CH3 1. Nucleophilic addition
N 2. Acid hydrolysis
Li—CH
3. Dehydration
O
CH3 CH3
CH2CH2N
CH3
CH—
N
CH2
Dimethindene
2. Properties. Dimethindene maleate is white, characteristic odor, crystalline powder.

It is freely soluble in methanol, chloroform but slightly soluble in water and is sensitive to
light.
3. Uses. It is a potent antihistaminic agent used in perennial and seasonal allergic
rhinitis, vasomotor rhinitis, and allergic conjunctivitis.
Antazoline
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1. Chemistry. Antazoline is an imidazoline derivative. Antazoline is 2-[(N-benzylanilino)
methyl]-2-imidazoline. It is synthesized by alkylation of benzylaniline with halogenated
imidazoline
2. Characters. It occurs as phosphate salt. Antazoline phosphate is white, bitter taste,

crystalline powder. It is soluble in water.
3. Uses. Antazoline is histamine H1-receptor antagonist used for the treatment of rhinitis
and conjunctivitis.
Diphenylpyraline
1. Chemistry. Diphenylpyraline is a piperidine derivative, which occurs as hydrochlo-
ride salt. Chemically it is 4-(diphenylmethoxy)-1-methylpiperidine.
C6H5
– +
Cl H3C—N —O—C—H
H C6H5
Diphenyl pyraline hydrochoride
2. Characters. Diphenylpyraline hydrochloride is water-soluble white crystalline pow-

der. It is soluble in alcohol but insoluble in ether and benzene.
3. Synthesis. Diphenylpyraline is synthesized by refluxing the mixture of 1-methyl-4-
piperidinol and benzhydryl bromide.
ANTIHISTAMINES 207
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4. Uses :
(i) It is used as an antihistaminic agent. It is effective for perennial and seasonal aller-
gic rhinitis, vasomotor rhinitis, allergic conjunctivitis.
(ii) It also possesses antichlinergic and sedative effects.
Ebastine
Ebastine is a potent, long acting antihistaminie. It acts against both early and late
phase without any adverse effect on the cardiovascular and central nervous system. Ebastine
is a piperidine derivative. Chemically ebastine is 4-tertiarybutyl 1-4(4-diphenyl methoxy
piperidine) butyrophenone.
C6H5 O CH3
H—C—O— N—CH2—CH2—CH2—C— —C—CH3
C6H5 CH3
Mechanism of action:
Ebastine and its active metabolite carebastine, are selective histamine H1 peripheral
receptor antagonists devoid of untoward CNS action and anticholinergic effects. Because of
low lipophilicity and greater molecular size it has limited ability to cross the blood brain nar-
rower, allowing an effective blockage of H1 receptors in peripheral issues without important
central side effects.
Uses: (i) Allergic rhinitis (seasonal and perennial)
(ii) Idiopathic chronic urticaria.
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS OF ANTIHISTAMINES

1. All antihistamines are of potential value in the treatment of nasal allergies, particu-
larly seasonal allergic rhinitis (hay fever), and they may be of some value in vasomotor
rhinitis. They reduce rhinorrhoea and sneezing but are usually less effective for nasal
congestion. Antihistamines are used topically in the eye, in the nose, and on the skin.
2. Oral antihistamines are also of some value in preventing urticaria and are used to treat
urticarial rashes, pruritus, and insect bites and stings; they are also used in drug allergies.
Injections of chlorpheniramine or promethazine are used as an adjunct to adrenaline in
the emergency treatment of anaphylaxis and angioedema. Some antihistamines
(including cinnarizine, cyclizine, and promethazine teoclate) are used to control nausea
and vomiting. Buclizine is included as an anti-emetic in a preparation for migraine.
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SECOND GENERATION ANTIHISTAMINES
The second-generation antihistamines bind only to peripheral H1 receptors, and reduce aller-
gic response with little or no sedation. They have no central action, and are used only for
treatment of allergic reactions. These drugs have prolonged antihistaminic effects and also
binds to muscarinic, and adrenergic receptors. These are divided into two chemical classes.
(i) piperazine derivative. Ex: Cetirizine
Cetirizine has a slight sedative effect.
(ii) piperidine derivatives. Ex: Loratidine, fexofenadine
Loratidine and fexofenadine are members of the piperidine class and are essentially
non-sedating.
HISTAMINE H2-RECEPTOR BLOCKERS

Some of the histamine responses (dilation of capillaries, increasing the rate and force of heart
contraction, increasing gastric acid secretion) are exclusively mediated through H2 receptors.
The classical antihistamines are unable to inhibit these responses hence H2 receptor-blocking
drugs were introduced. H2-Receptor antagonists are drugs used to block histamine H2 receptors
ANTIHISTAMINES 209
reversibly and inhibit H2-receptor mediated responses. They are used to treat gastric ulcers as
they block gastric-acid and enzyme secretion. Gastric acid secretion by parietal (oxyntic) cell is
not blocked by antihistamines acting on H1 receptors. They have little affinity for H1-receptors.
1. Cimetidine. Cimetidine is a H2-histamine receptor antagonist. It inhibits basal as
well as meal stimulated gastric secretion. Cimetidine also inhibits cytochrome P450. Cimetidine
acts on H2-receptors in the stomach, blood vessels and thus inhibits gastric acid secretion. It is
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used in the treatment of ulcers such as duodenal ulcer, non-malignant ulcer etc.
H3C H2 H H
H2C C N N
S C C CH3
HN H2
N
N
C
Cimetidine N
Synthesis of cimetidine:
2. Ranitidine. Ranitidine is another H2-histamine receptor antagonist. It is 5-10 times

more potent than cimetidine. Ranitidine was developed because it binds less to cytochrome
P450 and has fewer side effects and acts longer.
H2 H H
H2C C N N
S C C CH3
H2C H2
O HC O
H3C
C—CH2 N
↓
H3C O
Ranitidine
Synthesis. Ranitidine is synthesised by the following route:
CH3
SH
0°C HC3 NH2
N—CH3 + H2N . HCl
Na2CO3
N S
O Cysteamine H3C O
OH
hydrochloride
5-(Dimethylamino)
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methyl-2-furan 1. N-Methyl-1-(methylthio-2-nitroethanamine
methanol 2. 4-Methylpentanone
O
–
H N—O
H3C—N—CH3
S
O N NH—CH3
H
Ranitidine
Famotidine. Imidazole moiety was replaced by thiazole to get famotidine. Famotidine
is a newer H2-histamine receptor antagonist. It is more effective than ranitidine, less than
45% of an oral dose is absorbed.
O NH2
S
N O
H2
H2C C C
S S C NH2
H2
N
H2N
C=N
H2N
Famotidine
SIDE EFFECTS OF ANTIHISTAMINES

1. Central nervous system reactions include drowsiness, sedation, dizziness , faintness,
disturbed coordination, lassitude, confusion, restlessness, excitation, tremor, seizures,
headache, insomnia , euphoria, blurred vision, hallucinations , disorientation, disturb-
ing dreams/nightmares, schizophrenic-like reactions, weakness, vertigo, hysteria , nerve
pain, and convulsions. Overdoses may cause involuntary movements.
2. Gastrointestinal problems include increased appetite, decreased appetite, nausea, vom-
iting, diarrhea, and constipation.
3. Hematologic reactions are rare, but may be severe. These include anemia, or break-
down of red blood cells; reduced platelets; reduced white cells; and bone marrow failure.
4. A large number of additional reactions have been reported. Not all apply to every drug,
and some reactions may not be drug related. Some of the other adverse effects are chest
tightness; wheezing ; nasal stuffiness; dry mouth, nose and throat; sore throat ; respira-
tory depression; sneezing; and a burning sensation in the nose.
15 Narcotic Analgesics
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INTRODUCTION
Narcotic agents are potent analgesics, which are effective for the relief of severe pain. They
are selective central nervous system depressants used to relieve pain. In therapeutic doses,
narcotic analgesics can cause respiratory depression, nausea, and drowsiness. Long-term ad-
ministration of narcotics produces tolerance, psychic, and physical dependence called addic-
tion.
CLASSIFICATION OF NARCOTIC ANALGESICS

Narcotic analgesics will be classified on the basis of their structural derivation from morphine.
They may be classified into following categories:
1. Natural alkaloids of opium: Morphine and codeine.
2. Semisynthetic analogs. e.g.: Hydromorphone, oxymorphone, oxycodone.
3. Synthetic agents Ex: Meperidine, levorphanol, methadone, sufentanil, alfentanil,
fentanyl, remifentanil, levomethadyl.
THE OPIUM ALKALOIDS

Opium ranked as the most effective pain-relieving drug until the development of morphine in
the early 1800’s. Opium was also used to stop coughing and diarrhoea, to ease worry, and to
cause drowsiness. Opiates serve many of the same purposes today. Opium contains two series
of alkaloids. They are:
(a) Phenanthrene group: Morphine, Codeine, Thebaine.
(b) Benzylisoquinoline group: Papaverine, Noscapine.
BIOCHEMICAL MECHANISM OF ACTION OF OPIATES

• The endogenous peptides found in central nervous system (CNS) and gastrointestinal
tract (endorphins, enkephalins, dynorphins) can decrease pain (analgesia), produce
euphoria, drowsiness, depress respiration, depress the cough reflex, depress
gastrointestinal muscle activity.
• Opiates activate endorphin or enkephalin receptors, which decrease the activity of
other neurons that transmit the sensation of pain.
• At least 5 types of opiate receptors identified.
211
OPIATE RECEPTORS
Analgesics are primarily employed for their ability to reduce the perception of pain impulses
by the CNS. Analgesic activity is mediated by opiate receptors in the CNS. Five major catego-
ries of opioid receptors are known: mu (µ), kappa (κ), sigma (σ), delta (δ), and epsilon (ε).
Narcotic drugs occupy the same receptors as endogenous opioid peptides (enkephalins or
endorphins). The actions of the narcotic analgesics now available can be defined by their activ-
ity at three specific opiate receptor types: mu (µ), kappa (κ) and delta (δ).
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• µ-(mu) receptors mediate analgesia, euphoria, respiratory and physical depression,
miosis, and reduced gastrointestinal motility. These receptors have been further
subtyped as µ1, which are supraspinal and mediate analgesia, and µ2 which mediate
respiratory depression. The µ1 receptor is morphine selective.
• δ-(delta) receptors mediate spinal and supraspinal analgesia, dysphoria, psychoto-
mimetic effects (e.g., hallucinations), and respiratory and vasomotor stimulation caused
by drugs with antagonist activity. These receptors have been subtyped as δ1 and δ2
and are thought to be relatively unimportant in terms of analgesia.
• κ-(kappa) receptors mediate pentazocine like spinal analgesia, sedation, miosis and
respiratory depression and dysphoria. These receptors have been further subtyped
as κ1 which mediates spinal analgesia, κ3 which mediates supraspinal analgesia and
κ2 whose function is unknown. These receptors are proposed to mediate a sedating
analgesia with reduced addiction liability and respiratory depression.
MORPHINE AND MORPHINE DERIVATIVES

The prototypic narcotic analgesic is (-)-morphine, the principal alkaloid obtained from the
opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). Morphine was isolated as a pure alkaloid by a German
pharmacist, Serturner in 1803.
Chemistry of Morphine
The morphine molecule has the following important structural features:
17
H3C—N 10 9 N—CH3
1 11
D 8
B 14
2 A 7
C
3 E 6
4 5
O O
HO OH HO OH
(+)-Morphine (–)-Morphine
1. A rigid pentacyclic structure consisting of a benzene ring (A), two partially unsaturated
cyclohexane rings (B and C), a piperidine ring (D) and a dihydrofuran ring (E). Rings A,
B and C are the phenanthrene ring system. This ring system has little conformational
flexibility. Ring A and its 3-hydroxyl group is an important structural feature for anal-
gesic activity. Removal of the 3-OH group reduces analgesic activity by 10-fold.
2. Two hydroxyl functional groups, a C3-phenolic OH (pKa 9.9) and a C6-allylic OH.
3. An ether linkage between C4 and C5.
4. Unsaturation between C7 and C8.
5. A basic, 3°-amine function at position 17.
NARCOTIC ANALGESICS 213
6. 5 Centers of chirality (C5, C6, C9, C13 and C14) with morphine exhibiting a high degree
of stereoselectivity of analgesic action. Only (-)-morphine is active.
Morphine as well as a majority of narcotic analgesics are functionally basic compounds
both pharmaceutically (dosage forms) and physiologically due to the presence of tertiary amine
functions . Hence, morphine exists as a cation at physiologic pH, and readily forms salts with
appropriate acids (commercial products are sulfate and HCl):
H
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N—CH3 N—CH3
+
Acid
–
pH < 9
O O
HO OH HO OH
Morphine
Modified Morphines : Ring A Analogues

Ring A and its 3-hydroxyl group is an important structural feature for analgesic activ-
ity. Removal of the 3-OH group reduces analgesic activity by 10-fold.
N—CH3 N—CH3
3
O O
HO OH OH
Morphine 3-Deoxymorphine: RP = 0.1
Altering the C-3 OH by etherification as shown by the derivatives below reduces nar-
cotic analgesic activity.
N—CH3 N—CH3 N—CH3
O O O
HO OH CH3O OH CH3CH2O OH
Morphine Codeine: RP = 0.15 Ethylmorphine: RP = 0.1
N—CH3
O
O N—CH3CH2O OH
Pholcodeine: RP = 0.01
Heroin
Esterification (acetylation) of both the 3- and 6-OH groups yields heroin, which is more
lipophilic and more potent. The primary factor involved in increased analgesic potency is the
increased lipophilicity and distribution to the CNS.
N—CH3 N—CH3
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O
O O
HO OH CH3——O OH
Morphine 3-Acetylmorphine: RP > 1.0
N—CH3
O O
O
CH3—C—O O—C—CH3
Diacetylmorphine (Heroin):
RP = 2.0
Heroin is synthesized from morphine by a relatively simple esterification reaction of

two alcohol (phenol) groups with acetic anhydride. Heroin is much more potent than morphine
but without the respiratory depression effect. Acetyl groups are readily removed by metabo-
lism to active morphine. Heroin is official as hydrochloride salt. It occurs as water soluble,
white crystalline, bitter taste powder.
Codeine
Conversion of the 3-OH to a 3-OCH3, yields codeine, reduces activity to 15% of mor-
phine. Codeine is available as a sulfate and phosphate salt and also as the free base and as
tablets, elixir and solution for injection. The 3-methoxy group protects the 3-position from
glucuronide as occurs with morphine. Codeine is used as an analgesic and antitussive.
Peripherally Modified Morphines: Ring C Analogues
The 6-OH of morphine is not required for analgesic activity as indicated by the relative
potencies of the following morphine analogues. Elimination of the 6-OH actually enhances
activity. Etherification of this group with relatively small alkyl group also increases activity.
Esterification of the 6-OH as in the main hydrolysis metabolite of heroin, also increases anal-
gesic activity. This increased activity appears to result largely from the enhanced lipophilicity
of these compounds and their increased ability to penetrate the CNS.
N—CH3
H
O
HO H
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6-Deoxymorphine: RP = 10
O O O
HO OH HO OCH3 HO OCH2CH3
Morphine 6-Methoxymorphine: RP = 5 6-Ethoxymorphine: RP = 2.5
N—CH3
O
O
HO O—
CH3
6-MAM: RP = 4.2
Hydromorphone and oxymorphone. The 7, 8-double bond of morphine also is not
required for analgesic activity as indicated by the relative analgesic potency of dihydromorphine.
Also, oxidation of the 6-OH of dihydromorphine to yield hydromorphone further increases
activity. Substitution of a 14-OH group on the hydromorphone structure as in oxymorphone
produces a further increase in analgesic activity (RP = 10). Oxidation of the 6-OH of morphine
directly as in morphone (without reduction of the 7, 8-double bond) does not significantly alter
analgesic activity. Hydromorphone is available as the HCl salt in tablets, liquid, suppository
and injectable.
Oxymorphone is available as the HCl salt in a suppository and as an injectable.
N—CH3 N—CH3
O O
HO OH HO O
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Dihydromorphine RP = 1.2 Hydromorphone: RP = 5.6
N—CH3
O
HO OH N—CH3 N—CH3
Morphine
HO
O O
HO O HO O
Morphone: RP = 0.66 Oxymorphone: RP = 10
Dihydrocodeine and Oxycodone. Reduction of codeine’s 7, 8-double bond as in

dihydrocodeine increases activity relative to codeine. Oxidation of the 6-OH of dihydrocodeine
as in hydrocodone results in a further increase in activity, and 14-OH substitution produces a
further increase in analgesic activity. Hydrocodone is available as the bitartrate salt in tablets
and syrups. It has analgesic and antitussive activity. Oxycodone is available as the HCl salt in
tablets and capsules. It has analgesic and antitussive activity.
HO
O O O
CH3O OH CH3O O CH3O O
Dihydrocodeine RP = 0.3 Hydrocodone: RP = 0.7 Oxycodone: RP = 1.0
(Codeine RP = 1.15) (Codeine RP = 5) (Codeine RP = 7)
Peripherally Modified Morphines: Ring D Analogues and the Tertiary Amine

Function :
Replacement of morphine’s N-methyl group by a hydrogen atom as in normorphine re-
duces analgesic activity to 1/8th that of morphine. Much of this decrease is due to increased
polarity resulting in reduced blood brain barrier translocation to the CNS. Replacement of
morphine’s N-methyl group with an allyl group (-CH2-CH=CH2), a methylcyclopropyl group or
a methylcyclobutyl group results in the emergence of opiate receptor antagonist activity.
N—CH3 N—H
O O
HO OH HO OH
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Morphine Normorphine
HO—
O
HO OH
Nalbuphine
H
N—
N—CH3
H
HO—
H
O
O HO O
HO OH
Morphine Naloxone
N— N—
HO— HO—
O O
HO O HO CH2
Naltrexone Nalmefene
Replacement of the potent narcotic agonist oxymorphone’s N-methyl group with an allyl
group (—CH2—CH = CH2), a methylcyclopropyl group or a methylcyclobutyl group also re-
sults in the emergence of opiate receptor antagonist activity. Ex: naloxone HCl, naltrexone
HCl and nalmefene.
HO—
O
HO OH
Nalbuphine
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H
N—CH3 N—
H
HO— HO—
H
O O
HO O HO O
Oxymorphone Naloxone
N— N—
HO— HO—
O O
HO O HO CH2
Naltrexone Nalmefene
Peripherally Modified Morphines : The Thebaines. Adding a sixth ring across
carbons 6 and 14 of the C ring of morphine yields thebaine compounds such as etorphine which
are extremely potent analgesics. Replacement of the N-methyl group of the thebaines with a
methylcyclopropyl group yields compounds with mixed agonist/antagonist or partial agonist
activity.
N—CH3 N—CH3
CH3
→ —C—C3H7
O O OH
H3CO OCH3 OH OCH3
Etorphine
N—CH2—
CH3
→
—C—C4H9
O OH
OH
Buprenorphine
THERAPEUTIC USES OF OPIATES

1. Analgesia. reduces perception and emotional response to pain.
2. Intestinal disorders. reduce diarrhea and avoid dehydration.
3. Antitussive. cough suppressant (codeine).
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF OPIATES
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1. Respiratory depression. Medulla in brainstem becomes less responsive to carbon di-
oxide in blood; additive with other depressants.
2. Drowsiness and decreased mental alertness.
3. Constipation.
4. Nausea and vomiting.
5. Tolerance. Cross tolerance with similar opiates.
6. Acute Toxicity.
7. Narcotic Triad. Coma, respiratory depression, pin point pupils
8. Physical dependence. “flu-like” withdrawal effects; rarely life threatening. Severely
addicted subjects report significant pain.
9. Psychological dependence. Positive reinforcement from euphoria and negative rein-
forcement from rapid appearance of withdrawal symptoms.
SYNTHETIC NARCOTIC ANALGESICS

A systematic search was initiated in 1929 under the direction of the committee on Drug Addic-
tion of the U.S. National Research Council to separate analgesic and dependence liability prop-
erties in synthetic analogues of morphine alkaloids. Some important synthetic analgesics are
described below :
Meperidine (Pethidine). Meperidine is the most common substitute for morphine
and is 10 times less potent than morphine. Meperidine belongs to phenylpiperidine group of
synthetic opoids. Chemically it is 1-methyl-4-phenyl-4-piperidine carboxylate. It can be syn-
thesized from by the following steps:
H3C CH3
N—CH2—CH2—Cl + —CH2—CN + Cl—CH2—CH2—N
NaNH2
H3C CH3
2-Chloro-N, Phenylacetonitrile
N-dimethylethylamine
CH3 CH3
N C2H5OH N
∆
C C
COOC2H5 CN
Pethidine
Meperidine occurs as odorless, white colored crystalline powder. It exerts several phar-
macological effects: analgesic, local anesthetic, and mild antihistaminic. This multiple activity
may be explained by its structural resemblance to morphine, atropine, and histamine. It has
shorter duration of action than morphine and is frequently used by dentists.
Fentanyl
Fentanyl is N-(1-phenylethyl-4-piperidinyl) propionanilide. Fentanyl is a very potent
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synthetic opiate, which can be used, as an analgesic. It is structurally related to phenylpiperi-
dines (e.g. meperidine) and produces strong analgesia, similar to morphine.
H5C6H2CH2C—N —N—C—C2H5
Fentanyl is 80 times more potent than morphine as analgesic. It is used as an aid for
induction and maintenance of inhalation anaesthesia.
Methadone. Methadone is a synthetic narcotic used in the treatment of some heroin
addicts. It is more active and more toxic than morphine. Methadone shows optical activity. Of
the optical isomers, l-methadone is a more potent analgesic while d-isomer is antitussive. It
can be used for the relief of may types of pain. In addition it is used as a narcotic substitute in
addiction treatment because it prevents morphine abstinence syndrome.
German chemists synthesized methadone during Wold War II when the United States
and other allies cut off their opium supply. Synthesis of methadone involves the following
steps:
1. Base HBr
2. Br
CH
NC NC
CN
Br
Dimethylamine Et-Mg-Br
NC CH2—CH—N—CH3
CH3 O
N
CH3 CH3 CH3
Methadone
Buprenorphine
Buprenorphine is an opioid with prolonged duration of action, ranging from 6 to 12
hours. High dosages can negate the analgesic effect, and complications from repeat high dos-
age include hematuria and gastrointestinal bleeding. At lower doses buprenorphine is an ef-
fective analgesic in rodents.
N—CH2—
CH3 CH3
C——C—CH3
O OH CH3
OCH3
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Loperamide
Loperamide is 4-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyl-α, α-diphenyl-1-piperi-
dinebutyramide.
Cl
C6H5
H5C6—C—H2C—H2C—N
CH3 OH
C—N
CH3
O
Loperamide slows intestinal motility by acting on the nerve endings and/or intramural
ganglia embedded in the intestinal wall. The prolonged retention of the feces in the intestine
results in reducing the volume of the stools, increasing viscosity, and decreasing fluid and
electrolyte loss.
Symptomatic relief of acute nonspecific diarrhoea and of chronic diarrhoea associated
with inflammatory bowel disease.
Nefopam
Nefopam is 3,4,5,6-tetrahydro-5-methyl-1-phenyl-1H-2,5-benzoxazocine.
CH3
Nefopam is novel, centrally acting, non-narcotic analgesic.with a strong and rapid ef-
fect. It is used for the relief of moderate to severe pain caused by injury, surgery and cancer. It
may also be used for severe toothache. It reduces the perception of pain by the brain but its
precise mechanism of action is unclear. Unlike most analgesics that act on the brain, nefopam
does not interfere with breathing or cause dependence or abuse. The drug does, however, have
anticholinergic and sympathomimetic actions that may produce nausea, nervousness and a
dry mouth.
Propoxyphene hydrochloride
Propoxyphene hydrochloride, is an odorless, white crystalline powder with a bitter taste.
It is freely soluble in water. Chemically, it is (2S, 3R)-(+)-4-(dimethylamino)-3-methyl-1,2-
diphenyl-2-butanol propionate hydrochloride.
C6H5 CH3
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H5C2OOC—C——CH—CH2—N—CH3
CH2 CH3
Action. Propoxyphene resembles narcotics with respect to its mechanism and analgesic
effect; it is one-half to one-third as potent as codeine. It is devoid of antitussive, anti-inflam-
matory, or antipyretic activity.
Uses. Propoxyphene is used to relieve mild to moderate pain.
Ethoheptazine. Ethoheptazine is ethyl 1-methyl-4-carbethoxy-4-phenyl-cyclohexa-
methyleneamine.
Diphenoxylate
Diphenoxylate is ethyl-1-(3-cyano-3,3-diphenylpropyl)-4-phenylisonipecotate.
Diphenoxylate is a narcotic antidiarrhoeal drug related chemically to loperamide. It
reduces bowel contractions and consequently the frequency and fluidity of bowel movements.
Although diphenoxylate is chemically related to narcotics, it does not have pain relieving (an-
algesic) actions like most other narcotics. In higher doses, like other narcotics, diphenoxylate
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can cause euphoria (elevation of mood) and physical dependence.
C6H5
C6H5
N—CH2—CH2—C—CN
H3CH2C—O—C C6H5
O
Diphenozylate
Apomorphine. Apomorphine has similar chemical structure to morphine. It is obtained

from morphine by dehydration on heating with HCl.
Apomorphine is a stimulant primarily works as a D1 receptor-specific dopamine agonist.

Like most dopamine agonists, it is useful in the management of Parkinson’s Disease.
Apomorphine has been filed with the US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of
erectile dysfunction.
Butorphanol
Butorphanol is five times more potent than morphine. It acts as an agonist on kappa
and delta receptors. It is a semisynthetic thebaine derivative with higher lipophilicity. The
additional alkyl substitution at C7 suggests an evidence for an additional lipophillic-binding
site in opoid receptor.
N—CH2—
OH
OH
Pentazocine. Pentazocine is a novel drug possessing of both opioid agonistic and an-
tagonistic properties. It presumably acts on kappa receptors to produce analgesia and seda-
tion. It may block µ-receptors also. Like other narcotics it produces analgesia, sedation and
respiratory depression.
CH3
HC = C
CH3
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H2C
CH3
CH3
HO
16 Narcotic Antagonists
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WHAT ARE NARCOTICS ?
Narcotics are drugs that relieve pain and often induce sleep. The opiates, including opium and
drugs derived from opium, such as morphine, codeine, and heroin are narcotics. Narcotics also
include certain synthetic chemicals that have a morphine-like action(such as methadone).
WHAT ARE NARCOTIC ANTAGONISTS ?

Narcotic antagonists are drugs which block the “high” and other effects of narcotics. They also
precipitate withdrawal symptoms in the narcotic addict. This feature of narcotic antagonists
makes them extremely useful in treating overdoses. They are structurally related to morphine
with the exception of the group attached to nitrogen hence they act by competing for the same
analgesic receptor sites. Research is currently going on to determine the usefulness of antago-
nists as maintenance drugs. Present narcotic antagonists (such as naloxone and cyclazocine)
have too brief an effect and too many side effects to be completely satisfactory. A new drug,
naltrexone, appears to be more promising since its effects last longer, and it appears to be
more acceptable to the treatment clients. Narcotic antagonists prevent or abolish excessive
respiratory depression caused by the administration of morphine or related compounds. They
are also used to treat asphyxia neonatorum and for the diagnosis of possible narcotic addic-
tion.
SPECIFIC NARCOTIC ANTAGONISTS

NALOXONE. Naloxone is (5R, 9R, 13S, 14S)-N-allyl-4, 5-epoxy-3, 14-dihydroxy-
morphinan-6-one. Naloxone is a derivative of 7, 8-dihydro-14-hydroxymorphinone having an
allyl group at the nitrogen. Naloxone is administered by IV or IM (low oral bioavailability and
slow action) and has a relatively short half-life (1 hour).
HO
O
H N
OH CH2
O
225
Characters. Naloxone is available as hydrochloride salt. Naloxone hydrochloride is a

white or almost white, crystalline powder, hygroscopic, freely soluble in water, soluble in alco-
hol, practically insoluble in ether.
Preparations. Naloxone Injection, Neonatal Naloxone Injection.
Uses. Naloxone is a pure antagonist with no morphine like effects. It blocks the eu-
phoric effect of heroin when given before heroin.
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NALORPHINE. Nalorphine is N-allylmorphine. In morphine tertiary nitrogen is at-
tached to an allyl (—CH2CH = CH2) group.
Nalorphine is synthesised from normorphine by allylation.
N—H N—CH2—CH=CH2
Br—CH2—CH=CH2
O OH O OH
OH HO
Normorphine Nalorphine
Nalorphine is available as hydrocholoride salt. Nalorphine hydrochloride is white colored,

odorless, crystalline powder. It darkens on exposure to light. It is soluble in water, dilute
alkali hydroxide solution but insoluble in chloroform and ether. It must be kept in tightly
closed light resistant containers.
Uses. Nalorphine is a narcotic antagonist used to treat narcotic-induced respiratory
depression. It is administered by intravenous injection for treating the overdosage of mor-
phine, pethidine, methadone and levorphanol. Nalorphine precipitates withdrawal symptoms
and produces behavioral disturbances in addition to the antagonism action.
LEVALLORPHAN. Levallorphan is available as tartarate salt. Levallorphan tartarate
occurs as white colored, odorless, crystalline powder. It melts at 175°C and is slightly soluble
in water but insoluble in ether and chloroform.
NARCOTIC ANTAGONISTS 227
Levallorphan is synthesized from levorphanol by the following steps:

(i) Levorphanol is demethylated by treatment with cyanogen bromide (to convert
N-methyl group to N-cyano) followed by alkaline hydrolysis.
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(ii) Demethylated levorphanol is allylated with equimolar quantities of allyl bromide in
presence of a base catalyst.
N—H N—CH2—CH=CH2
CH2 CH2
H— H—
Br—CH2—CH = CH2
——CH2 ——CH2
HO OH
Levallorphan Levallorphan
Uses. Levallorphan is a potent narcotic antagonist used in the treatment of narcotic-

induced respiratory depression.
NALTREXONE. Naltrexone is structurally similar to naloxone except that a cyclopropyl
methyl rather than an alkyl group is present at the piperidine nitrogen of oxymorphine moi-
ety. It has long duration of action than naloxone, due to bulky cyclopropyl methyl group at N-
atom, which sterically hinders its metabolism. Naltrexone became clinically available in 1985
as a new narcotic antagonist. Its actions resemble those of naloxone, but naltrexone is well
absorbed orally and is long acting.
CH2
N—CH2—CH2
OH CH2
O O
OH
Naltrexone
Naltrexone occurs as naltrexone hydrochloride salt. Naltrexone hydrochloride occurs as
white crystals melting at 275°C. It is soluble in water.
Naltrexone is used orally and has a substantially longer half-life (10 hours) and dura-
tion (24-48 hours) of action. Naltrexone appears to be particularly effective for the treatment
of narcotic dependence in addicts who have more to gain by being drug-free rather than drug
dependant.
CYCLAZOCINE. Cyclazocine is a benzomorphan derivative. It has both opioid agonist

activity at kappa receptors and antagonistic action. It reduces the intensity of euphoric, miosis,
respiratory depression and physical dependence properties of opioid agonists. It is orally effec-
tive and has long duration of action.
CH2
H2C—CH
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CH2
N
CH3
CH3
HO
Cyclazocine
17 Antitussives
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INTRODUCTION
Cough is a useful physiological mechanism to clear the respiratory passages of foreign mate-
rial and excess secretions. The cough reflex is complex, involves the central nervous system,
peripheral nervous system and smooth muscles of bronchial tree. Although cough is useful
physiological function, it has to be controlled if it becomes too severe or too frequent or non-
reproductive with pain and fatigue. In such cases, the physician should recommend the use of
antitussives.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANTITUSSIVES
Antitussives are the drugs used for suppression of cough. The drugs used for the treatment of
cough are classified are:
1. Centrally acting antitussives. These drugs reduce cough as a result of their central
action. They depress the area of the CNS, which controls the cough reflex. They are
mainly useful in the symptomatic relief of dry irritant type of cough.
(a) Opium alkaloids: Morphine, codeine
(b) Derivatives of opium alkaloids: Pholcodeine. Ethylmorphine, Noscapine
(c) Synthetic morphine substitutes: Dextromethorphan, Levopropoxyphene
(d) Non-opioid synthetics: Caramiphen, Dimethoxanate, Chlorphedianol.
2. Pheripherally acting antitussives. These agents act pheripherally in the respira-
tory tract to reduce the impulses which stimulate the cough center. Ex: Benzonatate.
CODEINE
Codeine is an alkloid obtained from opium (0.7 to 2.5%) or prepared by methylating hydroxyl
group of morphine with methyliodide in potassium hydroxide. Chemically codeine is 7,
8-didehydro-4, 5-epoxy-3-methoxy-17-methylmorhinan-6-ol.
NCH3
O
CH3O OH
Codeine
229
Codeine occurs as odorless, colorless, crystalline powder. It is laevorotatory compound

and is slightly soluble in water. It should be kept in a well closed light resistant container. It is
also available as colorless, water soluble hydrochloride or phosphate salts.
Mechanism of action. Codeine acts by the inhibition of the CNS medulla mediated
cough reflex.
Uses. Codeine has been used for pain relief and suppression of cough.
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DEXTROMETHORPHAN
Dextromethorphan is a synthetically produced substance that is related to codeine. Chemi-
cally it is 3-methoxy-17-methyl-9α, 13α, 14α-morphinan. It has central cough suppressant
action but it does not feature the untoward effects of the opioids. Its metabolism is genetically
polymorphous, similar to the codeine metabolism. According to more recent studies (performed
predominantly on animals), the substance also has antiepileptic, neuroprotective, and
antiparkinsonian properties.
N—CH3
H3CO
Dextromethorphan
Properties. It is white colored, odorless , solid-crystals or solid-powder. It is soluble in
water 1.5 g/100 mL, soluble 1 in 10 of ethanol, freely soluble in chloroform and practically
insoluble in ether. It should be preserved in air-tight and light-resistant containers.
Uses. It is used in cough/cold preparations as an antitussive (not with expectorant).
BENZONATATE
Benzonatate is structurally related to tetracaine. It is an non-opioid synthetic antitussive drug.
Mechanism of action. Benzonatate anesthetize the stretch receptors in the respira-
tory areas dampening their activity reducing cough reflex at its source.
H
H3C N
O CH3
O
n
O n=9
Benzonatate
ANTITUSSIVES 231
NOSCAPINE
Noscapine is a phthaleideisoquinoline alkaloid (C22H23NO7) from plants of the Papaver genus(
Papaveraceae). Chemically it is (3S)-6, 7-dimethoxy-3 [(5R)-5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydro-4-methoxy-6-
methyl-1, 3-dioxolo [4, 5-g] isoquinolin-5-yl] phthalide monohydrochloride hydrate.
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N—CH3
O
H
H3CO O
H
O
OCH3
OCH3
Biological Activity. Noscapine is an antitussive agent, acting on central nervous sys-
tem site. It also possess weak bronchodialator properties. However, unlike codeine and other
narcotics, noscapine lacks addictive, analgesic, respiratory depressant, and sedative proper-
ties. High affinity noscapine binding sites are brain specific and ion insensitive.
CARAMIPHEN
Caramiphen is a non-opioid synthetic antitussive agent. Caramiphen is less active than codeine
but has longer duration of action. Caramiphen is synthesized from phenylacetonitrile as:
(i) Phenylacetonitrile on double alkylation with 1, 4-dibromobutane gives substituted
cyclopentane derivative which on hydrolysis with alkali followed by treatment with
thionyl chloride provides acid chloride derivative.
—CH2CN CN COCl
Phenylacetonitrile
(ii) Condensation of acid chloride derivative with diethylaminoethanol gives caramiphen.
O
C2H5
COCl C—OCH2CH2—N
C2H5
Caramiphen
Non-Steroidal Antiinflammatory
18 Drugs (NSAIDs)
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INTRODUCTION
The non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are widely used for the treatment of mi-
nor pain and for the management of edema and tissue damage resulting from inflammatory
joint disease (arthritis). A number of these drugs possess antipyretic activity in addition to
having analgesic and antiinflammatory actions, and thus have utility in the treatment of fe-
ver. Some of the primary indications for NSAID therapy include: Rheumatoid arthritis,
osteoarthritis (OA), acute gouty arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, dysmenorrhea and tissue
damage resulting from inflammatory joint disease (arthritis).
ROLE OF CYCLOOXYGENASE (COX) ISOENZYMES IN INFLAMMATION
Two COX isoenzymes have been identified: COX-1 and COX-2. COX-1 constitutive enzyme is
present in a wide variety of cell types and influences the “housekeeping” functions of
prostaglandins. This activity is particularly important in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, the
kidneys, and the circulatory system. COX-2, on the other hand, is inducible enzyme, is found
in only a few cell types, especially macrophages and other leukocytes, fibroblasts, and endothelial
cells, including those of the vascular system. COX-2 is involved in those aspects of the inflam-
matory process that are mediated by prostaglandins (in Figure).
Physiologic Inflammatory
stimulus stimulus
• Intestine • Macrophages
• Platelets • Leukocytes
• Stomach COX-1 COX-2 • Fibroblasts
• Kidney constitutive inducible • Endothelial cells
PGI2 PGE2
TXA2 PGI2 PGE2
“Housekeeping” Inflammation
Differing roles of COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes.
232
NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS) 233
NSAIDs MECHANISM OF ACTION

1. The major mechanism by which the NSAIDs elicit their therapeutic effects (antipyretic,
analgesic, and antiinflammatory activities) is inhibition of prostaglandin (PG) synthe-
sis. Specifically NSAIDs competitively (for the most part) inhibit cyclooxygenases
(Prostaglandin synthetase), the enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of cyclic endoper-
oxides from arachidonic acid to form prostaglandins.
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2 Generally, the NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Most NSAIDs are mainly COX-
1 selective (e.g., aspirin, ketoprofen, indomethacin, piroxicam, sulindac). Others are con-
sidered slightly selective for COX-1 (e.g., ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac) and others
may be considered slightly selective for COX-2 (e.g., etodolac, nabumetone, and
meloxicam). The mechanism of action of celecoxib and rofecoxib is primarily selective
inhibition of COX-2; at therapeutic concentrations, the COX-1 isoenzyme is not inhib-
ited thus GI toxicity may be decreased.
3. Other mechanisms that may contribute to NSAID antiinflammatory activity include
the reduction of superoxide radicals, induction of apoptosis, inhibition of adhesion mol-
ecule expression, decrease of nitric oxide synthase, decrease of proinflammatory cytokine
levels (tumornecrosis factor-α, interleukin-1), modification of lymphocyte activity, and
alteration of cellular membrane functions.
Antipyretic activity of NSAIDs results from inhibition of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) syn-
thesis in circumventricular organs in and near the preoptic hypothalamic area. Infections,
tissue damage, inflammation, graft rejection, malignancies, and other disease states enhance
the formation of cytokines that increase PGE2 production. PGE2 triggers the hypothalamus to
promote increase in heat generation and decreases in heat loss.
Cell wall phospholipids
NSAID inhibit Phospholipase A 2 Corticosteroids

inhibit
Arachidonic acid
Cyclooxygenase Lipoxygenase
Cyclic endoperoxides Hydroxy acids of

arachidonic acids
Prostaglandins Leukotrienes
Biosynthetic pathways of prostaglandins and the mechanism

of drugs which inhibit their production.
CLASSIFICATION OF NSAIDs
The NSAIDs can be sub-classified on the basis of chemical structure as follows:
1. Salicylates 2. Propionic acids (Profens)
3. Aryl and heteroarylacetic acids 4. Anthranilates (Fenamates)
5. Oxicams (“Enol Acids”) 6. Phenylpyrazolones
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7. Anilides.
GENERAL STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF NSAIDs

In general, NSAIDs structurally consist of an acidic moiety (carboxylic acid, enols)
attached to a planar, aromatic functionality. Some analgesics also contain a polar linking group,
which attaches the planar moiety to an additional lipophilic group. This can be represented as
follows:
1. The NSAIDs are characterized by the following chemical/ pharmacologic properties:

2. All are relatively strong organic acids with pKa in the 3.0–5.0 range. Most, but not all,
are carboxylic acids. Thus, salt forms can be generated upon treatment with base and
all of these compounds are extensively ionized at physiologic pH. The acidic group is
essential for COX inhibitory activity.
3. The NSAIDs differ in their lipophilicities based on the lipophilic character of their aryl
groups and additional lipophilic moieties and substituents.
4. The acidic group in these compounds serves a major binding group (ionic binding) with
plasma proteins. Thus all NSAIDs are highly bound by plasma proteins (drug interac-
tions).
5. The acidic group also serves as a major site of metabolism by conjugation. Thus a major
pathway of clearance for many NSAIDs is glucuronidation (and inactivation) followed
by renal elimination.
I. Salicylates
Structure and chemistry. The salicylates are derivatives of 2-hydroxybenzoic acid
(salicylic acid). They were discovered in 1838 following the extraction of salicylic acid from
willow bark. Salicylic acid was used medicinally as the sodium salt but replaced therapeuti-
cally in the late 1800s by acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin).
Mechanism of Action. The salicylates have potent antiinflammatory activity with
mild analgesic and antipyretic activities. These compounds are mainly COX-1 selective—they
are bound with higher affinity to COX-1. The therapeutic and some of the toxic actions (i.e.
gut) of aspirin can be related to its ability to inhibit COX-1 in various tissues and participate in
transacetylation reactions in vitro.
Sodium Salicylate. Sodium salicylate is sodium 2-hydroxybenzenecarboxylate. It oc-

curs as a white, crystalline powder or small, colorless crystals or shiny flakes, freely soluble in
water, sparingly soluble in alcohol and practically insoluble in ether. It should be stored in an
airtight container, protected from light. Sodium salicylate is employed for the relief of pain,
rheumatic fever and symptomatic treatment of gout.
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Magnesium salicylate. Magnesium salicylate is prepared by mixing of salicylic acid
with sufficient quantity of magnesium oxide in isopropanol and water mixture.
O O
– ++ –
C—O Mg O —C
OH HO
Magnesium salicylate is white to slightly pink color crystalline powder. It reduces in-
flammation and pain by blocking production and release of chemicals that produce it. It
controls fever by regulating the body’s thermostat in the brain.
Salicylamide. Salicylamide is o-hydroxybenzamide. It is prepared by adding solution
of ammonia to salicyl chloride.
Salicylamide is available as white crystalline, odorless powder. It is slightly soluble in
water, and freely soluble in alkalis. Salicylamide is decomposed in alkaline solutions.
Salicylamide exert moderately quicker and deeper analgesic effect than aspirin.
O O
C—Cl C—NH2
OH OH
+ NH3 →
Salicylchloride Salicylamide
Phenyl salicylate(Salol). Phenyl salicylate is prepared by esterification of salicylic
acid with phenol.
Phenyl salicylate is available as white crystalline powder with aromatic odor. It is in-
soluble in water but freely soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, acetone and fixed oils.
Uses. Phenyl salicylate is used for the treatment of sunburns.
Aspirin. Acetylsalicylic acid is an acetyl derivative of salicylic acid. It was introduced
into medicine by Dreser in 1899. Acetyl salicylic acid (aspirin) can be prepared by the reaction
between salicylic acid and acetic anhydride.
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In this reaction, the hydroxyl group on the benzene ring in salicylic acid reacts with
acetic anhydride to form an ester funtional group. Thus, the formation of acetyl salicylic acid is
referred to as an esterification reaction. This reaction requires the presence of an acid catalyst.
O O
O O
C—OH + C—OH
C C H
+ + CH3COOH
H3C O CH3
OH O—C—CH3
Salicylic acid Acetic anhydride O
Acetylsalicylic acid
Properties. Aspirin occurs as colorless crystals or powder. It is slightly soluble in wa-

ter and soluble in alcohol, chloroform, ether and glycerin.
Aspirin is stable in dry air but in presence of moisture, it hydrolyses slowly into salicylic
acid and acetic acid. Aspirin is acidic and produces effervescence with carbonates and bicarbo-
nates.
Use. Aspirin is used as an antipyretic, analgesic and antirheumatic.
Aluminium Aspirin. Aluminium aspirin is aluminium salt of aspirin. It is prepared by
mixing of aluminium hydroxide gel with water and acetylsalicylic acid at 65°C.
O
–
C—O ++
AlOH
O—C—CH3
O 2
Aluminium aspirin is available as white color, odorless powder or granules. It is insolu-

ble in water and organic solvents. Aluminium aspirin is unstable above 65°C and is decom-
posed by bases (alkali hydroxides and carbonates).
Calcium Acetylsalicylate. Calcium aspirin is a calcium salt of acetylsalicylic acid. It
is prepared by mixing acetylsalicylic acid with calcium ethoxide or methoxide in alcohol or
acetone solution.
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Calcium aspirin is readily soluble in water but sparingly soluble in alcohol.
Flufenisol. Chemically flufenisol is acetyl-5-(4-fluorophenyl) salicyclic acid. Flufenisol
is more potent, long acting NSAID and produces less gastric irritation.
Propionic Acid Derivatives (Profens)

Structure and chemistry. Some of the most useful NSAIDs are structurally derived from
arylacetic acids. These compounds are often referred to as the “profens” based on the suffix of
the prototype member, ibuprofen. Like the salicylates these agents are all strong organic acids
(pK a = 3.0-5.0)and thus form water soluble salts with alkaline reagents. The
arylpropionic acids are characterized by the general structure Ar—CH(CH3)—COOH which
conforms to the required general structure. All of these compounds are predominantly ionized
at physiologic pH and more lipophilic than acetyl salicylic acid or salicylic acid. The α-CH3
substitutent present in the profens increases cyclooxygenase inhibitory activity and reduces
toxicity of the profens. The α-carbon in these compounds is chiral and the S-(+)-enantiomer of
the profens is the more potent cyclooxygenase inhibitor.
Mechanism of Action. The members of this series are:
Generally the profens are considered to be slightly “COX-1 selective”; naproxen appears
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to be more selective for COX-2 than other members of this series. They are used for rheuma-
toid arthritis, oesteoarthiritis and as analgesics and antipyretics. They should not be used
during pregnancy or nursing; they can enter fetal circulation and breast milk. They produce
less GI ulceration than the salicylates.
Synthesis of Ibuprofen. There have been many commercial and laboratory publica-
tions for the synthesis of ibuprofen. Two of the most popular ways to obtain ibuprofen are the
Boot process and the Hoechst process. The Boot process is an older commercial process devel-
oped by the Boot Pure Drug Company, and the Hoechst process is a newer process developed
by the Hoechst Company. Most of these routes to ibuprofen begin with isobutylbenzene and
use Friedel-Craft’s acylation. The Boot process requires six steps, while the Hoechst process,
with the assistance of catalysts, is completed in only three steps.
CH3 CH3
(2 steps)
H3C— O CH3 CHO

NH2OH
CH3 CH3
(Boot process) CH3
CH3COCl/AlCl3
H3C— CH = NOH
CH3
H3C—
—H2O
CH3
Isobutyl benzene
CH3
(Hoechst
CH3COCl/AlCl3 H3C— CN
process)
CH3
CH3
H2O
H3C— O
CH3 H2
Catalyst CH3 CH3
CO
H3C— CHO H3C— OH
Catalyst
O
CH3 CH3
Naproxen. Naproxen is a naphthyl 6-methoxyispropionic acid. Naproxen is nonsteroidal

antiinflammatory, antirheumatic, analgesic, antidysmenorrhoeal and vascular headache
suppressant.
CH3 O
C——C—OH
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H
H3CO
Mechanism of actions. The effectiveness of naproxen is due partly to its ability to
inhibit cyclooxygenase 1 and 2. Naproxen as such irreversibly blocks the enzyme cyclooxygenase
(prostaglandin synthase), which catalyzes the conversion of arachidonic acid to endoperoxide
compounds; at appropriate doses, the drug decreases the formation of the prostaglandins.
Synthesis of Naproxen. Naproxen can be prepared by following reactions ;
CH3
O C=O
AlCl3
+ CH3—C—Cl
1. Esterification
H3CO H3CO 2. Hydrolysis
6-Methoxynaphthalene 3. Alkylation
CH3 CH3
C—COOH C—COOH
Resolution
H H
H3CO H3CO
D-Naproxen DL-Naproxen
Aryl and heteroarylacetic acids

General structure and chemistry. These compounds are also derivatives of acetic acid, but
in this case the substituent at the 2-position is a heterocycle or related carbo cycle. This does
not significantly effect the acidic properties of these compounds. The heteroarylacetic acid
NSAIDs can be further subclassified as the indene/indoles, the pyrroles and the oxazoles as
shown below:
R
COOH
Heterocycle OH
X
O
NSAID General structure General structure for
heterocyclic acetic acids
A. Indene and Indole Acetic Acids

Structure-activity relationships :
1. The carboxyl group is essential for antiinflammatory activity.
2. Presence of methoxy (position 5) group on the ring (5 or 6), methyl (2), dimethyl
amino group (5) in indole moiety of indomethacin exhibit activity.
3. Presence of chlorine or fluorine or CF3 groups at para position of phenyl group also
exhibits anti-ionflammatory activity.
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Indomethacin. Indomethacin contains a benzoylated indole nitrogen. Indomenthacin
was introduced in 1964 as a powerful anti-inflammatory, analgesic agent. Chemically,
indomethacin is 1-(p-chlorobenzoyl)-5-methoxy-2-methylindole-3-acetic acid. Indomethacin is
“COX-1” selective” and produces primarily antiinflammatory actions with some analgesic and
antipyretic activity. It is used for rheumatoid arthritis, oesteo arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis,
to suppress uterine contraction, and to promote closure of parent ductus artiosus in neonates
(premature infants).
It is synthesized from 4-methoxyphenylhydrazine by following method:
O H
H N
H3C—C N
N
NH2
+ CH2 H3CO C—CH3 ∆
H3CO
4-Methoxyphenyl H3COOC—CH2 CH2
hydrazine Methyllevulionic acid
CH2
Cl
COOCH3
C=O
1. Cl— —COCl H
N N
CH3 CH3
2. HCl
H3CO H3CO
CH2COOH CH2COOCH3
Indomethacin
Indomethiacin is available as white to yellow crystalline powder. It is practically solu-

ble in water. The most frequent side effects are peptic ulcer, blood disorders and gastrointestinal
disturbances.
Sulindac. In this agent the indole nitrogen has been eliminated which makes the drug
resemblance to 5-HT and therefore fewer CNS side effects are seen. This compound has phar-
macological actions similar to indomethacin (COX-1 selective and antiinflammatory prima-
rily). It is used for rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, ankylosing spondylytis, acute gout and
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to inhibit uterine contractions.
O
O
F F COOH H2/Pd-C F COOH
O
Na2CO3
CHO CH3 CH3
Perkin reaction
4-Fluorobenzaldehyde
Polyphosphoric acid
NC NC
COOH COOH O
F F F
NC COOH
CH3 CH3 CH3
NH4OAc
Knoevenagel-condensation
∆ —CO2
CHO
CN COOH
F H3CS F NalO4
CH3 CH3
KOH
Claisen-Schmidt-reaction
H3CS
COOH
F
CH3
H3C
S
O
Sulindac
Industrial synthesis of Sulindac.
B. Arylacetic acids. The pyrrole acetic acids :
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Ketorolac which lacks benzylic methyl group is not susceptible to oxidation and as a
result its half-life is longer (4-6 hours). This drug is unique in that it is formulated for oral and
IM administration. Good oral activity with primarily analgesic activity, but also has anti-
inflammatory activity and antipyretic actions. Used in the management of post-operative pain
C. Arylacetic acids: Oxazole acetic acids. A recent addition (1993) to this class of
agents is oxaprozin another non-selective COX inhibitor. It differs slightly in that substitution
of the propionic moiety is at the 3-position rather than at the 2-position as in other agents of
this class.
ANTHRANILATES (FENAMATES)
Structure and chemistry. Anthranilates are considered to be N-aryl substituted derivatives
of anthranilic acid, which is a bioisostere of salicylic acid. These agents retain the acidic prop-
erties that are characteristic of this class of agents. The most active fenamates have small
alkyl or halogen substituents at the 2′, 3′ and/or 6′ position of the N-aryl moiety (meclofenamate
is 25 times more potent than mefenamate). Among the disubstituted N-aryl fenamates the 2′,
3′-derivatives are most active suggesting that the substituents at the 2′, 3′-positions serve to
force the N-aryl ring out of coplanarity with the anthranilic acid. Hence this steric effect is
proposed to be important in the effective interaction of the fenamates at their inhibitory site
on cyclooxygenase.
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Actions. The anthranilates have primarily antiinflammatory with some analgesic and
antipyretic activity and are non-COX selective. The anthranilates are used as mild analgesics
and occasionally to treat inflammatory disorders. Diclofenac is used for rheumatoid arthritis,
osteoarthritis and post-operative pain and mefenamic acid as an analgesic for dysmennorhea.
The utility of this class of agents is limited by a number of adverse reactions including nausea
vomiting, diarrhoea, ulceration, headache, drowsiness and hematopoietic toxicity.
Synthesis of mefenamic acid. Mefenamic acid can be prepared by following reac-

tions :
COOH COOH
1. K2CO3
—Cl + H2N— +
—N —
2. H H
2-Chlorobenzoic acid CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
2, 3-Xylidine Mefenamic acid
Meclofenamic acid is used in the treatment of acute and chronic rheumatoid arthritis.
COOH Cl
—N —
H
Cl CH3
Meclofenamic acid
OXICAMS (ENOLIC ACIDS)

Structure and chemistry. Oxicams (Piroxicam and Meloxicam) are characterized by the 4-
hydroxybenzothiazine heterocycle. The acidity of the oxicams is attributed to the 4-OH with
the enolate anion being stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen-bonding to the amide N-H group.
These compounds are acidic (pKa = 6.3). The oxicams are primarily ionized at physiologic pH
and acidity is required for COX inhibitory activity.
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Actions. Higher COX-2 selectivity than many other NSAIDs, particularly meloxicam.
These agents have utility in treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis
OH O OH O
H H S
N— N—
N—CH3 N N N
S S CH3 CH3
O O O O
Piroxicam Meloxicam
Synthesis of piroxicam. Piroxicam can be synthesized by the following chemical reac-
tions :
O
O O
C CH2 CH3
C 1. 50°C for 5 min CH3
N + C2H5ONa
2. Cool to 25°C, NH
S O S
add HCl
O O 3. 35°C O O
2-Acetoxylsaccharin 3-Acetyl-2H-1,
2-benzothiazin-
4(3H)-one-1,
1-dioxide
O O 1. Methanol, reflux O Ethylene glycol
2. Pyridyl-2- p-toluene
N N isocyanate sulphonic acid
N—CH3 H 3. NaH N—CH3
S S
O O O O
Piroxicam O O
1. CH3I
2. Reflux in NH
methanol
S
3. Add 9% HCl O O
PHENYLPYRAZOLONES
Structure and chemistry. This class of agents are characterized by the 1-aryl-3,5-
pyrazolidinedione structure. The presence of a proton which is situated α to two electron with-
drawing carbonyl groups renders these compounds acidic. The pKa for phenylbutazone is 4.5.
Oxyphenbutazone is a hydroxylated metabolite of phenylbutazone.
H3C O H3C O
N N
O N O N
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OH
Phenylbutazone Oxyphenbutazone
Actions. These drugs are primarily antiinflammatory, but has some analgesic and anti-
pyretic activities. They also has mild uricosuric activity. Phenylbutazone and oxyphenbutazone
are used primarily in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. The most com-
mon adverse reactions include GI irritation, Na+ and H2O retention and blood dyscariasis.
Therapy should be limited to 7-10 days due to development of bone marrow depression.
Synthesis of phenyl butazone. Phenyl butazone can be prepared from butylmalonoyl
ester by following reactions :
Synthesis of oxyphenbutazone. Oxyphenbutazone can be prepared from diethyl-

butylmalonate by following reactions :
C2H5ONa
C6H5—N = N— —OH + C6H5CH2Cl C6H5—N = N— —OCH2—C6H5
Benzylchloride
P-Hydroxyazobenzene
C4H9
Reduction C2H5ONa
C6H5—N—N— —OCH2C6H5 + HC—COOC2H5
H H
C—OC2H5
O
C4H9 O C4H9 O
H2O
N— —OCH2C6H5 N— —OH
O O
N N
C6H5 C6H5
Oxyphenbutazone
Antipyrine. Antipyrine is 2, 3-dimethyl-1-phenyl-3-pyrazolin-5-one. It was one of the

first synthetic compounds to be used in medicine.
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Antipyrine is available as colorless, crystalline powder or white powder. It is odorless
and having slightly bitter taste. It is freely soluble in water, alcohol, and chloroform. Antipyrine
has analgesic, antiinflammatory and antipyretic activities.
Aminopyrine. Aminopyrine is 2, 3-dimethyl-4-dimethylamino-1-phenyl-3-pyrazolin-
5-one. Aminopyrin is available as colorless, odorless crystals. It is soluble in water and organic
solvents.
Use. Aminopyrin is used as an analgesic and antipyretic.

Dipyrone. Dipyrone occurs as a white, odorless crystalline powder. It has slightly bit-
ter taste. It is freely soluble in water and sparingly soluble in alcohol.
Uses. Dipyrone is used as an analgesic, antipyretic and antirheumatic.
ANILIDES
Structure and chemistry. The anilides are simple acetamides of aniline, which may or may
not contain a 4-hydroxy or 4-alkoxy group. Anilides do not possess the carboxylic acid func-
tionality and therefore they are classified as neutral drugs and possess little inhibitory activ-
ity against cyclooxygenase.
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Actions. The anilides are somewhat different from other NSAIDs in their mechanism
of action. They are believed to act as scavengers of hydroperoxide radicals (Hydroperoxide
radicals are generated by invading leukocytes after injury has occurred. The hydroperoxide
radicals have a stimulating effect on cylooxygenase). In areas of high leukocyte activity (sig-
nificant injury and inflammation) the high concentration of hydroperoxides are able to over-
come the anilides and prostaglandins are produced. Therefore the anilides have no
antinflammatory action. They are only capable of suppressing cyclooxygenase activity in areas
which are not inflamed. The lack of an acidic functionality and COX inhibitory activity in the
anilides imparts several advantages to these agents including limited gastric irritation, ul-
ceration, and respiratory effects and little effect on platelets (no increase in clotting).
Preparation of paracetamol involves treating an amine (p-aminophenol) with an acid
anhydride (acetic anhydride) to form an amide (p-acetamidophenol).
SELECTIVE COX-2 INHIBITORS

COX enzyme exists in 2 isoforms, COX-1 and COX-2. COX-1 enzyme is thought to mediate
“housekeeping” or homeostatic functions, and COX-2 is considered an inducible enzyme in
response to injury or inflammation. COX-2 inhibitors are the “new-generation” NSAIDs that
may selectively block the COX-2 isoenzyme without affecting COX-1 function. This may result
in control of pain and inflammation with a lower rate of adverse effects compared with older
nonselective NSAIDs. Rapidly evolving evidence suggests that COX-2 enzyme has a diverse
physiologic and pathologic role.
Structure and chemistry. The commercially available COX-2 inhibitors can be struc-
turally characterized as diaryl-5-membered heterocycles.
Celecoxib has a central pyrazole ring and two adjacent phenyl substituents, one con-
taining a methyl group and the other a polar sulfonamide moiety; the sulfonamide binds to a
distinct hydrophilic region that is present on COX-2 but not COX-1.
Rofecoxib has a central furanose ring and two adjacent phenyl substituents, one con-
taining a methyl sulfone group, unlike celecoxib. Rofecoxib is a powerful non-steroidal analge-
sic and antiinflammatory agent. The mechanism of action of rofecoxib is believed to be due to
inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, via inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2.
Valdecoxib is an aryl sulfonamide derivative like celecoxib. Valedecoxib is nonsteriodal
anti-inflammatory drug that exhibits anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic proper-
ties. It acts by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis primarly by blocking cyclooxygenase-2. At
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therapeutic plasma concentrations valedecoxib does not inhibit cycloxygenase-1 (COX-1).
The efficacy and clinical utility of valdecoxib has been demonstrated in osteoarthritis,
adult rheumatoid arthritis, in the treatment of primary dysmenorrhea and in the manage-
ment of post operative pain.
19 Local Anesthetics
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INTRODUCTION
Local anesthetics are the drugs, which produce insensitivity in a limited area by blocking the
generation and conduction of nerve impulses. They interrupt pain impulses in a specific region
of the body without loss of patient consciousness. They are applied locally or injected to pro-
duce loss of sensation in the required area. Local anesthetics decrease the permeability of cell
membrane to sodium thus prevents depolarisation. Normally, the process is completely re-
versible and the agent does not produce any residual effect on the nerve fibre.
CHEMISTRY OF LOCAL ANESTHETICS

All local anesthetic drugs except cocaine are synthetic. Traditionally there have been two main
groups available for use, the Esters and the Amides. Both types of anesthetics have three main
structural parts as follows:
1. Aromatic ring—the lipophilic portion.
2. Intermediate Chain—provides the link/spatial separation between the aromatic ring
(lipophilic) and the amino group (hydrophilic). Local anesthetics are classified on the
basis of the intermediate chain.
3. Secondary or tertiary amino terminus (amino group)—the hydrophilic portion. Gener-
ally local anesthetics are secondary or tertiary amines. The nitrogen is linked through
an intermediary chain to a lipophilic portion (most often aromatic ring system).
4. The amine functional group of local anesthetics exists either as the neutral amine or
positively charged ammonium cation, depending up on their dissociation constant (pKa
value) and the actual pH value.
5. The protonated local anesthetic possesses both a polar hydrophilic moiety (protonated
nitrogen) and a non-polar lipophilic moiety (ring system).
6. The pKa of typical local anesthetics lies between 7.7—9.3.
7. Chemically used local anesthetics are either esters or amides. The structural element is
unimportant for efficacy. Even drugs containing a methylene bridge such as
chlorpromazine or imipramine would exert a local anesthetic effect.
249
A. Ester Anesthetics
Ester anesthetics are metabolized in the plasma by the enzyme pseudocholinesterase.
Procaine undergoes hydrolysis to para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), which is excreted unchanged
in the urine, and diethylamino alcohol, which undergoes further transformation prior to ex-
cretion. Allergic reactions that occur in response to ester anesthetics are usually not in re-
sponse to the parent compound but rather to the para aminobenzoic acid (PABA), which is a
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major metabolic product of all ester-type local anesthetics.
Approximately 1 in 3000 persons has an a typical form of pseudocholinesterase, result-
ing in the inability to hydrolyze the ester-type local anesthetics. This in turn may cause a
prolongation of high blood levels of the agent and increased toxicity.
B. Amide Anesthetics
Amide anesthetics are metabolized in a more complex fashion in the liver. The status of
the liver function is therefore significant. In a patient with a healthy liver, about 70% of the
drug undergoes biotransformation. Patients with compromised liver function are unable to
break down amide-type anesthetics at a normal rate, which leads to slower biotransformation
and increased levels of local anesthetic in the blood as well as increased potential for toxicity.
CLASSIFICATION OF LOCAL ANESTHETICS

1. Natural agents : Cocaine
2. Synthetic nitrogenous drugs :
A. Derivatives of para amino benzoicacid : Procaine, Amethocaine, Benzocaine,
Orthocaine.
B. Derivatives of acetanilide : Lidocaine
C. Derivatives of quinoline : Cinchocaine
3. Synthetic non-nitrogenous drugs : Benzyl alcohol, propanediol
4. Miscellaneous : Phenol, antihistamines.
LOCAL ANESTHETICS 251
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF THE LOCAL ANESTHETICS

(a) The nerve fibre is a long cylinder surrounded by a semipermeable (allows only some
substances to pass) membrane. This membrane is made up of proteins and lipids
(fats). Some of the proteins apparently act as channels, or pores, for the passage of
sodium and potassium ions through the membrane.
(b) The movement of nerve impulses along a nerve fibre is associated with a change in
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the permeability of the membrane. The pores widen, and sodium ions (Na+) move to
the inside of the fibre. At the same time, potassium ions (K+) diffuse out through
other pores (see Figure). The entire process is called depolarization. Immediately
after the nerve impulse has passed, the pores again become smaller. Sodium ions
(Na+) are now “pumped” out of the fibre. At the same time, potassium ions are ac-
tively transported into the fibre. The nerve membrane is then ready to conduct an-
other impulse.
+ + + + + + +
– – – – – – – – KK
Na
+ + K + + – – – – – – –
ATP Na
Mechanism of nerve impulse transmission.
(c) Local anesthetics block depolarization of the nerve membrane to make the conduc-
tion of the nerve impulse impossible.
(d) The local anesthetic effect lasts as long as the agent maintains a certain critical con-
centration in the nerve membrane. The local concentration needed to prevent con-
duction of the nerve impulse is much greater than the tolerable blood level.
EFFECT OF pH ON ACTION OF LOCAL ANETHETICS

Anesthetics in solution exist both in an uncharged or base form and a charged or ion form. The
proportion of each form of anesthetic is dependent upon the acidity of the environment (pH)
and the tendency for the base form to transform into its ion form. A measure of the strength of
this tendency is called the dissociation constant (pKa). Local anesthetics have pKa between
7.7 and 9.3, which permits them to exist in both ionized and non-ionized forms at physiologic
pH 7.4. Only the base form of the anesthetic molecule can diffuse across the nerve membrane.
Within the nerve only the ionized form of the molecule produces anesthesia by conduction
blockade. As a rule, anesthetics with dissociation constants closest to the pH of normal tissues
are most effective at producing profound anesthesia.
In the presence of tissue injury, inflammation, or infection, the local environment be-
comes acidic and pH may fall to 5.5 to 5.6 (purulent environment). This lower pH has a pro-
nounced effect on dissociation, lowering extraneural concentrations of base and, making ad-
equate levels of intraneural anesthetic difficult to attain. The best anesthetic to use in this
situation is mepivacaine.
% total drug at pH 7.4
Agent pKa Onset Cation Free Base
Mepivacaine 7.7 Fast 67 33
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Lidocaine 7.8 Fast 71 29
Etidocaine 7.9 Fast 75 25
Prilocaine 7.9 Fast 75 25
Bupivacaine 8.1 Intermediate 83 17
Procaine 9.1 Slow 98 2
HISTORY OF LOCAL ANETHETICS

For centuries, natives of the Andean highlands have used the leaves of the coca bush
(Erythroxylon cocca) in which cocaine occurs in abundance, for its euphoric and stimulatory
properties as well as its ability to prevent hunger.
COOCH3
O

N—Me O—C—C6H5
Cocaine
Albert Niemann in 1859-1860 was the first to isolate cocaine and discovered its anesthetic
properties. Sigmund Freud studied the physiological actions of cocaine. In 1884 Karl Koller
introduced cocaine into the clinical practice of medicine, using it as a topical anesthetic and
pain relieving action for opthalmological surgical procedures. William Halstead, who was a
pioneer in regional nerve blockade, demonstrated the high abuse potential by addiction to
cocaine. Abuse liability and frequent fatalities promoted a search for safer synthetic anesthetics.
This search was initiated in 1892 by Alfred Einhorn. In 1905 he developed Procaine (Novo-
caine) the first injectable local anesthetic. This was the dental standard for over 40 years until
the introduction of Lidocaine in 1948.
O
 C2H5
NH—C—CH2—N
C2H5
H3C CH3
Lidocaine
New amino ester local anesthetics were synthesized between 1891 and 1930, such as
tropocaine, eucaine, holocaine, orthocaine, benzocaine and tetracaine. In addition, amino amide
local anesthetics were prepared between 1898 and 1972 including nirvaquine, procaine,
chloroprocaine, cinchocaine, lidocaine, mepivacaine, prilocaine, efocaine, bupivacaine,
etidocaine, and articaine. All of these drugs were less toxic than cocaine, but they had differing
amounts of central nervous system (CNS) and cardiovascular (CV) toxicity. Bupivacaine is of
special interest because of its long duration of action and history of clinical application.
C4H9
O
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
 N
NH——C——
H3C CH3
Bupivacaine
A major breakthrough in the chemistry of local anesthetic agents occurred in 1943 when
Loefgren synthesized lidocaine, since it was not an ester but an amide derivate of diethylamino
acetic acid. Concerning structure-activity relationships, local anesthetic agents, in general,
possess the chemical arrangement of: aromatic portion—intermediate chain—amine portion.
Changes in the aromatic or amine portion of a local anesthetic substance will alter its lipid/
water distribution coefficient and its protein-binding characteristics which, in turn, will mark-
edly alter the anesthetic profile.
The following are commonly used local anesthetics :
1. Lidocaine. (Xylocaine) 1948
2. Mepivacaine. 1957 (Comparatively a mild vasodilator; can be used effectively without
vasoconstrictor)
3. Bupivacaine. 1957 (Long acting; Contraindicated in children and mentally handicapped
persons due to the potential for self mutilation)
4. Etidocaine. 1971 (Long acting like Bupivacaine)
5. Benzocaine. Ester type topical anesthetic ; Not suitable for injection; Usually supplied
as 14-20% concentration
Studies on the anesthetic activities and toxicity of the individual enantiomers of
bupivacaine and mepivacaine generally indicate that the S-enantiomers are longer acting and
less toxic than the R-enantiomers.
VII. PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL LOCAL ANESTHETIC

The ideal properties of local anesthetics are :
1. The action of local anesthetic must be reversible
2. It must be non-irritating to the tissues and should not produce any secondary local
reaction
3. It should have a low degree of systemic toxicity (Extremely low mortality rate estimated
at 1 in 45 million administrations)
4. It should have sufficient potency to provide complete anesthesia
5. It should have rapid onset and be of sufficient duration to be advantageous

6. It should have sufficient penetrating properties to be effective as a topical anesthetic
7. It should be relatively free from producing allergic reactions
8. It should be stable in solution and undergo biotransformation readily within the body
9. It should be either sterile or capable of being sterilized by heat without deterioration
No local anesthetic in use fulfills all of these requirements, particularly regarding the
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duration of action
COCAINE
Source. Cocaine is an alkaloid obtained from the leaves of Erythroxylon cocca and other
species of Erythroxylon indigenous to Peru and Bolivia.
Chemistry. Cocaine is an ester of benzoic acid and a nitrogen containing base. It has
the fundamental structure required for local anesthetic activity.
O

C—OCH3
N—CH3 O—C—C6H5

O
Properties :
1. It is colorless, odorless, bitter taste crystalline powder.
2. It is insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform.
3. Cocaine forms a hydrochloride salt due to the presence of a tertiary nitrogen atom.
Cocaine hydrochloride is freely soluble in water.
4. Cocaine melts at 98°C.
BENZOCAINE
Benzocaine (Ethyl-4-amino benzoate) is prepared by reduction of ethyl p-nitrobenzoate. The
ethyl 4-nitrobenzoate is obtained from 4-nitroluene by oxidation and followed by esterification
with ethyl alcohol in acidic media. The synthesis of benzocaine involves following chemical
reactions.
O O
 
CH3 COOH C—OC2H5 C—OC2H5
(O) C2H5OH Reduction

→ →
+
→
H
NO2 NO2 NO2 NH2

4-Nitrotoluene Benzocaine
Properties :
1. Benzocaine is colorless, odorless, slightly bitter taste crystalline powder.
2. It is insoluble in water but soluble in ether, alcohol, and chloroform.
3. It melts at 90°C.
PROCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE (2-Diethylaminoethyl-p-amino
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benzoate)
Procaine hydrochloride is prepared by Hofmann’s elimination reaction. It is prepared by heat-
ing 2-chloroethyl-4-aminobenzoate with diethyl amine under pressure.
Properties :
1. Procaine hydrochloride is colorless, odorless, bitter taste crystalline powder.
2. It is soluble in water and alcohol.
LIGNOCAINE (or) LIDOCAINE (Diethyl aminoaceto-2, 6-xylidine)

Lignocaine is prepared by the following steps:
1. 2, 6-Dimethyl aniline (2, 6-xylidine) is acetylated with α-chloroacetylchloride to get the
corresponding chloramide.
H H O
  
N—H N—C—CH2—Cl
O
H3C CH3  H3C CH3
+ Cl—C—CH2—Cl →
Chloramide
2. The above obtained chloramide is treated with diethyl amine to get lignocaine.
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Properties :
1. It is colorless, odorless, slightly bitter taste crystalline powder.
2. It is insoluble in water and soluble in solvent ether.
4. It is also employed intravenously as an antiarrhythmic agent.
AMETHOCAINE
Amethocaine is prepared by the reaction of 4-n-butylaminobenzoic acid with 2-dimethyl amino
ethanol.
Properties :
1. It is colorless, odorless, slightly bitter taste crystalline powder.
2. It is insoluble in water but soluble in solvent ether.
3. It forms hydrochloride salt due to the presence of 2° nitrogen atom. Amethocaine
hydrochloride is soluble in water and insoluble in ether.
4. Amethocaine hydrochloride melts at 155°C.
CINCHOCAINE
Cinchocaine is prepared from 2-hydroxy-4-quinoline carboxylic acid by the following steps :
1. Thionyl chloride converts the hydroxy groups of 2-hydroxy-4-quinoline carboxylic acid
into the chloride.
O

COOH C—Cl
SOCl2
→
N OH N Cl
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2. In the second step the above-obtained acid chloride is treated with N, N-diethyl ethyl-
ene diamine to get an amide.
O

C—Cl
C2H5
+ H2N—CH2—CH2—N 
→
N Cl C2H5
O
 C2H5
C—N—CH2—CH2—N
H C2H5
N Cl
3. The above-formed amide is treated with sodium butoxide to replace chlorine by butoxyl
group to get cinchocaine.
Properties :
1. Cinchocaine is available as hydrochloride salt.
2. It is colorless, hygroscopic crystalline compound.
3. It has rapid onset and long duration of action.
CYCLOMETHYCAINE
Cyclomethycaine is prepared by condensation of 4-cyclo hexyl oxybenzoic acid with piperidinol.
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Cyclomethycaine has low intravenous and subcutaneous toxicity.
Properties :
1. Cyclomethycaine is available as cyclomethycaine sulphate.
2. It is white crystalline powder, sparingly soluble in water.
3. It is used as topical local anesthetic.
Bupivacaine :
Bupivacaine is 1-butyl-N-(2, 6-dimethylphenyl)-2-piperidinecarboxamide
Properties :
1. Bupivacaine is available as bupivacaine hydrochloride.
2. It is white, odorless, water soluble crystalline powder.
3. It is long acting local anesthetic but more toxic.
20 Diuretics
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INTRODUCTION
Diuretics are drugs, which increase the rate of urine flow. However, clinically useful diuretics
also increase excretion of Na+ and an accompanying anion (negatively charged ion) like Cl–.
Since NaCl is the major determinant of extracellular fluid volume, diuretics reduce extracellular
fluid volume (decrease in oedema) by decreasing total body NaCl content. Although continued
use of diuretic causes sustained net loss of Na+, the time course for this effect is limited by
compensatory mechanisms including activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway
and the sympathetic nervous system.
When blood is filtered at the glomerulus, the fluid which enters the proximal tubule
is really the developing urine. As the tubular fluid passes down the tubule, solutes (Na+, K+,
Cl–) are removed from the fluid and returned to the blood (reabsorption). Diuretics inhibits
the reabsorption of Na+ ions, thereby reduces the quantity of the water in body fluids.
Triamterene
Spironolactone
K-Sparing
Acetazolamide Thiazides
mercurials mercurials
Glomerulus
Proximal
tubule Distal
tubule Osmotic diuretics
Osmotic
diuretics
Furosemide
Ethacrynic
acid
Loop of Henle Cortical collecting

tubule
Site of action of diuretics.
259
CLASSIFICATION OF DIURETICS
The following classes of diuretics are therapeutically used:
Type Example Site of action Mechanism
Carbonic anhydrase Acetazolamide Proximal tubule Inhibition of CA

(CA) inhibitors
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Osmotic diuretics Mannitol Loop of henle ; Osmotic action
Proximal tubule
Loop diuretics Furosemide Loop of henle Inhibition of Na+-K+

2Cl– symport
Thiazides Hydrochlorothiazide Distal convoluted Inhibition of

tubule Na+-Cl– symport
Potassium sparing
diuretics
1. Na+ channel Triamterene, Collecting tubule Inhibition of Na+

Inhibitors Amiloride channel
2. Aldosterone Spiranolactone Anti-diuretic hormone
antagonist
CARBONIC ANHYDRASE (CA) INHIBITORS

Chemistry
Carbonic anhydrase (CA) inhibitors are derived from the sulphonamide antibacterials.
Sulfonamide group (—SO2NH2) is essential for its activity. In 1937, Southworth observed that
sulphanilamide not only had antibacterial activity but also produced systemic acidosis and an
alkaline urine ( HCO 3− excretion). The carbonic anhydrase inhibitors must have unsubstituted
sulphamoyl (—SO2NH2) group. Some potent CA inhibitors have an aromatic group (phenyl or
heterocycle) attached to sulphamoyl group.
Mechanism of action
This class of diuretics inhibit carbonic anhydrase enzyme in the membrane and
cytoplasm of the epithelial cells. The primary site of action is proximal tubules. These agents
interfere with the reabsorption of HCO 3− . HCO 3− is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule and
requires the activity of carbonic anhydrase. Intracellularly carbonic anhydrase (CA in the
DIURETICS 261
diagram) converts H2O and CO2 to carbonic acid (H2CO3). H2CO3 dissociates into H+ and
HCO3–. The HCO3– is transported across the basolateral membrane. H+ is secreted into the
tubular lumen in exchange for Na+. The H+ combines with a filtered HCO3– (using CA) to
form H2CO3, which immediately dissociates into H2O and CO2 that, is reabsorbed. Therefore,
filtered bicarbonate is reabsorbed for every H+ secreted. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, by
blocking the enzyme, prevent the reabsorption of HCO3–.
Accumulation of HCO3– in the tubular lumen subsequently inhibits Na+ —H+ exchange
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and Na+ reabsorption. The increase in sodium concentration in the tubular fluid may be com-
pensated partially by increased NaCl reabsorption in later segments of the tubule. Thus, the
diuretic effect of the carbonic anhydrase inhibitors is mild.
Synthesis of Acetazolamide. Acetazolamide is prepared by the following reactions :
N N
Rearrangement (CH CO) O
NH2—NH2.H2O + NH4SCN → →
3 2
Hydrazine hydrate H2N S SH

5-Amino-2-mercapto
1,3,4-thiadiazole
N N N N
Cl2 H NH
→ →
3
SH H2O
 SOCl2
HN S H3C—C—N S
 
C=O O
 N N
CH3
O
 SO2NH2
H3C—C—HN S
Acetazolamide
Structure-Activity Relationships :
1. All inhibit carbonic anhydrase activity.
2. Importantly, they have no antibacterial activity.
3. Substitution on the sulphamoyl group gives inactive compounds.
Uses
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Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors are also used for non-diuretic indications, such as man-
agement of glaucoma, and as adjuvants for antiepileptic drugs.
OSMOTIC DIURETICS
Chemistry. Osmotic diuretics are the agents that mobilise fluids by increasing the
osmotic pressure in tubules. Some important osmotic diuretics are below :
Drug
Osmotic diuretics
Structure
Oral
Absorption
HO OH
Glycerin Orally active
OH
H
HO H
Isosorbide O Orally active
O
H H
OH
OH H H OH OH OH
Mannitol H H Negligible
H OH OH H H H
O
Urea Negligible
H2N NH2
DIURETICS 263
Mechanism of Action
Osmotic diuretics are substances to which the tubule epithelial cell membrane has lim-
ited permeability. When administered (often in a large dosage), osmotic diuretics significantly
increase the osmolarity of plasma and tubular fluid. The osmotic force thus generated pre-
vents water reabsorption, and also extracts water from the intracellular compartment, ex-
pands extracellular fluid volume and increases renal blood flow resulting in reduced medulla
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tonicity. The primary sites of action for osmotic diuretics are the Loop of Henle and the proxi-
mal tubule where the membrane is most permeable to water.
LOOP DIURETICS OR HIGH-CEILING DIURETICS :

Chemistry. The diuretics that produce peak diuresis than other diuretics and act dis-
tinctly on renal tubular function (at loop of Henle) are called loopdiuretics or high-ceiling
diuretics. There are two major classes of loop diuretics: 1) sulfonamide derivatives such as
furosemide, bumetanide and torsemide; and 2) non-sulfonamide loop diuretic such as ethacrynic
acid.
Mechanism of Action
Loop diuretics inhibit reabsorption of NaCl and KCl by inhibiting the Na+ —K+ —2Cl–
symport in the luminal membrane of the thick ascending limb (TAL) of loop of Henle. As TAL
is responsible for the reabsorption of 35% of filtered sodium, and loop diuretics are highly
efficacious and are thus called high ceiling diuretics. The Na+ —K+ —2Cl– symport and sodium
pump together generate a positive lumen potential that drives the reabsorption of Ca++ and
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Mg++, inhibitors of the Na+ -K+ -2Cl– symport also inhibit reabsorption of Ca++ and Mg++. Loop
diuretics also have direct effects on vasculature including increase in renal blood flow, and
increase in systemic venous capacitance.
+ +
+ + –
Na Na
Na K Cl
Symporter + + Interstitial
K K space
inhibited by
loop diuretics + +
Cl Cl
Tubular
lumen
Structure-Activity Relationships of Ethacrynic acid :
1. Designed to mimic mercurial diuretics.

2. Increased activity when a electron withdrawing group (i.e. Cl–) is placed ortho to the
unstaturated ketone (active site for sulfhydryl reactivity).
3. Ortho and meta positions substituted with chlorine produce most active compound.
Synthesis of ethacrynic acid. Ethacrynic acid is synthesized by the following chemi-
cal reactions :
DIURETICS 265
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Synthesis of furosemide. Furosemide is synthesized by the following chemical reac-
tions :
COOH COOH
Cl Cl
(i) ClSO3H
→ +
→
(ii) NH3
H2NSO2 O CH2NH2
Cl Cl
2, 4-Dichloro 2, 4-Dichloro-5-sulphamoyl Furfurylamine
benzoic acid benzoic acid
COOH
NHCH2
O
H2NO2S
Cl
Frusemide
(4-Chloro-N-furfuryl
-5-sulphamoylanthranilic acid).
Uses of Loop diuretics. Particularly useful in acute left ventricular failure and pul-
monary oedema because of quick onset and powerful diuretic action. They may also be used to
treat hypercalcaemia.
THIAZIDES
Chemistry
Thiazides are also called benzothiadiazides. Thiazides are sulfonamide derivatives.
Drug Structure
Chlorothiazide R2 = H, R3 = H, R6 = Cl
R2 = H, R3 = H, R6 = Cl
Hydrochlorothaizide
(Saturated between C3 and N4)
R2 = H, R3 = H, R6 = CF3
Hydroflumethiazide
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Bendroflumethiazide R2 = H, R3 = CH2 , R6 = CF3
Some diuretics having similar pharmacological actions as thiazides but have the follow-
ing structures (different from thiazides) :
OH
SO2NH2
Chlorthalidone
NH
Cl
O
H3C
Indapamide Cl C—N—N
 
H2NO2S O H
H
 CH3
Cl N
Metolazone
N
H3NO2S
O
H3C
H

Cl N CH2CH3
Quinethazone
NH
H3NO2S
O
Mechanism of Action
Thiazides inhibit a Na+—Cl– symport in the luminal membrane of the epithelial cells in
the distal convoluted tubule. Thus, thiazides inhibit NaCl reabsorption in the distal convo-
luted tubule, and may have a small effect on the NaCl reabsorption in the proximal tubule.
DIURETICS 267
Thiazides enhance Ca++ reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule by inhibiting Na+ entry
and thus enhancing the activity of Na+ —Ca++ exchanger in the basolateral membrane of
epithelial cells.
+
Lumen Na
+
Na
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+
Na , Cl
– Na
+
symporter – K
Cl
Cl
Interstitial
Cl space
Blocked by
–
thiazides Cl
Structure-Activity Relationships of thiazides. These compounds are weakly acidic ;

1. H atom at N-2 is the most acidic due to the electron-withdrawing effects of the neigh-
bouring sulfone group.
2. Sulfonamide group at C-7 provides an additional point of acidity in molecule but is
less acidic than N-2 proton. A free sulfamoyl group at position 7 is essential for diu-
retic activity.
3. These acidic protons make possible the formation of a water-soluble sodium salt that
can be used for I.V. dosing.
4. An electron-withdrawing group is essential at position 6.
5. The diuretic activity is enhanced by substitution at position 3.
6. Replacement of 6-Cl by 6-CF3 does not change potency but allters duration of action.
7. Replacement of 6-Cl by electron-donating groups (e.g. CH3) reduces diuretic activity.
8. Saturation of thiadiazine ring to give 3, 4-dihydro derivative and replacement re-
place or removal of sulfonamide group at position C-7 yields compounds with little or
no diuretic activity.
Synthesis of bendroflumethiazide :
H2NO2S SO2NH2 Ammonia

solution/DMF
+ CH2CHO 
→
F3C NH2
2, 4-Disulphamoyl-5- Phenylacetaldehyde
trifluoromethylaniline
O2
H2NO2S S
NH
CH2
F3C N
H
Bendroflumethiazide
Synthesis of chlorothiazide. Chlorothiazide is synthesized by the following route :
Cl NH2 Cl NH2 Cl NH2

HOSO2Cl NH4OH
→ →
∆
ClO2S SO2Cl NH2O2S SO2NH2
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
Cl N Cl N
HCOOH
→ →
NH Reduction with NH
H2NO2S S LiAlH4 H2NO2S S
O2 O2
Chlorthiazide
Hydrochlorthiazide
Uses of Thiazides. In mild cardiac failure, where the lesser diuretic effect may be
more acceptable to the patient. Main use of thiazides is in antihypertensive therapy.
POTASSIUM-SPARING DIURETICS
1. Na+ Channel Inhibitors. E.C. Taylor and J. Weinstock introduced aminopteridines
as potassium-sparing diuretics. Ex : Triamterene and amiloride.
Chemistry. Amiloride and triamterene are the only two drugs in this class. The most
active and successful compound of the class proved to be triamterene.
Mechanism of action. Amiloride and triamterene inhibit the sodium channel in the
luminal membrane of collecting tubule and collecting duct. This sodium channel is critical for
Na + entry into cells down the electrochemical gradient created by sodium pump in the
basolateral membrane, which pumps Na+ into interstitium. This selective transepithelial trans-
port of Na+ establishes a luminal negative transepithelial potential which in turn drives secre-
tion of K+ into the tubule fluid. The luminal negative potential also facilitates H+ secretion via
the proton pump in the intercalated epithelial cells in collecting tubule and collecting duct.
Inhibition of the sodium channel thus not only inhibits Na+ reabsorption but also inhibits
secretion of K+ and H+, resulting in conservation of K+ and H+.
DIURETICS 269
+ +
Na , K ATPase
+ + +
Na Na Na
Na entry blocked – 60 mV + +
K K
by Na channel –75 mV
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antagonists
+ +
+ K K
K channel
+
secretes K into
the tubular lumen
2. Aldosterone Antagonists
Chemistry. Spironolactone is the only available aldosterone antagonist. A metabolite
of spironolactone, canrenone, is also active and has a half-life of about 16 hours.
O
CH3
CH3 H
H H
O S
O CH3
Mechanism of action. Aldosterone, by binding to its receptor in the cytoplasm of
epithelial cells in collecting tubule and duct, increases expression and function of Na+ channel
and sodium pump, and thus enhances sodium reabsorption (see “Na+ channel inhibitors” above).
Spironolactone competitively inhibits binding of aldosterone to its receptor and abolishes its
biological effects.
21 Hypoglycemic Agents
NEI
INTRODUCTION
Pancreas secrete digestive enzymes, glucagon and insulin. An isolated group of cells within
pancreas is called as islets of langerhans. These cells are divided into three types as α cells
(secretes glucagon), β cells (secretes insulin) and γ cells (secretes somatostatin). Insulin plays
an important role in digestion and utilization of food substances. It is essential for the
phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. Glucose-6-phosphate is further catabolized
to give energy. In some individuals glucose level in blood increases due to lack of sufficient
insulin. This condition is called hyperglycemia. The disease is known as diabetes mellitus.
Some of the more important symptoms associated with the disease are polydipsia, polyurea,
ketnaemia, and ketourea. Most patients can be classified clinically as having either insulin-
dependent diabetes mellitus (Type-I diabetes) or non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (Type-
II diabetes). Type-I diabetes is an auto-immune disease caused by the destruction of pancre-
atic islet cells. In Type-II diabetes the cause of hyperglycemia is a combination of insulin
resistance and a loss of secretory function by pancreatic β-cells. People who have diabetes are
two to four times more likely to die from heart disease or have a stroke than people who do not
have diabetes.
To date, there is no known cure for Type I (insulin dependent) diabetes. Hypoglycemic
agents lower the blood sugar and are used to treat the symptoms of diabetes mellitus.
CLASSIFICATION OF HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS

Type II diabetes mellitus develops most often in people over 40 years of age, and obesity in-
creases the risk of developing it. While diet and exercise are recommended as the first line of
defense, many individuals are unable to control the disease through these means alone. For
these people, one or more oral antidiabetic agents may be used. Some people with type II
diabetes require insulin to control the disease. Oral antidiabetic drugs act in one or more of the
following :
1. Stimulating the release of insulin by the pancreas
2. Slowing the absorption of glucose from the intestines
3. Decreasing glucose synthesis and release by the liver
4. Making cells more sensitive to insulin (e.g., muscle and liver).
The hypoglycemic agents are classified into the following two main categories. They
are :
A. Insulin and its preparations
270
HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS 271
B. Synthetic compounds(Oral hypoglycemic agents) : The oral hypoglycemic agents are

further classified as :
1. Sulfonyl urea derivatives. Ex: Chlorpropamide, tolbutamide, glibenclamide,
glipizide and dichlorphenamide.
2. Biguanide derivatives. Ex: Phenformin, metformin.
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SPECIFIC HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS
INSULIN. Insulin was the first hormone identified in 1920’s by Banting and Best. They
discovered insulin by tying a string around the pancreatic duct of several dogs. When they
examined the pancreas of these dogs several weeks later, all of the pancreatic digestive cells
were died and were absorbed by the immune system and the only thing left was thousands of
pancreatic islets. They then isolated the protein from these islets and discovered insulin.
Sources of Insulin
The first successful insulin preparations came from cows (bovine)and later from pigs
(porcine). Bovine and porcine insulin worked very well for the majority of patients, but some
could develop an allergy or other types of reactions to the foreign protein (a foreign protein is
a protein which is not native to humans). In the 1980’s technology had advanced to the point
where we could make human insulin. The advantage would be that human insulin would have
a much lower chance of inducing a reaction because it is not a foreign protein. The technology,
which made this approach possible, was the development of recombinant DNA techniques. In
simple terms, the human gene, which codes for the insulin protein was cloned (copied) and
then put inside of bacteria. A number of operations were performed on this gene to make the
bacteria to constantly make insulin. Big vats of bacteria now make tons of human insulin.
From this, one can isolate pure human insulin.
A
S S
S
B S
S—S
Proinsulin
C
β cell
Peptidases
S S
S S
Insulin
S—S
Free C peptide
Isolation of Insulin
Isolation of insulin from animal pancreas involves the following steps :
(i) Mince the pancreas of slaughtered animal and extract with 80% ethanol containing
small amounts of phosphoric acid (to adjust pH to 3)
(ii) Centrifuge the extract to separate proteins and fats
(iii) Raise the pH of extract to 8.0 by adding ammonia solution and filter
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(iv) Acidify and evaporate the filtrate to remove fatty material
(v) Add picric acid to ethanolic solution to precipitate insulin as insulin picrate
(vi) Dissolve insulin picrate in acetone and reprecipitate as hydrochloride salt
(vii) Insulin is further purified by chromatography
Structure of Insulin
The minimum molecular weight of insulin is about 6000. Dinitro phenyl hydrazine
(N-terminal amino acid determination method) showed the presence of two N-terminal amino
acid residues i.e. glycine, phenylalanine. Thus insulin contains two peptide chains.
Insulin was oxidized with performic acid. This produced two peptides, which were sepa-
rated by electrophoresis. The two peptide chains referred to as the A chain and B chain.
The peptide with N-terminal glycine residue was called the A-chain and that with the
N-terminal phenylalanine residue was called B-chain. Each chain was subjected to hydrolysis
(with acids or enzymes). The products of hydrolysis were separated and examined by DNP
method.
The chain-A contains 21 amino acid residues and the chain-B contains 30 amino acid
residues. In chain-A four cysteine acid residues and chain-B two residues were present. Two
disulphide bonds connecting these two chains, further chain-A contains one intra disulphide
bond.
These interactions have important clinical ramifications. Monomers and dimers readily
diffuse into blood, whereas hexamers diffuse very poorly. Hence, absorption of insulin prepa-
rations containing a high proportion of hexamers is delayed and slow. This problem, among
others, has stimulated development of a number of recombinant insulin analogs. The first of
these molecules to be marketed—called insulin lispro—is engineered such that lysine and
proline residues on the C-terminal end of the B chain are reversed; this modification does not
alter receptor binding, but minimizes the tendency to form dimers and hexamers.
Although the amino acid sequence of insulin varies among species, certain segments of
the molecule are highly conserved, including the positions of the three disulfide bonds, both
ends of the A chain and the C-terminal residues of the B chain. These similarities in the amino
acid sequence of insulin lead to a three dimensional conformation of insulin that is very simi-
lar among species, and insulin from one animal is very likely biologically active in other spe-
cies. Indeed, pig insulin has been widely used to treat human patients. The structure of insulin
is as below :
The structure of insulin differs slightly from different sources, but all show identical
hormonal activity.
Biosynthesis of Insulin
Insulin is synthesized in significant quantities only in β cells in the pancreas. The insu-
lin mRNA is translated as a single chain precursor called preproinsulin, and removal of its
signal peptide during insertion into the endoplasmic reticulum generates proinsulin.
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Proinsulin consists of three domains: an amino-terminal B chain, a carboxy-terminal A
chain and a connecting peptide in the middle known as the C peptide. Within the endoplasmic
reticulum, proinsulin is exposed to several specific endopeptidases, which excise the C peptide,
thereby generating the mature form of insulin. Insulin and free C peptide are packaged in the
Golgi into secretory granules, which accumulate in the cytoplasm.
When the β cell is appropriately stimulated, insulin is secreted from the cell by exocytosis
and diffuses into islet capillary blood. C peptide is also secreted into blood, but has no known
biological activity.
Insulin Preparations
Human insulin is absorbed more quickly than beef or pork insulin. Thus the duration of
action of human insulin is shorter. If insulin preparations were administered orally, it would
be degraded in gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, insulin must be administered by injection (IV
or subcutaneous). The following insulin preparations are used for the treatment of diabetes.
Crystalline zinc insulin. It is purified insulin crystallized as a zinc salt. It is admin-
istered subcutaneously and lowers the blood sugar within minutes. Hence it is known as rapid
action insulin.
Semilente insulin. It is a suspension of amorphous insulin, which is also administered
subcutaneously. It is another example for rapid action insulin.
Isophane insulin. It is a suspension of crystalline zinc insulin with the positively
charged peptide mixture called protamine. Its duration of action is intermediate between crys-
talline zinc insulin and protamine zinc insulin. This is due to delayed absorption of insulin
because of conjugation of insulin with protamine to form less soluble complex.
Lente insulin. It is a mixture of 30% of semilente insulin and 70% ultralente insulin.
It is another intermediate action insulin that is administered subcutaneously.
Protamine zinc insulin. It is a prolonged action insulin preparation. It produces maxi-
mum therapeutic effect in 24 hours. It is prepared by mixing crystalline zinc insulin with
protamine.
Extended insulin zinc suspension. It is poorly soluble crystalline zinc insulin. This
preparation has a delayed onset and prolonged duration of action.
Storage
Insulin in powder form should be stored in airtight containers protected from light. The
injections are required to be stored in a refrigerator at 2 to 8°C and not allowed to freeze.
The insulin receptor and mechanism of action

Like the receptors for other protein hormones, the receptor for insulin is embedded in
the plasma membrane. The insulin receptor is composed of two alpha subunits and two beta
subunits linked by disulfide bonds. The alpha chains are entirely extracellular and house insu-
lin binding domains, while the linked beta chains penetrate through the plasma membrane.
Extracelluar
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α subunit
(Hormone-binding
domains)
β subunit
(ATP-binding and
tyrosine kinase
domains)
Cytoplasmic
The insulin receptor is a tyrosine kinase. In other words, it functions as an enzyme that
transfers phosphate groups from ATP to tyrosine residues on intracellular target proteins.
Binding of insulin to the alpha subunits causes the beta subunits to phosphorylate themselves
(autophosphorylation), thus activating the catalytic activity of the receptor. The activated
receptor then phosphorylates a number of intracellular proteins, which in turn alters their
activity, thereby generating a biological response.
B. ORAL HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS. Because of the ineffectiveness of insulin
through oral route in the treatment of diabetes mellitus, search was made for the compounds,
which could proved to be effective orally. The following oral hypoglycemic agents are used to
treat diabetes mellitus.
SULFONYL UREAS
In 1942, Jan bon and his colleagues observed that some sulfonamides exhibited useful
sulfonyl hypoglycemic effect. This led to the synthesis of some clinically useful sulfonyl ureas.
To date more than 12000 sulfonyl ureas have been prepared and many have been found
to be extremely useful.
Ex: Tolbutamide, chlorpropamide, tolazamide and acetohexamide are first generation
sulfonylureas while glyburide and glipizide are of second generation.
O O
2 1
R— —S—N—C—N—R
O H H
Chlorpropamide R1 = CH2CH2CH3 ; R2 = Cl
Tolbutamide R1 = CH2CH2CH2CH3 ; R2 = CH3
Acetohexamide
The sulfonyl ureas are rapidly absorbed from the GI tract. Hydroxylation of the aro-
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matic ring appears to be the most favored metabolic pathway for these sulfonyl ureas. The
hydroxylated derivatives have much lower hypoglycemic activity than the parent compounds.
The alkyl group of the sulfonyl urea also undergoes hydroxylation. For example, glipizide
is metabolized to cis-3-hydroxy-glipizide and trans-4-hydroxy-glipizide. These metabolites have
approximately ~15% of the hypoglycemic activity of the parent compound. This is understand-
able taking into consideration their highly hydrophobic nature. Due to this nature they are
highly protein bound. Second generation sulfonyl ureas due to their greater hydrophobic char-
acter are effective over a longer duration of action.
Structure—Activity Relationships :
• The benzene ring should contain one substituent, preferably at the para position. The
substituents that seem to enhance hypoglycemic activity are methyl, amino, acetyl,
chloro, bromo, methylthio, and trifluoromethyl groups.
• Compounds with p-(-β-arylcarboxamidoethyl) substituents (the second generation
agents) have better activity than the first generation agents. It is believed that this is
because of a specific distance between the nitrogen atom of the substituent and the
sulfonamide nitrogen atom.
• The group attached to the terminal nitrogen should be of certain size and should
impart lipophilic properties to the molecule. The N-methyl are inactive, N-ethyl have
low activity, while N-propyl to N-hexyl are most active. Activity is lost if N-substituent
contains 12 or more carbons.
Biochemical Mechanism of Action. The hypoglycemic action of the sulfonyl ureas is
usually attributed to their ability to stimulate the release of insulin from the pancreatic islets.
It is proposed that the sulfonyl ureas bring about their increase in insulin release through
binding to receptors on the islets β-cell membrane that are linked to closure of the channels
that facilitate the passive efflux of K+ from the cell. These K+ channels are responsive to ATP/
ADP ratio and close when the ratio increases because of an increase in glucose metabolism.
Binding of sulfonyl ureas to their receptor leads to the closure of the potassium channels which
opens calcium channels for influx of Ca+2 ions into the cytoplasm. The increase in cytosolic
Ca+2 activates the effector system that leads to the translocation of the secretory granules to
the exocytotic sites at the plasma membrane at which insulin is released. Thus sulfonyl ureas
are effective only if the secretion of insulin from the β-cells not completely impaired but is
inefficient.
CHLOPROPAMIDE
Chemistry. Chlorpropamide is a derivative of benzenesulphonamide. The synthesis of
chlorpropamide involves the following steps :
(a) Chlorobenzene on reaction with chlorosulfonic acid yields 4-chlorobenzene sulphonyl

chloride.
Cl Cl
ClSO H
→
3
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SO2Cl
(b) The 4-chlorobenzene sulphonyl chloride on reaction with ammonia converts to
sulfonamde.
Cl Cl
NH
→
3
SO2Cl SO2NH2
(c) The above-formed sulfonamide on refluxation with ethylchloroformate produces N-
4-chlorophenyl sulfonyl carbomate, which on condensation with n-propylamine yields
chlorpropamide.
Properties. Chlorpropamide is a colorless, odorless, crystalline powder. It is insoluble

in water, alcohol, moderately soluble in chloroform, ether.
Mechanism of action. Chlorpropamide develops hypoglycemic effect by the following
mechanisms ;
(i) It stimulates insulin release from the β-cells of the pancreas
(ii) It reduces serum glucagon levels
(iii) It also increases binding of insulin to receptors and target tissues
Uses. It is used for the treatment of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus
TOLBUTAMIDE
Chemistry. Tolbutamide is another sulphonylurea derivative. It is prepared by con-
densation of sodium salt of toluene-p-sulphonamide with n-butylisocynate. This reaction is
carried out in acidic medium.
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Properties. Tolbutamide is a colorless, odorless, slightly bitter taste crystalline pow-
der. It is insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol and chloroform and melts at 126°C.
Mechanism of action. Tolbutamide releases somatostatin from islet γ-cells of pan-
creas. The somatostatin inturn influence the release of insulin, thus produces antidiabetic
effect.
Uses. Tolbutamide is used as an oral hypoglycemic agent for the treatment of mild
uncomplicated diabetes mellitus.
GLIBENCLAMIDE
Chemistry. Glibenclamide is 5-Chloro, N-[2-[4-[ [ [ (cyclohexylamino) carbonyl]amino]
sulfonyl] phenyl) ethyl], 2-methoxy benzamide. It is prepared by condensation of 5-chloro-2-
methoxy benzoyl chloride with 4-amino ethyl benzene sulphonamide, followed by treatment
with hexyl isocyanate.
O

C—Cl
OCH3
+ H2N—CH2—CH2 SO2NH2 →
Cl
O N=C=O

C—NH—CH2—CH2 SO2NH2
OCH3
→
Cl
O O
 
C—NH—CH2CH2 SO2NH—C—NH
OCH3
Cl
Glibenclamide
Properties. It is a colorless crystalline powder. It is insoluble in water.
Mechanism of action. It produces hypoglycemic effect by stimulating the release of

insulin from β-cells of pancreas and by increasing the sensitivity of peripheral tissues to insu-
lin. It is more potent than tolbutamide.
Uses. It is used to control hyperglycemia in type-II diabetes mellitus.
GLIPIZIDE
Chemistry. Glipizide is 1-cyclohexyl 3-[[p-[2-methylpyrazine carboxamido) ethyl]
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phenyl]sulfonyl]urea. It is a cyclohexyl sulfonyl urea analogue. Glipizide is synthesized by
condensing 5-methylpyrazine-2-carboxylic acid and 4-(2-aminoethyl) benzene sulfonamide,
followed by reaction with cyclohexyl isocyanate in basic conditions.
Properties. It is available as a colorless crystalline powder and is insoluble in water.

Mechanism of action. It produces hypoglycemic effect by stimulating the release of
insulin from β-cells of pancreas and by increasing the sensitivity of peripheral tissues to insu-
lin.
Uses. It is used to control hyperglycemia in type-II diabetes mellitus.
BIGUANIDES
In 1918 guanidine [NH2C(=NH)NH2], lowered blood sugar levels. This led to introduc-
tion of biguanides as oral hypoglycemic agents. In 1957 biguanides were prepared and tested.
A biguanide refers to a structure where two guanidine molecules are linked

through common —NH— link. Ex: Phenformin, metformin.
CH3
H3C—N—C—NH—C—NH2
NH NH
Metformin
Biguanides increase insulin sensitivity in liver and muscle, inhibit glucose synthesis
and release by the liver, and enhance the ability of tissues to take up glucose.
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PHENFORMIN
Chemistry. It is a biguanide. Chemically phenformin is 1-phenethyl biguanide. It is
prepared by refluxing cyanoguanidine with phenethylamine hydrochloride.
Properties. It is colorless, odorless, bitter taste crystalline powder. Phenformin is avail-

able as a hydrochloride salt, which is soluble in ether and chloroform. It should be stored in
airtight containers.
Mechanism of action. Biguanides mechanism of action is uncertain, however they
lower blood glucose concentrations by producing insulin like effects on several tissues. They
also suppress gluconeogenesis, stimulate glycolysis and inhibit glucose absorption from the
intestine.
Uses. It is administered either alone or in combination with other hypoglycemic agents
in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Phenformin is also used in the treatment of occlusive
vascular disease, Raynaud’s syndrome and rheumatoid arthritis along with ethylestrenol.
METFORMIN
Chemistry. Metformin is another biguanide derivative. It is often prescribed for obese
people with type 2 diabetes, and does not cause weight gain.Chemically metformin is N,
N-dimethyl biguanide. It is prepared by refluxing cyanoguanidine with dimethylamine hydro-
chloride at 135°C.
NH
 CH3
H3C C C≡ N
135°C

NH.HCl + H2N NH → H3C—N—C—NH—C—NH2.HCl
H3C  
NH NH
N, N-Dimethylamine hydrochloride Metformin hydrochloride
Properties. It is colorless crystalline powder. Metformin is freely soluble in water and
is hygroscopic in nature.
Mechanism of action. Metformin is antihyperglycemic agent. The main causes for

reduced glucose levels are :
(i) Increase in insulin action in peripheral tissues
(ii) Reduced hepatic glucose out put due to inhibition of gluconeogenesis
(iii) Reduce the absorption of glucose from intestine
Uses. Metformin is used as antihyperglycemic agent. It is often given in combination
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with sulfonylureas.
Newer oral hypoglycemic agents :
Thiazolidinones. Thiazolidinones are a group of structurally related peroxisome
proliferator-activated receptor γ(PPARγ) agonists with antidiabetic actions invivo. These were
developed as oral antidiabetic agents in 1997 (commercially known as glitazones). The first,
troglitazone was taken off the market in 1999 because of its hepatic toxicity
Rosiglitazone and pioglitazone are now available for clinical use and are extremely po-
tent in reducing insulin resistance.
The primary effect of thiazolidinones is peripheral, with increasing insulin sensitivity

and increased glucose uptake. They do not stimulate pancreas to produce more insulin. Be-
sides their effect in lowering the blood glucose levels, both drugs also have notable effects on
lipids.
Benzoic acid derivatives. Repaglinide and nateglinide are important benzoic acid
derivatives possessing oral antidiabetic activity. They stimulate insulin secretion in a differ-
ent way from the sulfonylureas.
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Repaglinide is rapidly absorbed and quickly metabolized in the body. It also has little
effect on lipids and can, like the sulfonylureas cause weight gain.
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors. Glucosidase inhibitors act in the intestine to block the
action of enzymes that are responsible for breaking down complex carbohydrates into simple
sugars.
Acarbose is an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor that slows down the break down of
disaccharides and polysaccharides into monosacharides. It is produced by strains of the genus
actinoplanes and is used to treat patients with diabetes. It consists of an unsaturated
aminocyclitol moiety (ring A), a deoxy ribose (ring B) and a normal maltose (rings C and D).
GSK-3 inhibitors. Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) was initially described as a key
enzyme involved in glycogen metabolism, but now known to regulate a diverse array of cell
functions. Two forms of the enzyme, GSK-3α and GSK-3β, have been identified.
GSK-3 in the 21st century emerged as one of the most attractive therapeutic target for
the development of selective inhibitors as new promising drugs for unmet pathologies includ-
ing inflammatory processes, neurological diseases, stroke, cancer and diabetes type II.
22 Thyroid and Antithyroid Drugs
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INTRODUCTION
The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in front of the neck that produces
hormones. These hormones that increase oxygen use in cells and stimulate vital processes in
every part of the body. Thyroid epithelial cells of gland are responsible for synthesis of thyroid
hormones. The epithelial cells are arranged in spheres called thyroid follicles. Follicles are
filled with colloid, a proteinaceous depot of thyroid hormone precursor ( thyroglobulin).
Thyroid gland
Thyroid follicles
282
THYROID AND ANTITHYROID DRUGS 283
PRODUCTION OF THYROID HORMONES

An understanding of the complex thyroid hormone process begins with iodide, a salt that is
extracted from the blood and trapped by the thyroid gland.
1. Tyrosines are provided from a large glycoprotein scaffold called thyroglobulin, which
is synthesized by thyroid epithelial cells and secreted into the lumen of the follicle—
colloid is essentially a pool of thyroglobulin. A molecule of thyroglobulin contains 134
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tyrosines, although only a handful of these are actually used to synthesize T4 (thyrox-
ine) and T3 (triiodothyronine).
2. Iodide is converted to iodine in the thyroid gland. (Here, 80% of the body’s iodine supply
is then stored.) Iodine, in turn, is the raw material used in the manufacturing of thyrox-
ine (T4), the key thyroid hormone.
Thyroglobulin Thyroid
peroxidase
H I I
H H H
HO C
HO C HO C HO C
H
H H H
I I
I
I
Tyrosine I Diiodotyrosine
I
Thyroid
peroxidase
I I
H
H HO O C
C= H
H I I
Thyroxine
3. Thyroxine itself is converted into triiodothyronine (T3), which is the more biologically
active thyroid hormone.
4. Once the T4 and T3 thyroid hormones are in circulation, a large fraction binds to other
substances called thyroid hormone transport proteins, after which they become inac-
tive.
5. Two other important hormones in the process are thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH or
thyrotropin) and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH).
6. TSH directly influences the whole process of iodine trapping and thyroid hormone pro-
duction.
7. TSH is secreted by the pituitary gland and monitored by TRH, which is produced in the
hypothalamus gland (Both the pituitary and hypothalamus glands are located in the
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brain.).
Other brain centers
Stop
Hypothalamus TRH
+
Stop
Anterior
pituitary TSH
+
Thyroid Thyroid
gland hormones
Target cells
8. When thyroxine levels drop even slightly, the pituitary gland goes into action to pump
up secretion of TSH so that it can stimulate thyroxine production.
CHEMISTRY OF THYROID HORMONES

1. Thyroid hormones are derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine bound covalently to iodine.
The two principal thyroid hormones are :
(a) thyroxine (known affectionately as T4 or L-3, 5, 3′, 5′-tetraiodothyronine)
(b) triiodotyronine (T3 or L-3, 5, 3′-triiodothyronine).
As shown in the following diagram, the thyroid hormones are basically two tyrosines
linked together with the critical addition of iodine at three or four positions on the aromatic
rings. The number and position of the iodines is important. Several other iodinated molecules
are generated that have little or no biological activity; so called “reverse T3” (3, 3′, 5′-T3) is
such an example.
H H H
  
O O O
H I I I I I

O
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O O O
I I I I I
H—C—H

C
HOOC NH2
 H—C—H H—C—H H—C—H
H   
Tyrosine C C C
HOOC NH2 HOOC NH2 HOOC NH2
  
H H H
Thyroxine[T4] Triiodothyronine [T3] “Reverse T3“
[inactive]
2. A large majority of the thyroid hormone secreted from the thyroid gland is T4, but T3 is
the considerably more active hormone. Although some T3 is also secreted, the bulk of
the T3 is derived by deiodination of T4 in peripheral tissues, especially liver and kidney.
Deiodination of T4 also yields reverse T3, a molecule with no known metabolic activity.
3. Thyroid hormones are poorly soluble in water, and more than 99% of the T3 and T4
circulating in blood is bound to carrier proteins. The principle carrier of thyroid hor-
mones is thyroxine-binding globulin, a glycoprotein synthesized in the liver. Two other
carriers of import are transthyrein and albumin. Carrier proteins allow maintenance of
a stable pool of thyroid hormones from which the active, free hormones are released for
uptake by target cells.
PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONES

1. The thyroid hormones have a major impact on growth, use of energy, heat production,
and infertility. They affect the use of vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, electro-
lytes, and water, and they regulate the immune response in the intestine. They can also
alter the actions of other hormones and drugs. It is likely that all cells in the body
are targets for thyroid hormones. While not strictly necessary for life, thyroid hor-
mones have profound effects on many physiologic processes, such as development, growth
and metabolism.
2. Metabolism. Thyroid hormones stimulate diverse metabolic activities of most tissues,
leading to an increase in basal metabolic rate. One consequence of this activity is to
increase body heat production.
3. Growth. Thyroid hormones are clearly necessary for normal growth in children and
young animals, as evidenced by the growth-retardation observed in thyroid deficiency.
4. Development. The normal levels of thyroid hormone are essential to the development
of the fetal and neonatal brain.
5. Other Effects. Thyroid hormones increases heart rate, cardiac contractility and car-
diac output. They also alter mental state. Too little thyroid hormone, and the individual
tends to feel mentally sluggish, while too much induces anxiety and nervousness.
THYROID DISEASE STATES
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Disease is associated with both inadequate production and overproduction of thyroid hormones.
Both types of disease are relatively common afflictions of man and animals.
1. Hypothyroidism is the result from any condition that results in thyroid hormone defi-
ciency. Two well-known examples include :
(a) Iodine deficiency. Iodide is absolutely necessary for production of thyroid hormones;
without adequate iodine intake, thyroid hormones cannot be synthesized.
(b) Primary thyroid disease. Inflammatory diseases of the thyroid that destroy parts
of the gland are clearly an important cause of hypothyroidism.
2. Common symptoms of hypothyroidism arising after early childhood include lethargy,
fatigue, cold-intolerance, weakness, hair loss and reproductive failure. If these signs are
severe, the clinical condition is called myxedema. In the case of iodide deficiency, the
thyroid becomes inordinately large and is called a goiter.
3. The most severe and devastating form of hypothyroidism is seen in young
children with congenital thyroid deficiency. If that condition is not corrected by
supplemental therapy soon after birth, the child will suffer from cretinism, a form of
irreversible growth and mental retardation.
4. Hyperthyroidism results from secretion of thyroid hormones. In most species, this
condition is less common than hypothyroidism. In humans the most common form of
hyperthyroidism is Graves disease, an immune disease in which autoantibodies bind to
and activate the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor, leading to continual stimula-
tion of thyroid hormone synthesis. Another interesting, but rare cause of hyperthyroidism
is so-called hamburger thyrotoxicosis.
Common signs of hyperthyroidism are basically the opposite of those seen in
hypothyroidism, and include nervousness, insomnia, high heart rate, eye disease and anxiety.
SPECIFIC THYROID DRUGS

Levothyroxine sodium (thyroxine sodium)
Chemistry. Levothyroxine is treatment of choice for hypothyroidism. This drug is a
synthetic derivative of T4 (thyroxine), and it normalizes blood levels of TSH, T4, and T3.
Levothyroxine sodium is the levo isomer of thyroxine which is the primary secretion of thyroid
gland. It occurs as an odorless, light yellow to buff-colored, tasteless, hygroscopic powder that
is very slightly soluble in water and alcohol. The commercially available powders for injection
also contain mannitol.
Levothyroxine is slowly assimilated by body organs, and it usually takes three to six
weeks of treatment for improvement in symptoms in adults, although many patients feel bet-
ter, and improved puffiness pulse.
Storage/Stability/Compatibility. Levothyroxine sodium preparations should be stored
at room temperature in tight, light-resistant containers.
Pharmacology. Thyroid hormones affect the rate of many physiologic processes includ-
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ing: fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism, increasing protein synthesis, increasing
gluconeogenesis and promoting mobilization and utilization of glycogen stores. Thyroid hor-
mones also increase oxygen consumption, body temperature, heart rate and cardiac output,
blood volume, enzyme system activity, and growth and maturity. Thyroid hormone is particu-
larly important for adequate development of the central nervous system. While the exact mecha-
nisms how thyroid hormones exert their effects are not well understood, it is known that thy-
roid hormones (primarily triiodothyronine) act at the cellular level.
In humans, triiodothyronine (T3) is the primary hormone responsible for activity. Ap-
proximately 80% of T3 found in the peripheral tissues is derived from thyroxine (T4) which is
the principle hormone released by the thyroid.
Uses/Indications :
1. Levothyroxine sodium is indicated for the treatment of hypothyroidism in all species.
2. Liothyronine by intravenous injection is the treatment of choice in hypothyroid coma.
3. Adjunctive therapy includes intravenous fluids, hydrocortisone, and treatment of in-
fection; assisted ventilation is often required.
4. T4 is referred to as levothyroxine, or l-thyroxine, and T3 as a liothyronine, or l-tri-
iodothyronine, to highlight their derivation from the naturally occuring L-amino acid
tyrosine, and not from racemic or the non-naturally occuring D-tyrosine.
5. Dessicated Thyroid or Thyroid Extract, it is indicated for the replacement or supple-
mental therapy in hypothyroidism, pituitary TSH suppressants (thyroid nodules, thy-
roiditis, multinodular goiter, thyroid cancer), thyrotoxicosis, and diagnostic
syuppression tests. Primary action is through T3 content. Available in capsuls or tab-
lets.
6. Levothyroxine Sodium. L-Thyroxine Sodium, or T4, is prescribed for replacement
or supplemental therapy in hypothyrodism. Some clinitins consider levothyroxine
the drug of choice for replacement therapy. Injection or tablets.
7. Liothyronine Sodium. Sodium L-Triiodothyronine or T3 Sodium, it is indicated for
replacement or supplemental therapy in hypothyroidism, management of nontoxic
goiter, chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, as an adjunct in thyrotoxocosis and as a diag-
nostic aid. Levothyroxine is recommended for chronic therapy. T3 is also given to
inhibit TSH dependent tumor growth through the negative feedback mechanism (T3
downregulates TSH). Injection or tablets.
Structure/activity of thyroid hormone agonists
Hormone Relative Activity
T4 1
T3 3-4
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3, 5-diiodo-3′-isopropyl thyronine 7-15
ANTITHYROID DRUGS
Antithyroid drugs are used for hyperthyroidism either to prepare patients for
thyroidectomy or for long-term management. They are used primarily to treat Graves’
hyperthyroidism. These antagonists block the thyroid peroxidase which catalyzes both the
incorporation of iodine into the tyrosine residues and the coupling of the outer phenol ring to
the inner.
Mechanism. These drugs can inhibit synthesis of thyroid hormones by inhibiting the
peroxidase enzyme, and may be immunomodulatory (anti-TSH receptor Ab are decreased and
suppresser T-cell activity increased). Addition of thyroxine to regimens may increase remission
rate.
Presently, two kinds of thioureylenes are used clinically to inhibit the thyroid peroxidase.
One is based on thiouracil (PTU), the other is a mercaptoimidazole.
1. Propylthiouracil. Propylthiouracil (PTU) is the most commonly prescribed
thiourelene. The mechanism of action is inhibition of the synthesis of thyroid hormones by
blocking oxidation of iodine in the thyroid gland and by blocking synthesis of thyroxine and
triiodothyronine. PTU is prescribed for the palliative treatment of hyperthyroidism as an
adjunct to ameliorate hyperthyroidism in preparation for surgical treatment or radioactive
iodine therapy and in the management of thyrotoxic crisis. The use of antithyroid thiomides is
effective for all age groups, but expense, compliance, and monitoring problems make them
undesirable compared to use of radioactive iodine.
S

C S
HN NH 
C
 
C C H2N NH2
H7C3 C O
Propylthiouracil Thiourea
Propylthiouracil is given in a dose of 200 to 400 mg daily in adults and this dose is
maintained until the patient becomes euthyroid; the dose may then be gradually maintenance
dose of 50 to 150 reduced to a mg daily.
2. Methimazole. Methimazole is prescribed to return the hyperthyroid patient to a
normal metabolic state prior to thyroidectomy, and to control thyrotoxic crisis that may ac-
company thyroidectomy. Methimazole inhibits the synthesis of thyroid hormones by blocking
the oxidation of iodine in the thyroid gland and by blocking the ability of iodine to be incorpo-
rated into tyrosine to form T4 or T3.
S
 HN N
C
H3C—HN NH S N HS N
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  
 CH3 CH3
C C
H H Methimazole
Methimazole (Tapazole)
3. Carbimazole. Carbimazole is the most commonly used drug. It act primarily by
interfering with the synthesis of thyroid hormones.
S

C
H3C—HN N—COOC2H5
 
C C
H H
Carbimazole
Carbimazole is given in a dose of 15 to 40 mg daily; occasionally a larger dose may be

required.
Practice Questions
(Essay and Short Questions)
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CHAPTERS 1, 2 & 3
1. Define medicinal chemistry? Explain how medicinal chemistry has interrelationship
with other subjects?
2. What are drugs? Explain various routes of drug administration?
3. What are receptors? Discuss various receptors and receptor theories with examples?
4. What are drugs? Explain with examples how drus act?
5. What are drug-receptor interactions? Explain different types of binding forces exist in
drug-receptor iteractions with examples?
6. Explain different mechanisms of drug actions?
7. Write notes on different sites of drug action?
8. Discuss the importance of hydrogen bonding, partition coefficient and chelation in rela-
tion to biological activity?
9. Enumerate the various physicochemical properties that modulate biological activity and
explain any two of them in detail?
10. Enumerate the physicochemical properties that influence biological activity. Give a
detailed account of any two of them?
11. Discuss the influence of :
12. (a) Bioisosterism (b) Hydrogen bonding
(c) Ionization (d) Stereoisomerism on biological activity.
13. Discuss the suitable examples the importance of the following in relation to biological
activity of drugs :
14. (i) Optical isomerism (ii) Partition coefficient.
15. What is bioisosterism? How is it useful in the design of drugs?
16. Giving suitable examples, show how different types of isomerism affects the biological
activity of drugs?
17. How does protein binding of drugs affect the biological activity of therapeutic agents?
18. With the help of appropriate examples, elucidate how different physicochemical proper-
ties of drug molecules are related to their biological activity?
19. Explain the role of pKa in the biological activity of drugs?
290
PRACTICE QUESTIONS 291
20. “Biological activity of a drug does not simply depend on its chemical structure bat also
on its physicochemical properties.” Illustrate the above statement with suitable exam-
ples?
21. Discuss citing suitable examples how complexation, protein finding and partition coeffi-
cient affect biological activity of drugs?
22. What is partition coefficient?
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23. What is molar refractivity?
24. What is bioisosterism?
25. What are isosters?
CHAPTER 4
26. What are prodrugs? Describe the prodrug concept with examples?
27. How do prodrugs differ from soft drugs?
28. Enumerate the ideal properties of an ideal prodrug?
29. What principles are utilized in prodrug design for taste masking and odor improvement
of drugs?
30. Classify prodrugs according to the functional group? Write about the prodrugs of
carboxylic acids and carrbnonyl compounds with examples?
31. How can the prodrug design approach be utilized for controlled delivery?
CHAPTER 5
32. What is the major function of metabolic reaction?
33. What are various sites of drug metabolism in the body? Why is liver considered as the
major site for metabolism?
34. Classify the chemical pathways of drug metabolism?
35. What are phase 1 reactions? Why are phase 1 reactions classed as fictionalization reac-
tions?
36. Discuss the following metabolic reactions with examples :
37. (a) Acetylation (b) Glucuronidation
(c) o-Dealkylation (d) N-Dealkylation
(e) Sulfation.
CHAPTER 6
38. Give classification of general anesthetics and write their mode of action?
39. What are general anesthetics? Give an account of them?
40. What are general anesthetics? Classify them and describe them briefly? Enumerate
various characteristic features of ideal general anesthetic?
C-8—N-CHEMI\P-QUE.PM5
41. Write about Chemistry, properties and clinical uses of:

(a) Methoxyflurane (b) Enflurane
(c) Isoflurane.
42. Discuss the chemistry of :
(a) Cyclopropane (b) Nitrous oxide
(c) Chloroform (d) Halothane
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(e) Propandid.
43. Write notes on :
(a) Methohexital (b) Propofol
(c) Ketamine (d) Isoflurane.
44. How do you synthesize :
(a) Chloroform from bleaching powder
(b) Halothane from trichloroethylene
(c) Methohexital from 2-chloro-3-pentyne
(d) Ketamine from 0-chlorobenzonitrile.
CHAPTER 7
45. Discuss the SAR, mode of action and uses of Barbiturates. Outline the synthesis of
phenobarbitone?
46. Give chemical classification of sedatives and hypnotics with structures of atleast two
drugs from each class?
47. Outline the general scheme of synthesis of barbiturates. Discuss the SAR of barbitu-
rates?
48. Expail the development of Barbiturates?
49. What are non-barbiturates? Describe the chemistry and synthesis of Glutethimide,
methyprylone?
50. What are sedatives and hypnotics? How do they differ from antianxiety agents?
51. Write the SAR and mode of action of barbiturates?
52. Give an account of the malonyl urea derivatives used as sedatives. Outline the synthe-
sis and clinical uses of phenobarbitone and thiopentone?
53. Describe the synthesis and clinical uses of one typical drug from :
(a) A sulfur containing sedative (b) A pyrimidine derivative.
54. A piperidinedione derivative.
55. Quinazoline derivative having hypnotic activity.
56. Describe how do you synthesize the following hypnotic-sedative drugs :
(a) Chloral hydrate (b) Meprobamate
(c) Ethchlorvynol (d) Triazolam.
57. Discuss the chemistry and uses of :

(a) Diazepam (b) Prazepam
(c) Secobarbitone (d) Butobarbitone
(e) Cyclobarbitone (f) Pentobarbitone.
CHAPTER 8
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58. Discuss the general structural features of drugs associated with anticonvulsant activ-
ity. Write the mode of action, uses and synthesis of phenytoin and valproic acid?
59. Write briefly on “Anticonvulsants”?
60. Bring out the similarities in the chemistry of different classes of anticonvulsant drugs?
61. Describe the synthesis and clinical uses of phenytoin, troxidone, ethosuximide and
carbamazepine?
62. What are Hydantoins? Write about the chemistry of hydantoins
63. Trace out the common chemical features of different classes of antiepileptics? Outline
the synthesis and give the clinical uses of phenytoin, troxidone, ethosuximide and
carbamazepine.
64. How do you synthesize:
(a) Methoin (b) Trimethadione
(c) Phensuximide (d) Ethosuximide.
65. Describe synthetic schemes of :
(a) Diazepam (b) Clonazepam
(c) Carbamazepine (d) Methsuximide.
CHAPTER 9
66. Discuss SAR of tricyclic antidepressants. Enumerate MAO inhibitors giving the struc-
tures of any four drugs?
67. Write notes on Butyrophenone antipsychotics? Outline the synthesis of Haloperidol?
68. Give two examples each with structures of benzodiazepines used as sedatives, anxiolytics
and anticonvulsants?
69. Write the mode of action and synthesis of :
70. (a) Imipramine (b) Levadopa
(c) Haloperidol.
71. Classify antipsychotics giving two examples with structures for each class. Write the
SAR and mode of action of phenothiazine antipsychotics. Outline the synthesis of
chlorpromazine?
72. What are major tranquilizers? Classify them with examples and discuss their mode of
action?
73. Discuss with suitable examples the SAR of phenothiazines?

74. Write short notes on Antidepressants?
75. What are antidepressants? Briefly write the mode of action of tricyclic antidepressants
and MAO inhibitors?
76. What are antipsychotic agents? Classify them with examples and write briefly their
mode of action?
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77. Write he synthesis and mode of action on :
(a) Chlordiazepoxide (b) Chlorprothixene
(c) Amitryptilene (d) Isocarboxazide
(e) Pargyline.
78. Write the Dopamine hypothesis in psychosis?
79. Enumerate the different groups of drugs used in the treatment of depressive disorders?
80. Give a brief account of the chemistry of :
81. (a) Butyrophenone anti-psychotics (b) Benzodiazepine anti-psychotics.
82. Classify phenothiazine derivatives pharmacologically? Outline the synthesis and me-
dicinal uses of chlorpromazine, haloperidol and thiothixene?
83. Write about the chemistry of tricyclic antidepressant drugs?
84. Outline the synthesis and mention the clinical uses of imipramine, iproniazide and
tranylcypromine?
CHAPTER 10
85. Give classification of cholinergic drugs with examples and write the SAR, mode of ac-
tion and uses. Outline the synthesis of any one anticholinesterases?
86. Write a note on anticholinesterases.
87. Give an account of cholinergic and anticholinesterase agents and outline the synthesis
of any two such drugs?
88. What are neurotransmitters? Classify neurotransmitters with examples? Describe the
synthesis and release of acetylcholine?
89. Outline the synthesis and describe the clinical uses of a cholinergic agoinist, which is an
m-hydroxy aniline derivative.
90. Give a comprehensive account of parasympathomimetic drugs covering their classifica-
tion, SAR and mode of action? Describe the synthesis and clinical uses of three such
drugs?
91. Give an account of the drugs used as cholinergic and anticholinesterase agents?
92. What are the differences between cholinergic agonists and antagonits? Discuss the chem-
istry of any two drugs from each category?
93. What are antispasmodic and antiulcer drugs? Give an account of the chemistry of syn-
thetic cholinergic blocking agents?
94. What do you understand by cholinergic and anticholinesterase agents?

95. Describe the synthesis and clinical uses of :
(a) Pralidoxime (b) Homatropine
(c) Trihexyl phenidyl (d) Tropicamide
(e) Dicyclomin (f) Piperidolate.
96. Give a brief account on chemistry of :
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(a) Pyridostigmine (b) Atropine
(c) Propantheline bromide (d) Biperidine.
(a) Reversible anticholinesterases (b) Cholinomimetic alkaloids
(c) Choline esters.
CHAPTERS 11 & 12
98. Classify adrenergic drugs with examples and write their SAR?
99. Classify sympathomimetic agents and give their mode of action, uses and structure
activity relationships?
100. Write the structure, mode of action and uses of metoclopramide?
101. Enumerate the biosynthesis of Noradrenaline and write the uses of sympathomimetics?
102. Write the synthesis of Propranolol and Tolazoline?
103. Outline the chemical classification of adrenergic drugs? Discuss their mechanism of
action? Comment on the essential structural features required for the optimum activity
of such drugs?
104. Discuss the chemistry and SAR of adrenergic drugs?Write about synthesis and clinical
uses of:
(a) Adrenaline (b) Isoproterenol
(c) Terbutaline.
105. Outline the synthesis of amphetamine?
106. What are general structural requirements for adrenoreceptor agonists? Describe the
mode of action of such drugs?
107. Give the synthesis and medicinal uses of dichloroisoproterenol, ephedrine and
salbutamol?
108. Give a comprehensive account of sympathomimetic drugs covering their classification,
SAR and mode of action?
109. Describe the synthetic procedure of any two important sympatholytic agents?
110. Write about synthesis, mechanism of action and clinical uses of :
(a) Nylidrin (b) Hydroxyamphetamine
(c) Naphazoline.
111. Give your analytical and synthetic evidences to establish the structure of Ephedrine?
112. What are indirectly acting adrenergic drugs? Discuss the chemistry, synthesis and clinical
uses of amphetamine, cyclopentamine, naphazoline, xylometazoline and ephedrine?
113. How do you prepare :
(a) Metaraminol (b) Propranolol
(c) Dichloroisoproterenol (d) Butoxamine.
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114. What are adrenergic blockers? Discuss the chemistry and SAR of β-adrenergic blocking
agents with examples?
115. Give a detailed account on chemistry of :
(a) Ergot alkaloids (b) Selective α-receptor stimulants
(c) Selective β2-adrenergic stimulants.
CHAPTER 13
116. Write notes on muscle relaxants?
117. Write the synthesis, mode of action and uses methocarbamol?
118. What are muscle relaxants? Write about mechanism of action on muscle relaxants
119. Explain the synthesis and clinical uses of carisoprodol and chlorphenesin?
(a) Dantrolene (b) Baclofen.
CHAPTER 14
121. Define H1-receptor blockers? Give the classification by giving suitable examples?
122. Write the structure activity relationships of H1-receptor blockers?
123. What are histamine receptors? Write a brief account on histamine receptors?
124. What are antihistamines? Write the differences between H1 receptor blockers and H2-
receptor blockers?
125. Outline the synthesis of any two important H1-receptor blockers?
126. Write the structure, mode of action and uses of Ranitidine and Terfenadine?
127. Classify with examples the antihistaminic agents and discuss their general mode of
action and uses?
128. What are antihistamines? Classify them with examples and write their mode of action?
129. Outline the synthesis and uses of :
(a) Diphenhydramine (b) Chlorpheniramine
(c) Chlorpromazine (d) Cimetidine.
130. Classify antiallergenic agents giving examples? Write the synthesis of two compounds
selecting from each class?
131. Discuss the mode of action of H1-receptor antagonists?

132. Write the chemical name and synthesis of one H1-receptor antagonist from each of the
following groups :
(a) Aminoalkyl ethers (b) Ethylenediamines
(c) Phenothiazines.
133. Outline the synthesis and describe the clinical uses of H1-receptor antagonist having an
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aminoalkyl ether structure?
(a) Carbinoxamine (b) Bromodiphenhydramine
(c) Pyrilamine.
135. Write the names and structures of H1-receptor antagonists possessing pyridine and
piperidine moieties?
CHAPTERS 15, 16 & 17

136. Discuss the SAR of opioid analgesics and indicate the structural similarity among the
various chemical classes of this group?
137. What are anti-tussive agents? Furnish the names and structures of three narcotic and
three non-narcotic antitussive agents?
138. What are opioid analgesics? Describe the chemistry of various morphine derivatives?
139. What are narcotic antagonists? Explain the chemistry of any two narcotic antagonists?
140. What are opiate receptors? Discuss the biochemical action of opium derivatives? De-
scribe the chemistry of Morphine?
141. What are peripherally modified derivatives of morphine? Enumerate various peripher-
ally modified derivatives of morhine with their structures and uses?
142. What are synthetic morphine derivatives? Discuss the synthesis and clinical uses of any
two synthetic derivatives?
143. What are synthetic analgesics? Explain the synthesis and uses of methadone and
ethoheptazine?
(a) Nalorphine (b) Levallorphan.
145. Classify antitussives with exaples? How do you prepare caramiphen?
(a) Benzonatate (b) Noscapine
(c) Dextromethorphan.
(a) Nalorphine (b) Codeine
(c) Naltrexone.
CHAPTER 18
148. Classify non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents giving structures of two drugs for each
class. Discuss the mode of action and SAR of aryl alkanoic acids. Outline the synthesis
of Ibuprofen?
149. Write notes on Antipyretics?
150. Classify analgesics and antipyretics with suitable examples?
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151. Briefly write the mode of action, and structure activity relation of Analgesics and
Antipyretics?
152. Write the synthesis of mefenamic acid?
153. What are analgesics and antipyretics. Write the mode of action and limitations of
salicylates?
154. Outline the synthesis of :
(a) Paracetamol (b) Ibuprofen
(c) Diclofenac (d) Oxyphenbutazone
(e) Indomethacin (f) Piroxicam
(g) Phenylbutazone (h) Naproxen.
155. Write the SAR of N-arylanthranilic acids?
156. Write the mode of action of NSAIDS?
157. Define non-steroidal antinflammatory drugs? Classify them according to their chemical
moiety? Give details of indolyl and aryl acetic acid derivatives?
158. Write the synthesis and mechanism of action of Naproxen?
159. Write abot SAR of indole acetic acid derivatives?
160. How do you prepare Piroxicam and Sulindac?
161. Given an account of chemistry of :
(a) Salicylates (b) Propionic acid derivatives
(c) Anthranilates (d) Oxicams.
162. What are COX-2 selective inhibitors? Enumerate the advantages of COX-2 inhibitors
over COX-1 inhibitors? Write the structures and clinical uses of any two COX-2 selec-
tive inhibitors?
163. What are NSAIDS? Discuss the general chemical properties of NSAIDS with examples?
(a) Naproxen (b) COX-2 selective inhibitors
(c) Sulindac (d) Mefenamic acid.
CHAPTER 19
165. Write notes on local anesthetics?
166. Write the structure, mode of action and uses of Lignocaine and benzocaine?
167. What are local anesthetics? How do they differ from general anesthetics? Mention the
ideal characteristics that a local anesthetic should possess?
168. Write the synthesis and mode of action of procaine.
169. Describe the synthesis and clinical uses of one typical drug from a xylene derivative
used as a local anesthetic?
170. Explain the chemical reactions involved in synthesis of benzocaine from
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(a) Toluene (b) p-Aminobenzoic acid.
171. How do you differentiate between local and general anesthetics? Describe the chemistry
of any three local anesthetics belong to two different classes?
172. What are local anesthetics? Give a detailed amount of amide type of local anesthetics?
173. Give a detailed account on history of local anesthetics?
174. What are local anesthetics? Give a brief account of the ester type of local anesthetics?
Describe the synthesis of any two-ester local anesthetics?
CHAPTER 20
175. Classify diuretics giving structure of one drug for each class. Write the SAR and mode of
action of thiazide diuretics. Write notes on potassium sparing diuretics. Outline the
synthesis of Ethacrynic acid?
176. Discuss the development and mode of action of thiazides?
177. What are loop diuretics? Give examples and explain their mechanism of action?
178. Outline the synthesis and clinical uses of acetazolamide and furosemide?
179. Give an account on carbonic anhydrase inhibitors?
180. What are diuretics? Classify them with examples? Discuss the SAR of thiazide diuretics?
181. Describe the method of synthesis and chemical uses of a diuretic compound with sulfonyl
moiety?
182. Classify diuretic agents and discuss the mode of action and SAR of CA-inhibitors and
loop diuretics?
183. Enumerate the mode of actions of diuretics? Write structures synthesis and uses of any
three important diuretics belong to different classes?
184. What are diuretics? Give an account of various classes of diuretics with suitable examples?
(a) Acetazolamide (b) Furosemide.
CHAPTER 21
186. Write notes on oral hypoglycemic agents?
187. Discuss the chemistry and activity of oral hypoglycemic agents. Outline the synthesis of
any one of them.
188. Describe the method of synthesis and clinical uses of a hypoglycemic agent having
sulfonamide structure?
189. Write notes on hypoglycemic agents?

190. Describe the synthesis, uses and mode of action of tolbutamide?
191. Write a detailed note on oral hypoglycemic agents?
192. What are oral hypoglycemic agents? Discuss the chemistry and SAR of sulphonyl urea
derivatives?
193. What is the source of insulin? Why insulin cannot be given orally? Discuss the chemis-
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try of any four hypoglycemic agents belong to different classes?
194. Write a detailed account on some newer oral antidiabetic agents?
195. Classify hypoglycemic agents giving the names of agents of each class. Describe struc-
ture and biosynthesis of insulin?
196. Write about synthesis and mechanism of action o0f Glipizide and Phenformin?
(a) Glibenclamide (b) Glipizide
(c) GSK-3 inhibitors (d) Thiazolidinedione derivatives.
CHAPTER 22
198. What are thyroid hormones? Discuss the production and chemistry of thyroid hormones?
199. What are thyroid drugs? Write a note on chemistry of levothyroxine?
200. What are antithyroid drugs? Discuss the mechanism of action and chemistry of
carbimazole, propyl thiouracil, and methimazole?
201. Write notes on Antithyroid drugs?
Objective Questions
NEI
1. The chemical name 7-chloro-1,3-dihydro-1-methyl-5-phenyl-1,4-benzodiazepine-2-one be-
longs to ____________
Ans: Diazepam.
2. Which physicochemical property influence drug transport characteristics i.e., the way
drugs reach the site of action from the site of application?
Ans: Partition coefficient.
3. Hansch observed that the relationship between Log P and activity is _____
Ans: Parabolic.
4. What parameters are used to understand the behaviour of drug molecules?
Ans: pKa and LogP.
5. Which important factor influences drug-receptor interactions?
Ans: Hydrogen bonding.
6. Hydantoins are cyclic ______________
Ans: Monoacylureas.
7. Hydantoins possess _____________ heterocyclic system.
Ans: Imidazoline-2,4-dione.
8. Chemically phenytoin is _________________
Ans: 5,5-diphenylimidazolidine-2,4-dione.
9. A + B phenytoin. Write structures of A and B.
Ans: A: a-bromodiphenylacetylurea, B: alcoholic ammonia.
10. Phenytoin stabilizes neuronal membrane by decreasing ________
Ans: Sodium channel flux.
11. _____________ is a pyridine analogue of neostigmine, which is used for reversal of
neuromuscular block.
Ans: Pyridostigmine.
12. Pyridinostigmine bromide can be synthesized from ____________ by condensation with
dimethyl carbamoyl chloride.
Ans: 3-hydroxy-1-methyl pyridixium bromide.
13. Pyridositigmine is a potent _____________ of acetylcholinesterase.
Ans: reversible inhibitor.
301
14. ______________ consists of two neostigmine molecules linked by a chain of 10 methylene

groups.
Ans: Demecarium.
15. Ambenonium is used to treat ____________
Ans: myasthenia gravis.
16. Ecothiopate is a long acting ___________ anticholinesterase drug.
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Ans: irreversible.
17. ____________ isomer of atropine is 250 times more active
Ans: l-isomer
18. The chemical name of glycopyrrolate is ___________
Ans: 3-hydroxy-1,1-dimethyl pyrrolidinium bromide-a-cyclopentyl mandelate.
19. Histamine is present mostly within the storage granule of ____________
Ans: mast cells and basophils.
20. Histamine is chemically ______________
Ans: 2-(4-imidazoyl)ethylamine.
21. Histamine is synthesized from _____________
Ans: Histidine.
22. Which cycloxygenase enzyme is responsible for house keeping functions of prostag-
landins?
Ans: COX-1.
23. Which cycloxygenase is responsible for inflammatory processes mediated by prostag-
landins?
Ans: COX-2.
24. NSAIDS inhibit both ___________ and ___________
Ans: COX-1, COX-2.
25. Celecoxib is an selective _____________ inhibitor.
Ans: COX-2.
26. Antipyretic activity of NSAIDS results from inhibition of __________
Ans: Prostaglandin E2.
27. Generally NSAIDS structurally consist of an _________ moiety attached to a planner
aromatic functionality.
Ans: Acidic.
28. What is the NSAIDS general structure?
Ans:
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 303
29. Magnesium salicylate is prepared by mixing of __________ with sufficient quantity of

___________ in isopropranol and water mixture.
Ans: Salicylic acid, magnesium oxide.
30. Chemically salicylamide is ——————————
Ans: o-hydroxy benzamide.
31. Aluminium aspirin is prepared by mixing of ___________ with water and _____________
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at 65°C.
Ans: Aluminium hydroxide gel, acetyl salicylic acid.
32. Calcium aspirin is a calcium salt of ___________
Ans: Acetyl salicylic acid.
33. Chemically flufenisol is___________
Ans: Acetyl-5-(4-fluorophenyl) salicylic acid.
34. Which enantiomes of profens is the more potent cycloxygenase inhibitor?
Ans: S (+)-enantiomer.
35. Most of the synthetic routes to prepare ibuprofen begin with __________
Ans: Isobutyl benzene.
36. Indomethacin posses ____________ nucleus.
Ans: Indole.
37. Piroxicam and meloxicam are characterized by the___________ heterocycle.
Ans: 4-hydroxy benzothiazine.
38. Chemically antipyrine is _______________
Ans: 2,3-dimethyl-1-phenyl-3-pyrazolin-5-one.
39. Chemically aminopyrine is ___________
Ans: 2,3-dimethyl-4-dimethyl amino-1-phenyl-3-pyrazolin-5-one.
40. Mephenytoin chemically is ___________
Ans: 5-ethyl-3-methyl-5-phenyl hydantoin.
41. Mephenytoin is synthesized from ___________
Ans: Cyanophenyl acetamide.
42. Oxazolidine-2,4-dione is analogous to ___________ differs in having _____ atom at posi-
tion 1 instead of NH.
Ans: Hydantoin, oxygen.
43. Trimethadione is an ____________ derivative.
Ans: Oxazolidinedione.
44. Chemically trimethadione is ______________
Ans: 3, 5, 5-trimethyloxazolidine-2, 4-dione.
45. Chemically phensuximide is ______________
Ans: 2-phenylsuccinimide.
46. ___________ and __________ starting materials are used to synthesize ethosuximide.
Ans: 2-butanone, ethycyanoacetate.
47. Carbamazepine is an ___________ derivative possess ________ nucleus.
Ans: Azepine, dibenzazepine.
48. ___________ is released at both pre and post ganglionic synapses in parasympathetic
system.
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Ans: Acetylcholine.
49. ___________ enzyme catalyses the reaction between acetyl coenzyme A and choline.
Ans: α-cholineacetylase.
50. ___________ and __________ are acetylcholine receptors.
Ans: muscarinic, nicotine.
51. Choline esters stimulate ___________ receptors.
Ans: muscarinic.
52. _____________ is a synthetic desivative of choline.
Ans: Bethamechol.
53. Carbachol is an ester of ___________
Ans: Carbamic acid.
54. Methacholine is used to treat _________ and _________
Ans: Raynaud’s syndrome and glaucoma.
55. Write some examples of cholinomimetic alkaloids?
Ans: Pilocarpine, Arecoline, Muscarine.
56. Which site of acetylcholinesterase enzyme binds with the quaternary nitrogen of acetyl-
choline?
Ans: Anionic site of acetylcholinesterase.
57. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors have been used clinically in the treatment of ______
_______
Ans: Myasthenia gravis.
58. Glucuronidation is catalysed by various ___________
Ans: microsomal glucuronyl transferases.
59. Analgesic activity is mediated by _________ receptors in CNS.
Ans: opiate.
60. ___________ group is an important structural feature for analgesic activity in morphine.
Ans: 3-hydroxyl.
61. Second-generation antihistamines bind only to ____________
Ans: Peripheral H1-receptors.
62. H2 receptor blockers are used to treat _________
Ans: Gastric ulcers.
63. _____________ moiety is present in famotidine.

Ans: Imidazole.
64. Adrenergic nerves release __________, __________ and ___________ neurotransmitters.
Ans: Norepinephrine, epirephrine, dopamine.
65. ___________ and ___________ enzymes are important in the biotransformations of
catecholomines.
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Ans: Monoaminoxidase, Catechol-0-methyl transferase.
66. Norepinephrine activates primarily ___________ receptors and epinephrine activates
primarily __________ receptors.
Ans: α, β.
67. All catecholamines possess _____________ nucleus.
Ans: O-Hydroxybenzene or Catechol.
68. Noncatecholamines possess ________ ring and an ________ side chain.
Ans: Benzene, ethylamine.
69. What is the general structure of piperazine antihistamine.
Ans: H
Ar—C—N N—R
70. Cyclizine is a ___________ derivative.

Ans: Piperazine.
71. Cyclizine is prepared by reaction of ___________ with ___________
Ans: Benzhydryl chloride, N-methylpiperazine.
72. Cyproheptadine is a ___________ antagonist __________ antagonist.
Ans: Histamine H1-receptor, serotonin.
73. Azatadine is chemically related to __________
Ans: Cyproheptadine.
74. Antazoline is a ___________ derivative.
Ans: Imidazoline.
75. Diphenylpyraline is synthesized by refluxing the mixture of ________ and ___________
Ans: 1-methyl-4-piperidinol, benzhydryl bromide.
76. Ebastine is a potent, long acting ___________
Ans: Antihistamine.
77. Propylhexedrine is used as __________ and ___________

Ans: Nasal decongestant, adrenergic agent.
78. Cyclopentamine is a ___________ possessing indirectly acting _________ activity.
Ans: Non-catecholamine, adrenoreceptor agonostic.
79. Chemically naphazoline is _____________
Ans: 2-(1-naphthylmethyl)-2-imidazoline.
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80. Xylometazoline is prepared by heating ___________ with ethylenediamine monochloride
at 200°C.
Ans: (4-tert-butyl-2,6-dimethylphenyl) acetonitrile.
81. Ephedrine has ___________ asymmetric centers.
Ans: Two.
82. Chemically metaraminol is _____________
Ans: 3-hydroxyphenyl isopropanolamine.
83. Mephenteramine is used as a ____________
Ans: Parenteral Vasopressor.
84. Adrenoreceptor blocks ____________ the effects of catecholamines.
Ans: Competitively.
85. ___________ are similar to β-agonists.
Ans: β-Blockers.
86. Incorporation of __________ group into the molecule between the aromatic ring and the
ethylamine side chain provides b-blocking activity.
Ans: —OCH2.
87. Naphthol on reaction with epichlorhydrin provides the glycidic ether which on treat-
ment with isopropylamine gives ____________
Ans: Propranolol.
88. Propranolol is an effective ___________
Ans: Antihypertensive agent.
89. Hydroxy propranolol is a short acting __________
Ans: β-antagonist.
90. Timolol has been approved for _________
Ans: Hypertension.
91. Metoprolol is ___________
Ans: β1-selective antagonist.
92. The potassium-sparing diuretics act on ____________
Ans: Collecting tubule and collecting duct.
93. High ceiling diuretics are commonly referred as __________
Ans: Loop diuretics.
94. Benzothiazides directly inhibit sodium and chloride reabsorption at ______

Ans: Distal convoluted tubule.
95. Local anesthetics block __________ of the nerve membrane to make the conduction of
the nerve impulse impossible.
Ans: Depolarization.
96. Local anesthetics have pKs between ________ and ______ which permits them to exist in
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both ionized and non-ionised forms at physiologic pH.
Ans: 7.7, 9.3.
97. Cyclomethycaine is prepared by condensation of _______ with _______
Ans: 4-cyclohexyl benzoic acid, piperocaine hydrochloride.
98. Cinchocaine is prepared from __________
Ans: 2-hydroxy-4-quinoline carboxylic acid.
99. The insulin receptor is composed of _________ subunits and linked by ___________
Ans: Two α, two β, disulphide bonds.
100. Chlorpropamide is a derivative of _________
Ans: Benzene sulphonamide.
101. Glibenclamide is prepared from _________ and _________
Ans: 3-chloro-2-methoxy benzoylchloride, 2-amino ethyl benzenesulphonamide.
102. Glipizide is prepared from __________ and __________
Ans: 5-methylpiperazine-2-carboxylic acid, 4-(2-aminoethyl) benzene sulphonamide.
103. Baclofen is a __________
Ans: Central skeletal muscle relaxant.
104. Baclofen inhibits both ________ and _________ reflexes at spinal level.
Ans: monosynaptic, polysynaptic.
105. The chemical name of carisoprodol is __________
Ans: N-isopropyl-2-methyl-2-propyl-1,3-propanediol dicarbamate.
106. Chlorphenesin is synthesized by condensation of _________ with _______
Ans: 4-chlorophenol, 3-chloro-1,2-propanediol.
107. The chemical name of methocarbamol is ___________
Ans: β-(-O-methoxyphenoxy)-1,2-propanediol-1-carbamate.
108. _____________ acts directly on skeletal muscle to inhibit muscle contraction.
Ans: Dantrolene.
109. Cyclazocine is a ___________ derivative.
Ans: Benzomorphan.
110. Naltrexone posses ___________ at the piperidine nitrogen of oxymorphine moiety.
Ans: Cyclopropyl methyl.
111. ____________ is a non-opioid synthetic antitussive.

Ans: Benzonatate.
112. The commercially available COX-2 inhibitors can be structurally characterized as
___________
Ans: diaryl-5-membered beterocycles.
113. Celecoxib has a central ___________ ring and two adjacent __________ substituents.
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Ans: Pyrazole, phenyl.
114. Rofecoxib has a central ____________ ring.
Ans: Furanose.
115. Valdecoxib is an aryl ___________ derivative.
Ans: Sulfonamide.
116. Histamine carries its message to a large number of calls by attaching to a ____________
on the cells surfaces.
Ans: Special receptors.
117. How many kinds of histamine receptors are there?
Ans: Two kinds, they are H1 and H2. However H3 also identified based on laboratory animal
experiments.
118. Histamine H1-antagonists should have ________ nitrogen for maximum anhihistaminic
activity.
Ans: 3°.
119. What is the general structure of H1-Histamine antagonists).
R
Ans: Ar——X*——[CH2—CH2]—N
n
R
120. Carbimazole is administered as __________
Ans: Antithyroid.
121. Primidone is used to treat _________
Ans: Hypnosis sedation and epilepsy.
122. Heroin is a _________ derivative of morphine.
Ans: Diacetyl.
123. Salindac is obtained from ___________
Ans: 4-flurobenzaldehyde.
124. Condensation of ________ and _________ gives barbiturates.
Ans: Malonic acid, urea.
125. The activity of benzothiazide diuretics is __________ by reduction of the double bond.
Ans: Increased.
126. A piperidine dione derivative used as hypnotic and sedative is _________
Ans: Glutethimide.
127. ___________ group is present in prazepam but not in diazepam.

Ans: cyclopropyl methyl.
128. Hydrolysis of atropine barium hydroxide gives _______ and __________
Ans: tropic acid, tropine.
130. A α2-adrenergic agonist is ___________
Ans: Clonidine.
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131. A local anesthetic derived from xylgnas _________
Ans: Lignocaine.
132. An oral hypoglycemic agent belonging to sulfonyl urea derivative is ___________
Ans: Tolbutamide.
133. Oxyphenonium bromide is classified as ________
Ans: Parasympatholytic.
134. Methyldopa centrally acts as ___________
Ans: Antihypertensive.
135. Acetylation of both 3 and 6-OH groups yields __________
Ans: Heroin.
136. Reduction of codeine’s 7,8-double bond __________ activity relative to codeine.
Ans: Increases.
137. Replacement of morphine’s N-methyl group with an allyl group results _____________
Ans: Naloxone.
138. __________ resembles narcotics with respect to its mechanism of action.
Ans: Propoxyphene.
139. ____________ is a novel drug possessing of both opioid agonistic and antagonistic prop-
erties.
Ans: Pentazocine.
140. ____________ is the raw material for the synthesis of thyroxine (Tu).
Ans: Iodine.
141. Which is the key thyroid hormone?
Ans: Thyroxine.
142. Which thyroid hormone is more biologically active?
Ans: Triiodothyronine.
143. ____________ is treatment of choice for hypothyroidism.
Ans: Levothyroxine.
144. Chlorpheniramine maleate is a product of ________
Ans: Alkylamine.
145. An antianxiety agent having a 1,4-benzodiazepine ring is known as _____
Ans: Diazepam.
146. Spiranolactone acts as a competitive inhibitor of _________

Ans: Aldosterone.
147. Furosemide and ethacrynic acid acts mainly on _________
Ans: Loop of henle of nephron.
148. Pilocarpine is extracted from the leaves of _________
Ans: Pilocarpus jaborandi.
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149. Acetylation of ___________ gives paracetamol.
Ans: Para-Aminophenol.
150. The chemical name of sodium valproate is __________
Ans: Sodium-2-propylpentanoate
151. An antihistamine belongs to piperazine derivative is ____________
Ans: Meclizine.
152. Ethacrynic acid is a __________ derivative.
Ans: Phenoxyacetic acid.
153. A synthetic anticholinergic agent is ___________
Ans: Mepenzolate or glycopyrrolate.
154. Acetazolamide contains __________ heterocyclic ring.
Ans: Thiadiazole.
155. Amethocaine hydrochloride is used as __________
Ans: Local anesthetic.
156. Pralidoxime acts as an antidote in _________ poisoning.
Ans: Organophosphates.
157. Chemically halothane is _________
Ans: 2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane.
158. A+B ___________________ procaine hydrochloride write structure of A and B.
Ans: A: 2-chloroethyl 4-aminobenzoate; B: diethyl amine.
159. By which mechanism local anesthetic block nerve conduction?
Ans: Depolarisation.
160. Semisynthetic analogue of atropine is _______
Ans: Homatropine.
161. Pethidine is derived from __________
Ans: Piperidine.
162. Morphine on distillation with zinc yields _________
Ans: Pnenauthrene.
163. Exposure of paraldehyde to light gives _________
Ans: Acetaldehyde.
164. Methylation of morphine with methylating agent gives _____

Ans: Codeine.
165. A derivative of succinamide used as a drug is _______
Ans: Ethosuccinamide.
166. Carbachol contains ________ group instead of acetyl in alcohol.
Ans: Carbamoyl.
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167. A carbonic anhydrase inhibitor is ________
Ans: Acetazolamide.
168. Glibenclamide is used to treat ___________
Ans: Diabetes mellitus.
169. An example of i.v. general anesthetic is ______
Ans: Thiopental sodium.
170. An MAO inhibitor used in the treatment of hypertension is ________
Ans: Pargyline.
171. Propranolol is obtained from __________
Ans: Arylpropanolamine.
172. Chemical name of amylobarbitone is ________
Ans: Ethyl-4-isopentylbarbituric acid.
173. The common name of 5-ethyl-5-pheylbarbituric acid is _________
Ans: Phenobarbitone.
174. Haloperidol tranquiliser is the derivable of ___________
Ans: Butyrophenone.
175. Glibenclamide contains _________ moiety.
Ans: Benzenesulphonyl urea.
176. Chemical name of atenolol is _________
Ans: 1-P-Amidomethylphenoxy-3-isopropylamino-2-propranolol.
177. Ergot alkaloids are derivatives of __________
Ans: Lysergic acid.
178. Quinazolines are selective________
Ans: α1-Adrenergic competitive blockers.
179. _________ was the first known selective α1-blocker.
Ans: Prazosin.
180. Phentolamine and tolazoline are substituted ______
Ans: Imidazolines.
181. Ephedrine is isolated from _________
Ans: Ephedra gerardiana.
182. Isoprenaline is derived from ___________

Ans: Isopropylaminoethanol.
183. Promethazine turns to ________ colour on exposure to light.
Ans: Blue.
184. Frusemide and nitrofurantoin are _________ containing heterocyclics.
Ans: Furan.
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185. Leperamide is used to treat _________
Ans: Diarrhoea.
186. Morphine mimics the endogenous neurotransmitter __________
Ans: Enkephalins.
187. Xylometazoline HCl is taken as _________
Ans: Nasal decongestant.
188. Thyroxine possesses ___________ iodine group.
Ans: Four.
189. Chlorpropamide is a product of ___________
Ans: Sulphonylureas.
190. An antihistaminic drug of amino alkyl ethers group is ________ drug.
Ans: Diphenhydramine.
191. Substitution of hydroxyl group of catechol nucleous by other groups reduces ___________
activity and abolishes _________ activity.
Ans: α, β.
192. Chemical name of dopamive is _______
Ans: 3, 4-Dihydroxyphenylethylamine.
193. Isoproterenol is a synthetic catecholamine acting almost exclusively at __________
receptors.
Ans: β.
194. _____________ is the most potent of catecholamines.
Ans: Isoproterenol (Isoprenaline).
195. Phenylephrine differs from adrenaline only by lacking the _________ group on the ben-
zene ring.
Ans: 4-Hydroxy.
196. Phenylephrine is synthesized by condensation of ________ with ________ followed by
catalytic reduction.
Ans: 3-chloroacetylphenyl, methylamine.
197. Dobutamine is a selective _________ receptor agonist.
Ans: β1.
198. Terbutaline is prepared by catalytic reduction of ____________

Ans: 2-(text-butylamino)-3’-5’-dihydroxyacetophenone.
199. Isoetharine has ________ and _________ properties.
Ans: α1 and β-antagonistic.
200. Ritodrine is a short acting _________ stimulant.
Ans: β2.
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201. Metaproterenol is prepared by condensation of _________ with isopropylamine followed
by reduction.
Ans: 2-chloro-3’,5’-dihydroxy acetophenone.
202. Amphetamine is an _________ amine.
Ans: Indirect-acting sympathomimetic.
203. Amphetamine is synthesized by reductive amination of _________ with ammonia and
hydrogen.
Ans: Phenylacetone.
204. Chemically propylhexedrine is __________
Ans: 1-Cyclohexyl-2-methylaminopropane.
205. Pheniramine possess ___________ nucleus.
Ans: Pyridine.
206. Chemical name of chlorpheniramine is _________
Ans: 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(2-pyridyl) propyldimethylamine.
207. What is the general structure of phenothiazine antihistamines?
Ans: S
N
R
C—CH—C—N
R
H2 R H2
208. Trimeprazine is a ________ derivative.

Ans: Phenothiazine.
209. Triprolidine is a ________ derivative and possess ______ and _______ moietics.
Ans: Pyrrolidine, pyrrolidine, pyridine.
210. Promethazine possess _________ nucleus.
Ans: Phenothiazine.
211. Promethazine is prepared by condensation of _______ with _________ in presence of
sodamide.
Ans: Phenothiazine, 2-(N-dimethylamino)-1-chloropropane.
212. Methdilazine is a ________ derivative.

Ans: Phenothiazine.
213. What is the fundamental structure of ethylenediamine derivatives of H1-antagonists?
Ans:
Ar R1
N—C—C—N
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R2 R
H2 H2
214. Clemastine is an _________ derivative possessing of ________ nucleus.

Ans: Ethylenediamine, pyrrolidine.
215. Methapyrilene is a ________ derivative with ________ nucleus.
Ans: Ethylenediamine, pyridine.
216. All propyl amine antihistamines are _________ compounds.
Ans: Chiral.
217. Chemically Triclofos sodium is _________
Ans: Sodium2,2,2-trichloroethyl hydrogen orthophosphate.
218. Methimazole is taken in the prophylaxis of __________
Ans: Hyperthyroidism.
219. Insulin is secreted by ————of islets of langerhans of pancreas.
Ans: β-cells.
220. Pethidine is derived from ——————
Ans: Phenylpiperidine.
221. A hydrazine derivative belongs to MAO inhibitor category is————
Ans: Iproniazide.
222. ———————of morphine with a methylating agent gives Codeine.
Ans: Methylation.
223. Morphine produces blue colour with FeCl3 sodium due to the presence of ——————
Ans: Phenolic hydroxyl group.
224. An example of I.V. general anesthetic is Thiopentone.
225. Carbochol contains ————— instead of acetyl in acetylcholine.
Ans: Carbamoyl group.
226. A hormone isolated from thyroid glad is ———————
Ans: Thyroxine.
REFERENCES
1. J. N. Delgado and W.A. Remers, Wilson and Gisvold’s Textbook of Organic Medicinal
NEI
and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Lippincott’s, Philadelphia.
2. W.O. Foye, T.L. Lemke and D.A. Williams, Principles of Medicinal Chemistry, Williams
and Wilkins, Pennsylvania.
3. G. Thomas, Chemistry for Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Prentice-Hall, New York.
4. M. E. Wolff, Burger’s Medicinal Chemistry, Wiley-Interscience, New York.
5. A.R. Gennaro, Ed., Remington’s Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publications, Penn-
sylvania.
6. A. Kar, Medicinal Chemistry, New Age Publishers, New Delhi.
7. British Pharmacopoeia.
8. A. G. Gilman, L.S. Goodman, the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, New York.
9. Marcel Dekkar., New York, Concepts in Drug Metabolism, B. Testa and P. Jenner.,
10. V.N. Gogte, Profile in Drug Synthesis, Gokul Publishers, Mumbai.
11. Burger’s Medicinal Chemistry and Drug Discovery, Sixth Edition, Volume 6: Nerv-
ous System Agents Edited by Donald J. Abraham, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
12. United States Pharmacopoeia.
13. Emanuel, M.B, Histamine and the Antiallergic Antihistamine: A History of their Dis-
coveries. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 29: 1-11, 1999.
14. Rama Rao Nadendla, Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry (Heterocyclics and Natural
Products) by Vallabh Prakasan, New Delhi.
15. Role of Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism in Drug Discovery and Development :jiunn
h. lin a and anthony y. h. lu, Department of Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Labo-
ratories, West Point, Pennsylvania, Pharmacological Reviews Vol. 49, no. 4
16. http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm
17. Indian Pharmacopoeia.
18. The Britsh Pharmaceutical Codex
19. The Merck Index
20. The Pharmaceutical Journal, Volume, 268, April, 2002, 539.
21. E.A. Barnard, Trends Biochem. Sci., 1992, 17, 368.
22. G. Carpenter, Annu. Rev. Biochem., 1987, 56, 881.
23. S.R. Coughlin, Curr. Opinion Cell Biol., 1994, 6, 191.
24. R.M. Evans, Science, 1988, 240, 889.
25. T. Kenakin, Pharmacological Analysis of Drug Receptor Interactions, Raven Press,
New York, 1993.
26. Clarke’s Isolation and identification of drugs, pharmaceutical press, London.
27. C. Hansch, Quantitative dtructure-activity Relationship in drug design, In: drug de-
sign, vol I, chap. 2 (Ed., E. J. Ariens) academic press, New York.
315
REFERENCES 316
28. J. G. Topliss, Quantitative structure-activity relationships of drugs, Academic press
New York.
29. http://www.ionsource.com/tutorial/metabolism/drug_metabolism.htm - Small Molecule
Drug Metabolism.
30. Progress in Medicinal Chemistry G.P. Ellis and G.B.West, Butterworth, London.
32. Bently and Driver’s Pharmacetical Chemistry.
33. D. Lednicer and L.A. Mitsher, The Organic Chemistry of Drug Synthesis: John Wiley
NEI
and Sons, New York.
34. P. Parimoo, A text Book of Medicinal Chemistry, CBS Publishers, New Delhi.
35. Rama Rao Nadendla, Principles of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry (Revised and
Enlarged) by Macmillan India Private Limited.
Index
NEI
A Apomorphine, 223
Aryloxypropanolamines, 171
Acetohexamide, 275
Aspirin, 236
Acetazolamide, 261, 262
Azatadine, 204
Acetohexamide, 50
Acorbose, 281
Acetylation, 50
Antithyroid drugs, 288
Acetylcholine, 122, 123, 124
Adrenaline, 155
B
Adrenergic agonists, 155
Adrenergic drugs, 149 Baclofen, 181
Adrenergic receptors, 151 Barbitone, 69
Aldosterone antagonists, 269 Barbiturates, 62
Allergies, 184 Barbituric acid, 63
Alprazolam, 75 Bendroflumethiazide, 266, 267
Aluminium aspirin, 236 Benzocaine, 254
Amethocaine, 255 Benzodiazepines, 84
Amiloride, 268 Benzonatate, 230
Aminoalkylether derivatives, 189 Benzotropinemesylate, 146
Aminopyrine, 246 Bethanechol, 128
Amitriptyline, 93 Biguanides, 278
Amphetamine, 163 Biososterism, 28
Anilides, 246 Biperidine hydrochloride, 145
Antazoline, 206 Bromodiphen hydramine, 191
Anthranilates, 242 Brompheniramine, 197
Antianxiety agents, 83 Buclizine, 203
Anticholinergic drugs, 138, 140 Bumetanide, 263
Anticonvulsants, 102 Bupivacaine, 258
Antidepressant agents, 88 Buprenorphine, 281, 220
Antihistamines, 184, 187 Butobarbitone, 69
Antipsychotic drugs, 77 Butorphanol, 223
Antipyrine, 246 Butoxamine, 174
Antitussives, 229 Butyrophenones, 82
Anxiolytics, 83 Beudro flumethiazide, 266
Benzoic acid derivatives, 280
317
C Cyclomethycaine, 257, 258

Cyclopentamine, 164
Calcium acetylsalicylate, 236
Cyclopentolate hydrochloride, 148
Caramiphen, 231
Cyclopropane, 54
Carbachol, 128
Cycloxygenase, 232
Carbamazepine, 114
Cycloxygenase inhibitors, 233, 247
Carbimazole, 289
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Cyclozocine, 228
Carbinoxamine, 190
Cyproheptadine, 204
Carbomazepine, 114
Cytochrome P450 Reductase, 50
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, 260
Carisoprodol, 181
D
Catecholamines, 150
Celecoxib, 247 Dantrolene, 182
Cetrizine, 208 Dealkylation, 44
Chloral hydrate, 72 Demecarium, 135
Chlorthalidone, 266 Deoxymorphine, 213
Chlorazepate, 76 Desipramine, 94
Chloroform, 56 Dextromethorphan, 230
Chlorphenesin, 181 Diacetylmorphine, 214
Chlorpheniramine, 196 Diazepam, 112, 86
Chlorpromazine, 79 Dibenamine, 179
Chlorpropamide, 275, 276 Dibenzocycloheptenes, 203
Chlorthiazide, 266, 268 Dichloroisoproterenol, 173
Chlorcyclizine, 201 Dichlorphenamide, 262
Choline esters, 126 Dicyclomine, 147
Cholinergic drugs, 126 Diethylether, 55
Cholinomimetic alkaloids, 130 Dihydrocodeine, 216
Cimetidine, 209 Dimenhydrinate, 191
Cinchocaime, 256 Dimethindene, 205
Clemastine, 193 Diphemanil, 145
Clindinium bromide, 147 Diphenhydramine, 189
Clomipramine, 93 Diphenoxylate, 223
Clonazepam, 111 Diphenylpyraline, 206
Clozapine, 95 Dipyrone, 246
Cocaine, 252 Dissociation constants, 18
Codeine, 214, 229 Diuretics, 259
Complexation, 24 Dobutamine, 159
Conjugation reactions, 48 Dopamine, 157
Cough, 229 Doxylamine, 192
Cyclizine, 201 Drug metabolism, 41
Cyclobarbitone, 67 Drug shape, 24
C-8—N-CHEMI\INDEX.PM5
INDEX 319
E H
Ebastine, 207 Haloalkylamines, 178
Ecothiopate, 136 Haloperidol, 83
Edrophonium, 134 Halothane,55
Enflurane, 57 Heroin, 214
Ephedrine, 167 Histamine, 185
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Epilepsy, 102 Homatropine, 140
Epinephrine, 155 Hydantoins, 104
Ergot alkaloids, 175 Hydrochlorthiazide, 268
Ethacrynic acid, 263, 264 Hydrogen bonding, 20
Hydrolysis, 49
Ethchloroynol, 73
Hydromorphone, 215
Ethoheptazine, 222
Hydroxyamphetamine, 163
Ethosuximide, 109
Hydroxylation, 43
Ethylchloride, 54
Hydroxypropranolol, 172
Ethylenediamines, 192
Hyoscyamine, 141
Ethylmorphine, 213
Hyoscine, 40
Etorphine, 218
Hydroflumethiazide, 266
Hypoglycemic agents, 270
F
Fentanyl, 220 I
Fexofenadine, 208
Ibuprofen, 238
Flufenisol, 237
Imidazolines, 176
Fluoxetine, 96
Imipramine, 90, 94
Flurazepam, 74 Indomethacin, 240
Fluvoxamine, 97 Insulin, 271
Frusemide, 263, 265 Ionization of drugs, 23
Functionalized aminoacids, 119 Iproniazid, 89
Isoetharine, 161
G Isoflurane, 57
Isoflurophate, 136
Gabapentin, 118
Isoprenaline, 157
General anesthesia, 52
Isopropamideiodide, 143
General anesthetics, 52
Isoproterenol, 157
Glibenclamide, 277
Isosorbide, 262
Glipizide, 278
Indepamide, 266
Glucuronidation, 48
Glutethimide, 70
K
Glycerine, 262
Glycopyrrolate, 141 Ketamine, 60
GSK-3 inhibitors, 281 Ketorolac, 242
Labetalol, 174 Monoamineoxidase inhibitors, 99

Lamotrigine, 117 Morphine, 212
Levallorphan, 226, 227 Morphine derivatives, 212
Levothyroxine, 286 Muscarinic antagonists, 138
Lidocaine, 255 Muscarinic receptors, 126
Lignocaine, 255 Muscle relaxants, 180
Local anesthetics, 249 Muscle spasm, 180
NEI
Loop diuretics, 263 Metolazone, 266
Loperamide, 221
Loratidine, 208 N
Lorazepam, 85
Nalbuphine, 217
Nalmefene, 217
M
Nalorphine, 226
Magnesium salicylate, 235 Naloxone, 217, 225
Malathion, 136 Naltrexone, 217, 227
Meclizine, 202 Naphazoline, 265
Mefenamic acid, 243 Naproxen, 239
Meloxicam, 244 Narcotic analgesics, 211
Mepenzolate, 146 Narcotic antagonists, 225
Meperidine, 219 Narcotics, 211, 225
Mephenteramine, 169 Nefopam, 211
Mephenytoin, 105 Neostigmine, 132
Meprobamate, 73 Neurochemisty, 122
Metabolic reactions, 42 Neurotransmitters, 122
Metaprolol, 172 Nicotine, 125
Metaproterenol, 162 Nicotinic receptors, 125
Metaraminol, 169 Nitrous oxide, 54
Metformin, 279 Nonbarbiturates, 70
Methacholine, 129 Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents, 232
Methadone, 220 Noradrenaline, 157
Methapyrilene, 194 Norepinephrine, 157
Methaqualone, 71 Normorphine, 217
Methazodamide, 262 Nortriptyline, 94
Methimazole, 288 Noscapine, 231
Methocarbomol, 182 Nylidrin, 161
Methohexital, 58
Methoxamine, 162 O
Methoxyflrane, 57
Opiate receptors, 212
Methsuximide, 110
Opium alkaloids, 211
Methylphenobarbitone, 67
Organophosphates, 135
Methyprylone, 71
Orphenadrine citrate, 148
INDEX 321
Osmotic diuretics, 262 Potassium-sparing diuretics, 268

Oxazolidinediones, 106 Pralidoxime, 137
Oxidation, 44 Prazepom, 75
Oxycodone, 216 Prazosin, 176
Oxymetazoline, 167 Primidone, 115
Oxymorphone, 215 Procaine, 255
Oxyphenbutazone, 245
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Prochlorperazine, 80
Oxyphencyclimine, 143 Procyclidine hydrochloride, 145
Paracetamol, 247 Prodrugs, 31
Paraldehyde, 72
Promazine, 81
Paramethadione, 107
Promethazine, 199
Parasympathetic nervous system, 121
Pronethalol, 173
Parathion, 137
Prontosil, 34
Partitioncoefficient, 16
Propanidid, 59
Pentazocine, 224
Propantheline bromide, 142
Pentobarbitone, 67
Propionicacid derivatives, 237
Pethidine, 219
Propofol, 60
Phenacemide, 115
Propoxyphene, 222
Phenacetin, 247
Propylamine derivatives, 195
Phenelzine, 100
Phenformin, 279 Propylhexedrine, 164
Phenindamine, 205 Propylthiouracil, 288
Pheniramine, 195 Protein binding, 27
Phenobarbitone, 103 Psychoactive drugs, 77
Phenothiazines, 198, 78 Psychotropic drugs, 77
Phenoxybenzamine, 178 Pyridostigmine, 133
Phensuximide, 108 Pyrilamine, 193
Phentolamine, 177
Phenylbutazone, 245 Q
Phenylephrine, 158
Quinalbarbitone, 70
Phenylsalicylate, 235
Quinazolines, 176
Phenytoin, 104
Quinethazone, 266
Pholcodeine, 213
Physico-chemical properties, 14
Physostigmine, 132 R
Pilocarpine, 130 Ranitidine, 209
Piperazines, 200
Reductive reactions, 47
Piperidolate, 146
Ritodrine, 162
Piroxicam, 244
Rofecoxib, 248
Poldinemethylsulfate, 145
Rosiglitazone, 280
Pioglitazone, 280
Repaglinide, 281
Pentazocine, 224
S Timolol, 172
Tolazoline, 177
Salicylamide, 235 Tolbutamide, 275, 276, 277
Salicylates, 234 Torsemide, 263
Sedative-hypnotics, 61 Tranylcypromine, 100
Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors, 95 Triazolam, 76
Selegiline, 100 Trichloroethylene, 56
NEI
Serotonin, 95 Triclofos sodium, 73
Sertraline, 98 Tricyclic antidepressants, 91
Skeletal muscle relaxants, 180 Trifluoperazine, 80
Sodium salicylate, 235 Trifluopromazine, 81
Soft drugs, 40 Trihexyphenidyl hydrochloride, 142
Solubility, 14 Trimeprazine, 198
Spiranolactone, 269 Trimethadione, 107
Succinimides, 108 Triprolidine, 197
Sulfate conjugation, 49 Tropicamide, 144
Sulfonyl ureas, 274 Triamterene, 268
Sulindac, 241 Thiazolidinones, 280
Surfaceactivity, 26
Sympathetic nervous system, 122
U
T Urea, 262
Temazepam, 75
V
Terbutaline, 160
Tetrahydrozoline, 165 Valdecoxib, 248
Thebaines, 218 Valproic acid, 116
Thiazides, 265 Venlafaxine, 98
Thiopentone, 58 Vigabatrin, 118
Thonzylamine, 194
Thyroid drugs, 282 X
Thyroid hormones, 282, 283
Xylometazoline, 166
Thyroxine sodium, 286

Principle of Organic Medicine Chemistry-Ramarao

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ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2485-0

PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRA-

SITES OF DRUG ACTION

MODE OF DRUG ACTION

MECHANISM OF DRUG ACTION

(iii) Allopurinol competes with hypoxanthine for xanthine oxidase

(ii) G-protein (Guanine nucleotide-regulatory protein) coupled receptors. G-

Kinase-linked G-protein coupled Ligand-gated

Intracellular steroid receptor

Schematic representation of the four major classes of receptor

(iv) Intracellular receptors regulating gene transcription: Intracellular receptors

Weak base drug + Water OH– + H+ Weak base drug

Morphine 7.4 × 10–7 7.4 × 10–7 7.9 6.1

H—O ············· H—O H—N ············· H—O H—N ············· H—F

Molecular Weight Boiling Point

Hydrogen bonding in Hydrogen bonding in Hydrogen bonding in

R—O ············· H—O ············· H—O

MOLAR REFRACTIVITY (MR)

This may be used to derive an Effective partition coefficient :

THE PRODRUG CONCEPT

Drug + Cap = Prodrug Drug Cap

This is done in the laboratory.

Drug Drug Pro

Normally this is the situation

Pro Drug Pro Drug

This is happening in the body.

IDEAL REQUIREMENTS OF PRODRUGS

Chloramphenicol palmitate Chloramphenicol Palmitic acid

3. Azo Linkage. Amines are derivatised to azolinkage prodrugs.

4. Carbonyl compounds. Carbonyl functionalities such as aldehydes and ketones are

CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

2. To reduce gastric irritation. Several drugs (NSAIDS, nicotinic acid, kanamycin,

Nicotinic acid to nicotinic acid hydrazide

Ex. : Dipivaloylepinephrine prodrug instead of epinephrine to treat glaucoma.

Esterification of aspirin greatly suppresses gastric uterogenic activity.

6. To improve membrane transport. Barbiturates are a group of compounds respon-

Barbituric acid Hexobarbitone N-Methylhexobarbitone

Diazepam (Valium) Nordazepam

Fosphenytoin : aq. solubility = 350 mM (—CH2O)

Prodrug of dexamethasone Dexamethasone

Plasmin targeted doxorubicin based prodrug having a spacer

Soft Drug (active)

Inactive Moiety Activator

Soft drug concept

Other main organs of biotransformation

a large variety of endogeneous substances (steroidal hormones) and exogeneous substances

(ii) H2N SO2 NH2 → H2N SO2 NHOH

H2N SO2 N=O

Dealkylations. The second type of oxidative biotransformation comprises dealkylations.

S—CH3 S—CH2OH S—H

N-Dealkylation. In the case of primary or secondary amines, dealkylation of an alkyl

H5C2O NHCOCH3 → HO NHCOCH3

Aromatic Hydroxylation (Oxidation of Aromatic Carbon Atoms)

Oxidation of benzylic carbons

CH3 CH2OH CHO

SO2NH—C—NHC4H9 SO2NH—C—NHC4H9 SO2NH—C—NHC4H9