NCERT Class 11 Indian Economics Development Book

INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS XI
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Rationalised 2023-24
11100 – I NDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
ISBN 81-7450-551-2
Textbook for Class XI
First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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FOREWORD
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005, recommends that

children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school.
This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning
which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the
school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on
the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They
also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures
will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system
of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals
and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own
learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must
recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new
knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults.
Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one
of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat
children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of
knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode
of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour
in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of
teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for
teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook
proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather
than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to
address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and
reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for
child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook
attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space
to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small
groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the
advisory group in Social Sciences, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the
Chief Advisor for this book, Professor Tapas Majumdar for guiding the
work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development
of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this
possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which
have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material
and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National
Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and
Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the
Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande,
for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed
to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable
us to undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training
iv

RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS
In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load
on students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing
the content load and providing opportunities for experiential learning with
creative mindset. In this background, the NCERT has undertaken the
exercise to rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes
already developed by the NCERT across classes have been taken into
consideration in this exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the
following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the
same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much
interventions from teachers and can be learned by children through
self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context
This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the

changes given above.

TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

ATHIGHER SECONDARY LEVEL
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta,
Kolkata
CHIEF ADVISOR
Tapas Majumdar, Emeritus Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New
Delhi
MEMBERS
Bharat C. Thakur, PGT, Government Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, Surajmal
Vihar, Delhi
Gopinath Perumula, Lecturer, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai
Jaya Singh, Lecturer, DESS, NCERT, New Delhi
Nishit Ranjan Das, PGT, New Alipore Multipurpose School, Behala, Kolkata
Naushad Ali Azad, Professor, Department of Economics, Jamia Millia
Islamia, New Delhi
Neeraja Rashmi, Reader, DESS, NCERT, New Delhi
Rama Gopal, Professor, Department of Economics, Annamalai University,
Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu
Pratima Kumari, Lecturer, DERPP, NCERT, New Delhi
Poonam Bakshi, Senior Lecturer, Department of Economics, Punjab
University, Chandigarh
R. Srinivasan, S.G. Lecturer, Department of Economics, Arignar Anna
Government Arts College, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu
Sabitha Patnaik, PGT, Demonstration School, Regional Institute of
Education, Sachivalaya Marg, Bhubaneswar
Sharmista Banerjee, Headmistress, Bidya Bharti Girls High School, Kolkata
MEMBER–COORDINATOR
M.V. Srinivasan, Lecturer, DESS, NCERT, New Delhi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many friends and colleagues have helped in preparing this textbook. The
National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges
M. Karpagam, Lecturer, Department of Economics, Meenakshi College,
Chennai; J. John, Director, Centre for Education and Communication, New
Delhi; Pratyusa K. Mandal, Reader, DESS, NCER T, New Delhi; Nandana
Reddy, Director (Development), Concern for Working Children, Bangalore;
V. Selvam, Research Scholar, Centre for Study of Regional Development
and Satish Jain, Professor, Centre for Economic Studies and Planning,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi; Pooja Kapoor, Modern School,
Barakhamba Road, New Delhi; Priya Vaidya, Sardar Patel Vidyalaya, Lodhi
Estate, New Delhi; and Nalini Padmanabhan, DTEA Senior Secondary
School, Janakpuri, New Delhi for providing their feedback and inputs.
The Council expresses its gratitude to Jan Breman and Parthiv Shah
for using photographs from their book, Working in the mill no more,
published by Oxford University Press, Delhi. Some stories were taken from
the book, Everybody Loves a Good Drought, authored by P. Sainath and
published by Penguin Books, New Delhi. A photo relating to farmers
committing suicides has been used from The Hindu. A few photographs
and text materials on environmental issues have been used from the State
of India’s Environment 1 and 2 published by the Centre for Science and
Environment, New Delhi. The Council thanks the authors, copyright holders
and publishers of these reference materials. The Council also acknowledges
the Press Information Bureau, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,
New Delhi; National Rail Museum, New Delhi for allowing to use photographs
available in their photo library. Some photographs were given by S. Thirumal
Murugan, Principal, Adhiyaman Matriculation School, Uthangarai, Tamil
Nadu; John Suresh Kumar, Synodical Board of Social Service; Sindhu
Menon of Labour File, New Delhi; R. C. Das of CIET, New Delhi; Renuka of
National Institute of Health and Family Welfare, New Delhi. The Council
acknowledges their contribution as well. Special thanks are due to Savita
Sinha, Professor and Head, Department of Education in Social Sciences
and Humanities for her support. The Council gratefully acknowledges the
contributions of Mamta and Arvind Sharma, DTP Operators; Neena
Chandra, Copy Editor; Dillip Kumar Agasti, Proof Reader; and Dinesh Kumar,
Incharge Computer Station in shaping this book. The efforts of the
Publication Department, NCERT are also duly acknowledged.
The Council also acknowledges the efforts of Neerja Rashmi, Professor,
DESS, NCERT; M.V. Srinivasan, DESS, NCERT; Jaya Singh, DESS, NCERT;
Pratima Kumari, Associate Professor, DESS, NCERT; Ashita Raveendran,
Associate Professor, PMD, NCERT; Sabita Patnaik, PGT Economics, DMS,
RIE, Bhubaneshwar; Anita Raveendra PGT Economics, DMS, RIE, Mysore,
towards the rationalisation of content of the textbook.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
The main objective of this book, Indian Economic Development, is to

expose you to some of the key issues facing the Indian economy. In
this process, as young adults, you are expected to be sensitised about
these issues, appreciate and learn to critically assess the role of the
government in various economic spheres. The book also provides
opportunities for knowing what economic resources are and how these
resources are being utilised in different sectors. You are also exposed
to numerical information relating to various aspects of Indian economy
and India’s economic policies. You are expected to develop analytical
skills, interpret the economic events and visualise the economic future
of India. Nevertheless, conscious effort has been made not to burden
with concepts and data.
With regard to various economic issues and trends, this book
attempts to bring out alternative views on every issue so that you can
engage yourself in well-informed debates. On completion of the course,
Indian Economic Development, you are expected to acquire skills to
understand macroeconomic events which occur around you, and to
critically evaluate and interpret the relevant information provided by
the media.
This course comprises of many activities with each chapter. You need
to carry out those activities under the guidance of teachers. In fact, the
role of the teacher in enriching the understanding of the Indian economy
is greater in this course. The activities include classroom discussions,
collecting information from government documents such
as Economic Survey, archival materials, from newspapers,
television, internet and other sources. Learners should also
be encouraged to read the original works of scholars on
various topics.
For all this to happen, the teachers have to initiate the
process by taking some steps before starting the course. At the beginning
of the academic year, you can collect clippings from newspapers and
magazines relating to different topics under the course — five year
plans and the role of NITI Aayog in planning; allocation of funds to
various sectors like agriculture, industry, services and for specific
causes such as poverty and employment; key issues of rural

development, environment, various infrastructure— health, education
and energy; and economic events in China and Pakistan. You may
maintain these clippings, and when the teacher starts teaching a
particular topic, you can cull out those news items, which you have
collected from the beginning of the course, and display/use them in
the classroom. It is necessary you to build this collection right from the
beginning of the course so that the relevent information is at hand as
and when needed; this habit will also come in handy during later stages
of education.
The schools will have to buy a hard copy of the Economic Survey
for the latest year. You will notice that information relating to the Indian
Economy is updated in the Economic Survey. It is necessary for you to
familiarise yourselves with such reports and work on relevant activities.
The statistical tables available as Appendix in the Economic Survey
would be immensely helpful in understanding various issues.
While discussing a particular issue, discussion of the numerical
information about the issue is inevitable. For instance, when we talk of
growth rates — overall growth rates and growth of different sectors —
though it may be necessary for you to have a rough idea about the
trends in growth rates, the process involved in reaching the level of
growth and factors contributing to the trend rather than mere
reproduction of tabular data of growth rate.
You will notice numbered boxes in all chapters. These boxes
supplement the information given in the text. Through these boxes, an
attempt has been made to lend a humane touch and, thus, bring the
issue under discussion closer to real life. However, these boxes, as also
‘Work These Out’ activities, are not meant for examination/evaluation
purposes.
Besides the relatively conventional ‘Exercises’, each
chapter has ‘Suggested Additional Activities’ at
the end and ‘Work This/These Out’ as part of
the text; the more elaborate activities of these
can be treated as projects. You may explore beyond the text
while attempting these activities.
Understandably, Information Technology facilities may not
be available in all the schools, however, it is important to take
note that various information relating to the Indian economy are available
on the internet. You need to learn to use the internet and access the
websites of various government departments to get the required
information. For instance, the details relating to poverty are published

by the NITI Aayog. You need to know that the NITI Aayog of the
Government of India has a website in which various reports relating to
different aspects of India, including poverty, are available in the form of
reports. Since it may not be always possible to procure
such reports in hard copy, students and teachers may
attempt to download such reports from websites and use
them in the classroom.
The reports such as Economic Surveys of the last 10 years are
available on the website: http://www.indiabudget.gov.in. Many
organisations change their website addresses. In case a website given
in this book is not accessible, kindly search those websites through
search engines such as Google (www.google.co.in).
For the first time, each chapter has been briefly summed up in the
‘Recap’ to facilitate learning. Also, please take note that sources for all
tables have not been given with the table as these tables were sourced
from various research material which have been covered under
‘References’ for each chapter.
We wish to reiterate the fact that the prime objective of this course
on Indian economy is to introduce the basic macro issues of the Indian
economy to the student community and to initiate a well-informed
debate on our economy. We also stress that collaborative learning is an
important aspect of this course, hence the involvement of students, as
well as, teachers in collecting information on the Indian economy from
other sources is necessary and such collected information should be
used as important inputs for both teaching, as well as, learning about
the Indian economy.
You can send your queries and feedback relating to any part of this book
to the following address.
Programme Coordinator (Economics)
Department of Education in Social Sciences
National Council of Educational Research and Training
Sri Aurobindo Marg
New Delhi 110 016.
Email: [email protected]
xi

THE CONSTITUTION OF
INDIA
PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having
solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
1
[SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure
to all its citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and
political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief,
faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity
and to promote among them all;
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of
the individual and the 2[unity and
integrity of the Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do
HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO
OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
1. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2,
for "Sovereign Democratic Republic" (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
2. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2,
for "Unity of the Nation" (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)

CONTENTS
FOREWORD iii
RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS v
UNIT I: DEVELOPMENT POLICIES AND EXPERIENCE (1947–90) 1–35
CHAPTER 1: INDIAN ECONOMY ON THE EVE OF INDEPENDENCE 3
– LOW LEVEL OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE COLONIAL RULE 4
– AGRICULTURAL SECTOR 5
– INDUSTRIAL SECTOR 7
– FOREIGN TRADE 8
– DEMOGRAPHIC CONDITION 9
– OCCUPATIONAL STRUCTURE 10
– INFRASTRUCTURE 11
CHAPTER 2: INDIAN ECONOMY 1950-1990 16
– THE GOALS OF FIVE YEAR PLANS 19
– AGRICULTURE 22
– INDUSTRY AND TRADE 27
– TRADE POLICY: IMPORT SUBSTITUTION 30
UNIT II: ECONOMIC REFORMS SINCE 1991 36–56

CHAPTER 3: LIBERALISATION, PRIVATISATION AND GLOBALISATION: AN APPRAISAL 38
– BACKGROUND 39
– LIBERALISATION 41
– PRIVATISATION 44
– GLOBALISATION 45
– INDIAN ECONOMY DURING REFORMS: AN ASSESSMENT 48
UNIT III: CURRENT CHALLENGES FACING THE INDIAN ECONOMY 57–74
CHAPTER 4: HUMAN CAPITAL FORMATION IN INDIA 58

– WHAT IS HUMAN CAPITAL? 60
– SOURCES OF HUMAN CAPITAL 60

– HUMAN CAPITAL AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 66
– STATE OF HUMAN CAPITAL FORMATION IN INDIA 67
– EDUCATION SECTOR IN INDIA 68
– FUTURE PROSPECTS 70
CHAPTER 5: RURAL DEVELOPMENT 75–91

– WHAT IS RURAL DEVELOPMENT? 76
– CREDIT AND MARKETING IN RURAL AREAS 77
– AGRICULTURAL MARKET SYSTEM 80
– DIVERSIFICATION INTO PRODUCTIVE ACTIVITIES 82
– SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANIC FARMING 86
CHAPTER 6: EMPLOYMENT: GROWTH, INFORMALISATION AND OTHER ISSUES 92–114

– WORKERS AND EMPLOYMENT 94
– PARTICIPATION OF PEOPLE IN EMPLOYMENT 95
– SELF-EMPLOYED AND HIRED WORKERS 96
– EMPLOYMENT IN FIRMS, FACTORIES AND OFFICES 99
– GROWTH AND CHANGING STRUCTURE OF EMPLOYMENT 100
– INFORMALISATION OF INDIAN WORKFORCE 103
– UNEMPLOYMENT 106
– GOVERNMENT AND EMPLOYMENT GENERATION 108
CHAPTER 7: ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 115–131

– ENVIRONMENT — DEFINITION AND FUNCTIONS 116
– STATE OF INDIA’S ENVIRONMENT 120
– SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 124
– STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 125
UNIT IV: DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES OF INDIA: A COMPARISON 132–150

WITH NEIGHBOURS
CHAPTER 8: COMPARATIVE DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES OF 134

INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS
– DEVELOPMENTAL PATH — A SNAPSHOT VIEW 135
– DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS 138
xiv

– GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT AND SECTORS 139
– INDICATORS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 142
– DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES — AN APPRAISAL 143
GLOSSARY 151–159
xv

Constitution of India
Part IV A (Article 51 A)
Fundamental Duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;
*(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.
Note: The Article 51A containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with effect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with effect from
1 April 2010).

UNIT
UNIT
I
III
DEVELOPMENT POLICIES AND EXPERIENCE

(1947-90)

The two chapters in this unit give us an overview
of the state of the Indian economy as it was at the
eve of independence till after four decades of
planned development, which was a path that India
chose. This meant that the Government of India
had to take a series of steps such as the
establishment of the Planning Commission and
announcement of five year plans. An overview of
the goals of five year plans and a critical appraisal
of the merits and limitations of planned development
has been covered in this unit.

1
INDIAN ECONOMY
ON THE
EVE OF INDEPENDENCE
After studying this chapter, the learners will
• become familiar with the state of the Indian economy in 1947, the
year of India’s Independence
• understand the factors that led to the underdevelopment and
stagnation of the Indian economy.

“India is the pivot of our Empire... If the Empire loses any other part of its
Dominion we can survive, but if we lose India, the sun of our Empire will have
set.”
Victor Alexander Vruce, the Viceroy of British India in 1894
1.1 INTRODUCTION own rapidly expanding modern

industrial base. An understanding of
The primary objective of this book, the exploitative nature of this
Indian Economic Development, is to relationship is essential for any
familiarise you with the basic features assessment of the kind and level of
of the Indian economy, and its development which the Indian
development, as it is today, in the economy has been able to attain over
aftermath of Independence. However, it the last seven and half decades. 1.2
is equally important to know something
about the country’s economic past even 1.2 LOW LEVEL OF ECONOMIC
as you learn about its present state and DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE
future prospects. So, let us first look at COLONIAL RULE
the state of India’s economy prior to the India had an independent economy
country’s independence and form an before the advent of the British rule.
idea of the various considerations that Though agriculture was the main
shaped India’s post-independence source of livelihood for most people,
development strategy. yet, the country’s economy was
The structure of India’s present- characterised by various kinds of
day economy is not just of current manufacturing activities. India was
making; it has its roots steeped in particularly well known for its
history, particularly in the period when handicraft industries in the fields of
India was under British rule which cotton and silk textiles, metal and
lasted for almost two centuries before precious stone works etc. These
India finally won its independence on products enjoyed a worldwide market
15 August 1947. The sole purpose of based on the reputation of the fine
the British colonial rule in India was quality of material used and the high
to reduce the country to being a raw standards of craftsmanship seen in all
material supplier for Great Britain’s imports from India (See Box 1.1).
Box 1.1: Textile Industry in Bengal

Muslin is a type of cotton textile which had its origin in Bengal, particularly,
places in and around Dhaka (spelled during the pre-independence period as
Dacca), now the capital city of Bangladesh. ‘Daccai Muslin’ had gained worldwide
fame as an exquisite type of cotton textile. The finest variety of muslin was
called malmal. Sometimes, foreign travellers also used to refer to it as malmal
shahi or malmal khas implying that it was worn by, or fit for, the royalty.
4 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The economic policies pursued by R.C. Desai — it was Rao, whose
the colonial government in India were estimates during the colonial period
concerned more with the protection was considered very significant.
and promotion of the economic However, most studies did find that
interests of their home country than the country’s growth of aggregate real
with the development of the Indian output during the first half of the
economy. Such policies brought about twentieth century was less than two
a fundamental change in the structure per cent coupled with a meagre half
of the Indian economy — transforming per cent growth in per capita output
the country into supplier of raw per year.
materials and consumer of finished
industrial products from Britain. 1.3 AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
Obviously, the colonial govern-
ment never made any sincere India’s economy under the British
attempt to estimate India’s national colonial rule remained fundamentally
and p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e . Some agrarian — about 85 per cent
individual attempts which were of the country’s population lived
made to measure such incomes mostly in villages and derived
yielded conflicting and inconsistent livelihood directly or indirectly from
results. Among the notable estimators agriculture (See Box 1.2). However,
— Dadabhai Naoroji, William Digby, despite being the occupation of such
Findlay Shirras, V.K.R.V. Rao and a large population, the agricultural
Box 1.2: Agriculture During
Pre-British India
The French traveller, Bernier, described
seventeenth century Bengal in the
following way: “The knowledge I have
acquired of Bengal in two visits inclines
me to believe that it is richer than Egypt.
It exports, in abundance, cottons and
silks, rice, sugar and butter. It produces
amply — for its own consumption —
wheat, vegetables, grains, fowls, ducks
and geese. It has immense herds of pigs
and flocks of sheep and goats. Fish of
every kind it has in profusion. From
rajmahal to the sea is an endless
number of canals, cut in bygone ages Fig. 1.1 India’s agricultural stagnation
from the Ganges by immense labour for under the British colonial rule
navigation and irrigation.”
Ø Take note of the agricultural prosperity in our country in the seventeenth century. Contrast it
with agricultural stagnation around the time when the British left India, around 200 years later.
INDIAN ECONOMY ON THE EVE OF INDEPENDENCE 5

sector continued to experience interest of the zamindars was only to
stagnation and, not infrequently, collect rent regardless of the
unusual deterioration. Agricultural economic condition of the cultivators;
pro-ductivity became low though, in this caused immense misery and
absolute terms, the sector experienced social tension among the latter. To a
some growth due to the expansion of very great extent, the terms of the
the aggregate area under cultivation. revenue settlement were also
This stagnation in the agricultural responsible for the zamindars
sector was caused mainly because of adopting such an attitude; dates for
the various systems of land depositing specified sums of revenue
settlement that were introduced by were fixed, failing which the
the colonial government. Particularly, zamindars were to lose their rights.
under the zamindari system which Besides this, low levels of technology,
was implemented in the then Bengal lack of irrigation facilities and
Presidency comprising parts of negligible use of fertilisers, all added
India’s present-day eastern states, up to aggravate the plight of the
the profit accruing out of the farmers and contributed to the
agriculture sector went to the d i s m a l level of agricultural
zamindars instead of the cultivators. productivity. There was, of course,
However, a considerable number of some evidence of a relatively higher
zamindars, and not just the colonial yield of cash crops in certain
government, did nothing to improve areas of the country due to
the condition of agriculture. The main commercialisation of agriculture.
Work These Out
Ø Compare the map of British India with that of independent India and find
out the areas that became parts of Pakistan. Why were those parts so
important to India from the economic point of view? (Refer, to your
advantage, Dr Rajendra Prasad’s book, India Divided).
Ø What were the various forms of revenue settlement adopted by the British
in India? Where did they implement them and to what effect? How far do
you think those settlements have a bearing on the current agricultural
scenario in India? (In your attempt to find answers to these questions, you
may refer to Ramesh Chandra Dutt’s Economic History of India, which comes
in three volumes, and B.H. Baden-Powell’s The Land Systems of British
India, also in two volumes. For better comprehension of the subject, you
can also try and develop an illustrated agrarian map of British India either
by hand or with the help of your school computer. Remember, nothing
helps better than an illustrated map to understand the subject at hand).

But this could hardly help farmers in their home country — Britain. In the
improving their economic condition unfolding economic scenario, the
as, instead of producing food crops, decline of the indigenous handicraft
now they were producing cash crops industries created not only massive
which were to be ultimately used by unemployment in India but also a new
British industries back home. Despite demand in the Indian consumer
some progress made in irrigation, market, which was now deprived of the
India’s agriculture was starved of supply of locally made goods. This
investment in terracing, flood-control, demand was profitably met by the
drainage and desalinisation of soil. increasing imports of cheap
While a small section of farmers manufactured goods from Britain.
changed their cropping pattern from During the second half of the
food crops to commercial crops, a large nineteenth century, modern industry
section of tenants, small farmers and began to take root in India but its
sharecroppers neither had resources progress remained very slow.
and technology nor had incentive to Initially, this development was
invest in agriculure. confined to the setting up of cotton
and jute textile mills. The cotton
1.4 INDUSTRIAL SECTOR textile mills, mainly dominated by
Indians, were located in the western
As in the case of agriculture, so also parts of the country, namely,
in manufacturing, India could not Maharashtra and Gujarat, while
develop a sound industrial base under the jute mills dominated by the
the colonial rule. Even as the country’s foreigners were mainly concentrated
world famous handicraft industries in Bengal. Subsequently, the iron
declined, no corresponding modern and steel industries began coming up
industrial base was allowed to come in the beginning of the twentieth
up to take pride of place so long century. The Tata Iron and Steel
enjoyed by the former. The primary Company (TISCO) was incorporated
motive of the colonial government in 1907. A few other industries in the
behind this policy of systematically de- fields of sugar, cement, paper etc.
industrialising India was two-fold. The came up after the Second World War.
intention was, first, to reduce India to However, there was hardly any
the status of a mere exporter of capital goods industry to help
important raw materials for the promote further industrialisation in
upcoming modern industries in India. Capital goods industry means
Britain and, second, to turn India into industries which can produce machine
a sprawling market for the finished tools which are, in turn, used for
products of those industries so that producing articles for current
their continued expansion could be consumption. The establishment of a
ensured to the maximum advantage of few manufacturing units here and

Work These Out
Ø Prepare a list showing where and when other modern industries of India
were first set up. Can you also find out what the basic requirements are for
setting up any modern industry? What, for example, might have been the
reasons for the setting up of the Tata Iron and Steel Company at Jamshedpur,
which is now in the state of Jharkhand?
Ø How many iron and steel factories are there in India at present? Are these
iron and steel factories among the best in the world or do you think that
these factories need restructuring and upgradation? If yes, how can this be
done? There is an argument that industries which are not strategic in nature
should not continue to be in the public sector. What is your view?
Ø On a map of India, mark the cotton textiles, jute mills and textile mills that
existed at the time of independence.
there was no substitute to the near exporter of primary products such as

wholesale displacement of the raw silk, cotton, wool, sugar, indigo,
country’s traditional handicraft jute etc. and an importer of finished
industries. Furthermore, the growth consumer goods like cotton, silk and
rate of the new industrial sector and woollen clothes and capital goods like
its contribution to the Gross Domestic light machinery produced in the
Product (GDP) or Gross Value Added
factories of Britain. For all practical
remained very small. Another
purposes, Britain maintained a
significant drawback of the new
monopoly control over India’s exports
industrial sector was the very limited
area of operation of the public sector. and imports. As a result, more than
This sector remained confined only to half of India’s foreign trade was
the railways, power generation, restricted to Britain while the rest was
communications, ports and some allowed with a few other countries like
other departmental undertakings. China, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Persia
(Iran). The opening of the Suez Canal
1.5 FOREIGN TRADE further intensified British control over
India’s foreign trade (see Box 1.3).
India has been an important trading
The most important characteristic
nation since ancient times. But the
of India’s foreign trade throughout the
restrictive policies of commodity
production, trade and tariff pursued colonial period was the generation of
by the colonial government adversely a large export surplus. But this
affected the structure, composition and surplus came at a huge cost to the
volume of India’s foreign trade. country’s economy. Several essential
Consequently, India became an commodities —food grains, clothes,

Work These Out
Ø Prepare a list of items that were exported from and imported into India during
the British rule.
Ø Collect information from the Economic Survey for various years published
by the Ministry of Finance, Government of India, on various items of export
from India and its imports. Compare these with imports and exports from
the pre-independence era. Also find out the names of prominent ports which
now handle the bulk of India’s foreign trade.
kerosene etc. — were scarcely available items, all of which led to the drain of
in the domestic market. Furthermore, Indian wealth.
this export surplus did not result in
any flow of gold or silver into India. 1.6 DEMOGRAPHIC CONDITION
Rather, this was used to make Various details about the population
payments for the expenses incurred by of British India were first collected
an office set up by the colonial through a census in 1881. Though
government in Britain, expenses on suffering from certain limitations, it
war, again fought by the British revealed the unevenness in India’s
government, and the import of invisible population growth. Subsequently,
Box 1.3: Trade Through the Suez

Not to
to scale
scale Canal
Not
Suez Canal is an artificial waterway
running from north to south across the
Isthmus of Suez in north-eastern
Egypt. It connects Port Said on the
Mediterranean Sea with the Gulf of
Suez, an arm of the Red Sea. The canal
provides a direct trade route for ships
operating between European or
American ports and ports located in
South Asia, East Africa and Oceania by
doing away with the need to sail around
Africa. Strategically and economically,
it is one of the most important
waterways in the world. Its opening in
1869 reduced the cost of transportation
Fig.1.2 Suez Canal: Used as highway and made access to the Indian market
between India and Britain easier.

every ten years such census operations particularly, the infant mortality
were carried out. Before 1921, India rate was quite alarming —about 218
was in the first stage of demographic per thousand in contrast to the
transition. The second stage of present infant mortality rate of 33 per
transition began after 1921. However, thousand. Life expectancy was also
neither the total population of India nor very low — 32 years in contrast to the
the rate of population growth at this present 69 years. In the absence of
stage was very high. reliable data, it is difficult to specify the
The various social development extent of poverty at that time but there
indicators were also not quite is no doubt that extensive poverty
encouraging. The overall literacy level prevailed in India during the colonial
was less than 16 per cent. Out of this, period which contributed to the
the female literacy level was at a worsening profile of India’s population
negligible low of about seven per of the time.
cent. Public health facilities were
either unavailable to large chunks of 1.7 OCCUPATIONAL STRUCTURE
population or, when available, were During the colonial period, the
highly inadequate. Consequently, occupational structure of India, i.e.,
water and air-borne diseases were distribution of working persons
rampant and took a huge toll on across different industries and
life. No wonder, the overall mortality sectors, showed little sign of change.
rate was very high and in that, The agricultural sector accounted for
Fig. 1.3 A large section of India’s population did not have basic needs such as housing

telegraphs did develop. However, the
Work These Out real motive behind this development
was not to provide basic amenities to
Ø Can you find out the the people but to subserve various
reasons behind frequent colonial interests. Roads constructed
occurrence of famines in in India prior to the advent of the
India before independence? British rule were not fit for modern
You may read from Nobel
transport. The roads that were built
Laureate Amartya Sen’s
book, Poverty and Famines.
primarily served the purposes of
mobilising the army within India and
Ø Prepare a pie chart for
the occupational structure
drawing out raw materials from the
in India at the time of countryside to the nearest railway
independence. station or the port to send these to
far away England or other lucrative
foreign destinations. There always
the largest share of workforce, which remained an acute shortage of all-
usually remained at a high of 70-75 weather roads to reach out to the
per cent while the manufacturing and rural areas during the rainy season.
the services sectors accounted for only Naturally, therefore, people mostly
10 and 15-20 per cent respectively. living in these areas suffered
Another striking aspect was the grievously during natural calamities
growing regional variation. Parts and famines.
of the then Madras Presidency The British introduced the
(comprising areas of the present-day railways in India in 1850 and it is
states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra considered as one of their most
Pradesh, Kerala and Karnataka), important contributions. The
Bombay and Bengal witnessed a railways affected the structure of the
decline in the dependence of the Indian economy in two important
workforce on the agricultural sector ways. On the one hand it enabled
with a commensurate increase in the people to undertake long distance
manufacturing and the services travel and thereby break
sectors. However, there had been an
geographical and cultural barriers
increase in the share of workforce in
while, on the other hand, it fostered
agriculture during the same time in
commercialisation of Indian
states such as Orissa, Rajasthan and
agriculture which adversely affected
Punjab.
the self-sufficiency of the village
economies in India. The volume of
1.8 INFRASTRUCTURE
India’s exports undoubtedly
Under the colonial regime, basic expanded but its benefits rarely
infrastructure such as railways, accrued to the Indian people.
ports, water transport, posts and The social benefits, which the

Fig. 1.4 First Railway Bridge linking Bombay with Thane, 1854
Indian people gained owing to the

introduction of the railways, were Work This Out
thus outweighed by the country’s
huge economic loss. Ø There is a perception still
Along with the development of going around that in
roads and railways, the colonial m a n y ways the British
dispensation also took measures for administration in India
was quite beneficial. This
developing the inland trade and sea
perception needs an
lanes. However, these measures were informed debate. How
far from satisfactory. The inland would you look at this
waterways, at times, also proved perception? Argue this
uneconomical as in the case of the out in your class — ‘Was
Coast Canal on the Orissa coast. the British Raj good for
Though the canal was built at a huge India’?
cost to the government exchequer, yet,

it failed to compete with the railways,
which soon traversed the region
running parallel to the canal, and had
to be ultimately abandoned. The
introduction of the expensive system
of electric telegraph in India, similarly,
served the purpose of maintaining law
and order. The postal services, on the
Fig.1.5 Tata Airlines, a division of Tata and other hand, despite serving a useful
Sons, was established in 1932
inaugurating the aviation sector in India
public purpose, remained all through
inadequate.

1.9 CONCLUSION investment. Foreign trade was oriented
to feed the Industrial Revolution in
By the time India won its independence,
Britain. Infrastructure facilities,
the impact of the two-century long
including the famed railway network,
British colonial rule was already
needed upgradation, expansion and
showing on all aspects of the Indian
economy. The agricultural sector was public orientation. Prevalence of
already saddled with surplus labour rampant poverty and unemployment
and extremely low productivity. The required welfare orientation of public
industrial sector was crying for economic policy. In a nutshell, the
modernisation, diversification, capacity social and economic challenges before
building and increased public the country were enormous.
Recap
Ø An understanding of the economy before independence is necessary to

know and appreciate the level of development achieved during the post-
independence period.
Ø Under the colonial dispensation, the economic policies of the government
were concerned more with the protection and promotion of British
economic interests than with the need to develop the economic condition
of the colonised country and its people.
Ø The agricultural sector continued to experience stagnation and
deterioration despite the fact that the largest section of Indian population
depended on it for sustenance.
Ø The rule of the British-India government led to the collapse of India’s
world famous handicraft industries without contributing, in any
significant manner, to its replacement by a modern industrial base.
Ø Lack of adequate public health facilities, occurrence of frequent natural
calamities and famines pauperised the hapless Indian people and
resulted in engendering high mortality rates.
Ø Some efforts were made by the colonial regime to improve infrastructure
facilities but these efforts were spiced with selfish motives. However, the
independent Indian government had to built on this base through
planning.

EXERCISES
1. What was the focus of the economic policies pursued by the colonial
government in India? What were the impacts of these policies?
2. Name some notable economists who estimated India’s per capita
income during the colonial period.
3. What were the main causes of India’s agricultural stagnation during
the colonial period?
4. Name some modern industries which were in operation in our country
at the time of independence.
5. What was the two-fold motive behind the systematic de-
industrialisation effected by the British in pre-independent India?
6. The traditional handicrafts industries were ruined under the British
rule. Do you agree with this view? Give reasons in support of your
answer.
7. What objectives did the British intend to achieve through their
policies of infrastructure development in India?
8. Critically appraise some of the shortfalls of the industrial policy
pursued by the British colonial administration.
9. What do you understand by the drain of Indian wealth during the
colonial period?
10. Which is regarded as the defining year to mark the demographic
transition from its first to the second decisive stage?
11. Give a quantitative appraisal of India’s demographic profile during
the colonial period.
12. Highlight the salient features of India’s pre-independence occupational
structure.
13. Underscore some of India’s most crucial economic challenges at the
time of independence.
14. When was India’s first official census operation undertaken?
15. Indicate the volume and direction of trade at the time of
independence.
16. Were there any positive contributions made by the British in India?
Discuss.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES
1. Prepare a list of goods and services that were available to people in

pre-independence India in rural and urban areas. Compare it with
the consumption pattern of such goods and services by the people
today. Highlight the perceptible difference in the people’s standard
of living.
2. Find pictures of towns/villages, in your vicinity, of the pre-
independence period and compare these with their present scenario.
What changes can you mark? Are such changes for better or for
worse? Discuss.
3. Rally around your teacher and organise a group discussion on ‘Has
the zamindari system really been abolished in India’? If the
consensus is negative, then what measures would you think should
be taken to banish it and why?
4. Identify the major occupations followed by the people of our country
at the time of independence. What major occupations do the people
follow today? In the light of reform policies, how would you visualise
the occupational scenario in India 15 years from now — say, 2035?
REFERENCES
BADEN-POWELL, B.H. 1892. The Land Systems of British India, Vols I, II and
III. Oxford Clarendon Press, Oxford.
BUCHANAN, D.H. 1966. Development of Capitalist Enterprise in India. Frank
Cass and Co, London.
CHANDRA, BIPAN. 1993. ‘The Colonial Legacy’ in Bimal Jalan (Ed.), The Indian
Economy: Problems and Prospects. Penguin Books, New Delhi.
D UTT, R.C. 1963. Economic History of India, Vols I and II. Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, New Delhi.
KUMAR, D. AND MEGHNAD DESAI (Eds.). 1983. Cambridge Economic History of
India. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
M ILL, JAMES.1972. History of British India. Associated Publishing House,
New Delhi.
PRASAD, RAJENDRA. 1946. India Divided. Hind Kitabs, Bombay.
SEN, AMARTYA. 1999. Poverty and Famines. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Government Reports
Economic Survey (for various years). Ministry of Finance, Government of India.

2
INDIAN ECONOMY
1950–1990
• come to know the goals of India’s five year plans

• know about the development policies in different sectors such as
agriculture and industry from 1950-1990
• learn to think about the merits and limitations of a regulated economy.

The central objective of Planning in India... is to initiate a process of
development which will raise the living standards and open out to the people
new opportunities for a richer and more varied life.
First Five Year Plan
2.1 INTRODUCTION answer in an economic system which,

in their view, combined the best
On 15 August 1947, India woke to a
features of socialism without its
new dawn of freedom. Finally we were
drawbacks. In this view, India would
masters of our own destiny after
be a socialist society with a strong
some two hundred years of British
public sector but also with private
rule; the job of nation building was
property and democracy; the government
now in our own hands. The leaders
would plan (see Box 2.2) for the
of independent India had to decide,
among other things, the type of
economic system most suitable for Work These Out
our nation, a system which would
promote the welfare of all rather than Ø Prepare a chart on the
a few. There are different types of different types of economic
systems prevalent in the
economic systems (see Box 2.1) and
world. List out the countries
among them, socialism appealed to as capitalist, socialist and
Jawaharlal Nehru the most. However, mixed economy.
he was not in favour of the kind of
socialism established in the former Ø Plan a class trip to an
Soviet Union where all the means of agriculture farm. Divide the
class into seven groups with
production, i.e. all the factories and
each group to plan a specific
farms in the country, were owned by goal, for example, the
the government. There was no private purpose of the visit, money
property. It is not possible in a expenditure involved, time
democracy like India for the taken, resources, people
government to change the ownership accompanying the group
pattern of land and other properties and who need to be
of its citizens in the way that it was contacted, possible places
done in the former Soviet Union. of visit, possible questions
Nehru, and many other leaders and to be asked etc. Now, with
the help of your teacher,
thinkers of the newly independent
compile these specific goals
India, sought an alternative to the and compare with long-term
extreme versions of capitalism and goals of successful visit to
socialism. Basically sympathising with an agricultural farm.
the socialist outlook, they found the
INDIAN ECONOMY 1950-1990 17

Box 2.1: Types of Economic Systems
Every society has to answer three questions
Ø What goods and services should be produced in the country?
Ø Howshould the goods and services be produced? Should producers use
more human labour or more capital (machines) for producing things?
ØHow should the goods and services be distributed among people?
One answer to these questions is to depend on the market forces of
supply and demand. In a market economy, also called capitalism, only those
consumer goods will be produced that are in demand, i.e., goods that can
be sold profitably either in the domestic or in the foreign markets. If cars
are in demand, cars will be produced and if bicycles are in demand, bicycles
will be produced. If labour is cheaper than capital, more labour-intensive
methods of production will be used and vice-versa. In a capitalist society
the goods produced are distributed among people not on the basis of what
people need but on the basis of Purchasing Power—the ability to buy goods
and services. That is, one has to have the money in the pocket to buy it. Low
cost housing for the poor is much needed but will not count as demand in
the market sense because the poor do not have the purchasing power to
back the demand. As a result this commodity will not be produced and
supplied as per market forces. Such a society did not appeal to Jawaharlal
Nehru, our first prime minister, for it meant that the great majority of people
of the country would be left behind without the chance to improve their
quality of life.
A socialist society answers the three questions in a totally different
manner. In a socialist society the government decides what goods are to be
produced in accordance with the needs of society. It is assumed that the
government knows what is good for the people of the country and so the
desires of individual consumers are not given much importance. The
government decides how goods are to be produced and how they should be
distributed. In principle, distribution under socialism is supposed to be based
on what people need and not on what they can afford to purchase. Unlike
under capitalism, for example, a socialist nation provides free health care
to all its citizens. Strictly, a socialist society has no private property since
everything is owned by the state. In Cuba and China, for example, most of
the economic activities are governed by the socialistic principles.
Most economies are mixed economies, i.e. the government and the
market together answer the three questions of what to produce, how to
produce and how to distribute what is produced. In a mixed economy, the
market will provide whatever goods and services it can produce well, and
the government will provide essential goods and services which the market
fails to do.

Box 2.2: What is a Plan?
A plan spells out how the resources of a nation should be put to use. It
should have some general goals as well as specific objectives which are to
be achieved within a specified period of time; in India plans were of five
years duration and were called five year plans (we borrowed this from the
former Soviet Union, the pioneer in national planning). Our plan documents
upto the year 2017 not only specify the objectives to be attained in the five
years of a plan but also what is to be achieved over a period of twenty years.
This long-term plan is called ‘perspective plan’. The five year plans were
supposed to provide the basis for the perspective plan.
It will be unrealistic to expect all the goals of a plan to be given equal
importance in all the plans. In fact the goals may actually be in conflict. For
example, the goal of introducing modern technology may be in conflict with
the goal of increasing employment if the technology reduces the need for
labour. The planners have to balance the goals, a very difficult job indeed.
We find different goals being emphasised in different plans in India.
India’s five year plans did not spell out how much of each and every
good and service is to be produced. This is neither possible nor necessary
(the former Soviet Union tried to do this and failed). It is enough if the plan
is specific about the sectors where it plays a commanding role, for instance,
power generation and irrigation, while leaving the rest to the market.
economy with the private sector being of the goals is to be given primary
encouraged to be part of the plan effort. importance. Nevertheless, the planners
The ‘Industrial Policy Resolution’ of have to ensure that, as far as possible,
1948 and the Directive Principles of the policies of the plans do not
the Indian Constitution reflected contradict these four goals. Let us now
this outlook. In 1950, the Planning learn about the goals of planning in
Commission was set up with the some detail.
Prime Minister as its Chairperson. The
era of five year plans had begun. Growth: It refers to increase in the
country’s capacity to produce the
2.2 THE GOALS OF FIVE YEAR PLANS output of goods and services within
A plan should have some clearly the country. It implies either a
specified goals. The goals of the five larger stock of productive capital,
year plans were: growth, modernisation, or a larger size of supporting
self-reliance and equity. This does not services like transport and
mean that all the plans have given banking, or an increase in the
equal importance to all these goals. efficiency of productive capital and
Due to limited resources, a choice has services. A good indicator of
to be made in each plan about which economic growth, in the language of

Box 2.3: Mahalanobis: the Architect of Indian Planning
Many distinguished thinkers contributed to the formulation of India’s five

year plans. Among them, the name of the statistician, Prasanta Chandra
Mahalanobis, stands out.
Planning, in the real sense of the term, began with the Second Five Year
Plan. The Second Plan, a landmark contribution to development planning
in general, laid down the basic ideas regarding
goals of Indian planning; this plan was based
on the ideas of Mahalanobis. In that sense, he
can be regarded as the architect of Indian
planning.
Mahalanobis was born in 1893 in Calcutta.
He was educated at the Presidency College in
Calcutta and at Cambridge University in
England. His contributions to the subject of
statistics brought him international fame. In
1945 he was made a Fellow (member) of
Britain’s Royal Society, one of the most
prestigious organisations of scientists; only the
most outstanding scientists are made
members of this Society.
Mahalanobis established the Indian
Statistical Institute (ISI) in Calcutta and
started a journal, Sankhya, which still serves
as a respected forum for statisticians to
discuss their ideas. Both, the ISI and Sankhya, are highly regarded by
statisticians and economists all over the world to this day.
During the second plan period, Mahalanobis invited many
distinguished economists from India and abroad to advise him on India’s
economic development. Some of these economists became Nobel Prize winners
later, which shows that he could identify individuals with talent. Among
the economists invited by Mahalanobis were those who were very critical of
the socialist principles of the second plan. In other words, he was willing to
listen to what his critics had to say, the mark of a great scholar.
Many economists today reject the approach to planning formulated by
Mahalanobis but he will always be remembered for playing a vital role in
putting India on the road to economic progress, and statisticians continue
to profit from his contribution to statistical theory.
Source: Sukhamoy Chakravarty, ‘Mahalanobis, Prasanta Chandra’ in John

Eatwell et.al, (Eds.) The New Palgrave Dictionary: Economic
Development, W.W. Norton, New York and London.

Box 2.4: The Service Sector
As a country develops, it undergoes ‘structural change’. In the case of India,
the structural change is peculiar. Usually, with development, the share of
agriculture declines and the share of industry becomes dominant. At higher
levels of development, the service sector contributes more to the GDP than the
other two sectors. In India, the share of agriculture in the GDP was more than
50 per cent—as we would expect for a poor country. But by 1990 the share of
the service sector was 40.59 per cent, more than that of agriculture or industry,
like what we find in developed nations. This phenomenon of growing share of
the service sector was accelerated in the post 1991 period (this marked the
onset of globalisation in the country which will be discussed in chapter 3).
economics, is steady increase in the the producers have to adopt new

Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The technology. For example, a farmer can
GDP is the market value of all the increase the output on the farm by
final goods and services produced in using new seed varieties instead of
the country during a year. You have using the old ones. Similarly, a factory
studied this concept in Class X as can increase output by using a new
well. You can think of the GDP as a type of machine. Adoption of new
cake and growth is increase in the technology is called modernisation.
size of the cake. If the cake is larger, However, modernisation does not
more people can enjoy it. It is refer only to the use of new technology
necessary to produce more goods but also to changes in social outlook
and services if the people of India are such as the recognition that women
to enjoy (in the words of the First Five should have the same rights as men. In
Year Plan) a more rich and varied life. a traditional society, women are
The GDP of a country is derived supposed to remain at home while men
from the different sectors of the work. A modern society makes use of
economy, namely the agricultural the talents of women in the work place
sector, the industrial sector and the — in banks, factories, schools etc. —
service sector. The contribution and such a society in most occassions
made by each of these sectors makes is also prosperous.
up the structural composition of
the economy. In some countries, Self-reliance: A nation can promote
growth in agriculture contributes economic growth and modernisation
more to the GDP growth, while in by using its own resources or by
some countries the growth in the using resources imported from other
service sector contributes more to nations. The first seven five year plans
GDP growth (see Box 2.4). gave importance to self-reliance
which means avoiding imports
Modernisation: To increase the
of those goods which could be
production of goods and services

Work These Out
Ø Discuss in your class the changes in technology used for
(a) Production of food grains
(b) Packaging of products
(c) Mass communication
Ø Find out and prepare a list of major items that India imported and exported
during 1990-91 and 2018-19. (For this, see P. 145 also).
(a) Observe the difference
(b) Do you see the impact of self-reliance? Discuss.
For getting these details you may refer to Economic Survey of the latest year.
produced in India itself. This policy needs such as food, a decent house,
was considered a necessity in order to education and health care and
reduce our dependence on foreign inequality in the distribution of wealth
countries, especially for food. It is should be reduced.
understandable that people who were Let us now see how the first seven
recently freed from foreign domination five year plans, covering the period
should give importance to self- 1950-1990, attempted to attain these
reliance. Further, it was feared that four goals and the extent to which
dependence on imported food they succeeded in doing so, with
supplies, foreign technology and reference to agriculture, industry
foreign capital may make India’s and trade. You will study the policies
sovereignty vulnerable to foreign and developmental issues taken up
interference in our policies. after 1991 in Chapter 3.
Equity: Now growth, modernisation 2.3 AGRICULTURE
and self-reliance, by themselves, may
not improve the kind of life which You have learnt in Chapter 1 that
people are living. A country can have during the colonial rule there was
high growth, the most modern neither growth nor equity in the
technology developed in the country agricultural sector. The policy makers
itself, and also have most of its people of independent India had to address
living in poverty. It is important to these issues which they did through
ensure that the benefits of economic land reforms and promoting the use
prosperity reach the poor sections as of ‘High Yielding Variety’ (HYV) seeds
well instead of being enjoyed only by which ushered in a revolution in
the rich. So, in addition to growth, Indian agriculture.
modernisation and self-reliance, Land Reforms: At the time of
equity is also important. Every Indian independence, the land tenure system
should be able to meet his or her basic was characterised by intermediaries

Box 2.5: Ownership and Incentives
The policy of ‘land to the tiller’ is based on the idea that the cultivators will
take more interest — they will have more incentive — in increasing output if
they are the owners of the land. This is because ownership of land enables the
tiller to make profit from the increased output. Tenants do not have the incentive
to make improvements on land since it is the landowner who would benefit
more from higher output. The importance of ownership in providing incentives
is well illustrated by the carelessness with which farmers in the former Soviet
Union used to pack fruits for sale. It was not uncommon to see farmers packing
rotten fruits along with fresh fruits in the same box. Now, every farmer knows
that the rotten fruits will spoil the fresh fruits if they are packed together. This
will be a loss to the farmer since the fruits cannot be sold. So why did the
Soviet farmers do something which would so obviously result in loss for them?
The answer lies in the incentives facing the farmers. Since farmers in the
former Soviet Union did not own any land, they neither enjoyed the profits nor
suffered the losses. In the absence of ownership, there was no incentive on
the part of farmers to be efficient, which also explains the poor performance of
the agricultural sector in the Soviet Union despite availability of vast areas of
highly fertile land.
Source: Thomas Sowell, Basic Economics: A Citizen’s Guide to the Economy,
New York: Basic Books, 2004, Second Edition.
(variously called zamindars, jagirdars Land ceiling was another policy to

etc.) who merely collected rent from promote equity in the agricultural
the actual tillers of the soil without sector. This means fixing the maximum
contributing towards improvements size of land which could be owned by
on the farm. The low productivity of an individual. The purpose of land
the agricultural sector forced India to ceiling was to reduce the concentration
import food from the United States of of land ownership in a few hands.
America (U.S.A.). Equity in agriculture The abolition of intermediaries
called for land reforms which primarily meant that some 200 lakh tenants
refer to change in the ownership of came into direct contact with the
landholdings. Just a year after government — they were thus
independence, steps were taken to freed from being exploited by the
abolish intermediaries and to make the zamindars. The ownership conferred
tillers the owners of land. The idea on tenants gave them the incentive to
behind this move was that ownership increase output and this contributed
of land would give incentives (see Box to growth in agriculture. However, the
2.5) to the tillers to invest in making goal of equity was not fully served
improvements provided sufficient by abolition of intermediaries. In
capital was made available to them. some areas the former zamindars

continued to own large areas of land monsoon and if the monsoon fell short
by making use of some loopholes in the farmers were in trouble unless
the legislation; there were cases they had access to irrigation facilities
where tenants were evicted and the which very few had. The stagnation in
landowners claimed to be self- agriculture during the colonial rule
cultivators (the actual tillers), claiming was permanently broken by the green
ownership of the land; and even when revolution. This refers to the large
the tillers got ownership of land, the increase in production of food grains
poorest of the agricultural labourers resulting from the use of high yielding
(such as sharecroppers and landless variety (HYV) seeds especially for
labourers) did not benefit from land wheat and rice. The use of these seeds
reforms. required the use of fertiliser and
The land ceiling legislation also pesticide in the correct quantities as
faced hurdles. The big landlords well as regular supply of water; the
challenged the legislation in the application of these inputs in correct
courts, delaying its implementation. proportions is vital. The farmers who
They used this delay to register their could benefit from HYV seeds required
lands in the name of close relatives, reliable irrigation facilities as well as
thereby escaping from the the financial resources to purchase
legislation. The legislation also had fertiliser and pesticide. As a result, in
a lot of loopholes which were the first phase of the green revolution
exploited by the big landholders to (approximately mid 1960s upto mid
retain their land. Land reforms were 1970s), the use of HYV seeds was
s u c c e s s f u l i n K e r a l a a n d We s t restricted to the more affluent states
Bengal because these states had such as Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and
governments committed to the policy Tamil Nadu. Further, the use of HYV
of land to the tiller. Unfortunately seeds primarily benefited the wheat-
other states did not have the same growing regions only. In the second
level of commitment and vast phase of the green revolution
inequality in landholding continues (mid-1970s to mid-1980s), the HYV
to this day. technology spread to a larger number
of states and benefited more variety
The Green Revolution: At of crops. The spread of green
independence, about 75 per cent of revolution technology enabled India
the country’s population was to achieve self-sufficiency in food
dependent on agriculture. grains; India no longer had to be
Productivity in the agricultural sector at the mercy of America, or any
was very low because of the use of old other nation, for meeting its food
technology and the absence of requirements.
required infrastructure for the vast Growth in agricultural output is
majority of farmers. India’s important but it is not enough. If a
agriculture vitally depends on the large proportion of this increase is

consumed by the farmers themselves percentage of their income on food,
instead of being sold in the market, benefited from this decline in relative
the higher output will not make much prices. The green revolution enabled
of a difference to the economy as a the government to procure sufficient
whole. If, on the other hand, a amount of food grains to build a stock
substantial amount of agricultural which could be used in times of food
produce is sold in the market by the shortage.
farmers, the higher output can make While the nation had immensely
a difference to the economy. The benefited from the green revolution, the
portion of agricultural produce which technology involved was not free from
is sold in the market by the farmers risks. One such risk was the possibility
is called marketed surplus. A good that it would increase the disparities
proportion of the rice and wheat between small and big farmers—since
produced during the green revolution only the big farmers could afford the
period (available as marketed required inputs, thereby reaping most
surplus) was sold by the farmers in of the benefits of the green revolution.
the market. As a result, the price of Moreover, the HYV crops were also more
food grains declined relative to other prone to attack by pests and the small
items of consumption. The low- farmers who adopted this technology
income groups, who spend a large could lose everything in a pest attack.

Fortunately, these fears did not should be phased out since their
come true because of the steps taken purpose has been served. Further,
by the government. The government subsidies are meant to benefit the
provided loans at a low interest rate farmers but a substantial amount of
to small farmers and subsidised fertiliser subsidy also benefits the
fertilisers so that small farmers could f e r t i l ise r i n d u s t r y ; a n d a m o n g
also have access to the needed farmers, the subsidy largely benefits
inputs. Since the small farmers could
the farmers in the more prosperous
obtain the required inputs, the
regions. Therefore, it is argued that
output on small farms equalled the
there is no case for continuing with
output on large farms in the course
of time. As a result, the green fertiliser subsidies; it does not benefit
revolution benefited the small as well the target group and it is a huge
as rich farmers. The risk of the small burden on the government’s finances
farmers being ruined when pests (see also Box 2.6).
attack their crops was considerably On the other hand, some believe
reduced by the services rendered by that the government should continue
research institutes established by the with agricultural subsidies because
government. You should note that farming in India continues to be a risky
the green revolution would have business. Most farmers are very poor
favoured the rich farmers only if the and they will not be able to afford the
state did not play an extensive role required inputs without subsidies.
in ensuring that the small farmer Eliminating subsidies will increase the
also gains from the new technology. inequality between rich and poor
farmers and violate the goal of equity.
The Debate Over Subsidies: The
These experts argue that if subsidies
economic justification of subsidies in
are largely benefiting the fertiliser
agriculture is, at present, a hotly
industry and big farmers, the correct
debated question. It is generally
policy is not to abolish subsidies but
agreed that it was necessary to use
to take steps to ensure that only the
subsidies to provide an incentive for
poor farmers enjoy the benefits.
adoption of the new HYV technology
by farmers in general and small Thus, by the late 1960s, Indian
far mers in particular. Any new agricultural productivity had increased
technology will be looked upon as sufficiently to enable the country to be
being risky by farmers. Subsidies self-sufficient in food grains. This is an
were, therefore, needed to encourage achievement to be proud of. On the
farmers to test the new technology. negative side, some 65 per cent of the
Some economists believe that once country’s population continued to be
the technology is found profitable employed in agriculture even as late as
and is widely adopted, subsidies 1990. Economists have found that as

Box 2.6: Prices as Signals
You would have learnt in an earlier class about how prices of goods are
determined in the market. It is important to understand that prices are signals
about the availability of goods. If a good becomes scarce, its price will rise and
those who use this good will have the incentive to make efficient decisions
about its use based on the price. If the price of water goes up because of lower
supply, people will have the incentive to use it with greater care; for example,
they may stop watering the garden to conserve water. We complain whenever
the price of petrol increases and blame it on the government. But the increase
in petrol price reflects greater scarcity and the price rise is a signal that less
petrol is available— this provides an incentive to use less petrol or look for
alternate fuels.
Some economists point out that subsidies do not allow prices to indicate
the supply of a good. When electricity and water are provided at a subsidised
rate or free, they will be used wastefully without any concern for their scarcity.
Farmers will cultivate water intensive crops if water is supplied free, although
the water resources in that region may be scarce and such crops will further
deplete the already scarce resources. If water is priced to reflect scarcity,
farmers will cultivate crops suitable to the region. Fertiliser and pesticide
subsidies result in overuse of resources which can be harmful to the
environment. Subsidies provide an incentive for wasteful use of resources.
Think about subsidies in terms of incentives and ask yourself whether it is
wise from the economic viewpoint to provide free electricity to farmers.
a nation becomes more prosperous, the sector. Many economists call this an
proportion of GDP contributed by important failure of our policies
agriculture as well as the proportion of followed during 1950-1990.
population working in the sector
declines considerably. In India, 2.4 INDUSTRY AND TRADE
between 1950 and 1990, the Economists have found that poor
proportion of GDP contributed by nations can progress only if they have
agriculture declined significantly but a good industrial sector. Industry
not the population depending on it provides employment which is more
(67.5 per cent in 1950 to 64.9 per cent stable than the employment in
by 1990). Why was such a large agriculture; it promotes modernisation
proportion of the population engaged and overall prosperity. It is for this
in agriculture although agricultural reason that the five year plans placed
output could have grown with much a lot of emphasis on industrial
less people working in the sector? The d e v e l o p m e n t . Yo u m i g h t h a v e
answer is that the industrial sector and studied in the previous chapter that,
the service sector did not absorb the at the time of independence, the
people working in the agricultural variety of industries was very narrow

Work These Out
Ø A group of students may visit an agricultural farm, prepare a case study on

the method of farming used, that is, types of seeds, fertilisers, machines,
means of irrigation, cost involved, marketable surplus and income earned.
It will be beneficial if the changes in cultivation methods could be collected
from an elderly member of the farming family
(a) Discuss the findings in your class.
(b) The different groups can then prepare a chart showing variations in
cost of production, productivity, use of seeds, fertilisers, means of
irrigation, time taken, marketable surplus and income of the family.
Ø Collect newspaper cuttings related to the World Bank, International
Monetary Fund, World Trade Organisation (and meets of G7, G8, G10
countries). Discuss the views shared by the developed and developing
countries on farm subsidies.
Ø Prepare pie charts on the occupational structure of the Indian economy
available in the following table. Discuss the possible reasons for the change
in the shape of pies.
Sector 1950–51 1990–91
Agriculture 72.1 66.8
Industry 10.7 12.7
Services 17.2 20.5
Ø Study the arguments for and against agricultural subsidies. What is your
view on this issue?
Ø Some economists argue that farmers in other countries, particularly
developed countries, are provided with high amount of subsidies and are
encouraged to export their produce to other countries. Do you think our
farmers will be able to compete with farmers from developed countries?
Discuss.
— largely confined to cotton textiles Public and Private Sectors in Indian

and jute. There were two well- Industrial Development: The big
managed iron and steel firms — one question facing the policy makers was
in Jamshedpur and the other in — what should be the role of the
Kolkata — but, obviously, we needed government and the private sector in
to expand the industrial base with a industrial development? At the time of
variety of industries if the economy independence, Indian industrialists did
was to grow. not have the capital to undertake

investment in industrial ventures Although there was a category of
required for the development of Indian industries left to the private sector,
economy; nor was the market big the sector was kept under state
enough to encourage industrialists to control through a system of licenses.
undertake major projects even if they No new industry was allowed unless
had the capital to do so. It is principally a license was obtained from the
for these reasons that the erstwhile government. This policy was used for
governments had to play an extensive promoting industry in backward
role in promoting the industrial sector. regions; it was easier to obtain a
In addition, the decision to develop the
license if the industrial unit was
Indian economy on socialist lines led
established in an economically
to the policy of the government
controlling the commanding heights of backward area. In addition, such
the economy, as the Second Five Year units were given certain concessions
plan put it. This meant that the such as tax benefits and electricity
government would have complete at a lower tariff. The purpose of this
control of those industries that were policy was to promote regional
vital for the economy. The policies of the equality.
private sector would have to be Even an existing industry had to
complimentary to those of the public obtain a license for expanding
sector, with the public sector leading output or for diversifying production
the way. (producing a new variety of goods).
Industrial Policy Resolution 1956 This was meant to ensure that the
(IPR 1956): In accordance with the quantity of goods produced was not
goal of the state controlling the more than what the economy
commanding heights of the economy, required. License to expand
the Industrial Policy Resolution of production was given only if the
1956 was adopted. This resolution government was convinced that the
formed the basis of the Second Five economy required a larger quantity
Year Plan, the plan which tried to of goods.
build the basis for a socialist pattern
of society. This resolution classified Small-Scale Industry: In 1955, the
industries into three categories. The Village and Small-Scale Industries
first category comprised industries Committee, also called the Karve
which would be exclusively owned by
Committee, noted the possibility of
the government; the second category
using small-scale industries for
consisted of industries in which the
private sector could supplement the promoting rural development. A
efforts of the public sector, with the ‘small-scale industry’ is defined with
government t a k i n g t h e s o l e reference to the maximum invest-
responsibility for starting new units; ment allowed on the assets of a unit.
the third category consisted of the This limit has changed over a period
remaining industries which were to o f t i m e . In 1950 a small -scale
be in the private sector. industrial unit was one which invested

a maximum of rupees five lakh; at imported goods; they make imported
present the maximum investment goods more expensive and discourage
allowed is rupees one crore. their use. Quotas specify the quantity
It is believed that small-scale of goods which can be imported. The
industries are more ‘labour intensive’ effect of tariffs and quotas is that they
i.e., they use more labour than the restrict imports and, therefore, protect
large-scale industries and, therefore, the domestic firms from foreign
generate more employment. But these competition.
industries cannot compete with the big The policy of protection was based
industrial firms; it is obvious that on the notion that industries of
development of small-scale industry developing countries were not in a
requires them to be shielded from the position to compete against the
large firms. For this purpose, the goods produced by more developed
production of a number of products economies. It was assumed that if the
was reserved for the small-scale domestic industries were protected
industry; the criterion of reservation they would learn to compete in the
being the ability of these units to course of time. Our planners also
manufacture the goods. They were also feared the possibility of foreign
given concessions such as lower excise exchange being spent on import of
duty and bank loans at lower interest luxury goods if no restrictions were
rates. placed on imports. Nor was any
serious thought given to promote
2.5 TRADE POLICY: IMPORT SUBSTITUTION exports until the mid-1980s.
T h e i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y t h a t India Effect of Policies on Industrial

adopted was closely related to the Development: The achievements of
trade policy. In the first seven plans, India’s industrial sector during the
trade was characterised by what is first seven plans are impressive
commonly called an inward looking indeed. T h e p r o p o r t i o n o f G D P
trade strategy. Technically, this contributed by the industrial
strategy is called import substi- sector increased in the period from
tution. This policy aimed at replacing 13 per cent in 1950-51 to 24.6 per cent
or substituting imports with domestic i n 1 9 9 0 -9 1 . T h e r i s e i n t h e
production. For example, instead of industry’s share of GDP is an
importing vehicles made in a foreign important indicator of development.
country, industries would be The six per cent annual growth rate
encouraged to produce them in India of the industrial sector during the
itself. In this policy the government period is commendable. No longer
protected the domestic industries was Indian industry restricted largely
from foreign competition. Protection to cotton textiles and jute; in fact, the
from imports took two forms: tariffs industrial sector became well
and quotas. Tariffs are a tax on diversified by 1990, largely due to

Work These Out
Ø Construct a pie chart for the following table on sectoral contribution to GDP
and discuss the difference in the contribution of the sectors in the light of
effects of development during 1950-91.
Sector 1950-51 1990-91
Agriculture 59.0 34.9
Industry 13.0 24.6
Services 28.0 40.5
Ø Conduct a debate in your classroom on the usefulness of Public Sector

Undertakings (PSUs) by dividing the class into two groups. One group may
speak in favour of PSUs and the other group against the motion (involve as
many students as possible and encourage them to give examples).
the public sector. The promotion was required in a big way. It is now
of s m a l l - s c a l e i n d u s t r i e s gave widely held that state enterprises
opportunities to those people who did continued to produce certain goods
not have the capital to start large and services (often monopolising
firms to get into business. Protection them) although this was no longer
from foreign competition enabled the required. An example is the provision
development of indigenous industries of telecommunication service. This
in the areas of electronics and industry continued to be reserved for
automobile sectors which otherwise the Public Sector even after it was
could not have developed. realised that private sector firms
In spite of the contribution made could also provide it. Due to the
by the public sector to the growth of absence of competition, even till the
the Indian economy, some economists late 1990s, one had to wait for a long
are critical of the performance of time to get a telephone connection.
many public sector enterprises. It was Another instance could be the
proposed at the beginning of this establishment of Modern Bread, a
chapter that initially public sector bread-manufacturing firm, as if the

private sector could not manufacture regulation of what came to be called the
bread! In 2001 this firm was sold to permit license raj prevented certain
the private sector. The point is that firms from becoming more efficient.
after four decades of Planned More time was spent by industrialists
development of Indian Economy no in trying to obtain a license or lobby
distinction was made between (i) what with the concerned ministries rather
the public sector alone can do and than on thinking about how to improve
(ii) what the private sector can also their products.
do. For example, even now only the The protection from foreign
public sector supplies national competition was also being criticised
defense. And even though the private on the ground that it continued even
sector can manage hotels well, yet, after it proved to do more harm than
the government also runs hotels. This good. Due to restrictions on imports,
has led some scholars to argue that the Indian consumers had to
the state should get out of areas purchase whatever the Indian
which the private sector can manage producers produced. The producers
and the government may concentrate were aware that they had a captive
its resources on important services market; so they had no incentive to
which the private sector cannot improve the quality of their goods.
provide. Why should they think of improving
Many public sector firms incurred quality when they could sell low
huge losses but continued to quality items at a high price?
function because it is difficult to close Competition from imports forces our
a government undertaking even if it producers to be more efficient.
is a drain on the nation’s limited A few economists also point out
resources. This does not mean that that the public sector is not meant
private firms are always profitable for earning profits but to promote the
(indeed, quite a few of the public welfare of the nation. The public
sector firms were originally private sector firms, on this view, should be
firms which were on the verge of evaluated on the basis of the extent
closure due to losses; they were then to which they contribute to the welfare
nationalised to protect the jobs of the of people and not on the profits they
workers). However, a loss-making earn. Regarding protection, some
private firm will not waste resources economists hold that we should
by being kept running despite the protect our producers from foreign
losses. competition as long as the rich
The need to obtain a license to start nations continue to do so. Owing to
an industry was misused by all these conflicts, economists called
industrial houses; a big industrialist for a change in our policy. This,
would get a license not for starting a alongwith other problems, led the
new firm but to prevent competitors government to introduce a new
from starting new firms. The excessive economic policy in 1991.

2.6 CONCLUSION entrepreneurship. In the name of self-
reliance, Indian producers were
The progress of the Indian economy
protected against foreign competition
during the first seven plans was
and this did not give them the
impressive indeed. Our industries
became far more diversified compared incentive to improve the quality of
to the situation at independence. India goods that they produced. Indian
became self- suf ficient in food policies were ‘inward oriented’ that
production thanks to the green failed to develop a strong export
revolution. Land reforms resulted in sector. The need for r e f o r m of
abolition of the hated zamindari economic policy was widely felt in the
system. In industrial sector, many context of changing global economic
economists became dissatisfied with scenario, and the new economic policy
the performance of many public sector was initiated in 1991 to make
enterprises. Excessive government Indian economy more efficient. This is
regulation prevented growth of the subject of the next chapter.
Recap
Ø After independence, India envisaged an economic system which combines

the best features of socialism and capitalism — this culminated in the mixed
economy model.
Ø All the economic planning has been formulated through five year plans.
Ø Common goals of five year plans are growth, modernisation, self-sufficiency

and equity.
Ø The major policy initiatives in agriculture sector were land reforms and
green revolution. These initiatives helped India to become self-sufficient in
food grains production.
Ø The proportion of people depending on agriculture did not decline as expected.

Ø Import substitution policy initiatives in the industrial sector raised its
contribution to GDP.
Ø One of the major drawbacks in the industrial sector was the inefficient
functioning of the public sector as it started incurring losses leading to
drain on the nation’s limited resources.

EXERCISES
1. Define a plan.
2. Why did India opt for planning?
3. Why should plans have goals?
4. What are High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds?
5. What is marketable surplus?
6. Explain the need and type of land reforms implemented in the
agriculture sector.
7. What is Green Revolution? Why was it implemented and how did
it benefit the farmers? Explain in brief.
8. Explain ‘growth with equity’ as a planning objective.
9. Does modernisation as a planning objective create contradiction
in the light of employment generation? Explain.
10. Why was it necessary for a developing country like India to follow
self-reliance as a planning objective?
11. What is sectoral composition of an economy? Is it necessary that
the service sector should contribute maximum to GDP of an
economy? Comment.
12. Why was public sector given a leading role in industrial
development during the planning period?
13. Explain the statement that green revolution enabled the
government to procure sufficient food grains to build its stocks
that could be used during times of shortage.
14. While subsidies encourage farmers to use new technology, they are
a huge burden on government finances. Discuss the usefulness of
subsidies in the light of this fact.
15. Why, despite the implementation of green revolution, 65 per cent
of India’s population continued to be engaged in the agriculture
sector till 1990?
16. Though public sector is very essential for industries, many public
sector undertakings incur huge losses and are a drain on the
economy’s resources. Discuss the usefulness of public sector
undertakings in the light of this fact.

17. Explain how import substitution can protect domestic industry.
18. Why and how was private sector regulated under the IPR 1956?
19. Match the following:
1. Prime Minister A. Seeds that give large proportion of output

2. Gross Domestic B. Quantity of goods that can be imported
Product
3. Quota C. Chairperson of the planning commission
4. Land Reforms D. The money value of all the final goods
and services produced within the economy
in one year
5. HYV Seeds E. Improvements in the field of agriculture
to increase its productivity
6. Subsidy F. The monetary assistance given by
go v e r n m e n t f o r p r o d u c t i o n
activities.
REFERENCES
B HAGWATI , J. 1993. India in T ransition: Freeing the Economy. Oxford

University Press, Delhi.
D ANDEKAR, V.M. 2004. Forty Years After Independence, in Bimal Jalan,
(Ed.). The Indian Economy: Problems and Prospects. Penguin, Delhi.
J OSHI, V IJAY. and I.M.D. LITTLE. 1996. India’s Economic Reforms 1991-2001.
Oxford University Press, Delhi.
M OHAN, RAKESH. 2004. Industrial Policy and Controls, in Bimal Jalan
(Ed.). The Indian Economy: Problems and Prospects. Penguin, Delhi.
R AO, C.H. HANUMANTHA. 2004. Agriculture: Policy and Performance, in Bimal
Jalan, (Ed.). The Indian Economy: Problems and Prospects. Penguin,
Delhi.

UNIT
UNIT
II
III
ECONOMIC REFORMS
SINCE 1991

After forty years of planned development, India
has been able to achieve a strong industrial base
and became self-sufficient in the production of food
grains. Nevertheless, a major segment of the
population continues to depend on agriculture for
its livelihood. In 1991, a crisis in the balance of
payments led to the introduction of economic
reforms in the country. This unit is an appraisal of
the reform process and its implications for India.

3
LIBERALISATION, PRIVATISATION
AND
GLOBALISATION: AN APPRAISAL
• understand the background of the reform policies introduced in India

in 1991
• understand the mechanism through which reform policies were
introduced
• comprehend the process of globalisation and its implications for India
• be aware of the impact of the reform process in various sectors.

There is a consensus in the world today that economic development is not all
and the GDP is not necessarily a measure of progress of a society.
K.R. Narayanan, Former President of India
3.1 I NTRODUCTION policy measures which changed the

direction of our developmental
You have studied in the previous
strategies. In this chapter, we will
chapter that, since independence,
look at the background of the crisis,
India followed the mixed economy
measures that the government has
framework by combining the
adopted and their impact on various
advantages of the capitalist economic
sectors of the economy.
system with those of the socialist
economic system. Some scholars argue
3.2 BACKGROUND
that, over the years, this policy resulted
in the establishment of a variety of The origin of the financial crisis can
rules and laws, which were aimed at be traced from the inefficient
controlling and regulating the management of the Indian economy
economy, ended up instead in in the 1980s. We know that for
hampering the process of growth and implementing various policies and
development. Others state that India, its general administration, the
which started its developmental path government generates funds from
from near stagnation, has since been various sources such as taxation,
able to achieve growth in savings, running of public sector enterprises
developed a diversified industrial etc. When expenditure is more than
sector which produces a variety of income, the government borrows to
goods and has experienced sustained finance the deficit from banks and
expansion of agricultural output also from people within the country
which has ensured food security. and from international financial
In 1991, India met with an institutions. When we import goods
economic crisis relating to its external like petroleum, we pay in dollars
debt — the government was not which we earn from our exports.
able to make repayments on its Development policies required that
borrowings from abroad; foreign even though the revenues were
exchange reserves, which we very low, the government had
generally maintain to import petroleum to overshoot its revenue to meet
and other important items, dropped challenges like unemployment,
to levels that were not sufficient for poverty and population explosion. The
even a fortnight. The crisis was continued spending on development
further compounded by rising prices programmes of the government did not
of essential goods. All these led the generate additional revenue. Moreover,
government to introduce a new set of the government was not able to
LIBERALISATION, PRIVATISATION AND GLOBALISATION: AN APPRAISAL 39

generate sufficiently from internal and received $7 billion as loan to
sources such as taxation. When the manage the crisis. For availing the
government was spending a large loan, these international agencies
share of its income on areas which do expected India to liberalise and open
not provide immediate returns such as up the economy by removing
the social sector and defence, there was restrictions on the private sector,
a need to utilise the rest of its revenue reduce the role of the government in
in a highly efficient manner. The many areas and remove trade
income from public sector restrictions between India and other
undertakings was also not very high to countries.
meet the growing expenditure. At India agreed to the conditionalities
times, our f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e , of World Bank and IMF and
borrowed from other countries and announced the New Economic Policy
international financial institutions, (NEP). The NEP consisted of wide
was spent on meeting consumption ranging economic reforms. The
needs. Neither was an attempt made to thrust of the policies was towards
reduce such profligate spending nor creating a more competitive
sufficient attention was given to boost environment in the economy and
exports to pay for the growing imports. removing the barriers to entry and
In the late 1980s, government growth of firms. This set of policies
expenditure began to exceed its can broadly be classified into two
revenue by such large margins that groups: the stabilisation measures
meeting the expenditure through and the structural reform measures.
borrowings became unsustainable. Stabilisation measures are short-
Prices of many essential goods rose term measures, intended to correct
sharply. Imports grew at a very high some of the weaknesses that have
rate without matching growth of developed in the balance of
exports. As pointed out earlier, foreign payments and to bring inflation
exchange reserves declined to a level under control. In simple words, this
that was not adequate to finance means that there was a need to
imports for more than two weeks. maintain sufficient foreign exchange
There was also not sufficient foreign reserves and keep the rising prices
exchange to pay the interest that under control. On the other hand,
needed to be paid to international structural reform policies are long-term
lenders. Also no country or international measures, aimed at improving the
funder was willing to lend to India. efficiency of the economy and increasing
India approached the International its international competitiveness by
Bank for Reconstruction and removing the rigidities in various
Development (IBRD), popularly segments of the Indian economy. The
known as World Bank and the government initiated a variety of
International Monetary Fund (IMF), policies which fall under three heads

viz., liberalisation, privatisation and The reform policies introduced in
globalisation. and after 1991 removed many of
these restrictions. Industrial
3.3 L IBERALISATION licensing was abolished for almost all
As pointed out in the beginning, but product categories — alcohol,
cigarettes, hazardous chemicals,
rules and laws which were aimed at
industrial explosives, electronics,
regulating the economic activities
aerospace and drugs and pharma-
became major hindrances in growth
ceuticals. The only industries which
and development. Liberalisation was
are now reserved for the public sector
introduced to put an end to these
a r e a part of a t o m i c e n e r g y
restrictions and open various sectors
generation and some core activities
of the economy. Though a few
in railway transport. Many goods
liberalisation measures were
produced by small-scale industries
introduced in 1980s in areas of
have now been dereserved. In most
industrial licensing, export-import
industries, the market has been
policy, technology upgradation,
allowed to determine the prices.
fiscal policy and foreign investment,
reform policies initiated in 1991 were Financial Sector Reforms:
more comprehensive. Let us study Financial sector includes financial
some important areas, such as the institutions, such as commercial
industrial sector, financial sector, tax banks, investment banks, stock
reforms, foreign exchange markets exchange operations and foreign
and trade and investment sectors exchange market. The financial
which received greater attention in sector in India is regulated by the
and after 1991. Reserve Bank of India (RBI). You may
be aware that all banks and other
Deregulation of Industrial Sector: In financial institutions in India are
India, regulatory mechanisms were regulated through various norms and
enforced in various ways (i) industrial regulations of the RBI. The RBI
licensing under which every entrepreneur decides the amount of money that
had to get permission from government the banks can keep with themselves,
officials to start a firm, close a firm fixes interest rates, nature of lending
or decide the amount of goods to various sectors, etc. One of the
that could be produced (ii) private major aims of financial sector reforms
sector was not allowed in many is to reduce the role of RBI from
industries (iii) some goods could be regulator to facilitator of financial
produced only in small-scale industries, sector. This means that the financial
and (iv) controls on price fixation and sector may be allowed to take
distribution of selected industrial decisions on many matters without
products. consulting the RBI.

The reform policies led to the establishment of a common national
establishment of private sector banks, market for goods and commodities.
Indian as well as foreign. Foreign In 2016, the Indian Parliament
investment limit in banks was raised to passed a law, Goods and Services Tax
around 74 per cent. Those banks which Act 2016, to simplify and introduce a
fulfil certain conditions have been given unified indirect tax system in India.
freedom to set up new branches This law came into effect from July
without the approval of the RBI and 2017. This is expected to generate
rationalise their existing branch additional revenue for the government,
networks. Though banks have been reduce tax evasion and create ‘one
given permission to generate resources nation, one tax and one market’.
from India and abroad, certain Another component of reform in this
managerial aspects have been retained area is simplification. In order to
with the RBI to safeguard the interests encourage better compliance on the
of the account-holders and the nation. part of taxpayers, many procedures
Foreign Institutional Investors (FII), have been simplified and the rates also
such as merchant bankers, mutual substantially lowered.
funds and pension funds, are now
allowed to invest in Indian financial Foreign Exchange Reforms: The first
markets. important reform in the external sector
was made in the foreign exchange
Tax Reforms: Tax reforms are market. In 1991, as an immediate
concerned with the reforms in the measure to resolve the balance of
government’s taxation and public payments crisis, the rupee was
expenditure policies, which are devalued against foreign currencies.
collectively known as its fiscal policy. This led to an increase in the inflow of
There are two types of taxes: direct and foreign exchange. It also set the tone to
indirect. Direct taxes consist of taxes free the determination of rupee value
on incomes of individuals, as well as, in the foreign exchange market from
profits of business enterprises. Since government control. Now, more often
1991, there has been a continuous than not, markets determine exchange
reduction in the taxes on individual rates based on the demand and supply
incomes as it was felt that high rates of of foreign exchange.
income tax were an important reason
for tax evasion. It is now widely Trade and Investment Policy
accepted that moderate rates of income Reforms: Liberalisation of trade and
tax encourage savings and voluntary investment regime was initiated to
disclosure of income. The rate of increase international competitiveness of
corporation tax, which was very high industrial production and also foreign
earlier, has been gradually reduced. investments and technology into the
Efforts have also been made to reform economy. The aim was also to promote
the indirect taxes, taxes levied on the efficiency of local industries and
commodities, in order to facilitate the adoption of modern technologies.

In order to protect domestic of tariff rates and (iii) removal of
industries, India was following a regime licensing procedures for imports.
of quantitative restrictions on Import licensing was abolished except
imports. This was encouraged through in case of hazardous and
tight control over imports and by environmentally sensitive industries.
keeping the tariffs very high. These Quantitative restrictions on imports of
policies reduced efficiency and manufactured consumer goods and
competitiveness which led to slow agricultural products were also fully
growth of the manufacturing sector. removed from April 2001. Export
The trade policy reforms aimed at (i) duties have been removed to increase
dismantling of quantitative restrictions the competitive position of Indian goods
on imports and exports (ii) reduction in the international markets.
Work These Out
Ø Give an example each of nationalised bank, private bank, private foreign

bank, FII and a mutual fund.
Ø Visit a bank in your locality with your parents. Observe and find out the
functions it performs. Discuss the same with your classmates and prepare
a chart on it.
Ø Find out from your parents if they pay taxes. If yes, why do they do so and
how?
Ø Do you know that for a very long time countries used to keep silver and gold
as reserves to make payments abroad? Find out in what form do we keep
our foreign exchange reserves and find out from newspapers, magazines
and the Economic Survey how much foreign exchange reserves India had
during the last year. Also find the foreign currency of the following countries
and its latest rupee exchange rate.
Country Currency Value of 1(one) unit of foreign

currency in Indian rupee
U.S.A.
U.K.
Japan
China
Korea
Singapore
Germany

3.4 PRIVATISATION Privatisation of the public sector
It implies shedding of the ownership enterprises by selling off part of the
or management of a government equity of PSEs to the public is known
o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e. G o v e r n m e n t as disinvestment. The purpose of the
companies are converted into private sale, according to the government,
c o m p a n i e s i n t w o w a y s ( i) b y was mainly to improve financial
withdrawal of the government from discipline and facilitate modernisation.
ownership and management of It was also envisaged that private
public sector companies and or (ii) by capital and managerial capabilities
outright sale of public sector could be effectively utilised to
companies. improve the performance of the PSUs.
Box 3.1: Navratnas and Public Enterprise Policies

You must have read in your childhood about the famous Navratnas or Nine
Jewels in the Imperial Court of King Vikramaditya who were eminent persons
of excellence in the fields of art, literature and knowledge. In order to improve
efficiency, infuse professionalism and enable them to compete more effectively
in the liberalised global environment, the government identifies PSEs and
declare them as maharatnas, navratnas and miniratnas. They were given greater
managerial and operational autonomy, in taking various decisions to run the
company efficiently and thus increase their profits. Greater operational,
financial and managerial autonomy has also been granted to profit-making
enterprises referred to as miniratnas.
The Central Public Sector Enterprises are designated with different status.
A few examples of public enterprises with their status are as follows:
(i) Maharatnas – (a) Indian Oil Corporation Limited, and (b) Steel Authority of
India Limited, (ii) Navratnas – (a) Hindustan Aeronautics Limited,
(b) Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited; and (iii) Miniratnas – (a) Bharat
Sanchar Nigam Limited; (b) Airport Authority of India and (c) Indian Railway
Catering and Tourism Corporation Limited.
Many of these profitable PSEs were originally formed during the 1950s
and 1960s when self-reliance was an important element of public policy. They
were set up with the intention of providing infrastructure and direct employment
to the public so that quality end-product reaches the masses at a nominal
cost and the companies themselves were made accountable to all stakeholders.
The granting of status resulted in better performance of these companies.
Scholars allege that instead of facilitating public enterprises in their expansion
and enabling them to become global players, the government partly privatised
them through disinvesment. Of late, the government has decided to retain
them in the public sector and enable them to expand themselves in the global
markets and raise resources by themselves from financial markets.

Work These Out
Ø Some scholars refer to disinvestment as the wave of privatisation spreading

all over the world to improve the performance of public sector enterprises
whereas others call it as outright sale of public property to the vested
interests. What do you think?
Ø Prepare a poster which contains 10-15 news clippings which you consider
as important and relating to navaratnas from newspapers. Also collect the
logos and advertisements of these PSEs. Put these on the notice board and
discuss them in the classroom.
Ø Do you think only loss making companies should be privatised? Why?
Ø Losses incurred by public sector enterprises are to be met out of the public
budget. Do you agree with this statement? Discuss.
The government envisaged that links in such a way that the

privatisation could provide strong happenings in India can be influenced
impetus to the inflow of FDI. by events happening miles away. It is
The government has also made turning the world into one whole or
attempts to improve the efficiency of creating a borderless world.
PSUs by giving them autonomy
Outsourcing: This is one of the
in taking managerial decisions. For
important outcomes of the
instance, some PSUs have been
globalisation process. In outsourcing,
granted special status as maharatnas,
a company hires regular service from
navratnas and miniratnas (see
external sources, mostly from other
Box 3.1).
countries, which was previously
provided internally or from within the
3.5 G LOBALISATION
country (like legal advice, computer
Although globalisation is generally service, advertisement, security —
understood to mean integration of the each provided by respective
economy of the country with the world departments of the company). As a
economy, it is a complex phenomenon. form of economic activity, outsourcing
It is an outcome of the set of various has intensified, in recent times,
policies that are aimed at transforming because of the growth of fast modes
the world towards greater of communication, particularly the
interdependence and integration. It growth of Information Technology
involves creation of networks and (IT). Many of the services such as
activities transcending economic, social voice-based business processes
and geographical boundaries. (popularly known as BPO or
Globalisation attempts to establish call centres), record keeping,

Box 3.2: Global Footprint!
Owing to globalisation, you might find many Indian companies have expanded
their wings to many other countries. For example, ONGC Videsh, a subsidiary of
the Indian public sector enterprise, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation engaged in
oil and gas exploration and production has projects in 16 countries. Tata Steel, a
private company established in 1907, is one of the top ten global steel companies
in the world which have operations in 26 countries and sell its products in 50
countries. It employs nearly 50,000 persons in other countries. HCL Technologies,
one of the top five IT companies in India has offices in 31 countries and employs
about 15,000 persons abroad. Dr Reddy's Laboratories, initially was a small
company supplying pharmaceutical goods to big Indian companies, today has
manufacturing plants and research centres across the world.
Source: www.rediff.com accessed on 14.10.2014.
accountancy, banking services, music be availed at a cheaper cost with

recording, film editing, book reasonable degree of skill and
transcription, clinical advice or even accuracy. The low wage rates and
teaching are being outsourced by availability of skilled manpower in
companies in developed countries to India have made it a destination for
India. With the help of modern global outsourcing in the post-reform
telecommunication links including the period.
Internet, the text, voice and visual data
in respect of these services is digitised World Trade Organisation (WTO):
and transmitted in real time over The WTO was founded in 1995 as
continents and national boundaries. the successor organisation to the
Most multinational corporations, and General Agreement on Trade and
even small companies, are outsourcing Tariff (GATT). GATT was established
their services to India where they can in 1948 with 23 countries as the
global trade organisation
to administer all
multilateral trade
agreements by providing
equal opportunities to
all countries in the
international market for
trading purposes. WTO is
expected to establish a
rule-based trading regime
in which nations cannot
place arbitrary restrictions
on trade. In addition, its
Fig. 3.1 Outsourcing: a new employment opportunity in big cities purpose is also to enlarge

Work These Out
Ø Many scholars argue that globalisation is a threat as it reduces the role of

the government in many sectors. Some counter argue that it is an
opportunity as it opens up markets to compete in and capture. Debate in
the classroom.
Ø Prepare a chart consisting of a list of five companies that have BPO services
in India, along with their turnover.
Ø Did you attend online classes or watched videos of your teachers or any
other teacher taking classes during the last year through television, mobile
phone or computers due to Covid 19 Pandemic? Share your experiences
related to information technology.
Ø Is employment in call centres sustainable? What kinds of skills should people

working in call centres acquire to get a regular income?
Ø If the multinational companies outsource many services to countries like

India because of cheap manpower, what will happen to people living in the
countries where the companies are located? Discuss.
production and trade of services, to As an important member of

ensure optimum utilisation of world WTO, India has been in the forefront
resources and to protect the of framing fair global rules,
environment. The WTO agreements regulations and safeguards and
cover trade in goods as well as services advocating the interests of the
to facilitate international trade developing world. India has kept its
(bilateral and multilateral) through commitments towards liberalisation
removal of tariff as well as non-tariff of trade, made in the WTO, by
barriers and providing greater market removing quantitative restrictions on
access to all member countries. imports and reducing tariff rates.
TABLE 3.1
Growth of GDP and Major Sectors (in %)
Sector 1980-91 1992-2001 2002-07 2007-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15

Agriculture 3.6 3.3 2.3 3.2 1.5 4.2 – 0.2*
Industry 7.1 6.5 9.4 7.4 3.6 5 7.0*
Services 6.7 8.2 7.8 10 8.1 7.8 9.8*
Total 5.6 6.4 7.8 8.2 5.6 6.6 7.4
Source: Economic Survey for various years, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
Note: *Data pertaining to Gross Value Added (GVA). The GVA is estimated from GDP by adding
subsidies on production and subtracting indirect taxes.

Some scholars question the period, the growth of agriculture has
usefulness of India being a member of declined. While the industrial sector
the WTO as a major volume of reported fluctuation, the growth of the
international trade occurs among the service sector has gone up. This
developed nations. They also say that indicates that GDP growth is mainly
while developed countries file driven by growth in the service sector.
complaints over agricultural subsidies During 2012-15, there has been a
given in their countries, developing setback in the growth rates of different
countries feel cheated as they are forced sectors witnessed post–1991. While
to open their markets for developed agriculture recorded a high growth rate
during 2013–14, this sector witnessed
countries but are not allowed access to
negative growth in the subsequent
the markets of developed countries.
year. While the service sector
What do you think?
continued to witness a high level of
growth — higher than the overall GDP
growth in 2014–15, this sector
witnessed the high growth rate of 9.8
per cent. The industrial sector
witnessed a steep decline during 2012–
13, in the subsequent years it began
to show a continuous positive growth.
The opening of the economy has
led to a rapid increase in foreign direct
investment and foreign exchange
Fig. 3.2 IT industry is seen as a major contributor reserves. The foreign investment,
to India’s exports which includes foreign direct
3.6 INDIAN ECONOMY DURING investment (FDI) and foreign
institutional investment (FII), has
R EFORMS: AN A SSESSMENT
increased from about US $100 million
The reform process has completed in 1990-91 to US $ 30 billion in
three decades since its introduction. 2017-18. There has been an increase
Let us now look at the performance in the foreign exchange reserves from
of the Indian economy during this about US $ 6 billion in 1990-91 to
period. In economics, the growth of about US $ 413 billion in 2018-19.
an economy is measured by the Gross India is one of the largest foreign
Domestic Product. Look at Table 3.1. exchange reserve holders in the world.
The post–1991 India witnessed a Since 1991, India is seen as a
rapid growth in GDP on a continual successful exporter of auto parts,
basis for two decades. The growth pharmaceutical goods engineering
of GDP increased from 5.6 per cent goods, IT software and textiles. Rising
during 1980–91 to 8.2 per cent prices have also been kept under
during 2007–12. During the reform control.

Work These Out
Ø In the previous chapter, you might have studied about subsidies in various
sectors, including agriculture. Some scholars argue that subsidy in agriculture
should be removed to make the sector internationally competitive. Do you
agree? If so, how can it be done? Discuss in class.
Ø Read the following passage and discuss in class.

Groundnut is a major oilseed crop in Andhra Pradesh. Mahadeva,
who was a farmer in Anantpur district of Andhra Pradesh, used to spend
Rs. 10,000 for growing groundnut on his plot of half an acre. The cost
included expenditure on raw material (seeds, fertilisers, etc.), labour,
bullock power and machinery used. On an average, Mahadeva used to get
two quintals of groundnut, and each quintal was sold for Rs. 7,000.
Mahadeva, thus, was spending Rs. 10,000 and getting an income of Rs.
14,000. Anantpur district is a drought-prone area. As a result of economic
reforms, the government did not undertake any major irrigation project.
Recently, groundnut crop in Anantpur is facing problems due to crop
disease. Research and extension work has gone down due to lower
government expenditure. Mahadeva and his friends brought this matter
repeatedly to the notice of the government officials entrusted with this
responsibility, but failed. Subsidy was reduced on material (seeds,
fertilisers) which increased Mahadeva’s cost of cultivation. Moreover, the
local markets were flooded with cheap imported edible oils, which was a
result of removal of restriction on imports. Mahadeva was not able to sell
his groundnut in the market as he was not getting the price to cover
his cost.
What could be done to farmers like Mahadeva from incurring losses?
Discuss in the class.
On the other hand, the reform Growth and Employment: Though

process has been widely criticised the GDP growth rate has increased in
for not being able to address some the reform period, scholars point out
of the basic problems facing our that the reform-led growth has not
economy especially in areas of generated sufficient employment
employment, agriculture, industry, opportunities in the country. You will
infrastructure development and fiscal study the link between different aspects
management.
of employment and growth in the
next unit.

Reforms in Agriculture: Reforms infrastructure etc. In a globalised
have not been able to benefit world, developing countries are
agriculture, where the growth rate has compelled to open up their economies
been decelerating. to greater flow of goods and capital
Since 1991, public investment in from developed countries and
agriculture sector especially in rendering their industries vulnerable
infrastructure, which includes to imported goods. Cheaper imports
irrigation, power, roads, market have, thus, replaced the demand
linkages and research and extension for domestic goods. Domestic
(which played a crucial role in the manufacturers are facing competition
from imports. The infrastructure
Green Revolution), has fallen. Further,
facilities, including power supply,
the partial removal of fertiliser subsidy
have remained inadequate due to lack
has led to increase in the cost of
of investment. Globalisation is, thus,
production, which has severely
often seen as creating conditions for
affected the small and marginal
the free movement of goods and
farmers. This sector has been services from foreign countries that
experiencing a number of policy adversely affect the local industries
changes such as reduction in import and employment opportunities in
duties on agricultural products, low developing countries.
minimum support price and lifting of Moreover, a developing country
quantitative restrictions on the imports like India still does not have the access
of agricultural products. These have to developed countries’ markets
adversely affected Indian farmers as because of high non-tariff barriers. For
they now have to face increased example, although all quota
international competition. restrictions on exports of textiles and
Moreover, because of export- clothing have been removed in India,
oriented policy strategies in agriculture, USA has not removed their quota
there has been a shift from production restriction on import of textiles from
for the domestic market towards India and China.
production for the export market
focusing on cash crops in lieu of Disinvestment: Every year, the
production of food grains. This puts government fixes a target for
pressure on prices of food grains. disinvestment of PSEs. For instance,
in 1991-92, it was targeted to mobilise
Reforms in Industry: Industrial Rs 2500 crore through disinvestment.
growth has also recorded a slowdown. The government was able to mobilise
This is because of decreasing demand ` 3,040 crore more than the target.
of industrial products due to In 2017–18, the target was about
various reasons such as cheaper ` 1,00,000 crore, and the achievement
imports, inadequate investment in was about ` 1,00,057 crore. Critics

point out that the assets of PSEs have the reform policies, involving tariff
been undervalued and sold to the reduction, have curtailed the scope for
private sector. This means that there raising revenue through custom duties.
has been a substantial loss to the In order to attract foreign investment,
government and the outright sale of tax incentives are provided to foreign
public assets! Moreover, the proceeds investors which further reduced the
from disinvestment are used to offset scope for raising tax revenues. This has
the shortage of government revenues a negative impact on developmental and
rather than using it for the welfare expenditures.
development of PSEs and building
social infrastructure in the country. 3.7 CONCLUSION
Do you think selling a part of the
properties of government companies The process of globalisation through
is the best way to improve their liberalisation and privatisation policies
efficiency? has produced positive, as well as,
negative results both for India and
Reforms and Fiscal Policies: other countries. Some scholars argue
Economic reforms have placed limits that globalisation should be seen as
on the growth of public expenditure, an opportunity in terms of greater
especially in social sectors. The tax access to global markets, high
reductions in the reform period, aimed technology and increased possibility of
at yielding larger revenue and curb tax large industries of developing
evasion, have not resulted in increase countries to become important
in tax revenue for the government. Also, players in the international arena.
Box 3.3: Siricilla Tragedy!

Power sector reforms in many Indian states led to do away with the supply of
electricity at subsidised rates and steep rise in power tariff. This has affected
workers engaged in small industries. Powerloom textile industry in Andhra
Pradesh is an example. Since the wages of the powerloom workers are linked
to the production of cloth, power cut means cut in wages of weavers, who
were already suffering from hike in tariff. A few years ago, this led to a crisis
in the livelihood of the weavers and 50 powerloom workers committed suicide
in a small town called ‘Siricilla’ in Andhra Pradesh.
Ø Do you think the power tariff should not be raised?
Ø What would be your suggestions to revive small industries affected by
reforms?

On the contrary, the critics argue initiated as a response to the crisis
that globalisation is a strategy of the by the government, with externally
developed countries to expand their advised policy package, further
markets in other countries. According aggravated the inequalities. Further,
to them, it has compromised the it has increased the income and
welfare and identity of people quality of consumption of only high-
belonging to poor countries. It has income groups and the growth has
further been pointed out that market- been concentrated only in
driven globalisation has widened the some select areas in the services sector
economic disparities among nations such as telecommunication,
and people. information technology, finance,
Viewed from the Indian context, entertainment, travel and hospitality
some studies have stated that the services, real estate and trade,
crisis that erupted in the early 1990s rather than vital sectors such as
was basically an outcome of the deep- agriculture and industry which
rooted inequalities in Indian society provide livelihoods to millions of
and the economic reform policies people in the country.
Recap
Ø The economy was facing problems of declining foreign exchange, growing
imports without matching rise in exports and high inflation. India changed
its economic policies in 1991 due to a financial crisis and pressure from
international organisations like the World Bank and IMF.
Ø In the domestic economy, major reforms were undertaken in the industrial
and financial sectors. Major external sector reforms included foreign
exchange deregulations and import liberalisation.
Ø With a view to improving the performance of the public sector, there was a
consensus on reducing its role and opening it up to the private sector. This
was done through disinvestment and liberalisation measures.
Ø Globalisation is the outcome of the policies of liberalisation and privatisation.
It means an integration of the economy of the country with the world economy.
Ø Outsourcing is emerging as a major activity in industrial and service
sectors.
Ø The objective of the WTO is to establish a rule based trade regime to ensure
optimum utilisation of world resources.
Ø During the reforms, growth of agriculture and industry has gone down but
the service sector has registered growth.
Ø Reforms have not benefited the agriculture sector. There has also been a
decline in public investment in this sector.
Ø Industrial sector growth has slowed down due to availability of cheaper
imports and lower investment.

EXERCISES
1. Why were reforms introduced in India?

2. Why is it necessary to became a member of WTO?
3. Why did RBI have to change its role from controller to facilitator of
financial sector in India?
4. How is RBI controlling the commercial banks?
5. What do you understand by devaluation of rupee?
6. Distinguish between the following
(i) Strategic and Minority sale
(ii) Bilateral and Multi-lateral trade
(iii) Tariff and Non-tariff barriers.
7. Why are tariffs imposed?
8. What is the meaning of quantitative restrictions?
9. Those public sector undertakings which are making profits
should be privatised. Do you agree with this view? Why?
10. Do you think outsourcing is good for India? Why are developed
countries opposing it?
11. India has certain advantages which makes it a favourite outsourcing
destination. What are these advantages?
12. Do you think the navaratna policy of the government helps in
improving the performance of public sector undertakings in India?
How?
13. What are the major factors responsible for the high growth of the
service sector?
14. Agriculture sector appears to be adversely affected by the reform
process. Why?
15. Why has the industrial sector performed poorly in the reform
period?
16. Discuss economic reforms in India in the light of social justice
and welfare.

1. The table given below shows the GDP growth rate at 2004-05
prices. You have studied about the techniques of presentation
of data in your Statistics for Economics course. Draw a time
series line graph based on the data given in the table and inter-
pret the same.
Year GDP Growth Rate (%)
2005-06 9.5
2006-07 9.6
2007-08 9.3
2008-09 6.7
2009-10 8.6
2010-11 8.9
2011-12 6.7
2012-13 5.4
2013-14 6.4
2014-15 7.4
2. Observe around you — you will find State Electricity Boards

(SEBs), BSES and many public and private organisations sup-
plying electricity in different states and union territories. There are
private buses on roads alongside the goverment bus services and
so on.
(i) What do you think about this dual system of the co-existence
of public and private sectors?
(ii) What are the merits and demerits of such a dual system?
Discuss.
3. With the help of your parents and grandparents prepare a list of
multinational companies that existed in India at the time of
independence. Now put a (ü ) mark against those which are still
growing and a (×) against those which do not exist any more. Are
there any companies whose names have changed? Find out the
new names, the country of origin, nature of product, logo and
prepare charts and display in your class.

4. Give appropriate examples for the following:
Nature of Product Name of a Foreign Company

Biscuits
Shoes
Computers
Cars
TV and Refrigerators
Stationery
Now, find out if these companies which are mentioned above existed in
India before 1991, or came after the New Economic Policy. For this, take
the help of your teacher, parents, grandparents and shopkeepers.
5. Collect a few relevant newspaper cuttings and from the internet
on meetings organised by WTO. Discuss the issues debated in
these meetings, and find out how WTO facilitates world trade.
6. Was it necessary for India to introduce economic reforms at the
behest of World Bank and International Monetary Fund? Was there
no alternative for the government to solve the balance of pay-
ments crisis? Discuss in the classroom.
REFERENCES
Books
ACHARYA, S. 2003. India’s Economy: Some Issues and Answers. Academic

Foundation, New Delhi.
ALTERNATIVE SURVEY GROUP. 2005. Alternative Economic Survey, India 2004–05,
Disequalising Growth. Daanish Books, Delhi.
AHLUWALIA , I.J. and I.M.D. L ITTLE . 1998. India’s Economic Reforms and
Development. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
BARDHAN , PRANAB. 1998. The Political Economy of Development in India.
Oxford University Press, Delhi.
BHADURI, AMIT and D EEPAK N AYYAR . 1996. The Intelligent Person’s Guide to
Liberalisation. Penguin, Delhi.
BHAGWATI, J AGDISH. 1992. India in Transition: Freeing the Economy. Oxford
University Press, Delhi.

BYRES, TERENCE J. 1997. The State, Development Planning and
Liberalisation in India. Oxford University Press, Delhi.
C HADHA, G.K. 1994. Policy Perspectives in Indian Economic Development.
Har -Anand, Delhi.
C HELLIAH, R AJA J. 1996. Towards Sustainable Growth: Essays in Fiscal
and Financial Sector Reforms in India. Oxford University Press, New
Delhi.
D EBROY , B. and R AHUL M UKHERJI (Eds.). 2004. The Political Economy of
Reforms. Bookwell Publication, New Delhi.
D REZE , J EAN and AMARTYA S EN. 1996. India: Economic Development and
Social Opportunity. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
D UTT, RUDDAR AND K.P.M. SUNDARAM. 2005. Indian Economy. S. Chand and
Company, New Delhi.
G UHA , A SHOK (Ed.) 1990. Economic Liberalisation, Industrial Structure
and Growth in India. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
J ALAN , B IMAL . 1993. India’s Economic Crisis: The Way Ahead. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
J ALAN , B IMAL . 1996. India’s Economic Policy: Preparing for the Twenty
First Century. Viking, Delhi.
J OSHI , V IJAY and I.M.D. L ITTLE. 1996. India’s Economic Reforms 1991-2001.
Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
K APILA, Uma. 2020. Indian Economy: Performences and Policies. Academic
Foundation, New Delhi.
M AHAJAN, V.S. 1994. Indian Economy Towards 2000 A.D. Deep & Deep,
Delhi.
P AREKH , KIRIT and RADHAKRISHNA , 2002, India Development Report 2001-02.
Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
R AO, C.H. HANUMANTHA. and H ANS LINNEMANN. 1996. Economic Reforms and
Poverty Alleviation in India, Sage Publication, Delhi.
S ACHS, J EFFREY D., ASHUTOSH V ARSHNEY and N IRUPAM B AJPAI.1999. India in
the Era of Economic Reforms. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Government Reports and Websites
Economic Survey for various years. Ministry of Finance, Government of
India. Published by Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Tenth Five Year Plan 1997-2002. Vol. 1. Government of India, Planning
Commission, New Delhi.
Appraisal Document of Twelfth Five Year Plan 2012-2017, NITI Aayog,
Government of India.
https://dipam.gov.in
Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy, Reserve Bank of India for various
years, Mumbai.

UNIT
UNIT
III
CURRENT CHALLENGES FACING THE

INDIAN ECONOMY

4
HUMAN CAPITAL
FORMATION IN INDIA
After studying this chapter, the learners will understand
• the concepts of Human Resource, Human Capital Formation and Human

Development
• the links between investment in human capital, economic growth and
human development
• the need for government spending on education and health
• the state of India’s educational attainment.

“... the wisdom of expending public and private funds on education is not to be
measured by its direct fruits alone. It will be profitable as a mere investment,
to give the masses of people much greater opportunities than they can generally
avail themselves of. For by this means many, who would have died unknown,
are enabled to get the start needed for bringing out their latent abilities”.
Alfred Marshall
4.1 INTRODUCTION
to generate more income than the latter
Think of one factor that has made a and his or her contribution to economic
great difference in the evolution of growth is, consequently, more.
mankind. Perhaps it is human Education is sought not only as it
capacity to store and transmit confers higher earning capacity on
knowledge which they have been doing people but also for its other highly
through conversation, through songs valued benefits: it gives one a better
and through elaborate lectures. But social standing and pride; it enables
humans soon found out that we need one to make better choices in life; it
a good deal of training and skill to do provides knowledge to understand the
things efficiently. We know that the changes taking place in society; it also
labour skill of an educated person is stimulates innovations. Moreover,
more than that of an uneducated the availability of educated labour
person and hence the former is able force facilitates adaptation of new
Fig. 4.1 Adequate education and training to farmers can raise productivity in farms
HUMAN CAPITAL FORMATION IN INDIA 59

technologies. Economists have stressed 4.3 SOURCES OF HUMAN CAPITAL
the need for expanding educational
Investment in education is considered
opportunities in a nation as it
as one of the main sources of human
accelerates the development process.
capital. There are several other sources
as well. Investments in health, on- the-
4.2 WHAT IS HUMAN CAPITAL?
job training, migration and information
Just as a country can turn physical are the other sources of human capital
resources like land into physical formation.
capital like factories, similarly, it can Why do your parents spend
also turn human resources like money on education? Spending on
nurses, farmers, teachers, students
into human capital like engineers and Work This Out
doctors. Societies need sufficient Ø Identify and collect the data
from three families from
human capital in the first place — in
different strata (i) very poor
the form of competent people who have (ii) middle class and (iii)
themselves been educated and trained af fluent. Study the
as professors and other professionals. expenditure pattern of the
In other words, we need good human families on education of
capital to produce other human capital male and female children.
(say, nurses, farmers, teachers,
education by individuals is similar to
doctors, engineers...). This means that
spending on capital goods by
we need investment in human capital
to produce more human capital out of companies with the objective of
human resources. increasing future profits over a period
of time. Likewise, individuals invest
Let us understand a little more of
in education with the objective of
what human capital means by posing
increasing their future income.
the following questions :
Like education, health is also
(i) What are the sources of human considered as an important input for
capital? the development of a nation as much
(ii) Is there any relation between as it is important for the development
human capital and economic of an individual.
growth of a country? Who can work better — a sick
(iii) Is the formation of human person or a person with sound health?
capital linked to people’s all-round A sick labourer without access to
development or, as it is now called, medical facilities is compelled to
human development? abstain from work and there is loss of
(iv) What role can the government productivity. Hence, expenditure on
play in human capital formation health is an important source of
in India? human capital formation.

The amount of money
spent on preventive
medicine (vaccination),
curative medicine
(medical intervention
during illness), social
medicine (spread of
health literacy) and
provision of clean
drinking water and good sanitation places. Unemployment is the reason for
are the various forms of health the rural-urban migration in India.
expenditures. Health expenditure Technically qualified persons, like
directly increases the supply of healthy engineers and doctors, migrate to other
labour force and is, thus, a source of countries because of higher salaries
human capital that they may get in such countries.
formation. Migration in both these cases involves
Firms spend on cost of transport, higher cost of living
giving on-the- in the migrated places and psychic
job-training to costs of living in a strange socio-
their workers. cultural setup. The enhanced earnings
This may take in the new place outweigh the costs of
different forms: migration; hence, expenditure on
one, the workers may be trained in the migration is also a source of human
firm itself under the supervision of a capital formation.
skilled worker; two, the workers may People spend to acquire
be sent for off-campus training. In both information relating to the labour
these cases firms incur some expenses. market and other markets like
Firms will, thus, insist that the workers education and health. For example,
should work for a specific period of people want to know the level of salaries
time, after their on-the-job training, associated with various types of jobs,
during which it can recover the benefits whether the educational institutions
of the enhanced productivity owing to provide the right type of employable
the training. Expenditure regarding on- skills and at what cost. This information
the-job training is a source of human is necessary to make decisions
capital formation as the return of such regarding investments in human capital
expenditure in the form of enhanced as well as for efficient utilisation of the
labour productivity is more than the acquired human capital stock.
cost of it. Expenditure incurred for acquiring
People migrate in search of jobs information relating to the labour
that fetch them higher salaries than market and other markets is also a
what they may get in their native source of human capital formation.

Box 4.1: Physical and Human Capital
Both the forms of capital formation are outcomes of conscious investment decisions.
Decision regarding investment in physical capital is taken on the basis of one’s knowledge
in this regard. The entrepreneur possesses knowledge to calculate the expected rates of
return to a range of investments and then rationally decides which one of the
investments should be made. The ownership of physical capital is the outcome of the
conscious decision of the owner — the physical capital formation is mainly an economic
and technical process. A substantial part of the human capital formation takes place
in one’s life when she/he is unable to decide whether it would maximise her/his earnings.
Children are given different types of school education and health care facilities by their
parents and the society. The peers, educators and society influence the decisions
regarding human capital investments even at the tertiary level, that is, at the college
level. Moreover, the human capital formation at this stage is dependent upon the already
formed human capital at the school level. Human capital formation is partly a social
process and partly a conscious decision of the possessor of the human capital.
You know that the owner of a physical capital, say a bus, need not be present in
the place where it is used; whereas, a bus-driver, who possesses the knowledge and
ability to drive the bus, should be present when the bus is used for transportation of
people and materials. Physical capital is tangible and can be easily sold in the market
like any other commodity. Human capital is intangible; it is endogenously built in the
body and mind of its owner. Human capital is not sold in the market; only the services
of the human capital are sold and, hence, there arises the necessity of the owner of the
human capital to be present in the place of production. The physical capital is
separable from its owner, whereas, human capital is inseparable from its owner.
The two forms of capital differ in terms of mobility across space. Physical capital is
completely mobile between countries except for some artificial trade restrictions. Human
capital is not perfectly mobile between countries as movement is restricted by nationality
and culture. Therefore, physical capital formation can be built even through imports,
whereas human capital formation is to be done through conscious policy formulations
in consonance with the nature of the society and economy and expenditure by the
state and the individuals.
Both forms of capital depreciate with time but the nature of depreciation differs
between the two. Continuous use of machine leads to depreciation and change of
technology makes a machine obsolete. In the case of human capital, depreciation takes
place with ageing but can be reduced, to a large extent, through continuous investment
in education, health, etc. This investment also facilitates the human capital to cope
with change in technology which is not the case with physical capital.
Nature of benefits flowing from human capital are different from that of physical
capital. Human capital benefits not only the owner but also the society in general. This
is called external benefit. An educated person can effectively take part in a democratic
process and contribute to the socio-economic progress of a nation. A healthy person,
by maintaining personal hygiene and sanitation, stops the spread of contagious diseases
and epidemics. Human capital creates both private and social benefits, whereas physical
capital creates only private benefit. That is, benefits from a capital good flow to those
who pay the price for the product and services produced by it.

The concept of physical capital is
the base for conceptualising human
capital. There are some similarities Look at Fig. 4.2
between the two forms of capital; there and discuss.
are some striking dissimilarities as
(a) What are the advantages of
well. See Box 4.1.
having proper ‘classroom’?
Human Capital and Economic (b) Do you think the children
Growth: Who contributes more to going to this schol are
national income — a worker in a factory receiving quality education?
or a software professional? We know
(c) Why these schools do not
that the labour skill of an educated have buildings?
person is more than that of an
uneducated person and that the former
generates more income than the latter. uninterrupted labour supply for a
Economic growth means the increase longer period of time, then health is
in real national income of a country; also an important factor for economic
naturally, the contribution of the growth. Thus, both education and
educated person to economic growth health, along with many other factors
is more than that of an illiterate person. like on-the-job training, job market
If a healthy person could provide information and migration, increase an
Fig. 4.2 Creating human capital: a school being run in make shift premises in Delhi

individual’s income generating
capacity.
This enhanced productivity of
human beings or human capital
contributes substantially not only
towards increasing labour
productivity but also stimulates
innovations and creates ability to
absorb new technologies. Education
provides knowledge to understand
changes in society and scientific
advancements, thus, facilitate
inventions and innovations. Similarly,
the availability of educated labour
force facilitates adaptation to new
Fig. 4.3 Scientific and technical manpower: a
technologies. rich ingredient of human capital
Empirical evidence to prove that
increase in human capital causes
causality between human capital and
economic growth is rather nebulous.
economic growth flows in either
This may be because of measurement
directions. That is, higher income
problems. For example, education
causes building of high level of human
measured in terms of years of
capital and vice versa, that is, high level
schooling, teacher-pupil ratio and
of human capital causes growth of
enrolment rates may not reflect the
quality of education; health services income.
measured in monetary terms, life India recognised the importance of
expectancy and mortality rates may human capital in economic growth
not reflect the true health status of the long ago. The Seventh Five Year Plan
people in a country. Using the says, “Human resources development
indicators mentioned above, an (read human capital) has necessarily
analysis of improvement in education to be assigned a key role in any
and health sectors and growth in real development strategy, particularly in
per capita income in both developing a country with a large population.
and developed countries shows that Trained and educated on sound lines,
there is convergence in the measures a large population can itself become
of human capital but no sign of an asset in accelerating economic
convergence of per capita real income. growth and in ensuring social change
In other words, the human capital in desired directions.”
growth in developing countries has It is difficult to establish a relation of
been faster but the growth of per capita cause and effect from the growth of
real income has not been that fast. human capital (education and health)
There are reasons to believe that the to economic growth but we can see in

TABLE 4.1
Select Indicators of Development in Education and Health Sectors
Particulars 1951 1981 1991 2001 2016-17

Real Per Capita Income (in Rs) 7,651 12,174 15,748 23,095 77,659
Crude Death 25.1 12.5 9.8 8.1 6.3
Rate (Per 1,000 Population)
Infant Mortality Rate 146 110 80 63 33
Life Expectancy Male 37.2 54.1 59.7 63.9 67

at Birth (in Years)
Female 36.2 54.7 60.9 66.9 70
Literacy Rate (%) 16.67 43.57 52.21 65.20 76
Source: Economic Survey for various years, Ministry of Finance; National Statistical Office, Ministry
of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India.
Table 4.1 that these sectors have grown workforce, particularly involving
simultaneously. Growth in each sector mathematics, computer science, and
probably has reinforced the growth of data science, in conjunction with
every other sector. multidisciplinary abilities across the
The National Education Policy sciences and social sciences, and
2020 states that the world is humanities, will be increasingly in
undergoing rapid changes in the greater demand. With climate change,
knowledge landscape. With various increasing pollution, and depleting
dramatic scientific and technological natural resources, there will be a
advances, such as the rise of big data, sizeable shift in how we meet the world’s
machine learning, and artificial energy, water, food, and sanitation
intelligence, many unskilled jobs needs, again resulting in the need for
worldwide may be taken over by new skilled labour, particularly in
machines, while the need for a skilled biology, chemistry, physics,
agriculture, climate science, and
social science. The growing
emergence of epidemics and
pandemics will also call for
collaborative research in infectious
disease management and
development of vaccines and the
resultant social issues heightens
the need for multidisciplinary
learning. There will be a growing
demand for humanities and art, as
India moves towards becoming a
Fig. 4.4 Job on hand: transforming India into a developed country as well as
knowledge economy

Box 4.2: India as a Knowledge Economy
The Indian software industry has been showing an impressive record over the
past two decades. Entrepreneurs, bureaucrats and politicians are now advancing
views about how India can transform itself into a knowledge-based economy by
using information technology (IT). There have been some instances of villagers
using e-mail which are cited as examples of such transformation. Likewise, e-
governance is being projected as the way of the future. The value of IT depends
greatly on the existing level of economic development. Do you think IT - based
services in rural areas will lead to human development? Discuss.
among the three largest economies in human beings are ends in themselves.
the world. This policy vision suggests Human welfare should be increased
how human capital formation in India through investments in education and
will move its economy to a higher health even if such investments do not
growth trajectory based on knowledge result in higher labour productivity.
landscape. Therefore, basic education and basic
health are important in themselves,
4.4 H UMAN C APITAL AND H UMAN irrespective of their contribution to
D EVELOPMENT labour productivity. In such a view,
every individual has a right to get basic
The two terms sound similar but there education and basic health care, that
is a clear distinction between them. is, every individual has a right to be
Human capital considers education literate and lead a healthy life.
and health as a means to increase
labour productivity. Human
development is based on the idea that Work This Out
education and health are integral to
human well-being because only when Ø If a construction worker,
people have the ability to read and maid-servant, dhobi or a
write and the ability to lead a long peon in school has absented
and healthy life, they herself/himself for long due
will be able to make other choices to ill health, find out how it
which they value. Human capital has affected her/his
treats human beings as a means to (i) job security
an end; the end being the increase
in productivity. In this view, any (ii) wage/salary
investment in education and health is
unproductive if it does not enhance What could be the possible
reasons?
output of goods and services. In the
human development perspective,

4.5 S T A T E O F H U M A N C A P I T A L instance, once a child is admitted to a
FORMATION IN INDIA school or health care centre where the
required services are not provided,
In this section we are going to analyse before the decision is taken to shift the
human capital formation in India. We child to another institution, substantial
have already learnt that human amount of damage would have been
capital formation is the outcome done. Moreover, individual consumers
of investments in education, health, of these services do not have complete
on-the-job training, migration and information about the quality of
information. Of these education and services and their costs. In this
health are very important sources of situation, the providers of education
human capital formation. We know and health services acquire monopoly
that India is a federal country with a power and are involved in exploitation.
union government, state governments The role of government in this situation
and local governments (Municipal is to ensure that the private providers of
Corporations, Municipalities and these services adhere to the standards
Village Panchayats). The Constitution stipulated by the government and
of India mentions the functions to charge the correct price.
be carried out by each level of In India, the ministries of
government. Accordingly, expendi- education at the union and state level,
tures on both education and health are departments of education and various
to be carried out simultaneously by all organisations like National Council of
the three tiers of the government. Educational Research and Training
Analysis of health sector is taken up (NCERT), University Grants Commission
in Chapter 8; hence, we will analyse (UGC) and All India Council of
only the education sector here. Technical Education (AICTE) facilitate
Do you know who takes care of institutions which come under the
education and health in India? Before education sector. Similarly, the
we take up the analysis of the education ministries of health at the union and
sector in India, we will look into the state level, departments of health and
need for government intervention in various organisations like National
education and health sectors. We do Medical Commission and Indian
understand that education and health Council for Medical Research (ICMR)
care services create both private and facilitate institutions which come under
social benefits and this is the reason the health sector.
for the existence of both private and In a developing country like India,
public institutions in the education and with a large section of the population
health service markets. Expenditures living below the poverty line, many
on education and health make people cannot afford to access basic
substantial long-term impact and they education and health care facilities.
cannot be easily reversed; hence, Moreover, a substantial section
government intervention is essential. For of India’s population cannot afford

to reach super specialty health care the development of education in
and higher education. Furthermore, the country. During 1952-2014,
when basic education and health care education expenditure as percentage
is considered as a right of the citizens, of total government expenditure
then it is essential that the government increased from 7.92 to 15.7 and as
should provide education and health percentage of GDP increased from
services free of cost for the deserving 0.64 to 4.13. Throughout this period
citizens and those from the socially the increase in education expenditure
oppressed classes. Both, the union has not been uniform and there has
and state governments, have been been irregular rise and fall. To this if
stepping up expenditures in the we include the private expenditure
education sector over the years in incurred by individuals and by
order to fulfil the objective of attaining philanthropic institutions, the total
cent per cent literacy and considerably education expenditure should be
increase the average educational much higher.
attainment of Indians. Elementary education takes a major
share of total education expenditure
Work This Out and the share of the higher/tertiary
education (institutions of higher
Ø Identifythe objectives and learning like colleges, polytechnics and
functions of NCERT, UGC, universities) is the least. Though, on an
AICTE and ICMR. average, the government spends less
on tertiary education, ‘expenditure per
student’ in tertiary education is higher
4.6 EDUCATION SECTOR IN INDIA than that of elementary. This does not
Growth in Government Expenditure mean that financial resources should be
on Education: Do you know how transferred from tertiary education to
much the government spends on elementary education. As we expand
education? This expenditure by the school education, we need more
government is expressed in two ways teachers who are trained in the higher
(i) as a percentage of ‘total government educational institutions; therefore,
expenditure’ (ii) as a percentage of expenditure on all levels of education
Gross Domestic Product (GDP). should be increased.
The percentage of ‘education In 2014-15, the per capita public
expenditure of total government expenditure on elementary education
expenditure’ indicates the importance differs considerably across states from
of education in the scheme of as high as Rs 34,651 in Himachal
things before the government. The Pradesh to as low as Rs 4088 in Bihar.
percentage of ‘education expenditure This leads to differences in educational
of GDP’ expresses how much of opportunities and attainments across
people’s income is being committed to states.

99 to 2006-07) to bring all
Indian children in the age
group of 6-14 years under
the purview of school
education. Compared to this
desired level of education
expenditure of around 6 per
cent of GDP, the current level
of a little over 4 per cent has
been quite inadequate. In
principle, a goal of 6 per cent
needs to be reached—this
Fig. 4.5 Investment in educational infrastructure is inevitable has been accepted as a must
for the coming years. In 2009,
One can understand the inadequacy the Government of India enacted the
of the expenditure on education if we Right of Children to Free and
compare it with the desired level of Compulsory Education Act to make
education expenditure as recommended free education a fundamental right of
by the various commissions. The all children in the age group of 6-14
Education Commission (1964–66) had years.
recommended that at least 6 per cent of Government of India has also
GDP be spent on education so as to started levying a 2 per cent ‘education
make a noticeable rate of growth in cess’ on all Union taxes. The revenues
educational achievements. The Tapas from education cess has been
Majumdar Committee, appointed by earmarked for spending on elementary
the Government of India in 1999, education. In addition to this, the
estimated an expenditure of around Rs government sanctions a large outlay for
1.37 lakh crore over 10 years (1998- the promotion of higher education and
Work These Out
Ø Prepare case studies of dropouts at different levels of schooling, say

(i) Primary dropouts
(ii) Class VIII dropouts
(iii) Class X dropouts
Find out the causes and discuss in the class.
Ø ‘Schooldropouts are giving way to child labour’. Discuss how this is a loss
to human capital.

TABLE 4.2
Educational Attainment in India

Sl.No. Particulars 1990 2000 2011 2017-18
1. Adult Literacy Rate (per cent of people aged 15+)
1.1 Male 61.9 68.4 79 82
1.2 Female 37.9 45.4 59 66
2. Primary completion rate (per cent of relevant age group)
2.1 Male 78 85 92 93
2.2 Female 61 69 94 96
3. Youth literacy rate (per cent of people aged 15+ to 24)
3.1 Male 76.6 79.7 90 93
3.2 Female 54.2 64.8 82 90
new loan schemes for students to 4.7 FUTURE PROSPECTS

pursue higher education. Education for All — Still a Distant
Dream: Though literacy rates for both
Educational Achievements in — adults as well as youth — have
India: Generally, educational increased, still the absolute number
achievements in a country are of illiterates in India is as much as
indicated in terms India’s population was at the time of
of adult literacy level, primary independence. In 1950, when the
education completion rate and youth Constitution of India was passed by the
literacy rate. These statistics for the Constituent Assembly, it was noted in
the Directive Principles of the
last two decades are given above in
Table 4.2.
Fig. 4.6 School dropouts give way to child labour: a loss to human capital

Constitution that the government unemployment among educated youth
should provide free and compulsory is the highest. As per NSSO data, in the
education for all children up to the age year 2011-12, the rate of
of 14 years within 10 years from the unemployment among youth males
commencement of the Constitution. who studied graduation and above in
Had we achieved this, we would have rural areas was 19 per cent. Their urban
cent per cent literacy by now. counterparts had relatively less level of
unemployment at 16 per cent. The most
Gender Equity — Better than Before: severely affected ones were young rural
The differences in literacy rates between female graduates as nearly 30 per cent
males and females are narrowing of them are unemployed. In contrast to
signifying a positive development in this, only about 3-6 per cent of primary
gender equity; still the need to promote level educated youth in rural and urban
education for women in India is areas were unemployed. The situation
imminent for various reasons such as is yet to improve as indicated by the
improving economic independence and Periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18.
social status of women and also Therefore, the government should
because women education makes a increase allocation for higher education
favourable impact on fertility rate and and also improve the standard of higher
health care of women and children. education institutions, so that students
Therefore, we cannot be complacent are imparted employable skills in such
about the upward movement in the institutions. When compared to less
literacy rates and we have miles to go in educated, a large proportion of educated
achieving cent per cent adult literacy. persons are unemployed. Why?
4.8 CONCLUSION
The economic and social benefits of
human capital formation and human
development are well known. The union
and state governments in India have
been earmarking substantial financial
outlays for development of education
and health sectors. The spread of
education and health services across
different sectors of society should be
ensured so as to simultaneously attain
Fig. 4.7 Higher Education: few takers economic growth and equity. India has
Higher Education — a Few Takers: a rich stock of scientific and technical
The Indian education pyramid is manpower in the world. The need of the
steep, indicating lesser and lesser hour is to better it qualitatively and
number of people reaching the higher provide such conditions so that they are
education level. Moreover, the level of utilised in India.

Recap
Ø Investments in education convert human beings into human capital; human

capital represents enhanced labour productivity, which is an acquired ability
and an outcome of deliberate investment decisions with an expectation that
it will increase future income sources.
Ø Investments in education, on-the-job training, health, migration and
information are the sources of human capital formation.
Ø The concept of physical capital is the base for conceptualising human capital.
There are some similarities as well as dissimilarities between the two forms
of capital formation.
Ø Investment in human capital formation is considered as efficient and growth
enhancing.
Ø Human development is based on the idea that education and health are
integral to human well-being because only when people have the ability to
read and write and the ability to lead a long and healthy life, will they be
able to make other choices which they value.
Ø The percentage of expenditure on education of the total government
expenditure indicates the importance of education in the scheme of things
for the government.
EXERCISES
1. What are the two major sources of human capital in a country?

2. What are the indicators of educational achievement in a country?
3. Why do we observe regional differences in educational attainment
in India?
4. Bring out the dif ferences between human capital and human
development.
5. How is human development a broader term as compared to human
capital?
6. What factors contribute to human capital formation?

7. How government organisations facilitate the functioning of schools
and hospitals in India?
8. Education is considered to be an important input for the development
of a nation. How?
9. Discuss the following as a source of human capital formation
(i) Health infrastructure
(ii) Expenditure on migration.
10. Establish the need for acquiring information relating to health and
education expenditure for the effective utilisation of human
resources.
11. How does investment in human capital contribute to growth?
12. ‘There is a downward trend in inequality world-wide with a rise in
the average education levels’. Comment.
13. Examine the role of education in the economic development of a
nation.
14. Explain how investment in education stimulates economic growth.
15. Bring out the need for on-the-job-training for a person.
16. Trace the relationship between human capital and economic growth.
17. Discuss the need for promoting women’s education in India.
18. Argue in favour of the need for different forms of government
intervention in education and health sectors.
19. What are the main problems of human capital formation in India?
20. In your view, is it essential for the government to regulate the fee
structure in education and health care institutions? If so, why?
1. Identify how Human Development Index is calculated. What is the

position of India in the World Human Development Index?
2. Is India going to be a knowledge based economy in the near future?
Discuss in the classroom.
3. Interpret the data given in Table 4.2.
4. As an educated person, what will be your contribution to the cause
of education? (Example ‘Each one — teach one’).

5. Enlist the various sources that provide information regarding
education, health and labour.
6. Read the annual reports of Union Ministries of Education and Health
and Family welfare and make summaries. Read the chapter on social
sector in the Economic Survey. These can be downloaded from websites
of the respective Union Government Ministries.
REFERENCES
Books
BECKER, GARY S. 1964. Human Capital. 2nd Edition, Columbia University
Press, New York.
F REEMAN , R ICHARD. 1976. The Overeducated American. Academic Press,
New York.
SIDDHARTHAN, N.S. AND K. NARAYANAN (Eds.). 2013. Human Capital and Development
— The Indian Experience. Springer, New Delhi.
Government Reports
India Human Development Report 2011: Towards Social Inclusion, Plan-
ning Commission, Government of India.
Educational Statistics At a glance, Ministry of Education (for various years),
Government of India.
Annual Reports, Ministry of Education, Government of India.
National Education Policy 2020, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India,
New Delhi.
Websites
http://epathshala.nic.in
www.education.nic.in
www.cbse.nic.in
www.ugc.ac.in
www.aicte.ernet.in
www.ncert.nic.in
www.finmin.nic.in
www.mospi.nic.in
http://nroer.gov.in

5
RURAL
DEVELOPMENT
• understand rural development and the major issues associated with it

• appreciate how crucial the development of rural areas is for India’s overall
development
• understand the critical role of credit and marketing systems in rural
development
• learn about the importance of diversification of productive activities to
sustain livelihoods
• understand the significance of organic farming in sustainable
development.
RURAL DEVELOPMENT 75

“Only the tillers of the soil live by the right. The rest form their train and eat
only the bread of dependence”.
Thiruvalluvar
5.1 INTRODUCTION lagging behind in the overall

development of the village economy.
Previously we have studied how poverty
Some of the areas which are
was a major challenge facing India. We
challenging and need fresh initiatives
also know that the majority of the poor
for development in rural India include
live in rural areas where they do not
• Development of human resources
have access to the basic necessities
including
of life.
– literacy, more specifically, female
Agriculture is the major source of
literacy, education and skill
livelihood in the rural sector. Mahatma
development
Gandhi once said that the real progress
– health, addressing both sanitation
of India did not mean simply the growth
and public health
and expansion of industrial urban
• Land reforms
centres but mainly the development of
• Development of the productive
the villages. This idea of village
resources of each locality
development being at the centre of the
• Infrastructure development like
overall development of the nation is
relevant even today. Why is this so? electricity, irrigation, credit,
marketing, transport facilities
Why should we attach such significance
to rural development when we see including construction of village
roads and feeder roads to nearby
around us fast growing cities with large
industries and modern information highways, facilities for agriculture
research and extension, and
technology hubs? It is because more
than two-third of India’s population information dissemination
• Special measures for alleviation
depends on agriculture that is yet to
become productive enough to provide of poverty and bringing about
significant improvement in the living
for them; one-fourth of rural India still
lives in abject poverty. That is the conditions of the weaker sections
of the population emphasising
reason why we have to see a developed
rural India if our nation has to realise access to productive employment
opportunities
real progress. What, then, does rural
development imply? All this means that people engaged
in farm and non-farm activities in
rural areas have to be provided with
5.2 WHAT IS RURAL DEVELOPMENT?
various means that help them increase
Rural development is a comprehensive the productivity. They also need to be
term. It essentially focuses on action for given opportunities to diversify
the development of areas that are into various non-farm productive

activities such as food processing. reason for this. They also argue that
Enabling them better and more inadequate infrastructure, lack of
affordable access to healthcare, alternate employment opportunities in
sanitation facilities at workplaces and the industry or service sector,
homes and education for all would also increasing casualisation of employment
need to be given top priority for rapid etc., further impede rural development.
rural development. The impact of this phenomenon can be
It was observed in an earlier chapter seen from the growing distress
that although the share of agriculture witnessed among farmers across
sector’s contribution to GDP was on a different parts of India. Against this
decline, the population dependent on background, we will critically look at
this sector did not show any significant some of the crucial aspects of rural
change. Further, after the initiation of India like credit and marketing
reforms, the growth rate of agriculture systems, agricultural diversification
sector decelerated to about 3 per cent and the role of organic farming in
per annum during the 1991-2012, promoting sustainable development.
which was lower than the earlier years.
In recent years, this sector has become 5.3 CREDIT AND MARKETING IN RURAL
volatile. During 2014-15, the GVA A REAS
growth rate of agriculture and its allied
sectors was less than one per cent. Credit: Growth of rural economy
Scholars identify decline in public depends primarily on infusion of
investment since 1991 as the major capital, from time to time, to realise
higher productivity in agriculture and
non-agriculture sectors. As the time
Work These Out gestation between crop sowing and
realisation of income after production is
Ø On a monthly basis, go through the quite long, farmers borrow from various
newspapers of your region and sources to meet their initial investment
identify the problems raised by on seeds, fertilisers, implements and
them in relation to rural areas and other family expenses of marriage,
the solutions offered. You could also death, religious ceremonies etc.
visit a nearby village and identify At the time of independence,
the problems faced by people there.
moneylenders and traders exploited
Discuss this in the classroom.
small and marginal farmers and
Ø Prepare a list of recent schemes landless labourers by lending to them
and their objectives from the on high interest rates and by
government website https:// manipulating the accounts to keep
www.rural.nic.in. Collect the details
them in a debt-trap. A major change
of how anyone of these schemes
occurred after 1969 when India
implemented in your region/rural
neighbourhood areas. Discuss your adopted social banking and multi-
observations in class. agency approach to adequately meet
the needs of rural credit. Later, the

Box 5.1: The Poor Women’s Bank
‘Kudumbashree’ is a women-oriented community-based poverty reduction
programme being implemented in Kerala. In 1995, a thrift and credit society
was started as a small savings bank for poor women with the objective to
encourage savings. The thrift and credit society mobilised Rs 1 crore as thrift
savings. These societies have been acclaimed as the largest informal banks in
Asia in terms of participation and savings mobilised.
Source: www.kudumbashree.org. Visit this website and explore various other initiatives
undertaken by this organisation. Identify some factors which contributed to
their successes and discuss in the class.
National Bank for Agriculture and rates. Recently, Self-Help Groups

Rural Development (NABARD) was set (henceforth SHGs) have emerged to fill
up in 1982 as an apex body to the gap in the formal credit system
coordinate the activities of all because the formal credit delivery
institutions involved in the rural mechanism has not only proven
financing system. The Green inadequate but has also not been fully
Revolution was a harbinger of major integrated into the overall rural social
changes in the credit system as it led to and community development. Since
the diversification of the portfolio of some kind of collateral is required, vast
rural credit towards production- proportion of poor rural households
oriented lending. were automatically out of the credit
The institutional structure of rural network. The SHGs promote thrift in
banking today consists of a set of small proportions by a minimum
multi-agency institutions, namely, contribution from each member. From
commercial banks, regional rural banks the pooled money, credit is given to the
(RRBs), cooperatives and land needy members to be repayable in
development banks. They are expected small instalments at reasonable interest
to dispense adequate credit at cheaper rates. By May 2019, nearly 6 crore
Work These Out
Ø In your locality/neighbourhood, you might notice self-help groups providing

credit. Attend few meetings of such self-help groups. Write a report on the
profile of a self-help group. The profile may include — when it was started,
the number of members, amount of savings and type of credit they provide
and how borrowers use the loan.
Ø You might also find that those who take a loan for starting self-employment
activities but use it for other purposes. Interact with few such borrowers.
Identify the reasons for not starting self employment activities and discuss
in the classroom.

women in India have become member However, all is not well with our
in 54 lakh women SHGs. About ` 10- banking system.
15,000 per SHG and another `2.5 lakhs With the possible exception of the
per SHG as a Community Investment commercial banks, other formal
Support Fund (CISF) are provided as part institutions have failed to develop a
of renovating fund to take up self culture of deposit mobilisation —
employement for income generation. lending to worthwhile borrowers and
Such credit provisions are generally effective loan recovery. Agriculture loan
referred to as micro-credit programmes. default rates have been chronically
SHGs have helped in the empowerment high. Why farmers failed to pay back
of women. It is alleged that the borrowings loans? It is alleged that farmers are
are mainly confined to consumption deliberately refusing to pay back
purposes. Why are borrowers not loans. What could be the reasons?
spending for productive purposes? Thus, the expansion and promotion
of the rural banking sector has taken a
Rural Banking — a Critical backseat after reforms. To improve the
Appraisal: Rapid expansion of the situation, In recent years, all the adults
banking system had a positive effect on are encouraged to open bank accounts
rural farm and non-farm output, as a part of a scheme known as Jan-
income and employment, especially Dhan Yojana. Those bank account
after the green revolution — it helped holders can get Rs. 1-2 lakh accidental
farmers to avail services and credit insurance coverage and overdraft
facilities and a variety of loans for facilities for Rs. 10,000 and get their
meeting their prodution needs. Famines wages if they get any government-related
became events of the past; we have now jobs and works under MNREGA; old age
achieved food security which is reflected pension and other social security
in the abundant buffer stocks of grains. payments ofthegovernmentare transferred
Work These Out

Ø In the last few years, you might have taken note — in your neighbourhood if you
are living in rural areas or read in the newspapers or seen on TV — of farmers
commiting suicides. Many such farmers had borrowed money for farming and other
purposes. It was found that when they were unable to pay back due to crop failure,
insufficient income and employment opportunities, they took such steps. Collect
information relating to such cases and discuss in the classroom.
Ø Visit banks that cater to rural areas. They may be primary agricultural cooperative
banks, land development banks, regional rural banks or district cooperative banks.
Collect details such as how many rural households borrowed from them, amount
generally borrowed, kinds of collateral used, interest rates and dues.
Ø If farmers who borrowed from cooperative banks could not pay back due to crop
failure and other reasons, their loans should be waived otherwise they may take
drastic decisions like committing suicides. Do you agree?

to bank accounts. There is no need to prices prevailing in markets were often
keep minimum bank balance. This has forced to sell at low prices. They also did
led to more than 40 crore people opening not have proper storage facilities to keep
bank accounts; indirectly it has promoted back their produce for selling later at a
thrift habit and efficient allocation of better price. Do you know that even today,
financial resources particularly in rural more than 10 per cent of goods produced
areas. Banks also could mobile funds of in farms are wasted due to lack of storage?
more than Rs. 1,40,000 crores through Therefore, government intervention
these accounts. became necessary to regulate the activities
of the private traders.
5.4 AGRICULTURAL MARKET SYSTEM Let us discuss four such measures
Have you ever asked yourself how food that were initiated to improve the
grains, vegetables and fruits that we marketing aspect. The first step was
consume daily come from different regulation of markets to create orderly
parts of the country? The mechanism and transparent marketing conditions.
through which these goods reach By and large, this policy benefited
different places depends on the market farmers as well as consumers. However,
channels. Agricultural marketing is a there is still a need to develop about
process that involves the assembling, 27,000 rural periodic markets as
storage, processing, transportation, regulated market places to realise the
packaging, grading and distribution full potential of rural markets. Second
of different agricultural commodities component is provision of physical
across the country. infrastructure facilities like roads,
Prior to independence, farmers, railways, warehouses, godowns, cold
while selling their produce to traders, storages and processing units. The
suffered from faulty weighing and current infrastructure facilities are quite
manipulation of accounts. Farmers who inadequate to meet the growing demand
did not have the required information on and need to be improved. Cooperative
Fig. 5.1 Regulated market yards benefit farmers as well as consumers

Work These Out
Ø Visit a nearby vegetable and fruit market. Observe and identify different
characteristics of the market. Identify the place of origin of at least ten
different fruits and vegetables and distance travelled to reach the market.
Further, look at the modes of transport and its implication on prices.
Ø Most small towns have regulated market yards. Farmers can go to these
markets and sell their produce. They can also store their goods in the yard.
Visit one regulated market yard; collect the details of its functioning, kind
of goods coming to the yard and how prices are fixed. Prepare a detailed
report and discuss in the class.
marketing, in realising fair prices for need for government intervention is

farmers’ products, is the third aspect imminent particularly when a large
of government initiative. The success share of agricultural products, is
of milk cooperatives in transforming the handled by the private sector.
social and economic landscape of Agricultural marketing has come
Gujarat and some other parts of the a long way with the intervention of the
country is testimony to the role of government in various forms. Some
cooperatives. However cooperatives scholars argue that commercialisation
have received a setback during the of agriculture offers tremendous scope
recent past due to inadequate coverage for farmers to earn higher incomes
of farmer members, lack of appropriate provided the government intervention
link between marketing and processing is restricted. What do you think about
cooperatives and inefficient financial this view?
management. The fourth element is the
policy instruments like (i) assurance of Emerging Alternate Marketing
minimum support prices (MSP) for Channels: It has been realised that if
farmers directly sell their produce to
agricultural products (ii) maintenance
consumers, it increases their incomes.
of buffer stocks of wheat and rice
Some examples of these channels are
by Food Corporation of India and
Apni Mandi (Punjab, Haryana and
(iii) distribution of food grains and sugar
Rajasthan); Hadaspar Mandi (Pune);
through PDS. These instruments are
Rythu Bazars (vegetable and fruit
aimed at protecting the income of the markets in Andhra Pradesh and
farmers and providing foodgrains at a Telangana) and Uzhavar Sandies
subsidised rate to the poor. However, (farmers markets in Tamil Nadu).
despite government intervention, private Further, several national and
trade (by moneylenders, rural political multinational fast food chains are
elites, big merchants and rich farmers) increasingly entering into contracts/
predominates agricultural markets. The alliances with farmers to encourage

them to cultivate farm products greater risk in depending exclusively
(vegetables, fruits, etc.) of the desired on farming for livelihood.
quality by providing them with not only Diversification towards new areas is
seeds and other inputs but also assured necessary not only to reduce the risk
procurement of the produce at pre- from agriculture sector but also to
decided prices. It is argued that such provide productive sustainable
arrangements will help in reducing the livelihood options to rural people.
price risks of farmers and would also Much of the agricultural employment
expand the markets for farm products. activities are concentrated in the
Do you think such arrangements raise Kharif season. But during the Rabi
incomes of small farmers. season, in areas where there are
inadequate irrigation facilities, it
Work This Out becomes difficult to find gainful
employment. Therefore expansion
ØVisit one such alternative marketing into other sectors is essential to
system which farmers in your
provide supplementary gainful
locality, or in the neighbourhood
rural areas, use. How are they employment and in realising higher
different from regulated market levels of income for rural people to
yards? Should they be encouraged overcome poverty and other
and supported by the government? tribulations. Hence, there is a need to
Why and how? Discuss. focus on allied activities, non-farm
employment and other emerging
In 2020, Indian Parliament passed
alternatives of livelihood, though
three laws to reform agriculture
there are many other options available
marketing system. While some section
for providing sustainable livelihoods
of farmers support these reforms, the
in rural areas.
rest of the farmers oppose and these
Acts are still being debated. Collect
the details of these laws, debate and
discuss in the class.
5.5 DIVERSIFICATION INTO PRODUCTIVE

ACTIVITIES
Diversification includes two aspects -
one relates to change in cropping
pattern and the other relates to a shift
of workforce from agriculture to other
allied activities (livestock, poultry,
fisheries etc.) and non-agriculture
sector. The need for diversification
Fig. 5.2 Jaggery making is an allied activity
arises from the fact that there is of the farming sector

Box 5.2: Tamil Nadu Women in Agriculture (TANWA)
Tamil Nadu Women in Agriculture (TANWA) was a project initiated in the late 1980s
in Tamil Nadu to train women in latest agricultural techniques and in organic farming.
It encouraged women to actively participate in raising agricultural productivity and
family income. At a Farm Women’s Group in Thiruchirapalli, run by Anthoniammal,
trained women are successfully making and selling vermicompost and earning money
from this venture. Many other Farm Women’s Groups are creating savings in their
group by functioning like mini banks through a micro-credit system. With the
accumulated savings, they promote small-scale household activities like mushroom
cultivation, soap manufacture, doll making or other income-generating activities.
There could be similar initiatives in your area or your neighborhood rural areas.
Talk to organisation or women entrepreneurs and discuss the details in the class.
As agriculture is already are the widely held species. Livestock

overcrowded, a major proportion of the production provides increased stability
increasing labour force needs to find in income, food security, transport, fuel
alternate employment opportunities in and nutrition for the family without
other non-farm sectors. Non-farm disrupting other food-producing
economy has several segments in it; activities. Today, livestock sector alone
some possess dynamic linkages that provides alternate livelihood options to
permit healthy growth while others are over 70 million small and marginal
in subsistence, low productivity farmers including landless labourers. A
propositions. The dynamic sub-sectors significant number of women also find
include agro-processing industries, employment in the livestock sector.
food processing industries, leather Chart 5.1 shows the distribution of
industry, tourism, etc. Those sectors livestock in India. Poultry accounts for
which have the potential but seriously the largest share with 61 per cent
lack infrastructure and other
Chart 5.1: Distribution of Poultry and
support include traditional Livestock in India, 2019
home-based industries like
pottery, crafts, handlooms etc.
Majority of rural women find
employment in agriculture while
men generally look for non-farm
employment. In recent times,
women have also begun looking
for non-farm jobs (see Box 5.2).
Animal Husbandry: In India,

the farming community uses the
mixed crop-livestock farming
system —cattle, goats, fowl

also emerging as important productive
sectors for diversification.
Fisheries: The fishing community

regards the water body as ‘mother’ or
‘provider’. The water bodies consisting
of sea, oceans, rivers, lakes, natural
aquatic ponds, streams etc. are,
therefore, an integral and life-giving
Fig. 5.3 Sheep rearing — an important income source for the fishing community. In
augmenting activity in rural areas India, after progressive increase in
followed by others. Other animals which budgetary allocations and introduction
include camels, asses, horses, ponies of new technologies in fisheries and
and mules are in the lowest rung. India aquaculture, the development of
had about 303 million cattle, including fisheries has come a long way.
110 million buffaloes in 2019. Presently, fish production from inland
Performance of the Indian dairy sector sources contributes about 65 per cent
over the last three decades has been to the total value of fish production and
quite impressive. Milk production in the balance 35 per cent comes from the
the country has increased by about ten
marine sector (sea and oceans). Today
times between 1951-2016. This can
total fish production accounts for
be attributed mainly to the successful
0.9 per cent of the total GDP. In India,
implementation of ‘Operation Flood’. It
West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala,
is a system whereby all the farmers can
Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu
pool their milk produced according to
different grading (based on quality), are major fish producing states. A large
processed and marketed to urban share of fishworker families are poor.
centres through cooperatives. In this Rampant underemployment, low per
system the farmers are assured of a fair capita earnings, absence of mobility
price and income from the supply of of labour to other sectors and a high
milk to urban markets. As pointed out rate of illiteracy and indebtedness are
earlier Gujarat state is held as a some of the major problems fishing
success story in the efficient community face today. Even though
implementation of milk cooperatives women are not involved in active
which has been emulated by many fishing, about 60 per cent of the
states. Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar workforce in export marketing and 40
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, per cent in internal marketing are
Maharashtra, Punjab and Rajasthan, women. There is a need to increase
are major milk producing states. Meat, credit facilities through cooperatives
eggs, wool and other by- products are and SHGs for fisherwomen to meet the

working capital requirements for
marketing.
Horticulture: Blessed with a varying

climate and soil conditions, India has
adopted growing of diverse horti-
cultural crops such as fruits,
vegetables, tuber crops, flowers,
medicinal and aromatic plants, spices
and plantation crops. These crops play
a vital role in providing food and
nutrition, besides addressing
employment concerns. Horticulture
sector contributes nearly one-third of
Fig. 5.5 Women in rural households take up bee-
the value of agriculture output and keeping as an entrepreneurial activity
six per cent of Gross Domestic Product
of India. India has emerged as a world maintenance, hybrid seed production
leader in producing a variety of fruits and tissue culture, propagation of
like mangoes, bananas, coconuts, fruits and flowers and food processing
cashew nuts and a number of spices are highly remunerative employment
and is the second largest producer of options for women in rural areas.
fruits and vegetables. Economic Though, in terms of numbers, our
condition of many farmers engaged in livestock population is quite
horticulture has improved and it has impressive but its productivity is quite
become a means of improving low as compared to other countries. It
livelihood for many unprivileged requires improved technology and
classes. Flower harvesting, nursery promotion of good breeds of animals
to enhance productivity. Improved
veterinary care and credit
facilities to small and
marginal farmers and
landless labourers would
enhance sustainable
livelihood options through
livestock production.
Production of fisheries has
already increased
substantially.
However problems
related to over- fishing and
pollution need to be regulated
Fig. 5.4 Poultry has the largest share of total livestock in India

and controlled. Welfare programmes for prices, weather and soil conditions for
the fishing community have to be growing different crops etc. Though
reoriented in a manner which can provide IT is, by itself, no catalyst of change
long-term gains and sustenance of but it can act as a tool for releasing
livelihoods. Horticulture has emerged as the creative potential and knowledge
a successful sustainable livelihood embedded in the society. It also has
option and needs to be encouraged potential of employment generation in
significantly. Enhancing its role requires rural areas. Experiments with IT and
investment in infrastructure like
its application to rural development are
electricity, cold storage systems,
carried out in different parts of India.
marketing linkages, small-scale
processing units and technology
improvement and dissemination. 5.6 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND
ORGANIC FARMING
Other Alternate Livelihood Options: In recent years, awareness of the
The IT has revolutionised many sectors
harmful effect of chemical-based
in the Indian economy. There is broad
fertilisers and pesticides on our health
consensus that IT can play a critical
is on a rise. Conventional agriculture
role in achieving sustainable
development and food security in the relies heavily on chemical fertilisers
twenty-first century. Governments can and toxic pesticides etc., which enter
predict areas of food insecurity and the food supply, penetrate the water
vulnerability using appropriate sources, harm the livestock, deplete the
information and software tools so that soil and devastate natural eco-systems.
action can be taken to prevent or Efforts in evolving technologies which
reduce the likelihood of an emergency. are eco-friendly are essential for
It also has a positive impact on the sustainable development and one
agriculture sector as it can disseminate such technology which is eco-friendly
information regarding emerging is organic farming. In short, organic
technologies and its applications, agriculture is a whole system of
Box 5.3: Adoption of Village by Parliamentarians

In October, 2014, The Government of India introduced a new scheme called
Saansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY). Under this scheme, Members of India's
Parliament need to identify and develop one village from their constituencies. To
begin with, MPs can develop one village as a model village by 2016, and two more
by 2019, covering over 2,500 villages in India. According to the scheme, the village
can have a population of 3,000-5,000 in the plains and 1,000-3,000 in the hills
and should not be MPs' own or their spouse's village. MPs are expected to facilitate
a village development plan, motivate villagers to take up activities and built
infrastructure in the areas of health, nutrition and education.
Source: www.pib.nic.in accessed on 24 October 2014.

Box 5.4: Organic Food
Organic food is growing in popularity across the world. Many countries have
around 10 per cent of their food system under organic farming. There are many
retail chains and supermarkets which are accorded with green status to sell
organic food. Moreover, organic foods command higher price of around 10-100
per cent than conventional ones.
farming that restores, maintains and have shown that organically grown food
enhances the ecological balance. There has more nutritional value than
is an increasing demand for chemical farming thus providing us
organically grown food to enhance with healthy foods. Since organic
food safety throughout the world (see farming requires more labour input
Box 5.4). than conventional farming, India will
find organic farming an attractive
Benefits of Organic Farming: proposition. Finally, the produce is
Organic agriculture offers a means to pesticide-free and produced in an
substitute costlier agricultural inputs environmentally sustainable way (see
(such as HYV seeds, chemical fertilisers, Box 5.5).
pesticides etc.) with locally produced Popularising organic farming
organic inputs that are cheaper and requires awareness and willingness on
thereby generate good returns on the part of farmers to adapt to new
investment. Organic agriculture also technology. Inadequate infrastructure
generates income through exports as and the problem of marketing the
the demand for organically grown crops products are major concerns which
is on a rise. Studies across countries need to be addressed apart from an
Box 5.5: Organically Produced Cotton in Maharashtra

In 1995, when Kisan Mehta of Prakruti (an NGO) first suggested that cotton,
the biggest user of chemical pesticides, could be grown organically, the then
Director of the Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, famously remarked,
“Do you want India to go naked?” At present, as many as 130 farmers have
committed 1,200 hectares of land to grow cotton organically on the International
Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement’s standards. The produce was
later tested by the German Accredited Agency, AGRECO, and found to be of
high quality. Kisan Mehta feels that about 78 per cent of Indian farmers are
marginal farmers owning about less than 0.8 hectare but accounting for 20 per
cent of India’s cultivable land. For such farmers, organic agriculture is more
profitable in terms of money and soil conservation in the long run. Visit a farm
in your locality which uses organic manure and discuss the uses associated
with the farming practices. Present the report in your class.
Source: Lyla Bavadam, A Green Alternative, Frontline, 29 July 2005.

appropriate agriculture policy to sector might continue to remain
promote organic farming. It has been backward. There is a greater need
observed that the yields from organic today to make rural areas more
farming are less than modern vibrant through diversification into
agricultural farming in the initial years. dairying, poultry, fisheries,
Therefore, small and marginal farmers vegetables and fruits and linking up
may find it difficult to adapt to large- the rural production centres with the
scale production. Organic produce may urban and foreign (export) markets
also have more blemishes and a shorter to realise higher returns on the
shelf life than sprayed produce. investments for the products.
Moreover choice in production of Moreover, infrastructure elements
off-season crops is quite limited in like credit and marketing, farmer-
organic farming. Nevertheless, organic friendly agricultural policies and a
farming helps in sustainable constant appraisal and dialogue
development of agriculture and India between farmers’ groups and state
has a clear advantage in producing agricultural departments are
organic products for both domestic and essential to realise the full potential
international markets. Do you think of the sector.
food and non-food items cultivated Today we cannot look at the
using organic farming methods will be environment and rural development as
cheaper? two distinct subjects. There is need to
invent or procure alternate sets of eco-
5.7 CONCLUSION friendly technologies that lead to
It is clear that until and unless some sustainable development in different
spectacular changes occur, the rural circumstances. From these, each rural
Work These Out
Ø Make a list of five popular items that are organically produced in India.
Ø Visit a nearby super market, vegetable shop and/or a departmental shop.
Identify a few products. Prepare a chart comparing a few goods that are
produced organically and in the normal way on the basis of their prices,
shelf life, quality and the kind of advertisement through which they are
popularised.
Ø Visita horticultural farm in the nearby locality. Collect the details of
goods that they cultivate on the farm. They could have diversified their
cropping patterns. Discuss with them the merits and demerits of the
diversification.

community can choose whatever will development experiments that have
suit its purpose. We need to learn already been carried out in similar
from, and also try out when found conditions in different parts of India),
relevant, practices from the available to speed up this process of ‘learning
set of ‘best practice’ illustrations (which by doing’.
means success stories of rural
Recap
Ø Rural development is quite a comprehensive term but it essentially means

a plan of action for the development of rural areas which are lagging
behind in socio-economic development.
Ø There is a need for improving the quantity and quality of infrastructure
in rural areas such as banking, marketing, storage, transport and
communications etc. to realise its true potential.
Ø Diversification towards new areas such as livestock, fisheries and other
non-agricultural activities is necessary not only to reduce the risk from
agriculture sector but also to provide productive sustainable livelihood
options to our rural people.
Ø The importance of organic farming as an environmentally sustainable
production process is on a rise and needs to be promoted.
EXERCISES
1. What do you mean by rural development? Bring out the key issues in
rural development.
2. Discuss the importance of credit in rural development.
3. Explain the role of micro-credit in meeting credit requirements of the
poor.
4. Explain the steps taken by the government in developing rural
markets.
5. Why is agricultural diversification essential for sustainable
livelihoods?
6. Critically evaluate the role of the rural banking system in the process
of rural development in India.

7. What do you mean by agricultural marketing?
8. Mention some obstacles that hinder the mechanism of agricultural
marketing.
9. What are the alternative channels available for agricultural
marketing? Give some examples.
10. Distinguish between ‘Green Revolution’ and ‘Golden Revolution’.
11. Do you think various measures taken by the government to improve
agricultural marketing are sufficient? Discuss.
12. Explain the role of non-farm employment in promoting rural
diversification.
13. Bring out the importance of animal husbandry, fisheries and
horticulture as a source of diversification.
14. ‘Information technology plays a very significant role in achieving
sustainable development and food security’ — comment.
15. What is organic farming and how does it promote sustainable
development?
16. Identify the benefits and limitations of organic farming.
17. Enlist some problems faced by farmers during the initial years of
organic farming.
18. “Jan-Dhan-Yojna helps in the rural development.” Do you agree with
this statement? Explain.
REFERENCES
ACHARYA, S.S. 2004. Agricultural Marketing, State of the Indian Farmer, a

Millennium Study. Academic Foundation, New Delhi.
ALAGH, Y.K. 2004. State of the Indian Farmer, a Millennium Study — an Overview.
Academic Foundation, New Delhi.
CHAWLA, N.K., M.P.G. KURUP and V. P. SHARMA. 2004. Animal Husbandry, State of
the Indian Farmer, a Millennium Study. Academic Foundation, New Delhi.
DEHADRAI, P.V. and Y.S. YADAV. 2004. Fisheries Development, State of the Indian
Farmer, a Millennium Study. Academic Foundation, New Delhi.
JALAN, BIMAL. (Ed.). 1992. The Indian Economy: Problems and Perspectives.
Penguin Publication, New Delhi.

NARAYANAN, S. 2005. Organic Farming in India. NABARD Occasional Paper No:
38, Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, Mumbai.
SINGH, H.P., P.P. DUTTA and M. SUDHA. 2004. Horticulture Development, State of
the Indian Farmer, a Millennium Study. Academic Foundation, New Delhi.
SINGH, SURJIT and VIDYA SAGAR. 2004. Agricultural Credit in India: State of the
Indian Farmer, a Millennium Study. Academic Foundation, New Delhi.
SINHA, V.K. 1998. Challenges in Rural Development. Discovery Publishing
House, New Delhi.
TODARO, MICHAEL P. 1987. Economic Development in the Third World. Orient
Longman Ltd, Hyderabad.
TOPPO, E. 2004. Organic Vegetable Gardening: Grow Your Own Vegetables. Unit
for Labour Studies, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai.
Government Reports
Successful Governance Initiatives and Best Practices: Experiences from Indian
States, Government of India in Coordination with Human Resource
Development Centre and UNDP, Planning Commission, Delhi, 2002.
Annual Reports, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, New
Delhi.
Basic Animal Husbandry and Fisheries Statistics ( for various years), Ministry
of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare, Government of India.
Websites
www.dahd.nic.in
www.saanjhi.gov.in
www.ruralindiaonline.org

6
EMPLOYMENT : GROWTH,
INFORMALISATION
AND OTHER ISSUES
• understand a few basic concepts relating to employment such as

economic activity, worker, workforce and unemployment
• understand the nature of participation of men and women in various
economic activities in various sectors
• know the nature and extent of unemployment
• assess the initiatives taken by the government in generating employment
opportunities in various sectors and regions.

What I object to, is the ‘craze’ for machinery, not machinery as such. The
craze is for what they call labour-saving machinery. Men go on ‘saving labour’
till thousands are without work and thrown on the open streets to die of
starvation...
Mahatma Gandhi
6.1 INTRODUCTION
People do a variety of work. Some
work on farms, in factories, banks,
shops and many other
workplaces; yet a few others work
at home. Work at home includes
not only traditional work like
weaving, lace making or variety of
handicrafts but also modern jobs
like programming work in the IT
industry. Earlier factory work
meant working in factories located
in cities whereas now technology
has enabled people to produce Fig. 6.1 Multinational companies sell footballs
made in the houses of Jalandhar, Punjab
those factory-based goods at
home in villages. During Covid-19
pandemic in 2020–21, millions of for ourselves; we also have a sense of
workers delivered their products and accomplishment when we work to meet
services through work-from-home. the requirements of those who are
Why do people work? Work plays dependent on us. Having recognised
an important role in our lives as the importance of work, Mahatma
individuals and as members of society. Gandhi insisted upon education and
People work for ‘earning’ a living. Some training through a variety of works
people get, or have, money by inheriting including craft.
it, not working for it. This does not Studying about working people
completely satisfy anybody. Being gives us insights into the quality and
employed in work gives us a sense of nature of employment in a country and
self-worth and enables us to relate helps in understanding and planning
ourselves meaningfully with others. our human resources. It helps us to
Every working person is actively analyse the contribution made by
contributing to national income and different industries and sectors towards
hence, the development of the country national income. It also helps us to
by engaging in various economic address many social issues such as
activities — that is the real meaning of exploitation of marginalised sections of
‘earning’ a living. We do not work only the society, child labour, etc.
EMPLOYMENT : GROWTH, INFORMALISATION AND OTHER ISSUES 93

6.2 WORKERS AND EMPLOYMENT The nature of employment in India
is multifaceted. Some get employment
What is employment? Who is a worker?
throughout the year; some others get
When a farmer works on fields, he or
employed for only a few months in a
she produces food grains and raw
year. Many workers do not get fair
materials for industries. Cotton
wages for their work. While estimating
becomes cloth in textile mills and in
the number of workers, all those who
powerlooms. Lorries transport goods
are engaged in economic activities are
from one place to another. We know
included as employed. You might be
that the total money value of all such
interested in knowing the number of
final goods and services produced in a
people actively engaged in various
country in a year is called its gross
economic activities. During 2017-18,
domestic product for that year. When
India had about a 471 million strong
we also consider what we pay for our
workforce. Since majority of our people
imports and get from our exports we
reside in rural areas, the proportion of
find that there is a net earning for the
workforce residing there is higher. The
country which may be positive (if we
have exported more in value terms than
imported) or negative (if imports Work This Out
exceeded exports in value terms) or zero
(if exports and imports were of the same Ø In your house or
value). When we add this earning (plus neighbourhood, you might
or minus) from foreign transactions, come across many women
who, even though they
what we get is called the country’s gross
have technical degrees
national product for that year.
and diplomas and also free
Those activities which contribute to time to go to work, do not
the gross national product are called go to work. Ask them the
economic activities. All those who are reasons for not going to
engaged in economic activities, in work. List all of them and
whatever capacity — high or low, are discuss in the classroom
workers. Even if some of them whether they should go for
temporarily abstain from work due to work and why, and also
illness, injury or other physical ways by which they could
be sent for work. Some
disability, bad weather, festivals, social
social scientists argue that
or religious functions, they are also housewives working at
workers. Workers also include all those home without getting paid
who help the main workers in these for that work must also be
activities. We generally think of only regarded as contributing to
those who are paid by an employer for the gross national product
their work as workers. This is not so. and therefore, as engaged
Those who are self-employed are also in an economic activity.
workers. Would you agree?

rural workers constitute about two- a particular point of time. If you want
thirds of this 471 million. Men form to know the worker-population ratio
the majority of workforce in India. for India, divide the total number of
About 77 per cent of the workers are workers in India by the population in
men and the rest are women (men and India and multiply it by 100, you will
women include child labourers in get the worker-population ratio for
respective sexes). Women workers India.
account for one-fourth of the rural If you look at Table 6.1, it shows
workforce whereas in urban areas, the different levels of participation of
they are just one-fifth of the people in economic activities. For
workforce. Women carry out works every 100 persons, about 35 (by
like cooking, fetching water and rounding off 34.7) are workers in
fuelwood and participate in farm India. In urban areas, the proportion
labour. They are not paid wages in is about 34, whereas in rural India, the
cash or in the form of grains; at times ratio is about 35. Why is there such a
they are not paid at all. For this difference? People in rural areas have
reason, these women are not limited resources to earn a higher
categorised as workers. Economists income and participate more in the
argue that these women should also employment market. Many do not go
be called workers. What do you think? to schools, colleges and other training
institutions. Even if some go, they
6.3 P ARTICIPATION OF P EOPLE IN discontinue in the middle to join the
E MPLOYMENT workforce; whereas, in urban areas, a
considerable section is able to study in
Worker-population ratio is an indicator various educational institutions. Urban
which is used for analysing the people have a variety of employment
employment situation in the country. opportunities. They look for the
This ratio is useful in knowing the appropriate job to suit their
proportion of population that is qualifications and skills. In rural areas,
actively contributing to the production people cannot stay at home as their
of goods and services of a country. If economic condition may not allow them
the ratio is higher, it means that the to do so.
engagement of people is greater; if the TABLE 6.1
ratio for a country is medium, or low,
Worker-Population Ratio in India,
it means that a very high proportion
2017-2018
of its population is not involved
directly in economic activities. Sex Worker-Population Ratio
You might have already studied, Total Rural Urban
in lower classes, the meaning of the Men 52.1 51.7 53.0
term ‘population’. Population is Women 16.5 17.5 14.2
defined as the total number of people Total 34.7 35.0 33.9
who reside in a particular locality at

tion of work leads to non-recognition
Work These Out of women’s work and, therefore, to the
underestimation of the number of
Ø Any study of employment women workers in the country. Think
must start with a review of the women actively engaged in many
of the worker -population activities within the house and at
ratios — why?
family farms who are not paid for such
Ø In some communities, you work. As they certainly contribute to
might have noticed that the maintenance of the household and
even if the males do not farms, do you think that their number
earn a high income, they do should be added to the number of
not send women to work. women workers?
Why?
6.4 S E L F - E M P L O Y E D AND HIRED
Compared to females, more males
WORKERS
are found to be working. The
difference in participation rates is very Does the worker-population ratio say
large in urban areas: for every 100 anything about workers’ status in
urban females, only about 14 are society or about the working
engaged in some economic activities. conditions? By knowing the status
In rural areas, for every 100 rural with which a worker is placed in an
women about 18 participate in the enterprise, it may be possible to know
employment market. Why are women, one dimension — quality of
in general, and urban women, in employment in a country. It also
particular, not
working? It is
common to find that
where men are able
to earn high
incomes, families
discourage female
members from
taking up jobs.
Going back to
what has already
been mentioned
above, many
household activities
done by women are
not recognised as
productive work.
This narrow defini- Fig. 6.2 Brick-making: a form of casual work

workforce. Such
Chart 6.1 : Distribution of Employment labourers are casually
engaged in others’ farms
and, in return, get a
Male Workers Female Workers remuneration for the
work done. Workers like
24% 27% 52% the civil engineer
52% working in the
construction company
24%
21% account for 23 per cent
of India’s workforce.
When a worker is
Self-employed Regular Salaried Employees
engaged by someone or
an enterprise and paid
Casual Wage Labourers his or her wages on a
regular basis, they are
enables us to know the attachment a known as regular
worker has with his or her job and salaried employees (see table 6.3).
the authority she or he has over the Look at Chart 6.1 you will notice
enterprise and over other co-workers. that self-employment is a major source
Let us take three workers from the of livelihood for both men and women
construction industry — a cement as this category accounts for more
shop owner, a construction worker and than 50 per cent of the workforce.
a civil engineer of a construction Casual wage work is the second major
company. Since the status of each one source for both men and women,
of them is different from
another, they are also Chart 6.2 : Distribution of Employment by Region
called differently. Workers
who own and operate an Urban Workers Rural Workers
enterprise to earn their 38% 15%
58% 29%
livelihood are known as
self-employed. Thus the
cement shop owner is
self-employed. About 52
per cent workforce in 13%
India belongs to this 47%
category. The construction
Casual Wage Labourers Regular Salaried Employees
workers are known as
casual wage labourers;
Self-employed
they account for about
25 per cent of India’s

a little more so for the latter (24-27 urban areas. In the latter, both self-
per cent). When it comes to regular employment and regular wage salaried
salaried employment, both women and jobs are greater. In the former, since
men are found to be so engaged in majority of those depending on farming
greater proportion. Men form 23 per own plots of land and cultivate
cent whereas women form 21 per cent. independently, the share of self-
The gap between men and women is employed is greater.
very less. The nature of work in urban areas
When we compare the distribution is different. Obviously everyone cannot
of workforce in rural and urban areas run factories, shops and offices of
in Chart 6.2 you will notice that the self- various types. Moreover enterprises in
employed and casual wage labourers urban areas require workers on a
are found more in rural areas than in regular basis.
Work These Out
Ø We generally think that only those who are doing paid work regularly or casually
such as agricultural labourers, factory workers, those who work in banks
and other offices as assistants and clerks are workers. From the above
discussion, you must have understood that those who are self- employed such
as pavement vegetable vendors, professionals such as lawyers, doctors and
engineers are also workers. Mark (a), (b) and (c) against self-employed, regular
salaried employees and casual wage labourers respectively:
1. Owner of a saloon
2. Worker in a rice mill who is paid on daily basis but employed regularly
3. Cashier in State Bank of India
4. Typist working in a state government office on a daily wage basis but
paid monthly
5. A handloom weaver
6. Loading worker in wholesale vegetable shop
7. Owner of a cool drinks shop which sells Pepsi, Coca Cola and Mirinda
8. Nurse in a private hospital who gets monthly salary and has been work-
ing regularly for the past 5 years.
Ø Economists point out that casual wage labourers are the most vulnerable
among the three categories. Could you locate who these workers are and where
they are found and why?
Ø Can we say that the self-employed earn more than the casual wage labourers
or regular salaried employees? Identify a few other indicators of quality of
employment.

6.5 E M P L O Y M E N T I N
FIRMS, FACTORIES
AND OFFICES
In the course of
economic development
of a country, labour
flows from agriculture
and other related
activities to industry and
services. In this process,
workers migrate from
rural to urban areas. Fig. 6.3 Garment workers: upcoming factory employment for women
Eventually, at a much
later stage, the industrial sector begins (viii) Services. For simplicity, all the
to lose its share of total employment working persons engaged in these
as the service sector enters a period of divisions can be clubbed into three
rapid expansion. This shift can be major sectors viz., (a) primary sector
understood by looking at the which includes (i) and (ii), (b) secondary
distribution of workers by industry. sector which includes (iii), (iv) and (v)
Generally, we divide all economic and (c) service sector which includes
activities into eight different industrial divisions (vi), (vii) and (viii). Table 6.2
divisions. They are (i) Agriculture (ii) shows the distribution of working
Mining and Quarrying (iii) persons in different industries during
Manufacturing (iv) Electricity, Gas and the year 2017-18.
Water Supply (v) Construction (vi) Primary sector is the main source
Trade (vii) Transport and Storage and of employment for majority of workers
TABLE 6.2
Distribution of Workforce by Industry, 2017-2018
Industrial Category Place of Residence Sex Total
Rural Urban Men Female
Primary Sector 59.8 6.6 40.7 57.1 44.6

Secondary Sector 20.4 34.3 26.5 17.7 24.4
Tertiary / Service Sector 19.8 59.1 32.8 25.2 31.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Work This Out
Ø All newspapers have one section meant for job opportunities. Some also
devote an entire supplement in a day or every week like Opportunities in
The Hindu or Ascent in The Times of India. Many companies advertise
vacancies for various positions. Cut those sections. Develop a table which
contains four columns: whether the company is private or public, name of
the post, number of posts, sector — primary, secondary or tertiary — and
qualification required. Analyse the table in the classroom about jobs
advertised in the newspapers.
in India. Secondary sector provides 6.6 GROWTH AND CHANGING

employment to only about 24 per cent STRUCTURE OF EMPLOYMENT
of workforce. About 31 per cent of In Chapters 2 and 3, you might have
workers are in the service sector. Table studied about the planning strategies
6.2 also shows that about 60 per cent in detail. Here we will look at two
of the workforce in rural India depends developmental indicators — growth of
on agriculture, forestry and fishing. employment and GDP. Nearly seventy
About 20 per cent of rural workers are years of planned development have
working in manufacturing industries, been aimed at expansion of the
construction and other industrial economy through increase in national
activities. Service sector provides output and employment.
employment to about 20 per cent of During the period 1950–2010,
rural workers. Agriculture is not a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of India
major source of employment in urban grew positively and was higher than
areas where people are mainly engaged the employment growth. However,
in the service sector. About 60 per cent there was always fluctuation in the
of urban workers are in the service growth of GDP. During this period,
employment grew at the rate of not
sector. The secondary sector gives
more than 2 per cent.
employment to about one-third of
Chart 6.3 also points at another
urban workforce.
disheartening development in the late
Though both men and women 1990s: employment growth started
workers are concentrated in the declining and reached the level of
primary sector, women workers’ growth that India had in the early
concentration is very high there. About stages of planning. During these
57 per cent of the female workforce years, we also find a widening gap
is employed in the primary sector between the growth of GDP and
whereas less than half of males work employment. This means that in the
in that sector. Men get opportunities Indian economy, without generating
in both secondary and service sectors. employment, we have been able to

produce more goods and services. Developmental strategies in many
Scholars refer to this phenomenon as countries, including India, have aimed
jobless growth. at reducing the proportion of people
So far we have seen how employment depending on agriculture.
has grown in comparison to GDP. Now it Distribution of workforce by
is necessary to know how the growth industrial sectors shows substantial
patter n of employment and GDP shift from farm work to non-farm work
affected different sections of workforce. (see Table 6.3). In 1972-73, about 74
Fr om this we will also be able to per cent of workforce was engaged in
understand what types of employment primary sector and in 2011-12, this
are generated in our country. proportion has declined to about
Let us look at two indicators that 50 per cent. Secondary and service
we have seen in the preceding sections sectors are showing promising future
— employment of people in various for the Indian workforce. You may
industries and their status. We know notice that the shares of these sectors
that India is an agrarian nation; a have increased from 11 to 24 per cent
major section of population lives in and 15 to 27 per cent, respectively.
rural areas and is dependent on The distribution of workforce in
agriculture as their main livelihood. different status indicates that over the
Chart 6.3: Growth of Employment and Gross Domestic

Product, 1951–2012 (%)
Note: *This is the period for which comparable and authentic data are available.

TABLE 6.3
Trends in Employment Pattern (Sector-wise and Status-wise), 1972-2018 (in %)
Item 1972-73 1983 1993-94 2011-2012 2017-2018
Sector
Primary 74.3 68.6 64 48.9 44.6
Secondary 10.9 11.5 16 24.3 24.4
Services 14.8 16.9 20 26.8 31.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Status
Self-employed 61.4 57.3 54.6 52.0 52.2
Regular Salaried Employees 15.4 13.8 13.6 18.0 22.8
Casual Wage Labourers 23.2 28.9 31.8 30.0 25.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
last five decades (1972-2018), people from self-employment and regular

have moved from self-employment and salaried employment to casual wage
regular salaried employment to casual work noticed during 1972-94 as
wage work. Yet self-employment casualisation of workforce. This
continues to be the major employment makes the workers highly vulnerable.
provider. Look at the last column of How? Look at the case study of
table 6.3. How do you understand the Ahmedabad in the preceding section.
stagnation of secondary sector and In the mean time you also notice
moderate rise in self-employement in 2017-18 a moderate rise in the
during 2011-18? Discuss in the class. share of regular salaried employees.
Scholars call the process of moving How do you explain this phenomenon?
Work These Out
ØDo you know that maintaining employment growth at 2 per cent for a country like
India is not an easy thing? Why?
Ø What will happen if there is no additional employment generated in the economy
even though we are able to produce goods and services in the economy? How could
jobless growth happen?
Ø Economists say that if casualisation increases the earning of the people, such
phenomenon should be welcomed. Suppose a marginal farmer becomes a full-time
agricultural labourer, do you think he will be happy even if he earns more in his
daily wage work? Or will a permanent and regular worker of the pharmaceutical
industry be happy if he becomes a daily wage labourer, even if his or her overall
earnings increase? Discuss in the classroom.

6.7 I N F O R M A L I S A T I O N OF INDIAN labour laws, enable them to protect their
WORKFORCE rights in various ways. This section of the
workforce forms trade unions, bargains
In the previous section we have found with employers for better wages and other
that the proportion of hired work jobs - social security measures. Who are they?
working for others has been increasing. To know this we classify workforce into
One of the objectives of development two categories: workers in formal and
planning in India, since India’s informal sectors, which are also referred
independence, has been to provide to as organised and unorganised
decent livelihood to its people. It has sectors. All the public sector
been envisaged that the industrialisation establishments and those private
strategy would bring surplus workers sector establishments which employ
from agriculture to industry with better 10 hired workers or more are called
standard of living as in developed formal sector establishments and those
countries. We have seen in the preceding who work in such establishments are
section, that even after 70 years of formal sector workers. All other
planned development, more than half enterprises and workers working in those
of the Indian workforce depends on enterprises form the informal sector.
farming as the major source of livelihood. Thus, informal sector includes millions
Economists argue that, over the of farmers, agricultural labourers,
years, the quality of employment has owners of small enterprises and people
been deteriorating. Even after working for working in those enterprises as also the
more than 10-20 years, why do some self-employed who do not have any
workers not get maternity benefit, hired workers. It also includes all non-
provident fund, gratuity and pension? farm casual wage labourers who work
Why does a person working in the for more than one employer such as
private sector get a lower salary as construction workers and headload
compared to another person doing the workers. You may note that this is one
same work but in the public sector? of the ways of classifying workers.
You may find that a small section of There could be other ways of
Indian workforce is getting regular classification as well. Discuss the
income. The government, through its possible ways in the class.
Box 6.1: Formal Sector Employment

The information relating to employment in the formal sector is collected by the Union
Ministry of Labour through employment exchanges located in different parts of the country.
Do you know who is the major employer in the formal sector in India? In 2012, out of
about 30 million formal sector workers, about 18 million workers were employed by the
public sector. Here also men form the majority, as women constitute only about
one-sixth of the formal sector workforce. Economists point out that the reform process
initiated in the early 1990s resulted in a decline in the number of workers employed in
the formal sector. What do you think?

Fig. 6.4 Road side vending: an increasing variety of informal sector employment
Those who are working in the formal the formal sectors in the country?
sector enjoy social security benefits. About only six per cent (30/473×100)!
They earn more than those in the Thus, the rest 94 per cent are in the
informal sector. Developmental informal sector. In 2011-12, the year
planning envisaged that as the economy for which gender wise data on
grows, more and more workers would formal-informal sector employment is
become formal sector workers and the available (Chart 6.4), about 20 per cent
proportion of workers engaged in the of formal sector and 30 per cent of
informal sector would dwindle. But informal sector workers are women.
what has happened in
India? Look at the
following chart which Chart 6.4: Workers in Formal and Informal
310
Sector, 2011-12
350
gives the distribution
300
Number of Workers
of workforce in formal
250
and informal sectors.
(in million)
200 24 133
We learnt that in 6
2011-12 there were 150
about 473 million 100

workers in India. 50
There were about 30 0
million workers in the
formal sector. Can you
Male Female
estimate the percentage
of people employed in

Box 6.2: Informalisation in Ahmedabad
Ahmedabad is a prosperous city with its wealth based on the produce of more
than 60 textile mills with a labour force of 1,50,000 workers employed in them.
These workers had, over the course of the century, acquired a certain degree
of income security. They had
secure jobs with a living
wage; they were covered by
social security schemes
protecting their health and
old age. They had a strong
trade union which not only
represented them in
disputes but also ran
activities for the welfare of
workers and their families.
In the early 1980s, textile
mills all over the country
began to close down. In some
places, such as Mumbai,
the mills closed rapidly. In
Ahmedabad, the process of Change in the balance of power in a house: an
closure was long drawn out unemployed mill worker peeling garlic whereas his wife
has a new job of beedi rolling.
and spread over 10 years.
Over this period, approximately over 80,000 permanent workers and over 50,000
non-permanent workers lost their jobs and were driven to the informal sector.
The city experienced an economic recession and public disturbances, especially
communal riots. A whole class of workers was thrown back from the middle
class into the informal sector, into poverty. There was widespread alcoholism
and suicides, children were withdrawn from school and sent to work.
Source: Renana Jhabvala, Ratna M. Sudarshan and Jeemol Unni (Ed.) Informal
Economy at Centre Stage: New Structures of Employment, Sage
Publications, New Delhi, 2003, pp.265.
Since the late 1970s, many government. Workers are dismissed

developing countries, including India, without any compensation.
started paying attention to enterprises Technology used in the informal sector
and workers in the informal sector enterprises is outdated; they also do
as employment in the formal sector not maintain any accounts. Workers
is not gr owing. Workers and of this sector live in slums and are
enterprises in the informal sector do not squatters. Of late, owing to the efforts
get regular income; they do not have of the International Labour Organisation
any protection or regulation from the (ILO), the Indian government has

Work These Out
Tick (ü) mark against those which are in the informal sector
Ø Worker in a hotel which has seven hired workers and three family workers
ØA private school teacher in a school which has 25 teachers
ØA police constable
Ø Nurse in a government hospital
Ø Cycle-rickshaw puller
Ø The owner of a textile shop employing nine workers
Ø Driverof a bus company which has more than 10 buses with 20 drivers,
conductors and other workers
Ø Civil engineer working in a construction company which has 10 workers
Ø Computer operator in the state government office working on a temporary
basis
ØA clerk in the electricity office.
initiated the modernisation of informal any vacancy in their factory or office.

sector enterprises and provision of Many in the rural areas do not go out
social security measures to informal and ask for a job but stay home when
sector workers. there is no work. Some go to
6.8 UNEMPLOYMENT
You might have seen
people looking for jobs in
newspapers. Some look
for a job through friends
and relatives. In many
cities, you might find
people standing in some
select areas looking for
people to employ them
for that day’s work. Some
go to factories and offices
and give their bio-data
and ask whether there is Fig. 6.5 Unemployed mill workers waiting for casual jobs

Employment and Training
data of Registration with
Employment Exchanges.
Though they provide
different estimates of
unemployment, they do
provide us with the
attributes of the
unemployed and the
variety of unemployment
prevailing in our country.
Do we have different types
of unemployment in our
Fig. 6.6 Sugar cane cutters: disguised unemployment is common economy? The situation
in farm works
described in the first
employment exchanges and register paragraph of this section is called open
themselves for vacancies notified through unemployment. Economists call
employment exchanges. The National unemployment prevailing in Indian farms
Statistical Office (Previously it was known as disguised unemployment. What is
as National Sample Survey Organisation) disguised unemployment? Suppose a
defines unemployment as a situation in farmer has four acres of land and he
which all those who, owing to lack of actually needs only two workers and
work, are not working but either seek himself to carry out various operations
work through employment exchanges, on his farm in a year, but if he employs
intermediaries, friends or relatives or by five workers and his family members
making applications to prospective such as his wife and children, this
employers or express their willingness situation is known as disguised
or availability for work under the unemployment. One study conducted in
prevailing condition of work and the late 1950s showed about one-third
remunerations. There are a variety of of agriculture workers in India as
ways by which an unemployed person disguisedly unemployed.
is identified. Economists define You may have noticed that many
unemployed person as one who is not people migrate to an urban area, pick
able to get employment of even one hour up a job and stay there for some time,
in half a day. but come back to their home villages
There are three sources of data on as soon as the rainy season begins.
unemployment : Reports of Census of Why do they do so? This is because
India, National Statistical Office’s work in agriculture is seasonal; there
Reports of Employment and are no employment opportunities in the
Unemployment Situation, Annual village for all months in the year. When
Reports of Periodic Labour Force there is no work to do on farms, people
Survey, and Directorate General of go to urban areas and look for jobs.

6.9 GOVERNMENT AND
EMPLOYMENT GENERATION
You may recall about
the Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantee
Act 2005. It promises 100 days
of guaranteed wage employment
to all rural households who
volunteer to do unskilled
manual work. The scheme
based on this Act is one of the
many measures the
government has implemented
to generate employment for
those who are in need of jobs
in rural areas.
Fig. 6.7 Dam construction work is a direct way of Since Independence, the
employment generation by the government
Union and State governments
This kind of unemployment is known have played an important role in
as seasonal unemployment. This is also generating employment or creating
a common form of unemployment opportunities for employment
prevailing in India. generation. Their efforts can be
Though we have witnessed slow broadly categorised into two — direct
growth of employment, have you seen and indirect. In the first category, as
people being unemployed over a very you have seen in the preceding section,
long time? Scholars say that in India, the government employs people in
people cannot remain completely
various departments for administrative
unemployed for very long because their
purposes. It also runs industries,
desperate economic condition would
hotels and transport companies, and
not allow them to be so. You will rather
find them being forced to accept hence, provides employment directly
jobs that nobody else would do, to workers. When the output
unpleasant or even dangerous jobs in of goods and services from
unclean, or unhealthy surroundings. government enterprises increases, then
The Central and State governments private enterprises which receive raw
take initiatives and generate materials from government enterprises
employment to facilitate a decent living will also raise their output and hence
for low income families through various increase the number of employment
measures. These will be discussed in opportunities in the economy. For
the following section. example, when a government owned

steel company increases its output, it technology now frequently permit a
will result in direct increase in highly competitive existence for efficient
employment in that government small scale and often individual
company. Simultaneously, private enterprises or specialist workers side by
companies, which purchase steel from side with the multinationals.
it, will also increase their output and
Outsourcing of work is becoming a
thus employment. This is the indirect
common practice. It means that a
generation of employment
opportunities by the government big firm finds it profitable to close
initiatives in the economy. down some of its specialist
Many programmes that the departments (for example, legal or
governments implement, aimed at computer programming or customer
alleviating poverty, are through service sections) and hand over a large
employment generation. They are number of small piecemeal jobs to very
also known as employment small enterprises or specialist
generation programmes. All these individuals, sometimes situated even in
programmes aim at providing not other countries. The traditional notion
only employment but also services in of the modern factory or office, as a
areas such as primary health, result, has been altered in such
primary education, rural drinking
a manner that for many the home
water, nutrition, assistance for people
is becoming the workplace. All of
to buy income and employment
this change has not gone in favour
generating assets, development of
community assets by generating of the individual worker. The nature
wage employment, construction of of employment has become more
houses and sanitation, assistance for informal with only limited availability
constructing houses, laying of rural of social security measures to the
roads, development of wastelands/ workers.
degraded lands. In the last few decades, there
has been rapid growth in the gross
6.10 C ONCLUSION domestic product, but without
There has been a change in the simultaneous increase in employment
structure of workforce in India. Newly opportunities. This has forced the
emerging jobs are found mostly in the government to take up initiatives in
service sector. The expansion of the generating employment opportunities
service sector and the advent of high particularly in the rural areas.

Recap
Ø Allthose persons who are engaged in various economic activities and

hence contribute to gross national product are workers.
Ø About two-fifth of the total population in the country is engaged in various

economic activities.
Ø Men particularly rural men, form the major section of workforce in India.
Ø Majority of workers in India are self-employed. Casual wage labourers

and regular salaried employees together account for less than half the
proportion of India’s workforce.
Ø About three-fifth of India’s workforce depends on agriculture and other

allied activities as the major source of livelihood.
Ø In recent years, the growth of employment has decelerated.
Ø During post-reform period, India has been witness to employment

opportunities in the service sector. These new jobs are found mostly in
the informal sector and the nature of jobs is also mostly casual.
Ø Government is the major formal sector employer in the country.
Ø Disguised unemployment is a common form of unemployment in rural

India.
Ø There has been a change in the structure of the workforce in India.
Ø Through various schemes and policies, the government takes initiatives

to generate employment directly and indirectly.
EXERCISES
1. Who is a worker?
2. Define worker-population ratio.
3. Are the following workers — a beggar, a thief, a smuggler, a gambler?
Why?

4. Find the odd man out (i) owner of a saloon (ii) a cobbler (iii) a cashier
in Mother Dairy or Milk Cooperative Society of your area (iv) a tuition
master (v) transport operator (vi) construction worker.
5. The newly emerging jobs are found mostly in the sector
(service/manufacturing).
6. An establishement with four hired workers is known as
(formal/informal) sector establishment.
7. Raj is going to school. When he is not in school, you will find him
working in his farm. Can you consider him as a worker? Why?
8. Compared to urban women, more rural women are found working.
Why?
9. Meena is a housewife. Besides taking care of household chores, she
works in the cloth shop which is owned and operated by her husband.
Can she be considered as a worker? Why?
10. Find the odd man out (i) rickshaw puller who works under a rick-
shaw owner (ii) mason (iii) mechanic shop worker (iv) shoeshine boy.
11. The following table shows distribution of workforce in India for the
year 1972-73. Analyse it and give reasons for the nature of workforce
distribution. You will notice that the data is pertaining to the situation
in India about 50 years ago!
Place of Residence Workforce (in millions)

Male Female Total
Rural 125 69 195
Urban 32 7 39
12. The following table shows the population and worker population ratio
for India in 1999-2000. Can you estimate the workforce (urban and
total) for India?
Region Estimates of Worker Estimated

Population Population No. of Workers
(in crores) Ratio (in crores)
Rural 71.88 41.9 71.88 × 41.9 = 30.12

100
Urban 28.52 33.7 ?
Total 100.40 39.5 ?

13. Why are regular salaried employees more in urban areas than in
rural areas?
14. Why are less women found in regular salaried employment?
15. Analyse the recent trends in sectoral distribution of workforce in India.
16. Compared to the 1970s, there has hardly been any change in the
distribution of workforce across various industries. Comment.
17. Do you think that during 1950-2010 employment generated in the
country is commensurate with the growth of GDP in India? How?
18. Is it necessary to generate employment in the formal sector rather
than in the informal sector? Why?
19. Victor is able to get work only for two hours in a day. Rest of the day,
he is looking for work. Is he unemployed? Why? What kind of jobs
could persons like Victor be doing?
20. You are residing in a village. If you are asked to advice the village
panchayat, what kinds of activities would you suggest for the
improvement of your village which would also generate employment.
21. Who is a casual wage labourer?
22. How will you know whether a worker is working in the informal sector?
1. Select a region, say a street or colony, and divide it into 3-4

sub-regions. Conduct a survey by which you can collect the details
of activity each person living there is engaged in. Derive the
worker-population ratio for all the regions. Interpret the results for
differences in worker-population ratio for the different sub-regions.
2. Suppose 3-4 groups of students are given different regions of a state.
One region is mainly engaged in cultivation of paddy. In another region,
coconut is the main plantation. The third region is a coastal region
where fishing is the main activity. The fourth region has a river nearby
with a lot of livestock rearing activities. Ask all the four groups to
develop a report on what kind of employment could be generated in
the four regions.
3. Visit the local library and ask for Employment News, a weekly published
by the Government of India. Go through each issue for the last two
months. There will be seven issues. Select 25 advertisements and

fill in the following table (expand the table as needed). Discuss the
nature of jobs in the classroom.
Items Advertisement 1 Advertisement 2

1. Name of Office
2. Department/company
3. Private/public/joint venture
4. Name of the post
5. Sector—primary/seconday/
service
6. Number of posts/vacancies
7. Qualification required
4. You might notice, in your locality, a variety of works being done by

the government, for example laying of roads, desilting of tanks,
construction of school buildings, hospital and other government
offices, construction of check dams and houses for the poor etc.
Prepare a critical assessment report on one such activity. The issues
covered could be the following (i) how the work was identified (ii)
amount sanctioned (iii) contribution of local people, if any (iv) number
of persons involved — both men and women (v) wages paid (vi) is it
really required in that area and other critical comments on the
implementation of the scheme under which the work is being carried
out.
5. In recent years, you may have noticed that many voluntary
organisations also take initiatives to generate employment in hilly
and dry land regions. If you find such initiatives in your locality, visit
and prepare a report.
REFERENCES
CHADHA, G.K. and P.P. SAHU, 2002. ‘Post-reform Setbacks in Rural Employment:
Issues that need further scrutiny.’ Economic and Political Weekly, May
25, pp.1998-2026.
DESAI, S and M.B.DAS. 2004. ‘Is Employment Driving India’s Growth Surge’,
Economic and Political Weekly, July 3, pp. 3045-3051.
GHOSE, AJIT K. 1999. ‘Current Issues of Employment Policy in India.’ Economic
and Political Weekly, September 4, pp. 2592-2608.
HIRWAY, INDIRA. 2002. ‘Employment and Unemployment Situation in 1990s:
How Good are NSS Data.’ Economic and Political Weekly, May 25,
pp. 2027-2036.

J ACOB, PAUL. 1986. ‘Concept of ‘work’ and estimates of ‘workforce’ — An
appraisal of the treatment of activities relating to non-marketed output,’
Sarvekshana, Vol.IX, No.4, April.
KULSHRESHTHA, A.C., GULAB SINGH, ALOK KAR and R.L. MISHRA. 2000. ‘Workforce in
the Indian National Accounts Statistics,’ The Journal of Income and
Wealth, Vol.22, No.2, July, pp. 3-39.
PRADHAN, B.K. and M.R.SALUJA. 1996. ‘Labour Statistics in India: A Review.’
Margin, July- September, Vol.28, Number 4, pp. 319-347.
RATH, NILAKANTHA. 2001. ‘Data on Employment, Unemployment and Education:
Where to go from here?’ Economic and Political Weekly, June 9,
pp. 2081-2087.
SUNDARAM, K. 2001. ‘Employment-Unemployment Situation in the Nineties:
Some Results from NSS 55th Round Survey’, Economic and Political
Weekly, March 17, pp. 931-940.
SUNDARAM, K. 2001. ‘Employment and Poverty in 1990s: Further Results from
NSS 55th Round Employment-Unemployment Survey, 1999-2000,’
Economic and Political Weekly, August 11, pp. 3039-3049.
V ISARIA, PRAVIN. 1996. ‘Structure of the Indian Workforce, 1961-1994,’ The
Indian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol.39, No.4, pp. 725-740.
Government Reports
Annual Reports, Ministry of Labour, Government of India, Delhi.

Census of India 2011, Primary Census Abstract, Registrar General of Census
Operations, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, Delhi.
Economic Survey, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
Reports on Employment and Unemployment Situation in India, Ministry of
Statistics and Planning, Government of India.
Annual Report of Periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18, National Statistical
Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government
of India, New Delhi.
Websites
www.censusofindia.nic.in
www.mospi.nic.in

7
ENVIRONMENT AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
• understand the concept of environment

• analyse the causes and effects of ‘environmental degradation’ and ‘resource
depletion’
• understand the nature of environmental challenges facing India
• relate environmental issues to the larger context of sustainable
development.
ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 115

The environment, left to itself, can continue to support life for millions of
years. The single most unstable and potentially disruptive element in the
scheme is the human species. Human beings, with modern technology, have
the capacity to bring about, intentionally or unintentionally, far-reaching
and irreversible changes in the enviornment.
Anonymous
7.1 INTRODUCTION and abiotic factors that influence each

other. While all living elements — the
In the earlier chapters we have
birds, animals and plants, forests,
discussed the main economic issues
fisheries etc. — are biotic elements,
faced by the Indian economy. The
abiotic elements include air, water, land
economic development that we have
etc. Rocks and sunlight are examples
achieved so far has come at a very heavy
of abiotic elements of the environment.
price — at the cost of environmental
A study of the environment then calls
quality. As we step into an era of
for a study of the inter-relationship
globalisation that promises higher
between these biotic and abiotic
economic growth, we have to bear in
components of the environment.
mind the adverse consequences of the
past developmental path on our
Functions of the Environment: The
environment and consciously choose a
environment performs four vital
path of sustainable development. To
functions (i) it supplies resources:
understand the unsustainable path of
resources here include both renewable
development that we have taken and
and non-renewable resources.
the challenges of sustainable
Renewable resources are those which
development, we have to first
can be used without the possibility of
understand the significance and
the resource becoming depleted or
contribution of environment to
exhausted. That is, a continuous
economic development. With this in
supply of the resource remains
mind, this chapter is divided into three
available. Examples of renewable
sections. The first part deals with the
resources are the trees in the forests and
functions and role of environment. The
the fishes in the ocean. Non-renewable
second section discusses the state of
resources, on the other hand, are those
India’s environment and the third
which get exhausted with extraction
section deals with steps and strategies
and use, for example, fossil fuel (ii) it
to achieve sustainable development.
assimilates waste (iii) it sustains life by
providing genetic and bio diversity and
7.2 ENVIRONMENT — DEFINITION AND
(iv) it also provides aesthetic services
FUNCTIONS like scenery etc.
Environment is defined as the total The environment is able to perform
planetary inheritance and the totality these functions without any interruption
of all resources. It includes all the biotic as long as the demand on these

this results in an
environmental crisis. This
is the situation today
all over the world. The
rising population of the
developing countries and
the affluent consumption
and production standards
of the developed world have
placed a huge stress on the
environment in terms of its
first two functions. Many
resources have become
extinct and the wastes
generated are beyond the
absorptive capacity of the
environment. Absorptive
Fig. 7.1 Water bodies: small, snow-fed Himalayan streams are capacity means the ability
the few fresh-water sources that remain unpolluted.
of the environment to
functions is within its carrying absorb degradation. The result — we
capacity. This implies that the resource are today at the threshold of
extraction is not above the rate of environmental crisis. The past
regeneration of the resource and the development has polluted and dried up
wastes generated are within the rivers and other aquifers making water
assimilating capacity of the an economic good. Besides, the
environment. When this is not so, the intensive and extensive extraction of
environment fails to perform its third both renewable and non-renewable
and vital function of life sustenance and resources has exhausted some of these
Work These Out
Ø Why has water become an economic commodity? Discuss.

Ø Fill in the following table with some common types of diseases and illnesses
that are caused due to air, water and noise pollution.
Air Pollution Water Pollution Noise Pollution
Asthma Cholera

Box 7.1: Global Warming
Global warming is a gradual increase in the average temperature of the earth’s
lower atmosphere as a result of the increase in greenhouse gases since the
Industrial Revolution. Much of the recent observed and projected global
warming is human-induced. It is caused by man-made increases in carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases through the burning of fossil fuels and
deforestation. Adding carbon dioxide, methane and such other gases (that
have the potential to absorb heat) to the atmosphere with no other changes
will make our planet’s surface warmer. The atmospheric concentrations of
carbon dioxide and CH4 have increased by 31 per cent and 149 per cent
respectively above pre-industrial levels since 1750. During the past century,
the atmospheric temperature has risen by 1.1°F (0.6°C) and sea level has
risen several inches. Some of the longer-term results of global warming are
melting of polar ice with a resulting rise in sea level and coastal flooding;
disruption of drinking water supplies dependent on snow melts; extinction of
species as ecological niches disappear; more frequent tropical storms; and an
increased incidence of tropical diseases.
Among factors that may be contributing to global warming are the burning
of coal and petroleum products (sources of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, ozone); deforestation, which increases the amount of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere; methane gas released in animal waste; and increased cattle
production, which contributes to deforestation, methane production, and use
of fossil fuels. A UN Conference on Climate Change, held in Kyoto, Japan, in
1997, resulted in an international agreement to fight global warming which
called for reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases by industrialised nations.
Source: www.wikipedia.org
vital resources and we are compelled Thus, it is clear that the opportunity
to spend huge amounts on technology costs of negative environmental
and research to explore new resources. impacts are high.
Added to these are the health costs of The biggest question that arises is:
degraded environmental quality — are environmental problems new to this
decline in air and water quality (seventy century? If so, why? The answer to this
per cent of water in India is polluted) question requires some elaboration. In
have resulted in increased incidence of the early days when civilisation just
respiratory and water-borne diseases. began, or before this phenomenal
Hence the expenditure on health is also increase in population, and before
rising. To make matters worse, global countries took to industrialisation, the
environmental issues such as global demand for environmental resources
warming and ozone depletion also and services was much less than their
contribute to increased financial supply. This meant that pollution was
commitments for the government. within the absorptive capacity of the

Box 7.2: Ozone Depletion
Ozone depletion refers to the phenomenon of reductions in the amount of ozone
in the stratosphere. The problem of ozone depletion is caused by high levels
of chlorine and bromine compounds in the stratosphere. The origins of these
compounds are chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), used as cooling substances in air-
conditioners and refrigerators, or as aerosol propellants, and
bromofluorocarbons (halons), used in fire extinguishers. As a result of depletion
of the ozone layer, more ultraviolet (UV) radiation comes to Earth and causes
damage to living organisms. UV radiation seems responsible for skin cancer
in humans; it also lowers production of phytoplankton and thus affects other
aquatic organisms. It can also influence the growth of terrestrial plants. A
reduction of approximately 5 per cent in the ozone layer was detected from
1979 to 1990. Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful wavelengths of
ultraviolet light from passing through the Earth’s atmosphere, observed and
projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern. This led to
the adoption of the Montreal Protocol banning the use of chlorofluorocarbon
(CFC) compounds, as well as other ozone depleting chemicals such as carbon
tetrachloride, trichloroethane (also known as methyl chloroform), and bromine
compounds known as halons.
Source: www.ceu.hu
environment and the rate of resource But with population explosion and with
extraction was less than the rate of the advent of industrial revolution
regeneration of these resources. Hence to meet the growing needs of the
environmental problems did not arise. expanding population, things
changed. The result was that the
demand for resources for both
production and consumption
went beyond the rate of
regeneration of the resources; the
pressure on the absorptive
capacity of the environment
increased tremendously — this
trend continues even today. Thus
what has happened is a reversal
of supply-demand relationship
for environmental quality — we
are now faced with increased
Fig. 7.2 Damodar Valley is one of India’s most demand for environmental
industrialised regions. Pollutants from the heavy
resources and services but their
industries along the banks of the Damodar river
are converting it into an ecological disaster supply is limited due to overuse

and misuse. Hence
the environmental
issues of waste
generation and
pollution have
become critical
today.
7.3 STATE OF INDIA’S

ENVIRONMENT
India has abundant
natural resources in
terms of rich quality
of soil, hundreds of
rivers and tributaries,
Fig. 7.3 Deforestation leads to land degradation, biodiversity loss and
lush green forests, air pollution
plenty of mineral
deposits beneath the land surface, vast pressure on its finite natural
stretch of the Indian Ocean, ranges of resources, besides creating impacts on
mountains, etc. The black soil of the human health and well-being. The
Deccan Plateau is particularly suitable threat to India’s environment poses a
for cultivation of cotton, leading to dichotomy —threat of poverty-induced
concentration of textile industries in this environmental degradation and, at the
region. The Indo-Gangetic plains — same time, threat of pollution from
spread from the Arabian Sea to the Bay affluence and a rapidly growing
of Bengal — are one of the most fertile, industrial sector. Air pollution,
intensively cultivated and densely water contamination, soil erosion,
populated regions in the world. India’s
deforestation and wildlife extinction
forests, though unevenly distributed,
are some of the most pressing
provide green cover for a majority of its
environmental concerns of India. The
population and natural cover for its
priority issues identified are (i) land
wildlife. Large deposits of iron-ore, coal
degradation (ii) biodiversity loss (iii) air
and natural gas are found in the
pollution with special reference to
country. India accounts for nearly
8 per cent of the world’s total iron-ore vehicular pollution in urban cities (iv)
reserves. Bauxite, copper, chromate, management of fresh water and (v) solid
diamonds, gold, lead, lignite, waste management. Land in India
manganese, zinc, uranium, etc. are also suffers from varying degrees and types
available in different parts of the of degradation stemming mainly from
country. However, the developmental unstable use and inappropriate
activities in India have resulted in management practices.

Box. 7.3: Chipko or Appiko — What’s in a Name?
You may be aware of the Chipko Movement, which aimed at protecting forests
in the Himalayas. In Karnataka, a similar movement took a different name,
‘Appiko’, which means to hug. On 8 September 1983, when the felling of trees
was started in Salkani forest in Sirsi
district, 160 men, women and children
hugged the trees and forced the
woodcutters to leave. They kept vigil in
the forest over the next six weeks. Only
after the forest officials assured the
volunteers that the trees will be cut
scientifically and in accordance with the
working plan of the district, did they
leave the trees.
When commercial felling by
contractors damaged a large number of
natural forests, the idea of hugging the
trees gave the people hope and
confidence that they can protect the
forests. On that particular incident, with
the felling discontinued, the people saved
12,000 trees. Within months, this
movement spread to many adjoining
districts.
Indiscriminate felling of trees for
fuelwood and for industrial use has led to many environmental problems.
Twelve years after setting up of a paper mill in Uttar Kanara area, bamboo
has been wiped out from that area. “Broad-leaved trees which protected the
soil from the direct onslaught of rain have been removed, the soil washed
away, and bare laterite soil left behind. Now nothing grows but a weed”, says
a farmer. Farmers also complain that rivers and rivulets dry up quicker, and
that rainfall is becoming erratic. Diseases and insects earlier unknown are
now attacking the crops.
Appiko volunteers want the contractors and forest officials to follow certain
rules and restrictions. For instance, local people should be consulted when
trees are marked for felling and trees within 100 metres of a water source
and on a slope of 30 degrees or above should not be felled.
Do you know that the government allocates forestlands to industries to
use forest materials as industrial raw material? Even if a paper mill employs
10,000 workers and a plywood factory employs 800 people but if they deprive
the daily needs of a million people, is it acceptable? What do you think?
Source: Excerpts from ‘State of India’s Environment 2: The Second Citizens’ Report 1984-85’,
Centre for Science and Environment, 1996, New Delhi.

Some of the factors responsible the competing uses of land for
for land degradation are (i) loss forestry, agriculture, pastures, human
of vegetation occuring due to settlements and industries exert an
deforestation (ii) unsustainable fuel enormous pressure on the country’s
wood and fodder extraction (iii) shifting finite land resources.
cultivation (iv) encroachment into forest The per capita forest land in the
lands (v) forest fires and over grazing country is only 0.06 hectare against
(vi) non-adoption of adequate soil the requirement of 0.47 hectare to meet
conservation measures (vii) improper basic needs, resulting in an excess
crop rotation (viii) indiscriminate use of felling of about 15 million cubic metre
agro-chemicals such as fertilisers and forests over the permissible limit.
pesticides (ix) improper planning and Estimates of soil erosion show that
management of irrigation systems soil is being eroded at a rate of 5.3
(x) extraction of ground water in billion tonnes a year for the entire
Work These Out
Ø In order to enable the students to appreciate the contribution of environment

to economic development, the following game can be introduced. One student
may name a product used by any enterprise and the other student may
trace out its roots to nature and earth.
trucks steel and rubber

steel iron mineral earth
rubber trees forests earth
books paper trees forest earth
cloth cotton plant nature
petrol earth
machinery iron mineral earth
ØA truck driver had to pay Rs 10,000 as challan as his truck was emitting
black soot. Why do you think he was penalised? Was it justified? Discuss.
excess of the recharge capacity (xi) country as a result of which the

open access resource and (xii) poverty country loses 0.8 million tonnes of
of the agriculture-dependent people. nitrogen, 1.8 million tonnes of
India supports approximately 17 phosphorus and 26.3 million tonnes
per cent of the world’s human and 20 of potassium every year. According to
per cent of livestock population on a the Government of India, the quantity
mere 2.5 per cent of the world’s of nutrients lost due to erosion each
geographical area. The high density year ranges from 5.8 to 8.4 million
of population and livestock and tonnes.

Box 7.4 : Pollution Control Boards
In order to address two major environmental concerns in India, viz. water and
air pollution, the government set up the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
in 1974. This was followed by states establishing their own state level boards
to address all the environmental concerns. They investigate, collect and
disseminate information relating to water, air and land pollution, lay down
standards for sewage/trade effluent and emissions. These boards provide
technical assistance to governments in promoting cleanliness of streams and
wells by prevention, control and abatement of water pollution, and improve
the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country.
These boards also carry out and sponsor investigation and research
relating to problems of water and air pollution and for their prevention, control
or abatement. They organise, through mass media, a comprehensive mass
awareness programme for the same. The PCBs prepare manuals, codes and
guidelines relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents.
They assess the air quality through regulation of industries. In fact, state
boards, through their district level officials, periodically inspect every industry
under their jurisdiction to assess the adequacy of treatment measures provided
to treat the effluent and gaseous emissions. It also provides background air
quality data needed for industrial siting and town planning.
The pollution control boards collect, collate and disseminate technical and
statistical data relating to water pollution. They monitor the quality of water
in 125 rivers (including the tributaries), wells, lakes, creeks, ponds, tanks,
drains and canals.
Ø Visit a nearby factory/irrigation department and collect the details of
measures that they adopt to control water and air pollution.
Ø You might be seeing advertisements in newspapers, radio and television
or billboards in your locality on awareness programmes relating to water
and air pollution. Collect a few news-clippings, pamphlets and other
information and discuss them in the classroom.
In India, air pollution is widespread vehicles (two-wheeled vehicles and cars
in urban areas where vehicles are the only) constituted about 85 per cent of
major contributors and in a few other the total number of registered vehicles
areas which have a high concentration thus contributing significantly to total
of industries and thermal power plants. air pollution load.
Vehicular emissions are of particular India is one of the ten most
concern since these are ground level industrialised nations of the world.
sources and, thus, have the maximum But this status has brought with
impact on the general population. The it unwanted and unanticipated
number of motor vehicles has increased consequences such as unplanned
from about 3 lakh in 1951 to 30 crores urbanisation, pollution and the risk of
in 2019. In 2016, personal transport accidents. The CPCB (Central Pollution

Control Board) has identified seventeen allow all future generations to have a
categories of industries (large potential average quality of life that is
and medium scale) as significantly at least as high as that which is being
polluting (See Box 7.4). enjoyed by the current generation. The
concept of sustainable development
Work This Out was emphasised by the United Nations
Conference on Environment and
Ø You can see a column on the Development (UNCED), which defined
measure of air pollution in it as: ‘Development that meets the need
any national daily. Cut out of the present generation without
the news item a week before compromising the ability of the future
Diwali, on the day of Diwali
generation to meet their own needs’.
and two days after Diwali.
Do you observe a significant
Read the definition again. You will
difference in the value? notice that the term ‘need’ and the
Discuss in your class. phrase ‘future generations’ in the
definition are the catch phrases. The
The above points highlight the use of the concept ‘needs’ in the
challenges to India’s environment. The definition is linked to distribution of
various measures adopted by the resources. The seminal report — Our
Ministry of Environment and the Common Future — that gave the above
central and state pollution control definition explained sustainable
boards may not yield reward unless development as ‘meeting the basic
we consciously adopt a path of needs of all and extending to all the
sustainable development. The concern opportunity to satisfy their aspirations
for future generations alone can make for a better life’. Meeting the needs of
development last forever. Development all requires redistributing resources
to enhance our current living styles, and is hence a moral issue.
without concern for posterity, will Edward Barbier defined sustainable
deplete resources and degrade development as one which is directly
environment at a pace that is bound to concerned with increasing the material
result in both environmental and standard of living of the poor at
economic crisis. the grass root level — this can be
quantitatively measured in terms of
7.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT increased income, real income,
Environment and economy are educational services, health care,
interdependent and need each other. sanitation, water supply etc. In more
Hence, development that ignores its specific terms, sustainable development
repercussions on the environment will aims at decreasing the absolute poverty
destroy the environment that sustains of the poor by providing lasting and
life forms. What is needed is sustainable secure livelihoods that minimise
development: development that will resource depletion, environmental

degradation, cultural disruption and beyond the carrying capacity of the earth
social instability. Sustainable and deviates from sustainable
development is, in this sense, a development (ii) technological progress
development that meets the basic needs should be input efficient and not input
of all, particularly the poor majority, for consuming (iii) renewable resources
employment, food, energy, water, should be extracted on a sustainable basis,
housing, and ensures growth of that is, rate of extraction should not exceed
agriculture, manufacturing, power and rate of regeneration (iv) for non-renewable
services to meet these needs. resources rate of depletion should not
The Brundtland Commission exceed the rate of creation of renewable
emphasises on protecting the future substitutes and (v) inefficiencies arising
generation. This is in line with the from pollution should be corrected. In
argument of the environmentalists who 2015, the UN formulated 17 Sustainable
emphasise that we have a moral Development Goals (SDGs) intended to be
obligation to hand over the planet earth achieved by the year 2030. Collect the
in good order to the future generation; details of those goals and discuss them in
that is, the present generation should the context of India.
bequeath a better environment to the
future generation. At least we should 7.5 S TRATEGIES FOR S USTAINABLE
leave to the next generation a stock of DEVELOPMENT
‘quality of life’ assets no less than what
we have inherited. Use of Non-conventional Sources of
The present generation can Energy: India, as you know, is hugely
promote development that enhances dependent on thermal and hydro
the natural and built environment in power plants to meet its power
ways that are compatible with needs. Both of these have adverse
(i) conservation of natural assets environmental impacts. Thermal power
(ii) preservation of the regenerative plants emit large quantities of carbon
capacity of the world’s natural dioxide which is a green house gas. It
ecological system (iii) avoiding the also produces fly ash which, if not used
imposition of added costs or risks on properly, can cause pollution of water
future generations. bodies, land and other components of
According to Herman Daly, a leading the environment. Hydroelectric projects
environmental economist, to achieve inundate forests and interfere with the
sustainable development, the following natural flow of water in catchment
needs to be done (i) limiting the human areas and the river basins. Wind power
population to a level within the carrying and solar rays are good examples of
capacity of the environment. The carrying conventional. In recent years, some
capacity of the environment is like efforts are being taken to tap these
a‘plimsoll line’ of the ship which is its load energy resources. Collect the details
limit mark. In the absence of the plimsoll of one such unit set up in your area if
line for the economy, human scale grows any, and discuss in the class.

LPG, Gobar Gas in Rural Areas:
Households in rural areas generally use Work This Out
wood, dung cake or other biomass as Ø In Delhi, buses and other public
fuel. This practice has several adverse transport vehicles uses CNG as fuel
implications like deforestation, instead of petrol or diesel; some
reduction in green cover, wastage of vehicles use convertible engines;
solar energy is being used to light
cattle dung and air pollution. To rectify
up the streets. What do you think
the situation, subsidised LPG is being about these changes? Delhi also
provided. In addition, gobar gas plants adopted odd/even scheme to restrict
are being provided through easy loans the use of vehicles with registration
and subsidy. As far as liquefied ending with odd/even numbers on
petroleum gas (LPG) is concerned, it is alternative days, for specific period
a clean fuel — it reduces household in a year. Organise a debate in class
pollution to a large extent. Also, energy on the need for sustainable
development practices in India.
wastage is minimised. For the gobar
gas plant to function, cattle dung is fed few years many other Indian cities also
to the plant and gas is produced which began to use CNG.
is used as fuel while the slurry which
is left over is a very good organic Wind Power: In areas where speed of
fertiliser and soil conditioner. wind is usually high, wind mills can
provide electricity without any adverse
CNG in Urban Areas: In Delhi, the use impact on the environment. Wind
of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as turbines move with the wind and
electricity is generated. No doubt, the
fuel in public transport system has
initial cost is high. But the benefits are
significantly lowered air pollution and
such that the high cost gets easily
the air has become cleaner. In the last absorbed.
Fig.7.4 Gobar Gas Plant uses cattle dung to produce energy

Solar Power through Photovoltaic Traditional Knowledge and
Cells: India is naturally endowed with Practices: Traditionally, Indian people
a large quantity of solar energy in the have been close to their environment.
form of sunlight. We use it in different They have been more a component of
ways. For example, we dry our clothes, the environment and not its controller.
grains, other agricultural products as If we look back at our agriculture
well as various items made for daily use. system, healthcare system, housing,
We also use sunlight to warm ourselves transport etc., we find that all practices
in winter. Plants use solar energy to have been environment friendly. Only
perform photosynthesis. Now, with the recently have we drifted away from the
help of photovoltaic cells, solar energy traditional systems and caused large
can be converted into electricity. These scale damage to the environment and
cells use special kind of materials to also our rural heritage. Now, it is time
capture solar energy and then convert to go back. One apt example is in
the energy into electricity. This healthcare. India is very much
technology is extremely useful for remote privileged to have about 15,000 species
areas and for places where supply of of plants which have medicinal
power through grid or power lines is properties. About 8,000 of these are in
either not possible or proves very costly. regular use in various systems of
This technique is also totally free from treatment including the folk tradition.
pollution. In recent years India is taking With the sudden onslaught of the
efforts to increase the power generation western system of treatment, we
through solar. India is also leading an ignored our traditional systems such
International body called International as Ayurveda, Unani, Tibetan and folk
Solar Alliance (ISA). systems. These healthcare systems are
in great demand again for treating
Mini-hydel Plants: In mountainous chronic health problems. Now a days
regions, streams can be found almost every cosmetic produce — hair oil,
everywhere. A large percentage of such toothpaste, body lotion, face cream and
streams are perennial. Mini-hydel what not — is herbal in composition.
plants use the energy of such streams Not only are these products environment
to move small turbines. The turbines friendly, they are relatively free from side
generate electricity which can be used effects and do not involve large-scale
locally. Such power plants are more or industrial and chemical processing.
less environment-friendly as they do not
change the land use pattern in areas Biocomposting: In our quest to
where they are located; they generate increase agricultural production
enough power to meet local demands. during the last five decades or so, we
This means that they can also do away almost totally neglected the use of
with the need for large scale compost and completely switched over
transmission towers and cables and to chemical fertilisers. The result is that
avoid transmission loss. large tracts of productive land have

been adversely affected, water bodies In addition, awareness is spreading
including ground water system have about various animals and birds which
suffered due to chemical contamination help in controlling pests. For example,
and demand for irrigation has been snakes are one of the prime group of
going up year after year. animals which prey upon rats, mice and
Farmers, in large numbers all over various other pests. Similarly, large
the country, have again started using varieties of birds, for example, owls and
compost made from organic wastes of peacocks, prey upon vermin and pests.
different types. In certain parts of the If these are allowed to dwell around the
country, cattle are maintained only agricultural areas, they can clear large
because they produce dung which is varieties of pests including insects.
an important fertiliser and soil Lizards are also important in this
conditioner. regard. We need to know their value and
Earthworms can convert organic save them.
matter into compost faster than the Sustainable development has
normal composting process. This become a catch phrase today. It is
process is now being widely used. ‘indeed’ a paradigm shift in
Indirectly, the civic authorities are development thinking. Though it has
benefited too as they have to dispose been interpreted in a number of ways,
reduced quantity of waste. adherence to this path ensures lasting
development and non-declining welfare
Biopest Control: With the advent of for all.
green revolution, the entire country
entered into a frenzy to use more and 7.6 CONCLUSION
more chemical pesticides for higher Economic development, which aimed at
yield. Soon, the adverse impacts began increasing the production of goods and
to show; food products were services to meet the needs of a rising
contaminated, soil, water bodies and population, puts greater pressure on
even ground water were polluted with the environment. In the initial stages
pesticides. Even milk, meat and fishes of development, the demand for
were found to be contaminated. environmental resources was less than
To meet this challenge, efforts are that of supply. Now the world is
on to bring in better methods of pest faced with increased demand for
control. One such step is the use of environmental resources but their
pesticides based on plant products. supply is limited due to overuse and
Neem trees are proving to be quite misuse. Sustainable development aims
useful. Several types of pest controlling at promoting the kind of development
chemicals have been isolated from neem that minimises environmental problems
and these are being used. Mixed and meets the needs of the present
cropping and growing different crops generation without compromising the
in consecutive years on the same land ability of the future generation to meet
have also helped farmers. their own needs.

Recap
Ø Environment performs four functions: supplies resources, assimilates

wastes, sustains life by providing genetic and bio diversity and provides
aesthetic services.
Ø Population explosion, affluent consumption and production have placed
a huge stress on the environment.
Ø Developmental activities in India have put immense pressure on its finite
natural resources, besides creating impact on human health and
well-being.
Ø The threat to India’s environment is of two dimensions — threat of poverty
induced environmental degradation and the threat of pollution from
affluence and a rapidly growing industrial sector.
Ø Though the government, through various measures, attempts to safeguard
the environment, it is also necessary to adopt a path of sustainable
development.
Ø Sustainable development is development that meets the need of the present
generation without compromising the ability of the future generation to
meet their own needs.
Ø Promotion of natural resources, conservation, preserving regenerative
capacity of ecological system and avoiding the imposition of environmental
risks on future generations would lead to sustainable development.
EXERCISES
1. What is meant by environment?

2. What happens when the rate of resource extraction exceeds that of
their regeneration?
3. Classify the following into renewable and non-renewable resources
(i) trees (ii) fish (iii) petroleum (iv) coal (v) iron-ore (vi) water.
4. Two major environmental issues facing the world today are ____________
and _____________.
5. How do the following factors contribute to the environmental crisis

in India? What problem do they pose for the government?
(i) Rising population
(ii) Air pollution

(iii) Water contamination
(iv) Affluent consumption standards
(v) Illiteracy
(vi) Industrialisation
(vii) Urbanisation
(viii) Reduction of forest coverage
(ix) Poaching, and
(x) Global warming.
6. What are the functions of the environment?
7. Identify six factors contributing to land degradation in India.
8. Explain how the opportunity costs of negative environmental impact
are high.
9. Outline the steps involved in attaining sustainable development in India.
10. India has abundant natural resources — substantiate the statement.
11. Is environmental crisis a recent phenomenon? If so, why?
12. Give two instances of
(a) Overuse of environmental resources
(b) Misuse of environmental resources.
13. State any four pressing environmental concerns of India.
14. Correction for environmental damages involves opportunity
costs — explain.
15. Explain how the supply-demand reversal of environmental resources
account for the current environmental crisis.
16. Highlight any two serious adverse environmental consequences of
development in India. India’s environmental problems pose a dichotomy
— they are poverty induced and, at the same time, due to affluence in
living standards — is this true?
17. What is sustainable development?
18. Keeping in view your locality, describe any four strategies of sustainable
development.
19. Explain the relevance of intergenerational equity in the definition of
sustainable development.
1. Suppose 70 lakh cars are added every year to the roads of metropolitans.
Which type of resources do you think are undergoing depletion? Discuss.
2. Make a list of items that can be recycled.

3. Prepare a chart on the causes and remedies of soil erosion in India.
4. How does population explosion contribute to the environmental crisis?
Debate in the classroom.
5. The nation has to pay heavily for correcting environmental damages —
discuss.
6. A paper factory is to be set up in your village. Arrange a role play
consisting of an activist, an industrialist and a group of villagers.
REFERENCES
BOOKS
AGARWAL, ANIL and SUNITA NARAIN. 1996. Global Warming in an Unequal World.
Centre for Science and Environment, Reprint Edition, New Delhi.
BHARUCHA, E. 2005. Textbook of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate
Courses, Universities Press (India) Pvt Ltd.
CENTRE FOR SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT. 1996. State of India’s Environment
1: The First Citizens’ Report 1982. Reprint Edition, New Delhi.
CENTRE FOR SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT. 1996. State of India’s Environment
2: The Second Citizens’ Report 1985, Reprint Edition, New Delhi.
KARPAGAM, M. 2001.Environmental Economics: A Textbook. Sterling Publishers,
New Delhi.
RAJAGOPALAN, R. 2005. Environmental Studies: From Crisis to Cure. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
SCHUMACHER, E.F. Small is Beautiful. Abacus Publishers, New York.
Reports
State of India’s Environment (for various years), Centre for Science and
Environment, New Delhi.
Journals
Scientific American, India, Special Issue, September 2005
Down to Earth, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi.
Websites
http://envfor.nic.in
http://cpcb.nic.in
http://www.cseindia.org

UNIT
UNIT
IV
III
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES OF INDIA: A COMPARISON

WITH NEIGHBOURS

In today’s globalised world, where geographical
boundaries are slowly becoming meaningless, it
is important for neighbouring countries in the
developing world to understand the development
strategies being pursued by their neighbours. This
is more so because they share the relatively limited
economic space in world markets. In this unit, we
will compare India’s developmental experiences
with two of its important and strategic neighbours
— Pakistan and China.

8
COMPARATIVE
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES OF INDIA
AND ITS NEIGHBOURS
• figure out comparative trends in various economic and human

development indicators of India and its neighbours, China and Pakistan
• assess the strategies that these countries have adopted to reach their
present state of development.

Geography has made us neighbours. History has made us friends. Economics
has made us partners, and necessity has made us allies. Those whom God has
so joined together, let no man put asunder.
John F. Kennedy
8.1 INTRODUCTION understanding of the other economies

in our neighbourhood is also required
In the preceding units we studied the
as all major common economic
developmental experience of India in
activities in the region impinge on
detail. We also studied the kind of
overall human development in a
policies India adopted, which had
shared environment.
varying impacts in different sectors.
In this chapter we will compare the
Over the last two decades or so, the
developmental strategies pursued by
economic transformation that is taking
India and the largest two of its
place in different countries across the
neighbouring economies—Pakistan
world, partly because of the process
and China. It has to be remembered
of globalisation, has both short as
that despite being endowed with vast
well as long-term implications for
natural resources, there is little
each country, including India. Nations
similarity between the political power
have been primarily trying to adopt
setup of India - the largest democracy
various means which will strengthen
of the world which is wedded to a
their own domestic economies. To this
secular and deeply liberal Constitution
effect, they are forming regional and
for more than half a century, and the
global economic groupings such as
militarist political power structure of
the SAARC, European Union,
Pakistan or the command economy
ASEAN, G-8, G-20, BRICS etc. In
of China that has only recently
addition, there is also an increasing
started moving towards a democratic
eagerness on the parts of various
system and more liberal economic
nations to try and understand the
restructuring respectively.
developmental processes pursued by
their neighbouring nations as it
8.2 DEVELOPMENTAL P A T H —A
allows them to better comprehend
SNAPSHOT VIEW
their own strengths and weaknesses
vis-à-vis their neighbours. In the Do you know that India, Pakistan and
unfolding process of globalisation, China have many similarities in their
this is particularly considered developmental strategies? All the three
essential by developing countries as nations have started towards their
they face competition not only from developmental path at the same time.
developed nations but also amongst While India and Pakistan became
themselves in the relatively limited independent nations in 1947, People’s
economic space enjoyed by the Republic of China was established in
developing world. Besides, an 1949. In a speech at that time,
COMPARATIVE DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES OF INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS 135

Jawaharlal Nehru had said, “These The Great Leap Forward (GLF)
new and revolutionary changes in campaign initiated in 1958 aimed at
China and India, even though they industrialising the country on a
differ in content, symbolise the new massive scale. People were encouraged
spirit of Asia and new vitality which is to set up industries in their backyards.
finding expression in the countries in In rural areas, communes were
Asia.” started. Under the Commune system,
All three countries had started people collectively cultivated lands. In
planning their development strategies 1958, there were 26,000 communes
in similar ways. While India covering almost all the farm
announced its first Five Year Plan for population.
1951–56, Pakistan announced its first GLF campaign met with many
five year plan, now called the Medium problems. A severe drought caused
Term Development Plan, in 1956. havoc in China killing about 30 million
China announced its First Five Year people. When Russia had conflicts with
Plan in 1953. Since 2018, Pakistan is China, it withdrew its professionals
working on the basis of 12th Five Year who had earlier been sent to China to
Development Plan (2018–23), whereas,
help in the industrialisation process.
China is working on 14th Five Year
In 1965, Mao introduced the Great
Plan (2021–25). Until March 2017,
Proletarian Cultural Revolution
India has been following Five Year
(1966–76) under which students and
Plan- based development model. India
professionals were sent to work and
and Pakistan adopted similar
learn from the countryside.
strategies, such as creating a large
public sector and raising public The present day fast industrial
expenditure on social development. growth in China can be traced back to
Till the 1980s, all the three countries the reforms introduced in 1978. China
had similar growth rates and per capita introduced reforms in phases. In the
incomes. Where do they stand today initial phase, reforms were initiated in
in comparison to one another? Before agriculture, foreign trade and
we answer this question, let us trace investment sectors. In agriculture, for
the historical path of developmental instance, commune lands were divided
policies in China and Pakistan. After into small plots, which were allocated
studying the last three units, we (for use not ownership) to individual
already know what policies India has households. They were allowed to keep
been adopting since its Independence. all income from the land after paying
stipulated taxes. In the later phase,
China: After the establishment of reforms were initiated in the industrial
People’s Republic of China under one- sector. Private sector firms, in general,
party rule, all critical sectors of the and township and village enterprises,
economy, enterprises and lands owned i.e., those enterprises which were
and operated by individuals were owned and operated by local collectives,
brought under government control. in particular, were allowed to produce

Fig. 8.1 Wagah Border is not only a tourist place but also used for
trade between India and Pakistan
goods. At this stage, enterprises owned co-existence of public and private

by government (known as State Owned sectors. In the late 1950s and 1960s,
Enterprises—SOEs), which we, in Pakistan introduced a variety of
India, call public sector enterprises, regulated policy framework (for import
were made to face competition. The substitution-based industrialisation).
reform process also involved dual The policy combined tariff protection for
pricing. This means fixing the prices in manufacturing of consumer goods
two ways; farmers and industrial units together with direct import controls on
were required to buy and sell fixed competing imports. The introduction of
quantities of inputs and outputs on the Green Revolution led to mechanisation
basis of prices fixed by the government and increase in public investment in
and the rest were purchased and sold infrastructure in select areas, which
at market prices. Over the years, as finally led to a rise in the production of
production increased, the proportion of foodgrains. This changed the agrarian
goods or inputs transacted in the structure dramatically. In the 1970s,
market also increased. In order to nationalisation of capital goods
attract foreign investors, special industries took place. Pakistan then
economic zones were set up. shifted its policy orientation in the late
1970s and 1980s when the major
Pakistan: While looking at various thrust areas were denationalisation
economic policies that Pakistan and encouragement of private sector.
adopted, you will notice many During this period, Pakistan also
similarities with India. Pakistan also received financial support from western
follows the mixed economy model with nations and remittances from

continuously increasing outflow of the population growth as being the
emigrants to the Middle-east. This highest in Pakistan, followed by India
helped the country in stimulating and China. Scholars point out the one-
economic growth. The then government child norm introduced in China in the
also offered incentives to the private late 1970s as the major reason for low
sector. All this created a conducive population growth. They also state that
climate for new investments. In 1988, this measure led to a decline in the sex
reforms were initiated in the country. ratio, the proportion of females per
Having studied a brief outline of 1000 males. However, from the table,
the developmental strategies of China you will notice that the sex ratio is low
and Pakistan, let us now compare and biased against females in all three
some of the developmental indicators countries. Scholars cite son preference
of India, China and Pakistan. prevailing in all these countries as the
reason. In recent times, all three
8.3 DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS countries are adopting various
If we look at the global population, out measures to improve the situation. One-
of every six persons living in this child norm and the resultant arrest in
world, one is an Indian and another a the growth of population also have other
Chinese. We shall compare some implications. For instance, after a few
demographic indicators of India, decades, in China, there will be more
China and Pakistan. The population elderly people in proportion to young
of Pakistan is very small and accounts people. This led China to allow couples
for roughly about one-tenth of China to have two children.
or India. The fertility rate is also low in
Though China is the largest nation China and very high in Pakistan.
and geographically occupies the largest Urbanisation is high in China with
area among the three nations, its India having 34 per cent of its people
density is the lowest. Table 8.1 shows living in urban areas.
TABLE 8.1
Select Demographic Indicators, 2017-18
Country Estimated Annual Density Sex Fertility Urbanisation

Population Growth of (per sq. km) Ratio Rate
(in million) Population
India 1352 1.03 455 924 2.2 34

China 1393 0.46 148 949 1.7 59
Pakistan 212 2.05 275 943 3.6 37
Source: World Development Indicators 2019, www.worldbank.org

8.4 G ROSS D OMESTIC (Not to scale)
PRODUCT AND
SECTORS
One of the much-talked
issues around the world
about China is its growth
of Gross Domestic
Product. China has the
second largest GDP (PPP)
of $22.5 trillion in the
world, whereas, India’s
GDP (PPP) is $9.03
trillion and Pakistan’s
GDP is $ 0.94 trillion,
roughly about 11 per
cent of India’s GDP.
India’s GDP is about 41
per cent of China’s GDP. Fig. 8.2 Land use and agriculture in India, China and Pakistan
When many developed countries
were finding it difficult to maintain a TABLE 8.2
growth rate of even 5 per cent, China Annual Growth of Gross Domestic
Product (%), 1980–2017
was able to maintain near double-digit
growth during 1980s as can be seen Country 1980–90 2015–2017
from Table 8.2. Also, notice that in the India 5.7 7.3
1980s, Pakistan was ahead of India; China 10.3 6.8
China was having double-digit growth Pakistan 6.3 5.3
and India was at the bottom. In 2015–17, Source: Key Indicators for Asia and Pacific 2016,
there has been a decline in Pakistan Asian Development Bank, Philippines; World
Development Indicators 2018
Work These Out
Ø Does India follow any population stabilisation measures? If so, collect the
details and discuss in the classroom. You may refer to the latest Economic
Survey, annual reports or website of the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare (http://mohfw.nic.in).
Ø Scholars find son preference as a common phenomenon in many developing
countries, including India, China and Pakistan. Do you find this phenomenon
in your family or neighbourhood? Why do people practise discrimination
between male and female children? What do you think about it? Discuss it
in the classroom.

Pakistan have more
(Not to scale)
proportion of
urban population than
India. In China, due to
topographic and climatic
conditions, the area
suitable for cultivation is
relatively small — only
about 10 per cent of its
total land area. The total
cultivable area in China
accounts for 40 per cent
of the cultivable area in
India. Until the 1980s,
more than 80 per cent of
the people in China were
dependent on farming
as their sole source
of livelihood. Since
then, the government
encouraged people
to leave their fields
and pursue other
Fig. 8.3 Industry in India, China and Pakistan activities such as
handicrafts, commerce
and transport. In 2018–
and China’s growth rates, whereas, 19, with 26 per cent of its workforce
India met with moderate increase in engaged in agriculture, its contribution
growth rates. Some scholars hold the to the GVA in China is 7 per cent (see
reform processes introduced in Table 8.3).
Pakistan and political instability over In both India and Pakistan, the
a long period as reasons behind the contribution of agriculture to GVA were
declining growth rate in Pakistan. We 16 and 24 per cent, respectively, but
will study in a later section which the proportion of workforce that works
sector contributed to different growth in this sector is more in India. In
rates in these countries. Pakistan, about 41 per cent of people
First, look at how people engaged in work in agriculture, whereas, in India,
different sectors contribute to the Gross it is 43 per cent. Twenty four per cent
Domestic Product now called as Gross of Pakistan workforce is engaged in
Value Added. It was pointed out in the industry but it produces 19 per cent
previous section that China and of GVA. In India, industry workforce

TABLE 8.3
Sectoral Share of Employment and GVA (%) in 2018–2019
Sector Contribution to GVA Distribution of Workforce

India China Pakistan India China Pakistan
Agriculture 16 7 24 43 26 41
Industry 30 41 19 25 28 24
Services 54 52 57 32 46 35
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: Human Development Report 2019 ; Key Indicators of Asia and Pacific 2019.
account for 25 per cent but produces India, China and Pakistan employed
goods worth 30 per cent of GVA. In 17, 12 and 27 per cent of its workforce
China, industries contribute to GVA at in the service sector respectively. In
41, and employ 28 per cent of 2019, it has reached the level of 32,
workforce. In all the three countries, 46 and 35 per cent, respectively.
service sector contributes highest share In the last five decades, the
of GVA. growth of agriculture sector, which
In the normal course of employs the largest proportion of
development, countries first shift their workforce in all the three countries, has
employment and output from declined. In the industrial sector, China
agriculture to Industry and then to has maintained a near double-digit
services. This is what is happening in growth rate in 1980s but began
China as can be seen from Table 8.3. showing decline in recent years,
The proportion of workforce engaged
in industry in India and Pakistan were
low at 25 per cent and 24 per cent Work These Out
respectively. The contribution of
industries to GVA is at 30 per cent in Ø Do you think it is necessary
India and 19 per cent in Pakistan. In for India and Pakistan to
concentrate on t h e manu-
these countries, the shift is taking place
facturing sector as China
directly to the service sector. does? Why?
Thus, in all the three countries the
service sector is emerging as a major Ø Scholars argue that the
player of development. It contributes service sector should not be
considered as an engine of
more to GVA and, at the same time,
growth whereas India and
emerges as a prospective employer. If Pakistan have raised their
we look at the proportion of workforce share of output mainly in
in the1980s, Pakistan was faster in this sector only. What do
shifting its workforce to service sector you think?
than India and China. In the 1980s,

TABLE 8.4
Trends in Output Growth in Different Sectors, 1980–2015
Country 1980–90 2014–18

Agriculture Industry Service Agriculture Industry Service
India 3.1 7.4 6.9 3.1 6.9 7.6
China 5.9 10.8 13.5 3.1 5.3 7.1
Pakistan 4 7.7 6.8 1.7 4.8 5.0
whereas, for India and Pakistan growth 8.5 INDICATORS OF HUMAN

rate has declined. In case of service DEVELOPMENT
sector, China was able to maintain its
You might have studied about the
rate of growth during 1980–1990,while
importance of human development
there was a positive and increasing
indicators in the lower classes and the
growth of India’s service sector output.
position of many developed and
Thus, China’s growth is contributed
by the manufacturing and service developing countries. Let us look how
sectors and India’s growth by the India, China and Pakistan have
service sector. During this period, performed in some of the select
Pakistan has shown deceleration in all indicators of human development.
three sectors. Look at Table 8.5.
TABLE 8.5
Some Selected Indicators of Human Development, 2017-2019
Item India China Pakistan

Human Development Index (Value) 0.645 0.761 0.557
Rank (based on HDI) 130 87 154
Life Expectancy at Birth (years) 69.7 76.9 67.3
Mean years of Schooling (% aged 15 and above) 6.5 8.1 5.2
Gross National Income per capita (PPP US$) 6,681 16,057 5,005
Percentage of People living Below Poverty Line (National) 21.9* 1.7** 24.3*
Infant Mortality Rate (per 1000 live births) 29.9 7.4 57.2
Maternal Mortality Rate (per 1 lakh births) 133 29 140
Population using at least basic Sanitation (%) 60 75 60
Population using at least basic drinking 93 96 91
Water Source (%)
Percentage of Undernourished Children 37.9 8.1 37.6
Note: * for the year 2011; for the years 2015.
Sources: Human Development Report 2019 and 2020 and World Development Indicators
(www.worldbank.org); Key indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2019, Asian Development Bank (ADB).

Table 8.5 shows that China is extent of Constitutional protection
moving ahead of India and Pakistan. given to rights of citizens’ or ‘the extent
This is true for many indicators — of constitutional protection of
income indicator such as GDP per the Independence of the Judiciary and
capita, or proportion of population the Rule of Law’ have not even
below poverty line or health indicators been introduced so far. Without
such as mortality rates, access to including these (and perhaps some
sanitation, literacy, life expectancy or more) and giving them overriding
malnourishment. China and Pakistan importance in the list, the construction
are ahead of India in reducing of a human development index may
proportion of people below the poverty be said to be incomplete and its
line and also their performance in usefulness limited.
sanitation. But India and Pakistan
have not been able to save women from 8.6 DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES — AN
maternal mortality. In China, for one APPRAISAL
lakh births, only 29 women die
whereas in India and Pakistan, about It is common to find developmental
133 and 140 women die respectively. strategies of a country as a model to
Surprisingly all the three countries others for lessons and guidance for
report providing improved drinking their own development. It is particularly
water sources for most of its evident after the introduction of the
population. China has the smallest reform process in different parts of the
share of poor among the three world. In order to learn from economic
countries. Find out for yourself how performance of our neighbouring
these differences occur. countries, it is necessary to have an
In dealing with or making understanding of the roots of their
judgements on such questions, successes and failures. It is also
however, we should also note a problem necessary to distinguish between, and
while using the human development contrast, the different phases of their
indicators given above with conviction. strategies. Though countries go
This occurs because these are all through their development phases
extremely important indicators; but differently, let us take the initiation of
these are not sufficient. Along with reforms as a point of reference. We
these, we also need what may be called know that reforms were initiated in
‘liberty indicators’. One such indicator China in 1978, Pakistan in 1988 and
has actually been added as a measure India in 1991. Let us briefly assess their
of ‘the extent of democratic achievements and failures in pre- and
participation in social and political post-reform periods.
decision-making’ but it has not been Why did China introduce
given any extra weight. Some obvious structural reforms in 1978? China did
‘liberty indicators’ like measures of ‘the not have any compulsion to introduce

reforms as dictated by the World Bank by handing over plots of land to
and International Monetary Fund to individuals for cultivation, it brought
India and Pakistan. The new prosperity to a vast number of poor
leadership at that time in China was people. It created conditions for the
not happy with the slow pace of growth subsequent phenomenal growth in
and lack of modernisation in the rural industries and built up a strong
Chinese economy under the Maoist support base for more reforms.
rule. They felt that Maoist vision of Scholars quote many such examples
economic development based on on how reform measures led to rapid
decentralisation, self sufficiency and growth in China.
shunning of foreign technology, goods Scholars argue that in Pakistan
and capital had failed. Despite the reform process led to worsening of
extensive land reforms, collectivisation, all the economic indicators. We have
the Great Leap Forward and other seen in an earlier section that
initiatives, the per capita grain output compared to 1980s, the growth rate
in 1978 was the same as it was in the of GDP and its sectoral constituents
mid-1950s. have not yet improved.
It was found that establishment of Though the data on international
infrastructure in the areas of poverty line for Pakistan is quite
education and health, land reforms, healthy, scholars using the official
long existence of decentralised data of Pakistan indicate rising
planning and existence of small poverty there. The proportion of poor
enterprises had helped positively in in 1960s was more than 40 per cent
improving the social and income which declined to 25 per cent in 1980s
indicators in the post reform period. and started rising again in the recent
decades. The reasons for the slow-
Before the introduction of reforms,
down of growth and re-emergence of
there had already been massive
poverty in Pakistan’s economy, as
extension of basic health services in
scholars put it, are agricultural growth
rural areas. Through the commune
and food supply situation were based
system, there was more equitable
not on an institutionalised process of
distribution of food grains. Experts
technical change but on good harvest.
also point out that each reform
When there was a good harvest, the
measure was first implemented at a
economy was in good condition, when
smaller level and then extended on a
it was not, the economic indicators
massive scale. The experimentation
showed stagnation or negative trends.
under decentralised government
You will recall that India had to borrow
enabled to assess the economic, social
from the IMF and World Bank to
and political costs of success or failure. set right its balance of payments
For instance, when reforms were made crisis; foreign exchange is an essential
in agriculture, as pointed out earlier component for any country and it is

Work These Out
Ø While India has performed relatively well vis-à-vis other developing

countries (including its Asian neighbours) in terms of economic growth,
India is yet to show the world that there is considerable progress in terms
of human development indicators. Where India went wrong ? Why did we
not take care of our human resources? Discuss in the classroom.
Ø There is a general perception going around in India that there is sudden

increase in dumping of Chinese goods into India which have implications
for manufacturing sector in India and also that we do not engage
ourselves in trading with our neighbouring nations. Look at the following
table, which shows exports from India to, and imports from, Pakistan
and China. From newspapers and websites and listening to news, collect
the details of goods and services transacted in trading with our
neighbours. In order to get detailed information relating to international
trade, you can log on to the website: http://dgft.gov.in.
Country Exports from India ( Rs in crore) Imports to India (Rs in crore)

2004-2005 2018-2019 Annual 2004-2005 2018-2019 Annual
Rate of Rate of
Growth (%) Growth (%)
Pakistan 2,341 14,426 3.7 427 3476 5.1
China 25,232 1,17,289 2.6 31,892 4,92,079 10.3
Ø Calculate exports as a % of imports for both the years and discuss the
probable reasons for the trend in the class.

important to know how it can be levels. India, with democratic
earned. If a country is able to build up institutions, performed moderately,
its foreign exchange earnings by but a majority of its people still depend
sustainable export of manufactured on agriculture. India has taken many
goods, it need not worry. In Pakistan initiatives to develop the infrastructure
most foreign exchange earnings came and improve the standard of living.
from remittances from Pakistani Scholars are of the opinion that
workers in the Middle-east and the political instability, over-dependence
exports of highly volatile agricultural on remittances and foreign aid along
products; there was also growing with volatile performance of
dependence on foreign loans on the one agriculture sector are the reasons for
hand and increasing difficulty in paying the slowdown of the Pakistan
back the loans on the other. economy. Yet, last five years, many
macroeconomic indicators began
However, during the last few years,
showing positive and moderate growth
Pakistan has recovered its economic
rates reflecting the economic recovery.
growth and has been sustaining. In
In China, the lack of political freedom
2017-18, the Annual Plan 2019-20
and its implications for human rights
reports that, the GDP registered a
are major concerns; yet, in the last four
growth of 5.5 per cent, highest when
decades, it used the ‘market system
compared to the previous decade. While
without losing political commitment’
agriculture recorded growth rate far and succeeded in raising the level of
from satisfactory level, industrial and growth alongwith alleviation of poverty.
service sectors grew at 4.9 and 6.2 per You will also notice that unlike India
cent respectively. Many macroeconomic and Pakistan, which are attempting to
indicators also began to show stable privatise their public sector
and positive trends. enterprises, China has used the
market mechanism to ‘create
8.7 CONCLUSION
additional social and economic
What are we learning from the opportunities’. By retaining collective
developmental experiences of our ownership of land and allowing
neighbours? India, China and individuals to cultivate lands, China
Pakistan have travelled seven decades has ensured social security in rural
of developmental path with varied areas. Public intervention in providing
results. Till the late 1970s, all of them social infrastructure even prior to
were maintaining the same level of low reforms has brought about positive
development. The last three decades results in human development
have taken these countries to different indicators in China.

Recap
Ø With the unfolding of the globalisation process, developing countries

are keen to understand the developmental processes pursued by their
neighbours as they face competition from developed nations as also
amongst themselves.
Ø India, Pakistan and China have similar physical endowments but
totally different political systems.
Ø All the three countries follow the similar planned pattern of
development. However, the structures established to implement
developmental policies are quite different.
Ø Till the early 1980s, the developmental indicators of all the three
countries, such as growth rates and sectoral contribution towards
national income, were similar.
Ø Reforms were introduced in 1978 in China, in 1988 in Pakistan and in
1991 in India.
Ø China introduced structural reforms on its own initiative while they
were forced upon India and Pakistan by international agencies.
Ø The impact of policy measures were different in these countries — for
instance, one-child norm has arrested the population growth in China
whereas in India and Pakistan, a major change is yet to take place.
Ø Even after seventy years of planned development, majority of the
workforce in all the countries depends on agriculture. The dependency
is greater in India.
Ø Though China has followed the classical development pattern of
gradual shift from agriculture to manufacturing and then to services,
India and Pakistan’s shift has been directly from agriculture to service
sector.
Ø China’s industrial sector has maintained a high growth rate while it
is not so in both India and Pakistan. This led to rapid increase of the
GDP per capita in China than in India and Pakistan.
Ø China is ahead of India and Pakistan on many human development
indicators. However these improvements were attributed not to the
reform process but the strategies that China adopted in the pre-reform
period.
Ø While assessing the developmental indicators, one also has to consider
the liberty indicators.

EXERCISES
1. Why are regional and economic groupings formed?

2. What are the various means by which countries are trying to
strengthen their own domestic economies?
3. What similar developmental strategies have India and Pakistan
followed for their respective developmental paths?
4. Explain the Great Leap Forward campaign of China as initiated in
1958.
5. China’s rapid industrial growth can be traced back to its reforms in
1978. Do you agree? Elucidate.
6. Describe the path of developmental initiatives taken by Pakistan
for its economic development.
7. What is the important implication of the ‘one child norm’ in China?
8. Mention the salient demographic indicators of China, Pakistan and
India.
9. Compare and contrast India and China’s sectoral contribution
towards GVA/GDP. What does it indicate?
10. Mention the various indicators of human development.
11. Define the liberty indicator. Give some examples of liberty indicators.
12. Evaluate the various factors that led to the rapid growth in economic
development in China.
13. Group the following features pertaining to the economies of India,
China and Pakistan under three heads
• One-child norm
• Low fertility rate
• High degree of urbanisation
• Mixed economy
• Very high fertility rate
• Large population
• High density of population
• Growth due to manufacturing sector
• Growth due to service sector.

14. Give reasons for the slow growth and re-emergence of poverty in
Pakistan.
15. Compare and contrast the development of India, China and Pakistan
with respect to some salient human development indicators.
16. Comment on the growth rate trends witnessed in China and India
in the last two decades.
17. Fill in the blanks
(a) First Five Year Plan of ________________ commenced in the
year 1956. (Pakistan/China)
(b) Maternal mortality rate is high in _____________. (China/
Pakistan)
(c) Proportion of people below poverty line is more in __________.
(India/Pakistan)
(d) Reforms in ______________ were introduced in 1978. (China/
Pakistan)
1. Organise a class debate on the issue of free trade between India

and China and India and Pakistan.
2. You are aware that cheap Chinese goods are available in the market,
for example, toys, electronic goods, clothes, batteries etc. Do you
think that these products are comparable in quality and price with
their Indian counterparts? Do they create a threat to our domestic
producers? Discuss.
3. Do you think India can introduce the one-child norm like China to
reduce population growth? Organise a debate on the policies that
India can follow to reduce population growth.
4. China’s growth is mainly contributed by the manufacturing sector
and India’s growth by the service sector —prepare a chart showing
the relevance of this statement with respect to the structural
changes in the last decade in the respective countries.
5. How is China able to lead in all the Human Development Indicators?
Discuss in the classroom. Use Human Development Report of the
latest year.

REFERENCES
Books
DREZE, JEAN AND AMAR TYA SEN. 1996. India: Economic Development and Social
Opportunity. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Articles
RAY, ALOK. 2002. ‘The Chinese Economic Miracle: Lessons to be Learnt.’

Economic and Political Weekly, September 14, pp. 3835-3848.
ZAIDI, S. AKBAR. 1999. ‘Is Poverty now a Permanent Phenomenon in Pakistan?’
Economic and Political Weekly, October 9, pp. 2943-2951.
Government Reports
Annual Plan 2016-17, Ministry of Planning, Development & Reform, Gov-
ernment of Pakistan accessed from http://pc.gov.pk on 02 January 2017.
Economic Survey, Ministry of Finance, Government of India (for various years).
Human Development Report 2005, United Nations Development Programme,
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Labour Market Indicators, 3rd Edition, International Labour Organisation,
Geneva.
Pakistan: National Human Development Report 2003, United Nations
Development Programme, Second Impression 2004.
World Development Report 2005, The World Bank, Oxford University Press,
New York.
World Development Indicators for various years, World Bank Washington.
Human Development Report for various years, United Nations Development
Programme Geneva.
Key Indicators of Asia and Pacific 2016, Asian Development Bank, Philippines.
Websites
www.stats.gov.cn
www.statpak.gov.pk
www.un.org
www.ilo.org
www.planningcommission.nic.in
www.dgft.delhi.nic.in

GLOSSARY
The Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) : It is a political,

economic, and cultural organisation of countries located in South-east
Asia— Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, Brunei
Darussalam, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam.
Balance of Payments (BOP) : It is a statistical statement summarising all
the external transactions (receipts and payments) on current and capital
account in which a country is involved over a period of time, say, a year. As
the BOP shows the total assets and obligations over a time-period, it always
balances.
Barriers to Entry : This refers to the factors which make it disadvantageous
for new entrants to enter an industry as compared with the firms already
established within the industry.
Better Compliance : Obeying or complying with the Government regulation.
It is referred to usually in case of payment of taxes and dues to the
Government.
Bilateral Trade Agreements : The agreements relating to exchange of
commodities or services between two countries.
Brundtland Commission : A Commission established by United Nations
Organisation in 1983 to study the world’s environmental problems and
propose agenda for addressing them. It came out with a report. The definition
provided by the Commission for the term, ‘sustainable development’, is very
popular and widely cited all over the world.
Budgetary Deficit : A situation when the government’s income and tax
receipts fail to cover its expenditures.
Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) : It is a government organisation that
aims to develop policies and strategies with a thrust on self regulation and
market principles. It promotes energy conservation in different sectors of
the economy and undertakes measures against the wasteful uses of
electricity.
Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) : Outsourcing of business processes
(activities constituting a service) by companies to other companies. This
term is frequently associated with outsourcing of such activities (e.g.
receiving and making calls on behalf of other companies popularly known
as call centres), by foreign companies to Indian companies in the field of
IT -enabled services.
GLOSSARY 151

Carrying Capacity : It is the measure of habitat to indefinitely sustain a
population at a particular density. A more technical definition for carrying
capacity is the largest size of a density-dependent population for which the
population growth rate is zero. Hence, below carrying capacity, populations
will tend to increase, while they will decrease above carrying capacity.
Population size decreases above carrying capacity due to either reduced
survivorship (e.g. due to insufficient space or food) or reproductive success
(e.g. due to insufficient food, or behavioural interactions), or both. The
carrying capacity of an environment will vary for different species in different
habitats, and can change over time due to a variety factors, including trends
in food availability, environmental conditions and space.
Cascading Effect : When tax imposition leads to a disproportionate rise in
prices, i.e. by an extent more than the rise in the tax, it is known as
cascading effect.
Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) : A proportion of the total deposits and reserves
of the commercial banks that is to be kept with the central bank (RBI) in
liquid form. It is used as a measure of control of RBI over the commercial
banks.
Casual Wage Labourer : A person who is casually engaged in others’ farm
or non-farm enterprises and, in return, receives wages according to the
terms of the daily or periodic work contract.
Colonialism : The practice of acquiring colonies by conquest or other means
and making them dependent. It also means extending power, control or
rule by a country over the political and economic life of areas outside its
borders. The main feature of colonialism is exploitation.
Commercialisation of Agriculture : It implies production of crops for the
market rather than for self-consumption i.e. family consumption. During
the British rule, the commercialisation of agriculture acquired a different
meaning — it became basically commercialisation of crops. The British
started offering higher price to farmers for producing cash crops rather
than for food crops. They used these cash crops as raw materials for
industries in Britain.
Communes : Known as people’s communes, or renmin gongshe in China,
were formerly the highest of three administrative levels in rural areas in
the period from 1958 to 1982-85, when they were replaced by townships.
Communes, the largest collective units, were divided in turn into production
brigades and production teams. The communes had governmental, political,
and economic functions.
Consumption Basket : Group of goods and services consumed by a
household. In order to estimate the consumption pattern of people, statistical
agencies identify such items. For instance NSSO has identied 19 groups of
items in the consumption basket. Some of them are (i) cereals (ii) pulses

(iii) milk and milk products (iv) edible oil (v) vegetables (vi) fuel and light
and (vii) clothing.
Default : Failure to make repayment of the principal and interest on a debt
e.g. sovereign debt (loan obtained by the government) to the lenders, say,
international financial institutions, on the scheduled date, causing loss of
credibility as a debtor.
Deficit Financing : A situation where the expenditure of the government

exceeds its revenue.
Demographic Transition : It is a concept developed by demographer Frank

Notestein in 1945 to describe the typical pattern of falling death and birth
rates in response to better living conditions associated with economic
development. Notestein identified three phases of demographic transition,
pre-industrial, developing and modern industrialised societies. Later
another phase, post-industrial was also included.
Dereservation : Allowing an individual or group of enterprises to produce

goods and services which were hitherto produced by a particular individual
or group of enterprises. In India, it refers to allowing large-scale industries
to produce goods and services which were produced only by the small-
scale industries.
Devaluation : A fall in the exchange rate which reduces the value of a

currency in terms of other currencies.
Disinvestment : A deliberate sale of a part of the capital stock of a company
to raise resources and change the equity and/or management structure of
a company.
Employers : Those self-employed workers who by and large, run their

enterprises by hiring labourers.
Enterprise : An undertaking owned and operated by an individual or by

group of individuals to produce and/or distribute goods and/or services
mainly for the purpose of sale, whether fully or partly.
Equities : Shares in the paid up capital or stock of a company whose holders

are considered as owners of the company with voting rights and dividends
in the profit.
Establishment : An enterprise which has got at least one hired worker for
major part of the period of operation in a year.
European Union : It is a union of twenty-five independent states founded
to enhance political, economic and social cooperation within the European
continent. The member countries of European Union are Austria, Belgium,
Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany,
GLOSSARY 153

Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom, Malta, Poland,
Slovakia and Slovenia.
Export Duties : Taxes imposed on goods exported from a country.
Export Promotion : A set of measures (including fiscal and commercial
support measures and steps aimed at removal of trade barriers) taken by a
government to promote the export of goods with a view to achieve higher
economic growth and accumulation of foreign exchange earnings.
Export-Import Policy : The economic policies of the government relating to
its exports and imports.
Family labour/worker : A member who works without receiving wages in
cash or in kind in a farm, an industry, business or trade conducted by the
members of the family.
Financial Institutions : Institutions that engage in mobilisation and
allocation of savings. They include commercial banks, cooperative banks,
developmental banks and investment institutions.
Fiscal Management : The use of taxation and government expenditure to
regulate the economic activities.
Fiscal Policy : All the planned actions of a government in mobilising financial
resources for meeting its expenditure and regulating the economic activities
in a country.
Foreign Direct Investment : Investment of foreign assets into domestic
structures, equipment and organisations. It does not include foreign
investment into the stock markets. Foreign direct investment is thought to
be more useful to a country than investments in the equity of its companies
because equity investments are potentially ‘hot money’ which can leave at
the first sign of trouble, whereas FDI is durable and generally useful whether
things go well or badly.
Foreign Exchange : Currency or bonds of another country.
Foreign Exchange Markets : A market in which currencies are bought
and sold at rates of exchange fixed now, for delivery at specified dates in
the future.
Foreign Institutional Investment : Foreign investments which come in
the form of stocks, bonds, or other financial assets. This form of investment
does not entail active management or control over the firms or investors.
Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) : Banking and non-banking financial
institutions of foreign origin e.g. commercial banks, investment banks,
mutual funds, pension funds or other such institutional investors (as
distinct from the domestic financial institutions investing) whose investment

in stocks and bonds in the country through stock markets have significant
influence.
Formal Sector Establishments : All the public sector establishments and
those private sector establishments which employ 10 or more hired workers.
G-20 : A forum of countries that intents to promote global economic stability
and sustainable growth. This forum brings together finance ministers and
central bank governors from 19 countries: Argentina, Australia, Brazil,
Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, The
Republic of Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, The
United Kingdom, The United States of America. The European Union is
also a member of G-20 and is represented by the President of the European
Council and by Head of the European Central Bank.
G-8 : The Group of Eight (G-8) consists of Canada, France, Germany, Italy,
Japan, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the United
States of America, and Russian Federation. The hallmark of the G-8 is an
annual economic and political summit meeting of the heads of government
with international officials, though there are numerous subsidiary meetings
and policy research.The Presidency of the group rotates every year. For the
year 2006 it was held by Russia.
Goods and Services Tax : It is a single indirect tax on the supply of goods
and services. It was introduced in July 2017 by abolishing a variety of taxes,
such as sales tax and excise that prevailed in India. Under GST, tax is
imposed on the basis of value addition at each stage of the movement of
goods and services. Different slabs of tax rates, such as 0 per cent, 5 per
cent, 12 per cent, 18 per cent and 28 per cent, are imposed on almost all
goods and services. This slab is same throughout the country.
Gratuity : An amount of money given by the employer to the employee at
the time of retirement for services rendered by the employee.
Gross Domestic Product : The total value of final goods and services
produced within a country’s borders in a year, regardless of ownership. It
is used as one of many indicators of the standard of living in a country, but
there are limitations with this view.
Gross Value Added: The sum of a country’s GDP and net of subsidies and
taxes in the economy (GVA=GDP+Subsidies–indirect taxes).
Household : A group of persons normally living together and taking
food from a common kitchen. The word ‘normally’ means that temporary
visitors are excluded and those who temporarly staying away are
included.
Import Licensing : Permission required from the government to import
goods into a country.
Import Substitution : A policy of the state for development of economy in
which import of goods is generally substituted by domestic production
(through import controls, tariffs and other restrictions) with a view to
encourage domestic industry on grounds of self-sufficiency and domestic
employment.
GLOSSARY 155

Infant Mortality Rate : It is the number of deaths of infants before reaching
the age of one, in a particular year, per 1,000 live births during that year.
Inflation : A sustained rise in the general price level.
Informal Sector Enterprises : Those private sector enterprises, which
employ less than 10 workers on a regular basis.
Integration of Domestic Economy : A situation where the policies of
government facilitate free trade and investment with other countries making
the domestic economy work together with other economies in an efficient
and mutually interdependent way.
Invisibles : Various items enter in the current account of the balance of
payments, some of which are not visible goods. Invisibles are mainly services,
like tourism, transport by shipping or by airways, and financial services
such as insurance and banking. They also include gifts sent abroad or
received from abroad and private transfer of funds, government grants and
interests, profits and dividends.
Labour Laws : All the rules and regulations framed by the government to
protect the interests of the workers.
Land/Revenue Settlement : With the British acquiring territorial rights
in different parts of India, administration of territories was formulated on
the basis of survey of land. It was decided in the interests of government
in terms of revenues to be collected from each parcel of land in possession
of either a ryot (means peasant) or a mahal (revenue village) or a zamindar
(a proprietary land holder). Decision in each of these cases was meant for
the rights of the latter over land for the purposes of either ownership of
land or rights to cultivation. This system is known as land/revenue
settlement. There were different land settlements formulated in India. They
are (i) system of permanent settlement, which is also known as the
zamindari system (ii) ryotwari system (a system of revenue settlement
entered into by the government with individual tenants) (iii) mahalwari
system (a system of revenue settlement entered into by the government
with a mahal).
Life Expectancy at Birth (years) : The number of years a newborn infant
would live if prevailing patterns of age-specific mortality rates at the time of
birth were to stay the same throughout the child’s life.
Maternal Mortality Rate : It is the relationship between the number of
maternal deaths due to childbearing by the number of live births or by the
sum of live births and foetal deaths in a given year.
Merchant Bankers : Banks or financial institutions, also known as
investment bankers, that specialise in advising the companies and
managing their equity and debt requirement (often referred to as portfolio
management) through floatation and sale/purchase of stocks and bonds.
Morbidity : It is the propensity to fall ill. It affects a person’s work by making
him or her temporarily disabled. Prolonged morbidity may lead to mortality.

In our country, acute respiratory infections and diarrhoea are two major
causes of morbidity.
Mortality rate : The word ‘mortality’ comes from ‘mortal’ which originates
from the Latin word mors (meaning death). It is the annual number of deaths
(from a disease or in general) per 1,000 people. It is distinct from morbidity
rate, which refers to the number of people who have a disease compared to
the total number of people in a population.
MRTP Act : An Act (Monopolies Restrictive Trade Practices Act) framed to
prevent monopolistic practices and regulate the conduct or business
practices of firms that are not in public interest.
Multilateral Trade Agreements : Trade agreements made by a country
with more than two nations to exchange goods and services.
National Product/Income : Total value of goods and services produced in
a country plus income from abroad.
Nationalisation : Transfer of ownership from private sector to public sector.
This involves take over of companies owned by individuals or group of
individuals by either state or central government. In some contexts, it also
involves transfer of ownership from state government to central government.
New Economic Policy : A term used to describe the policies adopted in
India since 1991.
Non-renewable Resources : Resources that cannot be renewed. They have
a finite, even if large, stock. Some examples are fossils fuels such as oil and
coal and mineral resources—iron, lead, aluminum, uranium.
Non-tariff Barriers : All the restrictions on imports by a government in the
form other than taxes. They mainly include restrictions on quantity and
quality of goods imported.
Opportunity Cost : It is defined with respect to a particular value or action
and is equal to the value of the foregone alternative choice or action.
Pension : A monthly payment to a worker who has retired from work.
Per Capita Income : Total national income of a country divided by its
population in a specific period.
Permit License Raj : A term used to denote the rules and regulations
framed by the government to start, run and operate an enterprise for
production of goods and services in India.
Planning Commission : An organisation set up by the Government of India.
It is responsible for making assessment of all resources of the country,
augmenting deficient resources, formulating plans for the most effective
and balanced utilisation of resources and determining priorities.
Poverty Line : The per capita expenditure on certain minimum needs of a
person including food intake of a daily average of 2,400 calories in rural
areas and 2,100 calories in urban areas.
Private Sector Establishments : All those establishments, which are
owned and operated by individuals or group of individuals.
GLOSSARY 157

Productivity : Output per unit of input employed. Increase in the efficiency
on the part of capital or labour leads to increase in productivity. This term
is generally used to refer to productivity increase in labour inputs.
Provident Fund : A savings fund in which both employer and employee
contribute regularly in the interest of the employee. It is maintained by the
government and given to the employee when he or she resigns or retires
from work.
Public Sector Establishments : All those establishments which are owned
and operated by the government. They may be run either by local
government, state government or by central government independently or
jointly.
Quantitative Restrictions : Restrictions in the form of total quantities or
quotas imposed on imports to reduce balance of payments (BOP) deficit
and protect domestic industry.
Regular Salaried/Wage Employee : Persons who work in others’ farm or
non-farm enterprises and, in return, receive salary or wages on a regular
basis (i.e. not on the basis of daily or periodic renewal of work contract).
They include not only persons getting time wage but also persons receiving
piece wage or salary and paid apprentices, both full time and part-time.
Renewable Resources : Resources that can be renewed through natural
processes if they are used wisely. Forests, animals and fishes, if not over-
exploited, get easily renewed. Water is also in that category.
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) : It is an
association of eight countries of South Asia — Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Afghanistan. SAARC provides a
platform for the peoples of South Asia to work together in a spirit of
friendship, trust and understanding. It aims to accelerate the process of
economic and social development in member countries.
Self-employed : Those who operate their own farm or non-farm enterprises
or are engaged independently in a profession or trade with one or a few
partners. They have freedom to decide how, where and when to produce
and sell or carry out their operation. Their earning is determined wholly or
mainly by sales or profits from their enterprises.
Social Security : A government or privately established system of measures,
which ensures material security for the elderly, disabled, destitute, widows
and children. It includes pension, gratuity, provident fund, maternal
benefits, health care etc.
Special Economic Zone (SEZ) : It is a geographical region that has economic
laws different from a country’s typical economic laws. Usually the goal is to
increase foreign investment. Special Economic Zones have been established
in several countries, including the People’s Republic of China, India, Jordan,
Poland, Kazakhstan, the Philippines and Russia.

Stabilisation Measures : Fiscal and monetary measures adopted to control
fluctuations in the balance of payments and high rate of inflation.
State Electricity Boards (SEBs) : These are part of the state administration
that generate, transmit and distribute electricity in different states.
Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) : A minimum proportion of the total deposits
and reserves to be maintained by the banks in liquid form as per the
regulations of the central bank (RBI). Maintenance of SLR, in addition to
the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR), is an obligation of the banks.
Stock Exchange : A market in which the securities of governments and
public companies are traded. It provides the facilities for stock brokers to
trade company stocks and other securities.
Stock Market : An institution where stocks and shares are traded.
Structural Reform Policies : Long-term measures like liberalisation,
deregulation and privatisation aimed to improve the efficiency and
competitiveness of the economy.
Tariff : A tax on imports, which can be levied either on physical units, e.g.
per tonne (specific) or on value. Tariffs may be imposed for a variety of
reasons including: to raise government revenue, to protect domestic industry
from subsidised or low-wage imports, to boost domestic employment, or to
ease a deficit on the balance of payments. Apart from the revenue that they
raise tariffs achieve little good—they reduce the volume of trade and increase
the price of the imported commodity to consumers.
Tariff Barriers : All the restrictions on imports by a government in the
form of taxes.
Trade Union : An organisation of workers formed for the purpose of
addressing its members’ interests in respect of wages, benefits, and working
conditions.
Unemployment : A situation in which all those who, owing to lack of work,
are not working but either seek work through employment exchanges,
intermediaries, friends or relatives or by making applications to prospective
employers or express their willingness or availability for work under the
prevailing condition of work and remunerations.
Urbanisation : Expansion of a metropolitan area, namely the proportion of
total population or area in urban localities or areas (cities and towns), or
the increase of this proportion over time. It can thus represent a level of
urban population relative to total population of the area, or the rate at
which the urban proportion is increasing. Both can be expressed in
percentage terms, the rate of change expressed as a percentage per year,
decade or period between censuses.
Worker-Population Ratio : Total number of workers divided by the
population. It is expressed in percentage.
GLOSSARY 159

NOTESo


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INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS XI

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First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Head, Publication : Anup Kumar Rajput

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The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005, recommends that

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This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the

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CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

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The main objective of this book, Indian Economic Development, is to

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UNIT II: ECONOMIC REFORMS SINCE 1991 36–56

UNIT III: CURRENT CHALLENGES FACING THE INDIAN ECONOMY 57–74

CHAPTER 4: HUMAN CAPITAL FORMATION IN INDIA 58

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CHAPTER 5: RURAL DEVELOPMENT 75–91

CHAPTER 6: EMPLOYMENT: GROWTH, INFORMALISATION AND OTHER ISSUES 92–114

CHAPTER 7: ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 115–131

UNIT IV: DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES OF INDIA: A COMPARISON 132–150

CHAPTER 8: COMPARATIVE DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES OF 134

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DEVELOPMENT POLICIES AND EXPERIENCE

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After studying this chapter, the learners will

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1.1 INTRODUCTION own rapidly expanding modern

Box 1.1: Textile Industry in Bengal

4 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

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INDIAN ECONOMY ON THE EVE OF INDEPENDENCE 5

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Work These Out

6 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

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INDIAN ECONOMY ON THE EVE OF INDEPENDENCE 7

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there was no substitute to the near exporter of primary products such as

8 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

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Box 1.3: Trade Through the Suez

INDIAN ECONOMY ON THE EVE OF INDEPENDENCE 9

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10 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

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INDIAN ECONOMY ON THE EVE OF INDEPENDENCE 11

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Indian people gained owing to the

cost to the government exchequer, yet,

12 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT