Cmy 3709 Study Guide 2020

Quantitative
research
in criminology
Prof A ladikos
DEPARTMENT OF CRIMINOLOGY AND SECURITY SCIENCE
ONLY STUDY GUIDE FOR c My 3 7 0 9
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

PRETORIA
# 2014 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
CMY3709/1/2015
70220271
3B2
New PRTOU-Style
Contents
Orientation viii
Theme 1 Reflection on science and research: the approach in this module 1

Introduction 1
Study unit 1.1 Science and research 4

1.1.1 Science 5
1.1.2 Research 10
Study unit 1.2 Philosophy of science 20

1.2.1 Definition and perspectives 22
1.2.2 Naturalistic and anti-naturalistic schools of thought 25
1.2.3 Positivistic and humanistic (anti-positivist) conceptions of science 27
Study unit 1.3 Research methodology 36

1.3.1 Definition of ‘‘central question’’ and ‘‘focus’’ 37
1.3.2 Quantitative and qualitative research methodologies 40
Study unit 1.4 Research technology 48

Study unit 1.5 Pluralistic or mixed research methodology 52
Review 56
Theme 2 Origins and development of the scientific idea 63

Introduction 63
Study unit 2.1 The Greek philosophers 66
2.1.1 Characteristic features of scientific thought in this period 67
2.1.2 Socrates 68
2.1.3 Plato 70
2.1.4 Aristotle 72
Study unit 2.2 The Renaissance 75

2.2.1 The natural sciences 75
2.2.2 Humanism 76
Study unit 2.3 Rationalism and empiricism in the 17th and 18th centuries 78
2.3.1 Introduction 78
2.3.2 Rationalism 79
2.3.3 Empiricism 79
Review 81
3 ...........
C o n t e n t s
Theme 3 Quantitative measurement 85
Introduction 85
Study unit 3.1 The concepts of validity and reliability 87
3.1.1 When is thought or reasoning valid? 87
3.1.2 The validity and reliability of knowledge 89
3.1.3 How do we test the validity of knowledge? 93
Study unit 3.2 Levels of measurement 97

3.2.1 The nominal level of measurement 97
3.2.2 The ordinal level of measurement 97
3.2.3 Interval measurements 98
3.2.4 Ratio measurements 98
Study unit 3.3 Measures of central tendency 100
3.3.1 The mode 100
3.3.2 The median 101
3.3.3 The mean 102
Study unit 3.4 Measures of dispersion 104
3.4.1 Index of dispersion 104
3.4.2 The range 104
3.4.3 The variance and the standard deviation 106
Study unit 3.5 Hypotheses and levels of statistical significance 108
3.5.1 Types of hypotheses 109
3.5.2 Levels of statistical significance 110
Theme 4 Research process: design and planning 117

Introduction 117
Study unit 4.1 Research design: towards formulating the problem 119
4.1.1 Decision-making steps in the research process 119
4.1.2 Step 1: Choosing a research topic 119
4.1.3 Step 2: Formulating the problem 121
Study unit 4.2 Research design: data collection 126
4.2.1 Step 3: Data collection 126
Study unit 4.3 Research design: data processing and analysis 129
4.3.1 Step 4: Data processing and analysis 129
4.3.2 Step 5: Report writing 130
Review 132
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C o n t e n t s
Theme 5 Quantitative research technology 135
Introduction 135
Study unit 5.1 Experiments as a quantitative method 138
5.1.2 Characteristics 138
5.1.3 Advantages of experimental studies 142
5.1.4 Drawbacks of experimental studies 143
5.1.5 Conclusion 143
Study unit 5.2 Surveys as a quantitative method 146

5.2.2 Characteristics 146
5.2.3 Advantages of surveys 148
5.2.4 Drawbacks of surveys 148
Study unit 5.3 Quantitative techniques 151

5.3.2 Questionnaires 151
5.3.3 Postal or electronically mailed questionnaires 153
Study unit 5.4 Statistical techniques in data analysis and interpretation 155
5.4.2 Correlation 155
5.4.3 The chi-square test 156
5.4.4 The t-test 158
5.4.5 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) 160
5.4.6 Regression analysis 161
Theme 6 Report writing 165

Introduction 165
Study unit 6.1 Guidelines for good research report writing 167
6.1.2 Guidelines for good report writing 167
6.1.3 Summary 169
Study unit 6.2 The research report writing process and some common mistakes 170
6.2.2 The writing process 170
6.2.3 Common mistakes 171
6.2.4 Summary 171
5 ...........
C o n t e n t s
Study unit 6.3 Quantitative research report writing 172
6.3.2 Quantitative research report writing 172
6.3.3 Summary 173
Study unit 6.4 Preparing for publication 174
6.4.2 The starting point 174
6.4.3 Rationale 174
6.4.4 Classification of articles 174
6.4.5 Choosing a journal 174
6.4.6 Submitting an article 175
6.4.7 How articles submitted for publication are evaluated 175
6.4.8 Reacting to the evaluation of your manuscript 175
6.4.9 Summary 175
Theme 7 Research ethics 177

Introduction 177
Study unit 7.1 The four pillars 178
7.1.2 Pillar 1: Voluntary participation 178
7.1.3 Pillar 2: No harm to the participants 178
7.1.4 Pillar 3: Anonymity and confidentiality 179
7.1.5 Pillar 4: No cheating of colleagues 179
7.1.6 Summary 179
Study unit 7.2 The ethical code of the American Sociological Association 180
Study unit 7.3 Code of conduct of the American Association for Public
Opinion Research 182
Bibliography 184
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C o n t e n t s
MODULE DIAGRAM
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN CRIMINOLOGY
THEME 1: REFLECTION ON SCIENCE AND RESEARCH:

THE APPROACH IN THIS MODULE
THEME 2: ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC

IDEA
THEME 3: QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT
!
THEME 4: RESEARCH PROCESS: DESIGN AND PLANNING
THEME 5: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNOLOGY
!
THEME 6: REPORT WRITING
THEME 7: RESEARCH ETHICS
7 ...........
O r i e n t a t i o n
Orientation
CMY3709: QUANTITAVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ONLINE
Dear Student,
It is a pleasure to welcome you to the Quantitative Research Methodology in
Criminology module (CMY3709). The purpose of this module is to equip you with the
knowledge and skills that you need to conduct quantitative research in criminology.
You will gain knowledge in the use of quantitative methods in social science research,
with a focus on how these techniques are used specifically in the context of research
in criminology. You will also be introduced to various quantitative techniques, with the
focus on the reasoning process required for their proper use. Apart from gaining of
knowledge of quantitative research, you will gain skills and basic experience in the
collection and reporting of data and research findings.
This module will therefore be useful to students in the criminological sciences who are
required to do research or to understand the research process and conventions in
order to deal with the literature. It is also necessary preparation for those who wish to
continue with criminology at postgraduate level; hence it is a compulsory module.
At this stage you are probably wondering where you should begin. In the words of the
wise king from Alice in Wonderland: ‘‘Begin at the beginning and go on till you come to
the end: then stop.’’ Start off by reading systematically through Tutorial Letter 101 for
this particular module. You will find your Tutorial Letter and the complete study guide
under the tab ‘‘Official Study Material’’. Your assignments are in the Tutorial Letter
101.
From time to time we will have an online discussion. Click on the tab ‘‘Discussion’’
forum to participate in the discussion. You must also use this platform to ask for clarity
where you get stuck.
The tab ‘‘FAQ’’ (Frequently Asked Questions) contains questions and answers about
the general administrative and academic issues relating to the module.
Please visit the ‘‘Announcement’’ section regularly. This is where I will post
announcements about recently uploaded study material, comments on the content
of the module, general feedback regarding student performance in the assignments,
information regarding examination, etc.
Please note that only assignments in PDF format will be accepted for this module.
Follow these steps to submit an assignment via myUnisa:
. Go to myUnisa.
. Log in with your student number and password.
. Select the module.
. Click on ‘‘Assignments’’ in the menu on the left.
. Click on the assignment number you want to submit.
. Follow the instructions on the screen.
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If you experience any problems when submitting your assignment electronically or
problems regarding cancellation, resubmitting, etc. please contact the myUnisa
Helpdesk at [email protected].
Your lecturer for this module is:
Dr Benjamin Haefele
[email protected]
Tel: 012 433 7499
Brooklyn House
Veale Street
First floor
Office number 01-044
SPECIAL LEARNING OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

When we consider the many achievements of the previous century, especially in the
field of technology, it is hardly surprising that our modern society holds science and
scientific research in such high regard. In the times we are living in, the terms
‘‘science’’ and ‘‘scientific research’’ have acquired an almost magical connotation.
People seem to feel that anything that has been established ‘‘scientifically’’ or through
‘‘scientific research’’ does not need to be subjected to any further investigation.
Science and scientific research, to which most of this study guide is devoted, play an
important role in both our personal lives and society in general. As your lecturers, we
therefore are confident that this section of the course, besides contributing to your
academic career, will be of personal and social benefit to you.
In compiling this study guide we have followed two approaches.
9 ...........
In choosing a practical functional or pragmatic approach to realising the objectives of
research methodology, we assumed that the subject has important social relevance
and therefore interfaces with or takes account of a community that demands services.
Our first objective in making information available to you is to give you more insight
into and a better understanding of research methods and to ensure that you apply the
correct research methodology.
Our second objective is to provide you with guidelines to help you solve problems
within the criminal justice environment. We would like you to master the information
supplied in this guide in such a way that you will be able to apply it in your everyday life
or, if you are employed in the criminal justice system, in your work. Your ability to be an
informed consumer and experienced producer of research will help policy makers
critically evaluate programme and policy proposals for decision-making.
The principles of curriculum design as outlined in the 1996 curriculum framework,
which emphasised that outcomes-based curriculum development must be promoted,
are:
. learner centredness
. lifelong learning
. critical creative thought
. nation building and non-discrimination
. credibility of the higher education system
. quality assurance
In this orientation we will

. tell you more about this module and study guide
. present an outline of the course material
The purpose of this module

The purpose of this module is to equip you with the knowledge and skills you will need
to conduct quantitative research in criminology. You will acquire a grounding in the use
of quantitative methods in social science research, with a focus on how these
techniques are used in the specific context of research in criminology. You will be
introduced to various quantitative techniques, with a focus on the reasoning process
required for their proper use. Apart from acquiring knowledge about quantitative
research, you will also gain skills and basic experience in the collection and reporting
of data and research findings.
This module will therefore be useful to students in the criminological sciences who are
required to do research or to understand the research process and conventions in
order to deal with the literature. It is a necessary preparation for those of you who wish
to continue with criminology at postgraduate level, and it is therefore a compulsory
module.
The general objective is to introduce you to
. the concepts ‘‘science’’ and ‘‘scientific research’’
. thinking relating to these concepts in the philosophy of science
. research methodology and research technology
The course material thus presents a broad but synoptic perspective of methodology in
science that will also help you in your postgraduate studies.
........... 1
0
We, your lecturers, have made every effort to ensure that
. the content covers the latest developments in the field
. you will find the subject matter accessible
. you will be well equipped for further study in this field
After studying this module, you should be able to

. design and plan quantitative research in the field of criminology
. display information retrieval skills and demonstrate the ability to critically analyse
and synthesise quantitative data
. present quantitative research findings and your own ideas and opinions in the form
of well-structured arguments, demonstrating an awareness of audience and using
the academic/professional discourse appropriately
These are the specific learning outcomes for CMY3709:

In assessing your work, your lecturers will look to see whether you are able to
. demonstrate a coherent and critical understanding of quantitative research in
criminology
. exhibit a coherent and critical understanding of the philosophical assumptions,
paradigm and interpretive framework in quantitative research
. delineate a research problem using evidence-based solutions and theory-driven
arguments
. solve unfamiliar concrete and abstract problems using appropriate theoretical
frameworks based on a proper literature review
. critically analyse the suitability of a quantitative approach using theory-driven
arguments
. demonstrate a coherent and critical understanding of various quantitative research
designs
. draw on a comprehensive and systematic knowledge base relating to criminological
ethics in quantitative research
. demonstrate a coherent and critical understanding of the logical decision-making
steps in the quantitative research process
. demonstrate a coherent and critical understanding of data collection approaches in
quantitative research
. demonstrate an understanding of the quantitative data analysis and interpretation
methods that apply to the field of criminology
. demonstrate a coherent and critical understanding of standards of validation and
evaluation in quantitative research
. use academic/professional discourse applicable to the field of criminology
appropriately
. present and communicate information and your own ideas and opinions in the form
of well-structured arguments
. adhere to accepted guidelines in preparing presentations according to prescribed
formats and, where applicable, use IT skills appropriately
These are also the assessment criteria for CMY3709.
11 . . . O. r.i .e n. t.a .t i.o .n

Study package
The study package for this component of the course comprises the following:
. this study guide
. tutorial letters, which you may receive from us in the course of the year
Compilation of this study guide

This study guide has been compiled in order to systematise the study material and
enable you to master it step by step. The aim of the study guide is to support you
through your study.
The subject matter in the study guide is divided into seven themes. Each theme is
explored through a number of study units. A theme begins with an introduction and a
table of contents. In the introduction you will find an indication of what we, your
lecturers, intend to teach in that particular theme. Most of the study units in this study
guide contain the following elements:
. study objectives
. learning content and definitions of words
. activities
. self-assessment exercises
. answers to the self-assessment exercises
The objectives tell you what you should be able to do after completing the study unit;
the activities help you to achieve the objectives; and the self-assessment gives you an
indication of whether you have indeed achieved the objectives. As you progress
through the study guide, fewer and fewer objectives, activities and self-assessment
exercises will be provided, until we finally stop including them altogether. Here is some
more information about these elements.
Study objectives
The study objectives appear at the beginning of each study unit. They tell you exactly
what knowledge and insight we expect you to demonstrate as a result of the tuition
and learning exposure you receive in a study unit. Study objectives express previously
formulated learning results and specify what you should be able to do after you have
studied the study unit.
Here is an example of a study objective:
You should be able to define the concept ‘‘research’’.
. The keyword or core phrase is the concept ‘‘research’’. This tells you what you will
learn about in that study unit.
. The verb (also referred to as an action word) is define. By ‘‘define’’, we mean
provide a concise, clear and authoritative explanation or description of a concept or
term.
In the self-assessment exercises at the end of the study unit you will find an instruction
or assignment related to the study objective. A study objective is thus linked to a
standard of achievement in the form of a self-assessment assignment. To complete
the self-assessment, we expect you to study the section of the learning content of the
. . . . . . . . . . . 12
study unit that deals with the concept (in this case, research). You have to study it well
enough for you to understand the concept and be able to define it in your own words,
and to complete the relevant self-assessment assignment.
To make sure that you know exactly what we expect of you, below we have explained
what you need to do when you encounter some of the most important verbs that we
have used to formulate study objectives and self-assessment and other assessment
tasks. The terms in brackets refer to a specific level of knowledge.
Complete: You need to fill in whatever words, phrases or information is missing, for
instance to complete a sentence (knowledge).
List (mention, state, give): You need to supply memorised learning content, such as
facts, terms and concepts, in the form of single words or short sentences
(knowledge).
Indicate (show, identify): You need to recognise symbols, names, concepts and so on
from memory and give brief information about them (knowledge).
Describe (explain, elucidate): You need to give the ‘‘what’’ and ‘‘how’’ of a particular
topic, but without providing your own comments or arguments. You just need to
‘‘sketch an existing picture’’. You have to show whether you know what a
particular phenomenon looks like or entails, or how a particular process works or
proceeds (knowledge).
Sketch (give an outline/overview): You need to describe something just as it is,
without any change, comment or reasoning (argument). Your discussion should
usually be structured according to main points or sections and subsections
(knowledge).
Define: You need to reproduce information by providing a concise, clear and
authoritative explanation or description of a concept or term (knowledge). A
definition consists of three parts, namely the ‘‘term’’, the ‘‘class’’ and the
‘‘distinguishing characteristics’’. ‘‘Term’’ refers to the thing that is being defined.
‘‘Class’’ is the category to which the term belongs. You would possibly state any
similarities or differences between the term being defined and other terms
mentioned in the same class or category. ‘‘Distinguishing characteristics’’ are
distinguishing features.
Explain (make clear/elucidate): You need to show that you have really understood the
learning content, how things are linked (relate to each other), why this is so, and
why a specific result follows. You must provide examples to illustrate the
explanation, and you must give reasons for statements you make or conclusions
you draw (comprehension/insight).
Illustrate by using either a sketch, diagram, or outline (depict graphically): You
need to explain something with the help of a sketch/diagram/outline (comprehen-
sion/insight).
Interpret (construe): You need to comment on facts and give examples to
substantiate/support the comments. Your assimilation of information, interpreta-
tion or construction must be clearly evident (comprehension/insight).
Discuss (argue, give reasons for, debate): You must single out or highlight and
explain the essence of a matter (comprehension/insight).
Sum up /Summarise: You must provide the main points so as to supply a shortened
version of the information (synthesis).
13 . . . O. r.i .e n. t.a .t i.o .n

Demonstrate (show how): You need to substantiate information or illustrate it by
providing an appropriate example (application).
Apply: You need to use acquired knowledge and understanding (comprehension) in
new and actual situations (application).
Deduce (infer, conclude): You must show logical consequences (effects) from given
information (application). You need to give reasons.
Classify (categorise): You need to place information in an existing classification
system (application).
Distinguish/Differentiate: You need to make a clear distinction between the specific
matters mentioned (analysis).
Compare: You must weigh up two or more matters against each other in terms of
certain features (analysis).
Indicate differences and similarities: You need to compare two or more matters in
order to point out specific similarities and differences (do an analysis).
Analyse: You need to identify distinguishing elements (features), state causes and
effects, and indicate relationships between things (analysis).
Examine: You must analyse data or divide it into parts to show causes, effects,
relationships and so on (analysis).
Design (create, develop, compile, combine, formulate, compose, build up): You need
to create or develop a new combination or composition of information/data
(synthesis).
Propose/Advise: You need to supply expert knowledge to solve a problem
(synthesis).
Criticise/Judge (give an opinion on, account for, justify, take a stand on, evaluate/
assess): You must give a value judgement based on particular points of
departure, assumptions or criteria (evaluation).
Learning content and definitions of terms

After studying the learning content, we expect you to understand all the information
and arguments presented in the study units and the definitions of terms. However, you
must not only understand these, but also be able to render/define/state them in your
own words. This will enable you to complete the self-assessment exercises and
assignments and at the same time prepare you for the examination. Superficial
understanding of the study material and simplistic arguments based on insufficient
evidence will not be sufficient: you must make sure that you have mastered the details.
We recommend that you first read through the study guide to obtain an overview of the
content and see how the various topics relate to one another. Then study the content
of the study units in light of the study objectives and with the aid of the activities and
self-assessment exercises/tasks.
Activities
Activities are learning experiences that help you to understand the study material
better. In the case of each activity we explain
. why you need to do the activity
. . . . . . . . . . . 14
. how you should carry out the activity (we give you guidelines)
. how you should record your answer
Each activity is followed by a discussion or commentary that forms part of the learning
content. First complete the activity, and only then read the commentary. If you read the
commentary before completing the activity, you will not benefit from the activity as a
learning experience. Also, the commentary will not make much sense if you have not
done the activity first. If you have any difficulties in completing an activity, this may
mean you have not fully internalised the relevant learning material.
Self-assessment
Complete all the self-assessment exercises. The aim of these exercises is to help you
to test your knowledge and understanding of the study material. Make sure that you
are able to carry out the tasks or answer the questions, because they provide you with
practise in answering the types of questions you can expect in the assignments (long
essay questions, short essay questions and multiple-choice questions). However, in
the examination you will be required to answer only long essay and short essay
questions, not multiple-choice questions. Please note that the self-assessment
exercises cannot cover every detail of the learning content of the study guide.
Outcomes
Specific outcome 1
Demonstrate well-rounded and systematic knowledge of the design and planning of a
quantitative research process in the field of Criminology.
Assessment criteria
. Demonstrate a coherent and critical understanding of quantitative research in
Criminology.
. Exhibit a coherent and critical understanding of the philosophical assumptions,
paradigm and interpretive communities/framework in quantitative research.
. Demonstrate the ability to delineate a research problem using evidence-based
solutions and theory-driven arguments.
. Solve unfamiliar concrete and abstract problems and issues using appropriate
theoretical frameworks based on a proper literature review.
. Critically analyse the suitability of a quantitative approach using theory-driven
arguments.
. Demonstrate a coherent and critical understanding of different quantitative research
designs.
. Display well-rounded and systematic knowledge pertaining to the crimino-ethical
requirements in quantitative research.
Specific outcome 2
Display well-rounded information retrieval skills and the ability to critically analyse and
synthesise quantitative data.
Assessment criteria
. Demonstrate a coherent and critical understanding of data collection approaches in
quantitative research.
xv . . . O. r.i .e n. t.a .t i.o .n

. Demonstrate an understanding of the quantitative data analysis and interpretation
methods that apply to the field of Criminology.
. Demonstrate a coherent and critical understanding of standards of validation and
evaluation in quantitative research.
Specific outcome 3
Present and communicate quantitative research findings and own ideas and opinions
in well-structured arguments, showing an awareness of audience and using academic/
professional discourse appropriately.
Assessment criteria
. Demonstrate the ability to use academic/professional discourse applicable to the
field of Criminology appropriately.
. Demonstrate the ability to present and communicate information and own-ideas and
opinions in well-structured arguments.
. Adhere to accepted guidelines in preparing presentations according to prescribed
formats and where applicable, IT skills appropriately.
Assessment plan
Formative assessment will consist of two compulsory assignments. Assignment 01 will
consist of essay type questions and Assignment 02 will consist of multiple-choice
questions. Together, Assignments 01 and 02 will comprise 20% of the year mark.
The summative assessment will be a written examination of 2 hours, consisting of long
(30 mark) and short (15 mark) essay type questions. This final assessment will
contribute 80% towards the final mark and will be moderated by external moderators.
. . . . . . . . . . . xvi
THEME
1
Reflection on science and research:

the approach in this module
Introduction
Scientific research is a human activity. Research is not an isolated or independent
entity or thing, however. It is closely interwoven with the concept of science. There are
various approaches to reflecting on science and scientific research. One such
approach is to elucidate science and research from three levels or fields, namely the
scientific-philosophical, the research-methodological and the research-technological.
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
REFLECTION ON
SCIENCE AND
SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH
!
RESEARCH
TECHNOLOGY
FIGURE 1.1: Perspectives from which we reflect on science and scientific research in
this module
A c t i v i t y
Why do you need to do this activity?

. to identify the two main concepts
1 ...........
T h e m e 1
Guidelines
Study-read the first paragraph of the introduction and circle the two key ideas/
thoughts.
. The two core concepts are, of course, science and research. We will often
refer back to these two concepts in this study guide and in our other
undergraduate methodology study material.
A c t i v i t y
Why must you do this?

. to form an idea beforehand of how we will be looking at the two key concepts
science and research
Guidelines
. Study-read the introduction and pay close attention to figure 1.1 and the
table of contents. Now complete spaces A, B and C of the schematic
presentation below without referring to the material.
A
B
...................................................
.....................................................
REFLECTION ON
SCIENCE AND
SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH
!
C
..........................................
F e e d b a c k
The concepts you should have filled in are:

(a) Philosophy of science
This is concerned with the assumptions, foundations, methods and
implications of science.
........... 2
T h e m n e 1
(b) Research methodology
This entails two issues, namely decisions in the research process and the
manner or style of doing research. The term ‘‘methodology’’ is often used
with reference to the study of scientific methods. We prefer the concept
‘‘research methodology’’, with the meaning as indicated above.
(c) Research technology

This refers to the methods and techniques the scientist uses in the
research process to gather and analyse information.
In the study units that follow (1.1 to 1.4) we will explain each of the four key
ideas in the schematic presentation.
3 ...........
T h e m e 1
STUDY UNIT
1.1
Science and research
After studying this unit you should know the difference between science as a system of
knowledge and research as a knowledge-enriching process. More specifically, you
should be able to
. define the concept ‘‘science’’ correctly
. explain the distinction between natural science and human science
. define the concept ‘‘discipline’’
. describe the position of criminology as discipline
. define the concept ‘‘research’’
. name the logical decision-making steps in a research process
. explain the distinction between basic research and applied research
. name and briefly describe scientific claims in the everyday world
. name and describe the characteristic requirements for scientific knowledge
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the key words or phrases in the study objectives
Guidelines
. Read the study objectives above. Circle the key terms or phrases.
F e e d b a c k
You should have circled the following key words or phrases: science, research,
natural science, human science, criminology, scientific claims (in everyday
life), requirements (for scientific knowledge), decision-making steps (in a
research process), basic research and applied research.
Key concepts
. Scientific knowledge: Knowledge that is acquired in a systematic and methodical
way that can be verified or checked. Scientific knowledge is obtained on the basis of
systematic observation and in a controlled way and must meet the requirements of
validity and reliability.
........... 4
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
. Every day or pre-scientific knowledge: Non-scientific knowledge derived from
everyday or ordinary experience.
. Reality: The whole of everything that exists.
. Object of study: Any phenomenon that is studied or researched. The term ‘‘known
object’’ is less frequently used.
. Methods and techniques: Procedures that the scientist uses to gather and
process information or data.
. Questionnaire: A series of questions (also called items) about a single subject or a
series of related issues that a respondent must answer. Questions can be used to
measure aspects such as attitudes and opinions and for collecting biographical
information. In a structured questionnaire the answer options are provided.
. Gathering/collecting data: This step in the research process starts with a decision
on what data gathering method and technique(s) will be used. The scientist is in
search of valid knowledge and will therefore give preference to data gathering
methods and techniques that will promote the validity and reliability of the research.
. Processing research data: This concept refers to the analysis and interpretation of
information that has been gathered. Questions asked are: To what extent does the
information collected allow scientists to analyse the research object in order to
describe it (analysis)? To what extent does the information collected reveal
connections that allow scientist to understand and explain the research object
(interpretation)?
. Everyday world: The environment in which human beings associate with fellow
human beings and the world.
. Subjective idea of reality: A judgment or observation that is unreliable and does
not correspond to reality.
. Precise and systematic observations: The process(es) by which the scientist
gathers information from the external or internal environment. The important role
played by previous experience and priorities (preferences) is widely acknowledged.
However, the specific definition of observation is determined by the scientist’s point
of departure in terms of the philosophy of science.
. Valid: A requirement that research acts (such as observation and the use of
research techniques) and survey results (such as the processing of collected
information and conclusions from analyses) must satisfy. Validity thus indicates: (i)
that the scientist is not biased and that no chance errors have occurred; (ii) that
there is correspondence or connection between the procedures carried out during
the research process, the research results and the study object.
. Reliable: The replicability (repeatability) of surveys and research results by other
researchers in the same research situations using the same methods and
techniques.
. Verifiable: The degree to which scientific knowledge can be tested through the
application of specific criteria in order to determine its veracity (truth), correctness,
accuracy or validity.
1.1.1 Science
Science is an organised system of scientific knowledge that is logically arranged to
form a whole. This system may be regarded as the result of the scientist’s quest for
5 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
knowledge and understanding. We can therefore say that science is knowledge but
7 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
not all knowledge is science. The difference lies in the qualities of scientific knowledge,
which distinguish it from every day or prescientific knowledge. In section 1.1.2 we look
at some of these characteristics of scientific knowledge.
A c t i v i t y

. to formulate a definition of science
Guidelines
. Study-read the preceding paragraphs on the definition of science. Write
down the three parts of the definition in the spaces provided below:
Term
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Class
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Distinguishing characteristics/features
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
The term is science. In the space provided for information relating to ‘‘Class’’
you needed to specify that we are dealing with scientific knowledge as
opposed to everyday or pre-scientific knowledge. The distinguishing char-
acteristics/features of science are (i) the organised or systematised nature
of the knowledge or the fact that it is arranged to form a logical whole; (ii)
that it is the result of the scientist’s quest for knowledge and under-
standing and (iii) that it has specific qualities.
A definition of science could read as follows: Science is (may be defined/described/

regarded/presented as) scientific knowledge that is arranged to form a logical or
ordered whole and is the result of a scientist’s search for knowledge and
understanding. We will discuss the qualities or characteristics of scientific knowledge
in more detail in theme 3.
........... 6
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
Some people attach a very narrow interpretation to the concept ‘‘science’’ and often
associate it only with the medical fields and laboratory situations. Science is not only
the knowledge in a particular field such as like chemistry or biology as these are taught
at school; it is a system of knowledge that is made up of many areas such as
astronomy, mathematics, economics, theology, criminology, psychology, sociology,
etc.
Traditionally, we differentiate between two types of science, namely the natural
sciences and human or cultural sciences. In this study guide we will use the term
‘‘human sciences’’, although the terms ‘‘social sciences’’, ‘‘behavioural sciences’’ and
‘‘cultural sciences’’ are also used in more or less in the same context. The distinction is
usually made on the basis of the subjects or areas of reality that the various sciences
study, and the scientist’s approach or perspective. The division may be represented as
follows:
REALITY
Nature Human
beings
Inorganic or Organic or Humans as

inanimate animate sociocultural beings
nature nature
FIGURE 1.2: Man and nature in reality
According to this representation, the natural sciences are concerned with both
inanimate (inorganic) nature, such as physical and chemical substances, and animate
(organic) nature, such as the animal and plant kingdoms. The human sciences, on the
other hand, consists of subjects involving the human mind, such as human actions/
behaviour, human society and products of the human mind.
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish between aspects relating to nature and aspects relating to
human beings
Guidelines
. Study-read the preceding paragraphs and take careful note of figure 1.2.
Below is a list of nine objects. Write each one in the correct column of the
table below. Write your answer in the dotted line provided.
rock, language, tree, family, sea sand, flower, crime, dog and water
7 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
NATURE HUMAN BEINGS
Inorganic or inanimate Organic or animate Humans as sociocultur-

nature nature al beings
........................................ ........................................ ........................................

........................................ ........................................ ........................................
........................................ ........................................ ........................................
........................................ ........................................ ........................................
........................................ ........................................ ........................................
F e e d b a c k
Rock, sea sand and water are examples of inorganic things or inorganic
nature.Tree, flower and dog are examples of organic things or animate (living)
nature. Crime is a human act, a book is a human artefact and language is a
product of the human mind and is therefore associated with humans as a
socio-cultural beings.
A c t i v i t y

. to formulate a definition of natural sciences
Guidelines
. Study-read the preceding sections in the study guide. Write the three parts
of the definition in the space provided below:
Term
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Class
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Distinguishing concepts
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
........... 8
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
F e e d b a c k
The term is natural sciences. At ‘‘Class’’ you needed to indicate that the
natural sciences are a type of science or system of scientific knowledge.
The distinguishing feature of natural sciences is that they deal with inorganic
or organic nature. Natural sciences are therefore the types of sciences
concerned with things in inanimate or animate nature.
A c t i v i t y

. to formulate a definition of human sciences
Guidelines
. Study-read the preceding sections of the study guide. Write down the three
parts of the definition of human science in the space provided below:
Term
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Class
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
The term is human sciences. For ‘‘Class’’ you needed to indicate that the
human sciences are a type of science or system of scientific knowledge.
The distinguishing feature of human science is that they deal with the domain
of the human mind. Human sciences may thus be regarded as the type of
sciences that study the human mind.
We call sciences that deal with a segment or part of reality, in other words sciences
that deal with a particular subject in the spheres of the natural sciences or human
9 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
sciences, disciplines. Chemistry, astronomy and physics are examples of technical
disciplines with study fields within the boundaries of natural sciences. Psychology,
Sociology and English (as literary science) are examples of human sciences
concerned respectively with human behaviour/acts (Psychology), human society
(Sociology) and products of the human mind (English). The object of study of
criminology is human beings in the manifestation of crime; criminology is therefore an
example of a discipline within the human sciences that is concerned with human
behaviour/acts. The nature and characteristics of a discipline are therefore always
defined in terms of a demarcated area of study, specific or adapted study methods,
and a unique subject content and terminology.
The distinction between natural and human sciences is not absolutely clear cut, and is,
to a great extent, based on historical and practical grounds. Let us take geography as
an example. Geography is the study of rivers, mountain ranges and other natural
phenomena, but is also the study of the people of particular regions or countries and
the way they interact with the environment. It would be difficult, then, to classify
geography exclusively as either a human or a natural science.
A very important question that we will consider later is whether there is a scientific
difference between the natural and the human sciences. This question is highly
significant because it related to the way in which scientists try to reach their goal; in
other words, with the methods and techniques used in the human and natural
sciences.
1.1.2 Research
Generally speaking, human beings’ knowledge is broadened by accidental or chance
discoveries or through the deliberate searching for new knowledge and insights.
Some very important discoveries have been made through chance observation or by
accident. For example, in 1665 the mathematician and naturalist, Isaac Newton, while
walking in his garden, saw an apple fall from a tree onto the grass. This accidental
observation set him thinking and led him to the conclusion that there must be a force
that attracts all bodies to the earth. He called this force the force of gravity and from his
accidental observation he went on to develop and formulate the law of gravity. In so
doing Newton made a significant contribution to the system of scientific knowledge.
However, as we mentioned earlier, scientific knowledge can also be enriched through
the deliberate quest for new knowledge and insights. The activity or process whereby
scientific knowledge is gathered, processed and extended is known as research.
A c t i v i t y

. to formulate a definition of research
Guidelines
. Study-read the preceding two paragraphs. Write the three parts of the
definition in the space provided below.
Term
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . 10
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
Class
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
The term is research. The class is an activity or a process. The

distinguishing features are as follows:
. It usually takes the form of a deliberate search for new knowledge and
insights.
. The goals are the collection, processing and expansion of scientific
knowledge.
Research is therefore an activity or process that usually entails a scientist’s

purposeful (deliberate) quest (search) for new knowledge and insights. In the process
the scientist tries to collect process and expand scientific knowledge.
The research process consists of logical thinking activities and concrete actions.
Theoretical research consists of logical thought activities. The activities undertaken in
this kind of research process are limited to reasoning by the human mind. A
researcher could, for instance, theorise on what the causes of criminal conduct are – in
other words, he or she could think carefully about what causes criminal conduct and
come up with a theory or idea that explains how criminal conduct occurs. Theorisation
is a logical thinking activity that requires penetrating reasoning. The researcher’s
thinking can be processed logically and contribute to the expansion of knowledge on
the causes of criminal behaviour.
Another term for concrete acts in research is ‘‘empirical activities’’. These are actions
that can be observed through the human senses and undertaken in tangible ways. The
researcher will undertake a literature study, for instance, to establish what other
scientists have written about the causes of criminal behaviour. The researcher will
think carefully about this written information, and evaluate it. The researcher could
then draw up (compile) a questionnaire to obtain information from a number of
criminals to find out why they began to engage in criminal behaviour. In this way the
researcher arrives at new scientific knowledge and insight. In this example the
researcher engaged in both logical thinking activities and concrete or empirical
research actions.
11 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
Broadly speaking, a research process consists of a series of logical decision-
making steps. You should not think of these steps as an unchanging recipe, since
researchers who conduct different types of research do not all place the same
emphasis on the same steps. We have listed them here to give you some context, and
will discuss them in more detail in theme 4. They are:
. Becoming aware of a research problem. The problem can come to the
researcher’s attention in different ways. For instance, there may be a sharp rise
in the incidence of violent crime in a community, or the researcher may realise there
is a gap in his or her knowledge of and/or insight into the causes of violent crime.
. Formulating a research problem. The researcher defines and circumscribes
(delineates or sets the boundaries) the problem to be researched. For instance:
– The form of violent crime to be researched is limited to murder with a firearm.
– The area in which the investigation will be carried out is confined to the
magisterial district of Johannesburg.
– The researcher decides to undertake the study during the period from 1
January to 31 December 2011.
. Gathering/collecting information or data. Before gathering the information or

data the researcher decides how he or she is going to do this. For example, he or
she could compile a questionnaire for this purpose and then ask respondents to fill it
in.
. Processing the research data or information collected involves decisions about the
analysis and interpretation of the data collected.
. Writing the research report. The research report contains a description of the
whole research process, together with the researcher’s findings and recommenda-
tions.
. Utilising or applying the results or findings is connected to the ideals of scientific
knowledge explained in study unit 1.2.
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish the different steps in a research process
Guidelines
. Start by study-reading the information given above on the research process
as a series of decision-making steps. Now read through the ten statements
below, which relate to a hypothetical research project on juvenile crime.
They are not in the correct order.

(1) The period of the research project is set at 1 January to 30 April 2012.
(2) Press reports reflect the concern of school principals about the high
incidence of vandalism in Gauteng school classrooms.
(3) The most serious forms of vandalism occur in secondary schools in the
Wonderboom magisterial district.
(4) School principals need scientific knowledge about vandalism in schools
in order to prevent the phenomenon.
. . . . . . . . . . . 12
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
(5) Information is collected from teachers and scholars by means of
questionnaires.
(6) The vandalism mainly takes the form of damage to desks and broken
window panes.
(7) The criminological literature contains very little scientific information on
vandalism in schools.
(8) Completed questionnaires are processed by the Department of
Criminology at Unisa with the aid of a computer program.
(9) Criminology lecturers at Unisa are responsible for the analysis and
interpretation of the research data.
(10) Criminology honours students at Unisa compile the research report as
part of their course.
Now indicate the decision-making step that each statement relates to by

making a tick (V) in the relevant block in the framework below. In other words,
you will need to decide whether each statement relates to becoming aware of
the research problem, formulating the research problem, data gathering, data
processing, writing the report or utilising the findings.
STEPS IN THE HYPOTHETICAL RESEARCH PROJECT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Becoming aware of
research problem
D
E
Formulating
C research problem
I
S
I
O Data gathering
N
M
A
Data processing
K
I
N
G
Writing report
S
T
E
P
Utilising or
S
applying findings
13 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
F e e d b a c k
. Your categorisation should have looked like this:

. Becoming aware of the research problem : Statements 2, 7
. Formulating the research problem : Statements 1, 3, 6
. Data gathering : Statement 5
. Data processing : Statement 8, 9
. Writing report : Statement 10
. Utilising or applying findings : Statement 4
Research can be either basic or applied. Basic research consists of studies carried
out with the primary aim of acquiring new knowledge about and insight into a particular
phenomenon. This type of research can take the form of logical thinking activities or
theoretical research. This type of research can also be carried out in the form of
concrete actions or empirical investigations. Applied research is directed primarily at
solving problems, and therefore has a specific practical application. Applied research
studies may also be of a theoretical or empirical nature.
A c t i v i t y

. to understand the difference between basic and applied research
Guidelines
. Start by study-reading the preceding paragraph. Below we have briefly
described two research situations. Read through them and decide which
one is an example of basic research and which one is an example of applied
research.
Research situation 1
The first research project relates to the armed theft of motor vehicles. The
armed theft of motor vehicles is a frequent phenomenon in South Africa, and
so there is a substantial amount of scientific information in the South African
criminological literature on this subject. The researcher gathers information by
conducting interviews with:
. members of the South African Police Service who have handled armed theft
of motor vehicle cases
. victims of armed theft of motor vehicles
. prisoners who have been sentenced for armed motor theft of vehicles
The researcher uses the research data to theorise on the causes of armed
theft of motor vehicles. The research results/findings are published in a
criminological journal.
. . . . . . . . . . . 14
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
Research situation 2
The research project relates to the theft of cars during business hours in the
Johannesburg city centre. Information is collected from
. police dossiers
. data networks of three well-known car insurance companies
. victims of car theft
. prisoners sentenced for car theft
After the data have been processed, analysed and interpreted, the findings are
used to draw up an information brochure for car owners on the prevention of
car theft.
F e e d b a c k
What did you decide?

In research situation 1 a frequent phenomenon is studied about which more
scientific knowledge/information relating to the South African context is
required. The researcher is not concerned with applying the research findings
in order to solve a practical problem. This research project could therefore be
broadly classified as basic research.
In research situation 2 the study is clearly aimed at coming up with a practical
solution. It is therefore concerned with solving the problem of car theft. The
findings of the investigation have practical implications, and so the research
project is an example of practical research.
In doing this activity you would have realised that basic and applied research
are not necessarily mutually exclusive.
. Findings in basic research may also have practical application value. Re-
read research situation 1. The South African Police Service may take note
of the researcher’s theoretical views on the cause of armed theft of motor
vehicles. Based on these views, the South African Police Service could
develop and implement measures to prevent this type of crime. Although
the primary aim of the research is to acquire knowledge, the findings could
also lead to practical applications.
. Findings in applied research may also have implications in terms of new
knowledge and insights. Re-read situation 2. In the search for practical
measures to prevent car theft, the researcher may encounter information
that could lead to a re-evaluation of theoretical views or even new
information about the causes of car theft. Although the original aim of the
research was to solve a problem, the findings might pave the way for new
basic knowledge.
An important principle, then, is that the difference between basic research and
applied research lies in the aim of the investigation.
15 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
In our discussion of the key terms research, decision-making steps (in the research
process) and basic and applied research, we frequently referred to the concepts of
knowledge and scientific knowledge. Let us take the discussion a step further and note
. first, the difference between claims to knowledge of people in the everyday world
and scientists
. second, some characteristics of scientific knowledge
Enrichment of knowledge is not a phenomenon found only in scientific research. In our

everyday life people claim to acquire knowledge of phenomena in various ways. Let us
look at some of these claims to knowledge:
. Appeal to authority. People often accept something because an authoritative person
or institution says it is true. However, before we can say that this knowledge is
scientific knowledge, we need to examine and verify how the authoritative person or
institution obtained that information. Did the person or institute do any research to
substantiate the ‘‘authoritative’’ view?
. Appeal to accidental observations. Claims to knowledge that are based on chance
observation can often create an exclusively subjective or warped idea of reality.
Accidental observations tend to be selective instead of methodical or systematic,
consequently, in those circumstances people often only see what confirm their
suspicions or feelings, and ignore the rest. Scientists prefer knowledge to be based
on precise and systematic observations. However, this does not mean that
accidental discoveries cannot contribute to the system of scientific knowledge.
(Remember the example of Isaac Newton and the apple!)
. Appeal to conventions (custom) and tradition. This is a naive source of knowledge
that is transferred from one generation to the next. This type of claim to knowledge
is often found in idiomatic expressions like ‘‘birds of a feather flock together’’ and ‘‘a
chip off the old block’’. The first of these two expressions suggests that people
always associate with similar people, and the second expression suggests that
personality traits are hereditary. Scientists would prefer to gather information on
these complex subjects through research.
These claims to knowledge allow us to conclude that there is a difference between

scientific knowledge and every day or pre-scientific knowledge. However, it is difficult
to identify features or requirements of scientific knowledge, because different
schools of thought emphasise different criteria for determining scientific knowledge.
So, for instance, some scientists emphasise the methods and assessment aspects,
while for others the acceptability of the knowledge for a particular scientific group is
important. In theme 3 you will learn more about the characteristics or requirements of
scientific knowledge, but for the present the three points below contain sufficient
information:
. Scientific knowledge is techno-methodically formed knowledge. The ordinary
person forms knowledge without critically justifying the methods and techniques of
knowledge enrichment. The scientist undertakes methodical and systematic
observation within the framework of recognised scientific methods.
. Methodical and systematic observations together with recognised informational
processing techniques further ensure that scientific knowledge is systematised
knowledge.
. Furthermore, scientists strive for accurate and true or certain knowledge. Some
scientists classify this type of knowledge as valid and reliable, and then set the
requirement that scientific knowledge be verifiable.
. . . . . . . . . . . 16
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
Self-assessment exercise for study unit 1.1
..........................................................
1.1.1
(a) Define the concept ‘‘science’’ in your own words:
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(b) List the two types of sciences that we distinguish.

(i) ............................................................................................ sciences
(ii) ............................................................................................ sciences
(c) Indicate the two considerations on which the distinction between the
natural sciences and the human sciences is based:
(i) ..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
(ii) ..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
(d) Two of the options below are correct. Identify the correct options by ticking
the correct box.
Natural sciences are concerned with:
(i) subjects involving the human mind &
(ii) inanimate (inorganic) nature &
(iii) psychological features of people &
(iv) human society &
(v) animate (organic) nature &
(e) Three of the options below are correct. Identify the correct options by
ticking the relevant boxes.
The human sciences are concerned with:
(i) the animal kingdom &
(ii) human society &
(iii) physical and chemical substances &
(iv) human acts or behaviour &
(v) products of the human mind &
(f) State the three underlying characteristics of a discipline:
(i) ..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
17 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
(ii) ..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
(iii) ..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
(g) One of the following options is correct. Identify the correct options by
ticking the relevant box. The object of study in criminology is
(i) human society &
(ii) human deviant behaviour &
(iii) human beings in the manifestation of crime &
1.1.2
(a) Define the concept ‘‘research’’ in your own words.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(b) Three of the following are examples of claims to knowledge in everyday

life.
Indicate the correct items by ticking the relevant boxes.
(i) scientific research &
(ii) appeal to authority &
(iii) precise and systematic observations &
(iv) appeal to conventions and tradition &
(v) appeal to accidental (incidental) observations &
(c) Scientific knowledge is distinguished from every day or prescientific
knowledge on the basis of three particular characteristics (requirements or
criteria). Three of the following statements may be considered
requirements or features of scientific knowledge. Which are they? Indicate
the correct items by ticking the relevant boxes.
(i) The pronouncements of authorities are scientific knowledge. &
(ii) Scientific knowledge is systematised knowledge. &
(iii) Scientific knowledge is generally accepted knowledge. &
(iv) Scientific knowledge is valid and reliable knowledge. &
(v) Scientific knowledge is techno-methodically formed knowle dge. &
(d) Indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false by writing
(T) or (F) in the appropriate block.
(i) Knowledge enrichment is a feature found only in scientific
research. &
(ii) Claims to knowledge based on accidental observations can
frequently create a warped idea of reality. &
(iii) The scientist must undertake methodical and systematic
observation. &
(iv) Scientists pursue knowledge that is faithful to reality
(authentic). &
. . . . . . . . . . . 18
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 1
(v) Human beings’ knowledge can only be expanded by
accidental discoveries or a deliberate quest for new knowledge
or insights. &
(vi) Scientific research is indicative only of logical thinking or
concrete acts &
(vii) Philosophy of science, research methodology and research
technology are three separate things that can be divided into
watertight compartments. &
(e) List the logical (decision-making) steps usually found in research:
(i) Becoming aware of a ...................................................................... .
(ii) Formulating the ................................................................................
(iii) ........................................................................................ information
(iv) ..................................... or ..................................... data collected.
(v) Writing the ........................................................................................
(vi) ...................................................................................... the findings.
(f) The distinction between basic and applied research lies in the difference in
their primary aims. Explain.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
Summary
In this study unit we explained the difference between science as a system of
knowledge and research as a knowledge-enriching process. In the next study unit we
deal with the philosophy of science.
19 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 2
STUDY UNIT
1.2
Philosophy of science
After studying this study unit you should be able to

. define the concept ‘‘philosophy of science’’
. provide an overview of the most important perspectives or points of view in the
philosophy of science
. distinguish between naturalistic and anti-naturalistic schools of thought and list their
main features
. set out the principal difference between positivism and humanism
Key concepts
. Practice of science: This is a particular way in which we explore everyday reality
(our life-world or physical and psychological environment), adapt to it and learn to
deal with it. Research is one of the instruments scientists use to obtain knowledge.
. Objectivity: The quality that allows a person to observe, describe and explain or
understand phenomena without personal interests, prejudices and emotional
interests. Views on whether objectivity is possible and the specific meaning that
is attached to it depend on the scientist’s scientific point of departure in terms of the
philosophy of science
To be objective, scientists avoid making value judgements, and they follow research
procedures and specific techniques.
. Value-free: Neutral; not influenced by personal convictions/persuasions and
sentiments.
. Paradigm: A way of thinking or a set of assumptions that are accepted by
practitioners of a discipline.
. Deterministic system: A doctrine or belief that there is no such thing as free will
and that human behaviour is determined by forces outside human control, such as
genetics or environmental factors.
. Cause-effect pattern: It is assumed that human behaviour (therefore also criminal
behaviour) is governed by the principles of cause and effect (causality) in the same
way that natural scientists can explain and predict natural phenomena according to
fixed laws. In the human sciences, however, we deal not with fixed laws but
probabilities. If there is a high probability that a cause leads to an effect, we speak
about a regularity/moderation of a pattern or of a law.
. Empirical observations: Observations based on sensory observations or
experience (facts).
. . . . . . . . . . . 20
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 2
. Empiricism: The view that all scientific facts should be verifiable (for validity) and
that knowledge can only be acquired/obtained through sensory observation.
. Generalised: This is the process of making certain claims about a larger group or
population on the basis of a study conducted on a smaller population.
. Positivists: The view that sensory observation, experimentation, testing and
generalisation of knowledge (findings) are the accepted way to achieve objective
and scientific knowledge. Positivist believe that human phenomena can be
observed, described, explained, predicted and controlled in the same way as
natural phenomena.
. Humanists: A way of thinking that places the focus on the meaning that events
have for people who are involved in them, in other words, how people give meaning
to situations and the world around them. The scientists who follow this way of
thinking also believe that there is a meaningful interaction between researcher and
research object, in other words, that the researcher and research object influence
each other, and that the researcher construes or interprets what is observed.
Humanists believe that authentic human situations and behaviour cannot be
observed, described, explained and understood in the same way that natural
phenomena can.
. Continuum: An imaginary line running from one extreme to another and variations
between the two extremes may be indicated at any point on the line.
. Scientific ideal: The goal pursued by the scientist.
. Objectivity ideal: The way in which the scientist tries to or does remain neutral and
unbiased (unprejudiced) and tries to or does arrive at value-free knowledge.
. Survey method: A method of data gathering. Example: an opinion survey/poll of
some group of people on the abolition of the death penalty. It usually involves
random sampling for a relatively small but manageable and representative group of
people out of a larger group.
. Participative or naturalistic observation: This indicates the study of human
behaviour in natural surroundings and implies that the researcher should become
involved in some way in the everyday events of the people being studied.
. Interview: A conversation between a researcher and an informer or respondent
(research object) aimed at gathering information.
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the key terms or phrases in the study objectives
Guidelines
Study-read the study objectives at the beginning of this study unit. Circle the
keywords or phrases.
F e e d b a c k
. The keywords or phrases you circled should have included: philosophy of

science, perspectives in philosophy of science, features of naturalistic and
21 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .2
anti-naturalistic schools of thought, and differences between positivism and
humanism.
1.2.1 Definition and perspectives

The philosophy of science involves critical reflection on the assumptions, foundations,
methods and implications of science and scientific research. ‘‘Philosophy of science’’
is an umbrella term for the different ways in which science and scientific research are
approached from a philosophical point of view. Let us look at some of the most
important perspectives in the philosophy of science.
The first of these is the functional perspective, which is concerned with the place,
function and meaning of scientific activities in society. Questions asked in relation to
this perspective include: What is science? What is the relation between science and
society? Is the purpose of science confined to knowledge for the sake of knowledge, or
does science have a function in or even a responsibility towards society?
The second is the structural perspective, which is concerned with the nature,
structure and dynamics of science as a typical human activity. Questions asked in
relation to this perspective include: Are there fundamental differences between the
natural and the human sciences? Is science practised in the same way in both groups
of sciences? Can natural scientific methods also be used in human sciences?
The third is the critical perspective, which states that the scientist should not only
analyse and describe phenomena, but should also adopt a critical approach in the
practice of science. Research activities are also evaluated from this perspective.
The fourth perspective has to do with knowledge as a product of science. Questions
asked in relation to this perspective concern the nature and characteristics of scientific
knowledge. What is the relation between science and everyday life? Is scientific
knowledge an authentic, true or reliable account (portrayal) of that aspect of reality that
the scientist perceives? What is the relation between the knowing subject or scientific
observer and the perceived object or object of study? This last question relates to the
researcher’s objectivity and whether value-free or neutral scientific knowledge is
possible.
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish between the different perspectives in the philosophy of
science
Guidelines
Study-read the information above dealing with the perspectives in the
philosophy of science. Place each of the questions below relating to science
and research in the correct section of the framework that follows. Start by
reading the questions.
. . . . . . . . . . . 22
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 2
2
Questions
(1) Are there fundamental differences between natural and human
sciences?
(2) What is the relation between science and society?
(3) Should researchers only analyse and describe phenomena?
(4) Is scientific knowledge a reliable reflection/portrayal of the researcher’s
observations?
(5) Can natural scientific methods also be used in criminology?
(6) Is the purpose of science merely knowledge for the sake of knowledge?
(7) What is science?
Now write the number of each question in the appropriate category in the
framework below. In some cases you will write more than one question number
in a single category.
PERSPECTIVES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Functional Structural Critical Knowledge
F e e d b a c k
. Your completed table should have looked like this.

PERSPECTIVES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Functional Structural Clinical Knowledge
2 1 3 4
6 5
In the philosophy of science, we distinguish between naturalistic and anti-

naturalistic schools of thought. These schools of thought or scientific points of
views (the terms ‘‘scientific perspective’’ and ‘‘scientific approach’’ also mean the
same thing) are two different ways of approaching science and scientific research from
a philosophical level.
23 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .2
Within each of these two schools of thought there are smaller groupings or
subsections. We refer to these smaller groupings as conceptions of science (we also
use the word ‘‘traditions’’), and within a particular context we refer to them as scientific
paradigms. In section 1.2.3 you will learn more about two of these smaller groupings,
namely the positivistic and humanistic scientific conceptions. The positivistic
scientific conception is a subsection of the naturalistic school of thought in the
philosophy of science. The humanistic scientific conception arises from the anti-
naturalistic school of thought. To refresh your memory, have another look at figure
1.1, which we presented to you in the introduction to theme 1, and which illustrates the
perspectives we will be following in our reflection on science and research.
We will now explore the key terms ‘‘science’’ and ‘‘research’’ from the perspective of
the philosophy of science. As you can see from figure 1.3 below, within the philosophy
of science there are schools of thought and scientific conceptions.
Bear in mind that
. we are only introducing you to these concepts, so this is not a comprehensive
discussion
. there are points of contact or similarities between positivism and humanism, and
they are not separated into watertight compartments
. scientists differ regarding the division of schools of thought and scientific
conceptions within the philosophy of science
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
! !
Naturalism Antinaturalism
SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTIONS
Positivism Humanism
! ! ! ! ! !
Logical Critical Historical Herme- Phenome- Critical
positivism rationalism school neutics nology school
(Popper) (Kuhn)
FIGURE 1.3: Schools of thought within the philosopy of science
. . . . . . . . . . . 24
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 2
1.2.2 Naturalistic and anti-naturalistic schools of thought
The main characteristics of the naturalistic school of thought or naturalistic scientific
approach may be summarised as follows:
. Human beings and nature are viewed as forming a natural unit. Human nature is
therefore seen as not differing in essence from natural phenomena. An important
implication of this is that humans, like natural phenomena, are seen as a
deterministic system. Human behaviour is seen as following a cause-effect pattern.
. Natural reality (humanity and nature) can only be fully known through scientific
knowledge arising from empirical observations, not through speculation and
reflection alone.
. Scientific knowledge is viewed as the only form of true or valid knowledge.
Knowledge of what cannot be observed physically (this is known as the
metaphysical) and prescientific or everyday knowledge are not accepted.
. The empirical method is accepted as the only valid scientific method for gathering
scientific information (knowledge). The terms ‘‘empirical method’’ and ‘‘empiricism’’
refer to the view that scientific knowledge can only be acquired/obtained through
sensory observation, and that scientific facts must be verifiable, in other words, it
must be possible to check that they are valid.
. Scientists who follow the naturalistic school of thought give preference to knowledge
that can be generalised and thus applied in the form of generally valid laws to
indicate the pattern of regularity of human behaviour. Sciences (including the
human sciences) are regarded as independent or authentic (genuine) sciences only
if they display the characteristics we have just discussed.
If we accept these features of the naturalistic scientific view, this would imply that with
regard to criminological disciplines:
. the phenomenon of crime (the broad study object to which human beings are
central) is seen as part of natural reality
. with regard to understanding and explaining criminal behaviour, we regard only
scientific knowledge as valid
. only the empirical method (sensory observation and testing of information in a
specific way) is acceptable in understanding the phenomenon of crime
The main features of the anti-naturalistic school of thought or anti-naturalistic scientific

approach may be summarised as follows:
. Supporters of this school of thought acknowledge the uniqueness and fraught-
ness of human situations and actions. The term ‘‘fraughtness of human
situations and actions’’ means that human situations and actions are characterised
by or cause distress.
. This has important implications for the method of studying phenomena in the human
sciences. Distinctive, genuinely human methods must be followed to understand
the situatedness of or contextual restraint on human behaviour. Situatedness or
contextual restraint refers to the view that human behaviour must be understood
within the context of circumstances such as time and place.
. The value of everyday or non-scientific knowledge in the study of human beings
is acknowledged.
. Anti-naturalism gives rise to the recognition of contextual restraint on knowledge in
the human sciences, in terms of which the time and spatial situatedness of human
actions must be acknowledged: knowledge of human behaviour or actions should
25 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .2
also be judged within a particular context or circumstance. This assumption
naturally has important implications for the human scientist when it comes to the
interpretation (construal) and generalisation of findings.
. The validity of a pluralistic (mixed or multiple) research methodology is
accepted. This means that different sciences (on the basis of the difference in
study objects and the approach taken by the scientist) will use different methods or
techniques of practising science. This principle also applies within a particular
discipline.
If we accept these features of the anti-naturalistic scientific view, this would imply
that with regard to criminological disciplines
. the study object (crime, in which human beings have a central place) is an authentic
human phenomenon
. the methods for studying the study object would differ radically from a natural
scientific research technology for understanding the situatedness of human
behaviour
. value is also attached to non-scientific knowledge as a means to achieving a full
understanding of the study object
. the value of context-bound knowledge is acknowledged
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish between the features of naturalism and anti-naturalism
Guidelines
Study-read the preceding paragraphs on the chief features of the naturalistic
and anti-naturalistic schools of thought. Then read the list of ten core features
below.
(1) Preference is given to knowledge that can be generalised.
(2) The value of everyday knowledge for science is acknowledged.
(3) The human sciences make use of distinctive research methods that are
of a real human nature.
(4) Scientific knowledge can be obtained only through the use of empirical
methods.
(5) Scientific knowledge is the only form of true knowledge.
(6) Every human situation and action is unique.
(7) Knowledge is context-bound.
(8) Human behaviour assumes a cause-effect pattern.
(9) Research data should be interpreted within the context of the research
situation and the coherence of the circumstances of the study object.
(10) The application of a pluralistic or mixed research methodology is
encouraged.
Now write the number of each core feature under the appropriate category
below.
. . . . . . . . . . . 26
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 2
F e e d b a c k
Your answer should have looked like this.
1 2
4 3
5 6
8 7
9
10
1.2.3 Positivistic and humanistic (anti-positivistic) conceptions of science

This distinction arises from the following question: Are the nature, structure and
dynamics of practising science the same in both the natural and the human sciences?
Scientists who answer ‘‘yes’’ to this question are known as positivists, and those who
answer ‘‘no’’ are known as humanists. However, the distinction between positivism
and humanism should not be regarded as a watertight division. With regard to this
question, then, the two main scientific conceptions in the philosophy of science could
be viewed as occupying positions on a continuum. We could illustrate this as follows:
Question: Do researchers in the natural and the human sciences use the same
scientific working method?
Answer: Yes No
! !
Scientific conception Positivism Humanism
!
(No absolute division)
The positivistic and humanistic conceptions of science differ in terms of their view of
the object of the practice of science or scientific ideal, the objectivity of the
researcher or the objectivity ideal, and the preferred sources of information.
Let’s begin by discussing the scientific ideal pursued by positivism and humanism
respectively.
In positivism the object of scientific practice is generally valid explanations of
phenomena. To achieve or realise this aim, researchers rely on research with a
universal or generally valid interest.
Here is an example to illustrate this.
27 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .2
A positivistically-oriented researcher undertakes a study on the gang phenomenon in
prisons. The purpose of the investigation is to establish why prisoners belong to
gangs. The information is gathered from a group of prisoners who are a representative
example of gang members in all South African prisons. The consideration in choosing
a representative number of gang members in the survey group is to make the findings
of the project applicable to other gang members. The researcher wants to generalise
the results of the study to a defined population or universe. In this example, a defined
population or universe is all gang members in South African prisons. The research
group is representative of the universe in terms of aspects such as gender, age, crime
category, length of prison sentence, province in which the prison is located and the
type of gang. The conclusion to which the researcher comes, or his or her explanation
of why prisoners belong to gangs, is generally valid knowledge and can be made
applicable to gang members in all South African prisons.
In humanism the purpose of research is to understand human situations and
actions and explain them within specific circumstances. This is therefore
scientific practice with a context-bound interest. Let’s again take the same example
of research into the gang phenomenon in prisons. A humanistically-oriented
researcher does research on the phenomenon of gangs in prisons. The purpose of
the study is to establish why prisoners join gangs. The information is obtained from a
small group of gang members who belong to a typical prison gang in a particular
prison. The researcher’s intention is to
. study the unique situation and experiences of each gang member in depth
. describe the experiences of each gang member in detail
. understand the circumstances of the research cases and interpret information
against that background
The researcher’s findings are limited to the distinctiveness of the research objects. It is
not the purpose of the study to generalise the findings to an entire population.
Generalisation of findings is not scientifically feasible in this research situation. The
researcher’s point of departure is that gang members create their own situations or
circumstances and give meaning to things and events in the prison life world in
different ways. The researcher’s conclusions about and explanations of why prisoners
take part in gang activities is contextual by nature or limited to a particular context.
They are related to the specific situations and circumstances of the cases
investigated. The knowledge (information) is therefore not valid for all gang members
in all South African prisons.
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish between the positivistic and humanistic points of view on the
scientific ideal
Guidelines
Study-read the information on the points of difference regarding the scientific
ideal pursued by positivists and humanists given above. Then read the eight
statements below relating to the scientific ideal.
(1) The results of an investigation must be generalised to a universe.
(2) The purpose (object) of research is to understand human situations and
actions and explain them within a particular context.
. . . . . . . . . . . 28
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 2
(3) The research cases must be typical examples of a group or
phenomenon.
(4) Research with a universal significance should be undertaken.
(5) The research group should be representative of the defined population.
(6) Value is attached to scientific practice with a contextual significance.
(7) Research findings are restricted to the uniqueness of the research
cases.
(8) The purpose of scientific practice is to acquire knowledge (information)
that can explain all similar phenomena or cases.
Now indicate whether each of these statements represents a positivistic or a

humanistic scientific conception. Do this by ticking the appropriate block of the
framework below.
CONCEPTION OF SCIENCE
Statement number Positivism Humanism
F e e d b a c k
Your answer should have looked like this:

CONCEPTION OF SCIENCE
Statement number Positivism Humanism
1 R
2 R
3 R
4 R
5 R
6 R
7 R
8 R
29 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .2
Next, let us consider the positivistic and humanistic points of view on the objectivity
ideal. The concept ‘‘objectivity of the researcher’’ can be explored through finding the
answers to two questions, namely:
. Can the researcher observe, describe and explain phenomena in a neutral way
without personal interests, prejudices and emotional preferences having an
influence? In other words, is distantiation between the researcher and the research
object or research case possible?
. Is value-free knowledge or knowledge that excludes the personal interests and
values of the researcher at all possible? In other words, is neutral knowledge
possible?
Supporters of the positivistic scientific conception proceed from the view that the
area of research of the human sciences consists of sensorily observable
(perceptible) facts. The researcher stands apart from, or is uninvolved in these
facts and observes them objectively or neutrally. We therefore speak about
distancing/distantiation, and say that a distance is maintained between the knowing
subject or researcher and the known object or research object. Value-free knowledge
can be achieved through
. uninvolved or neutral observation
. the use of effective research methods
. the application of standardised or tested techniques that ensure maximum control
over the observation, collection and processing of data
Objectivity is set as a requirement or condition for scientific knowledge.

Let us return to our example of research into gangs in prisons.
. The positivistically-oriented researcher accepts that the gang phenomenon is
something that is sensorily observable. It manifests in the form of such things as a
code of conduct, an organised gang structure and the functional role of gangs in the
prison.
. The researcher is viewed as an outside observer, who is not a member of the
Department of Correctional Services, and who can successfully fulfil the role of
neutral, impartial and objective observer.
. To reinforce the claims of objective observation and ultimately value-free knowl-
edge, the researcher uses the survey method. It is a tried and effective scientific
method for gathering information from people, in this case gang members. The
literature contains clear guidelines on the survey method, and the researcher
follows these closely. Surveys are particularly useful in describing the character-
istics of a large population. Data is gathered by means of the questionnaire, which
is designed to satisfy the requirements for a valid measuring instrument.
. The information is processed statistically by means of a computerised program.
The reliability of the questionnaire is calculated by means of a statistical test.
As you read through this example, you would have realised that all the research
actions are directed at justifying (vindicating) the two most important components of
the objectivity ideal, namely
. neutral observation
and
. value-free knowledge
. . . . . . . . . . . 30
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 2
Proponents of the humanistic scientific conception hold the view that the research
domain or the terrain of the human sciences includes human situations and
interactions and meaningful experiences that are not necessarily sensorily observable.
For these researchers, distancing/distantiation or an uninvolved and impartial relation
between researcher and research case is not always possible. They are of the opinion
that observation cannot be neutral and that knowledge gathered by observation is not
value free. The reasons for this view are:
. People do not live in a given reality of empirically observable things, but in a world of
human constructs such as situations, experiences and interactions with other
people.
. Social reality (or human constructs) is constantly being created and recreated by
people themselves. People constitute or create situations themselves and in the
process give a distinctive meaning to the social reality.
. The content or form of human constructs is determined to a great extent by people’s
definition or interpretation of situations in terms of their own unique circumstances
and experiences.
. Observers or researchers become involved in the research case or research
situation (human constructs) being studied in order to understand the phenomena.
. Researchers (investigators) accord significance or give meaning to the things
they observe. The content of observation is determined to a great extent by the
context or interdependent circumstances of what is being observed. The context
has to be interpreted by the researcher and justified by observation.
. Observation is influenced by the researcher’s pre-knowledge of the research case
or situation.
. The scientist observes selectively in terms of aspects such as personal interest and
what is significant (for the observer) in a particular situation.
For humanistically-oriented researchers, value-free knowledge and neutral observa-

tions are not requirements or conditions for scientific knowledge. Those who are of the
opinion that value-free knowledge is in fact possible pursue this ideal in a different way
from the positivistically-oriented scientists.
Let us again use the example of gang research in prisons to illustrate some humanistic
points of view on the objectivity ideal.
The humanistically-oriented researcher accepts that gangs are a human construct or
creation. To understand gangs, the researcher/investigator must take into account
. the social reality or prison circumstances in which gangs originate and function
. the unique experiences of individual gang members
The researcher cannot penetrate this distinctive social reality of the gang member
through impartial or neutral observations. Unlike the positivistically-oriented research-
er, the humanistically-oriented researcher experiences feel it necessary to become
involved in the gang member’s life world in prison to gain a proper grasp and
understanding of it.
The ideal way of coming to know and understand the experiential world of the gang
member is to become a member of a gang. This is known as participative or
naturalistic observation. The research situation makes the application of this method
very difficult in practice unless
31 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .2
. the Department of Correctional Services is prepared to allow the researcher to
masquerade as a prisoner
. the researcher is prepared to do research under such circumstances
There are definite risks involved. There is also the possibility that the researcher
masquerading as a prisoner will not succeed in gaining the gang’s trust, and that he or
she will not be accepted as a gang member.
Another method of penetrating the experiential world (life world) of the gang member is
to win the trust and confidence of some gang members and then to gather information
by means of in-depth or unstructured interviews (these methods are discussed in
detail in theme 5). This method of data gathering implies not only creating a
relationship of trust between the researcher and the research case, but also a long
contact process involving a series of interviews.
Some of the information can be tested through comparison with official records, such
as the police dossier, the pre-sentence report and prison file. Some of the data must
be interpreted by the researcher by, for example
. noting the research case’s body language and tone of voice or the manner in which
information is given during the interview
. judging certain information in the context of the gang member’s circumstances in
the prison (For instance, the scarcity of goods and services in prisons explains why
one prisoner will attack or assault another one for the sake of a packet of tobacco.)
In reading through this example you would have realised that neutral or objective
observation and acquiring value-free knowledge are not priorities for the humanisti-
cally-oriented researcher.
A c t i v i t y

. to differentiate between the positivistic and humanistic views on the
objectivity ideal
Guidelines
Study-read the information above on the differences between positivism and
humanism in respect of the objectivity ideal. The following statements are
related to a positivistic or humanistic point of view on the objectivity ideal.
Circle the correct alternative in each case.
(1) Researchers ought to become involved in the experiential world of the
research case. Positivist/Humanist
(2) Researchers/Investigators observe selectively. Positivist/Humanist
(3) Objectivity is an absolute condition for scientific knowledge. Positivist/
Humanist
(4) The research domain of the human sciences consists of human
constructs. Positivist/Humanist
(5) There is distance between researcher and research case. Positivist/
Humanist
(6) Value-free knowledge is not possible. Positivist/Humanist
. . . . . . . . . . . 32
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 2
(7) The researcher can be impartial to things being observed. Positivist/
Humanist
(8) The research terrain of the human sciences consists of concrete and
sensorily observable things. Positivist/Humanist
(9) The feasibility of objective observation is questioned. Positivist/Humanist
(10) Value-free knowledge is an attainable scientific goal. Positivist/Humanist
F e e d b a c k
You should have circled the following alternatives:

(1) Humanist
(2) Humanist
(3) Positivist
(4) Humanist
(5) Positivist
(6) Humanist
(7) Positivist
(8) Positivist
(9) Humanist
(10) Positivist
We will now discuss the positivistic and humanistic views on sources of information.
In studying the various points of view on the objectivity ideal you took note of the points
of difference regarding the sources of information.
Proponents or supporters of positivism maintain that the sources of information in the
human sciences are factual and sensorily observable things. The study objects should
be measurable and it should be possible to express them quantitatively or in figures
(statistically). In the example of research into gangs in prisons, reference was made to
things such as the code of conduct followed by gang members. Gang members’
conformity or obedience to the code can be observed sensorily by the observer. The
observer may be the researcher who is observing the phenomenon directly, a warder
or another prisoner, or another person. The warder, other prisoner or other person
observing how gang members conform to the code can also be sources of information.
The frequency of the phenomenon can be expressed in figures (numerically) to reflect
the number of times it occurs per unit of time.
Scientists who support the humanistic conception of science proceed from the point
of view that the sources of information in the human sciences consist of human
constructs such as unique situations and interactions with other people. Here we are
dealing with experiences in the social reality of the research case. In the hypothetical
example of research into gangs in prison,
. the gang phenomenon is approached as a human construct
. the emphasis is on knowledge from the experiential or lifeworld of some gang
members
. the researcher is not interested in how many times a thing happened, but instead
paid attention to the qualitative description and understanding of some experiences
33 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .2
..........................................................
1.2.1
(a) Define the term ‘‘philosophy of science’’ in your own words.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(b) Indicate whether each of the statements below is true or false by writing (T)
in the block if the statement is true, or (F) if it is false.
(i) Scientists must only be able to analyse and describe
phenomena. &
(ii) The functional perspective of philosophy of science is
concerned with the dynamics of science, among other things. &
(iii) The structural perspective of philosophy of science looks at
the features of scientific knowledge, among other things. &
(iv) In the research process, the object of study is also called the
known object. &
(v) The knowing subject is the scientific observer in the research
process. &
1.2.2
(a) Which of the following statements related to the naturalistic scientific
perspective are correct? Indicate the correct statements by ticking the
relevant boxes:
(i) Human phenomena differ fundamentally from natural
phenomena. &
(ii) Human behaviour follows a cause-effect pattern. &
(iii) Reality (human beings and nature) can only be known fully
through scientific knowledge &
(iv) Scientific knowledge can only result from empirical
observations. &
(v) Everyday knowledge can be accepted as valid knowledge. &
(vi) The empirical method is the only valid scientific method for
collecting information. &
(vii) Knowledge that does not originate in physical observation is
accepted as scientific knowledge. &
(viii) Proponents of naturalistic thinking give preference to knowledge
that can be generalised. &
(b) Which of the following statements related to the anti-naturalistic scientific
perspective are correct? Indicate the correct statements by ticking the
relevant boxes.
(i) Human situations and behaviour are unique by nature. &
(ii) The human sciences can use natural scientific methods to
understand human behaviour. &
(iii) Everyday knowledge is of no value in the study of
humanity. &
(iv) Recognition is given to the contextual restraint on knowledge. &
(v) All disciplines use the same research methods and techniques. &
. . . . . . . . . . . 34
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 2
1.2.3
(a) Indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false. If a
statement is true, write T in the block next to the statement, and if the
statement is false, write F in the block.
(i) The positivistic conception of science originates in assumptions
associated with the naturalistic scientific perspective. &
(ii) The humanistic scientific conception of science arises from
anti-naturalistic points of view. &
(iii) Proponents of the humanistic conception of science are of the
opinion that the nature, structure and dynamics of scientific
practice are the same in the natural and human sciences. &
(iv) The purpose of scientific practice is also known as the
scientific ideal. &
(v) The objectivity ideal is related to the researcher’s disposition
(relations between object and subject or research object). &
(vi) The qualitative research methodology can be linked to points
of view in positivism. &
(vii) The scientist works only with factual and sensorily observable
things. &
(b) Three of the following statements about points of departure in the
humanistic conception of science are correct. Indicate which statements
are correct by ticking the relevant block.
(i) The scientist is concerned with the contextual understanding
and explanation of phenomena. &
(ii) Exact methods and techniques can ensure the scientist’s
objective observations. &
(iii) Observers in the human sciences often approach fellow
human research objects subjectively. &
(iv) The principle of contextual restraint is rejected in the human
sciences. &
(v) Things that are not sensorily observable, such as human
interactions and behavioural situations, are important sources
of information for the scientific observer. &
Summary
In this study unit we discussed the concept ‘‘philosophy of science’’ and provided the
most important perspectives. The next study unit deals with research methodology in
Criminology.
5 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 2
STUDY UNIT
1.3
Research methodology
After studying this unit you should be able to

. formulate the central question in the area of research methodology
. identify the two aspects on which research methodology focuses
. describe the most significant points of difference between a quantitative and
qualitative research methodology (with reference to research aims, conceptualisa-
tion, data gathering and analysis)
Key concepts
. Research objective: A focal point of research or a broad indication of what a
researcher hopes to achieve by means of a research project. In theme 4 we explain
that there are three basic types of research objectives, namely exploratory,
descriptive and explanatory research objectives.
. Conceptualisation: The demarcation of terms or the delimitation of concepts that
will lead to the organisation of observations and experiences of the research
process.
. Operationalisation: The way in which a researcher changes concepts (demar-
cates terms) from the abstract to the concrete to make them measurable.
. Hypothesis: A supposition/presumption or direction-giving statement that serves
as the basis for discussion or empirical research.
. Theory: A group of logically cohesive statements presented to categorise or explain
phenomena.
. Observational data: Data or information gathered systematically for research
purposes and serving as the basis for drawing conclusions. Information that has
been gathered but has not yet been processed is called ‘‘raw data’’. Data are
frequently factual or numerical, but may also have a theoretical character.
. Nomothetic research strategy: A type of research strategy according to which an
attempt is made to find universally valid regularities underlying phenomena or
behaviour. It points to the universal significance of science (see theme 3) and to
research and methods aimed at pronouncements that apply to a specific group of
phenomena.
. Data printed descriptively: Numerical or statistical data that is summarised by
being presented graphically.
. Ideographic research strategy: Here the emphasis is on studying a single, unique
event or phenomenon. It points to the contextual significance of science (see theme
3) and to research and methods that focus on what is distinctive and unique in a
situation or interaction.
. . . . . . . . . . . 36
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 3
. Field notes: Recorded data or observations.
. Inferential statistical techniques: Statistics aimed at testing hypotheses and
drawing samples.
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the key terms or phrases in the study objectives
Guidelines
. Study-read the study objectives at the beginning of this study unit. Circle the
F e e d b a c k
The keywords or phrases you should have circled are:

. central question
. focus
. points of difference between quantitative and qualitative research metho-
dology
1.3.1 Definition of ‘‘central question’’ and ‘‘focus’’

Our aim at this point is to find answers to the central question: How should scientific
research be planned, structured and conducted to meet the requirements of scientific
knowledge?
A c t i v i t y

. to see whether you can recall the three characteristics of scientific
knowledge
Guidelines
You have already studied study unit 1.1, section 1.1.2, where the
characteristics or requirements of scientific knowledge are discussed. Write
the three features on the dotted lines below. If you are uncertain about the
answers, revise study unit 1.1, section 1.1.2.
Requirements or characteristics of scientific knowledge
(a) ...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
7 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 3
(b) ...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(c) ....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
The three requirements or characteristics of scientific knowledge that we dealt

with are:
(a) Scientific knowledge must be acquired by means of recognised scientific
methods.
(b) Scientific knowledge is ordered or systematised knowledge.
(c) Scientific knowledge is valid knowledge.
In research methodology the focus is on

. logical decisions that the researcher makes in carrying out the process of research
. the manner or style of doing research
Let us start by considering the decisions in the research process. In study unit 1.1 we
identified various areas in which many of the most important research decisions are
taken, namely the
. formulation of the research problem
. collection of information
. processing of data
. writing of the research report
. utilisation or application of findings
We elaborated on these in study unit 1.2 and indicated how researchers’ views in
terms of the philosophy of science influence their decisions on the choice of (a)
research objectives and (b) methods and techniques of data gathering and data
processing. If you would like to refresh your memory regarding the application of this to
the example of research on gangs in prisons, revise that section in study unit 1.2
before doing the next activity.
A c t i v i t y

. to show that researchers’ assumptions in terms of the philosophy of science
. . . . . . . . . . . 38
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 3
influence their decisions on research objectives and choice of methods and
techniques for data collection and processing
Guidelines
In study unit 1.2 you were introduced to the positivistic and humanistic views
on the ideals of knowledge and objectivity in science. You learnt that these
assumptions/premises influence researchers’ decisions on research objectives
and their methods and techniques of data gathering and processing.
Read the ten statements about research decisions below.
(1) The purpose of research is to collect universally valid knowledge.
(2) Research has a contextual significance.
(3) Data gathering is done through in-depth interviews.
(4) Data processing is done by using statistical techniques.
(5) The sample group consists of a group that is representative of the
universe.
(6) The purpose of research is to acquire knowledge of a phenomenon in a
particular context.
(7) Data processing takes place through the classification of the information
on the individual research cases into a scheme.
(8) Research has a general or universal significance.
(9) Data gathering is done through questionnaires.
(10) The sample group consists of individual typical instances of a
phenomenon.
Now write the numbers representing each of the statements in the correct
category below.
Positivistic research decision Humanistic research decision
F e e d b a c k
Your answer should have looked like this.
Positivistic research decision Humanistic research decision
1 2
4 3
5 6
8 7
9 10
39 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .3
While completing this activity you would have realised that researchers’
assumptions in terms of the philosophy of science also influence their manner
or style of doing research.
1.3.2 Quantitative and qualitative research methodologies

The decisions that the positivistic and the humanistic researcher make about research
and research style (the way of doing research) are determined by whether the
researcher adopts the quantitative or the qualitative research methodology.
The research style in quantitative research is more structured and controlled. The
range of the research is greater or more universal, and the research can be precisely
demarcated. It is assumed that
. natural and social reality can be observed and studied in the same way scientific
knowledge must be factually based on things that can be observed/perceived and
measured sensorily
. the research process can produce value-free knowledge
It is accepted that human scientists and natural scientists involved in quantitative

research conduct their research in a similar way. This does not mean literally ‘‘in the
same way’’, in other words by using exactly the same methods and techniques.
Instead, it means that they follow the same research strategy. This implies that human
scientists and natural scientists doing quantitative research make the same kind of
decisions about aspects such as conceptualisation, operationalisation and analysis,
and that their techniques are similar. Hypotheses play an important role in quantitative
research methodology, and observations are usually expressed numerically.
Hypotheses will be discussed in more detail in study unit 3.5.
Natural scientists and human scientists doing qualitative research, on the other hand,
conduct their research in different ways. In terms of the qualitative research
methodology, the research object in the human sciences (the human being) makes
different demands on the researcher than the research object in the natural sciences
makes on the natural scientist. The idea is to study the study object under ’’natural’’
conditions; in other words, in the case of the human sciences, to study human beings
in unique and meaning-loaded human situations or interactions. Theories are not
necessarily projected on to or applied to data, but often arise out of observational data.
Although qualitative research is not based on fixed and rigid procedures, the
researcher has a set of strategies or tactics for organising research and gathering and
processing or interpreting data. Qualitative research methodology is covered in
module CMY3708.
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research methodologies
Guidelines
Study-read the information above. Now read the introductory information and
the descriptions of research projects 1 and 2 below.
. . . . . . . . . . . 40
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 3
The commanding officer of the local prison regularly receives complaints about
sleeping facilities in the cells of male sentenced prisoners. The male
sentenced prisoners are housed in four sections, each consisting of four cells.
Each cell accommodates 25 prisoners. Criminology lecturers at Unisa are
granted permission to do research on the problem. One researcher is more
positivistically oriented and gives preference to quantitative research metho-
dology. The other researcher subscribes to humanistic assumptions and
prefers to work according to the qualitative research methodology. We briefly
describe the research decisions and style of both lecturers for you. Read
through both descriptions and indicate which of the research projects was
carried out according to the quantitative methodology, and which according to
the qualitative methodology.
Research project 1
The researcher decides to start by describing the research phenomenon very
carefully on the basis of information gathered on particular aspects of the
sleeping facilities. The view is that sleeping facilities are a given, and are the
same for all the prisoners. Therefore, reasons for the dissatisfaction must be
sought from a group that is representative of all the prisoners. The findings of
the study should then produce generally valid knowledge that can be applied to
all the prisoners in the institution concerned. This approach to the research
objectives is known as a nomothetic research strategy. This is something we
will discuss further in theme 4.
The concepts to be used in the study are precisely demarcated and defined.
This process is known as conceptualisation. Conceptualisation ensures that
only one meaning is attached to a concept. The researcher decides to
investigate the following five aspects of the sleeping facilities:
. the quality of the mattresses
. the number and quality of the blankets
. the type of pillows
. whether there are bunk beds (one bed permanently stacked on top of
another)
. the hygiene of the cell facilities
Aspects like these, which sketch a phenomenon, are known as indicators or

pointers. Each indicator is dealt with in one or more questionnaire questions or
items. The answers to the questions are categorised beforehand in the form of
response categories or answer options. For example:
Question or item Answer option (choose one)
How comfortable to Very comfortable 1

sleep on is the mattress
Comfortable 2
on your bed?
Uncertain 3
Uncomfortable x 4
Very uncomfortable 5 4
41 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 3
This process (in which indicators of concepts are deduced and then expressed
in items or questions of a questionnaire) is called operationalisation.
Data is gathered by means of a questionnaire that is completed by the sample
group. The sample group is composed representatively from among all the
prisoners in the four sections and sixteen cells. This process is known as
sampling. Each selected prisoner in the sample is
. informed by the researcher beforehand of the permission for and objective
of the investigation
. asked whether he is willing to take part in the project
. assured of his anonymity
After this formality the prisoners or respondents who are literate complete the
questionnaire themselves. If a respondent is illiterate (cannot read), the
researcher reads the questions to the prisoner and writes down the answers he
or she gives. The response or answer is marked with a cross in the blank block
next to the correct response category, as in the example above.
In the data processing process the questionnaires are
. rounded off by recording the respondent’s choices in the bottom right blank
block (see example above)
. checked for completeness to make sure that all the items have been
completed
The answer is then expressed numerically or quantified. After that the

information is computerised. During this process the numeral representing the
respondent’s answer is keyed in opposite the question number and the
information is statistically processed by a computer package. The researcher
decided to
. print the data descriptively in the form of figures and percentages
. cross-tabulate the data of each question with the respondents’ age, length
of sentence and sleeping section
Here is an example of cross-tabulation.
How comfortable is the mattress on your bed to sleep on?
Percentage Total
Personal details Very com- Com- Uncertain Uncom- Very un-

of respondent fortable fortable fortable comforta-
number ble
Age
21–29 years
30–39 years
40–49 years
50–59 years
Above 60 years
. . . . . . . . . . . 41
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 3
2
Percentage Total

number ble
Sentence
length
Under 2 years
2–5 years
5–10 years
Longer than 10
years
How comfortable is the mattress on your bed to sleep on?
Percentage Total

number ble
Sleeping
section
Section A
Section B
Section C
Section D
Total of research
group
Analysis of this table reveals that

. prisoners in the higher age categories find the mattresses very uncomfor-
table to sleep on
. the mattresses in section C need attention
This project is very structured, and is conducted under controlled conditions.

The data are expressed quantitatively (numerically).
Research project 2
The study is aimed at understanding or grasping the situation or the prisoners’
experience at bedtime in the cells. The researcher decides to make an in-depth
study of the experiences of one prisoner in each cell. In this way the researcher
can gain insight into
. the experiences of a prisoner at bedtime
. the situation in a specific cell
. the significance and meaning attached to experiences under specific
circumstances
The researcher wants to collect information in this way to describe the situation
43 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .3
in every sleeping cell and explain problems or complaints in the context of the
experiences of a number of prisoners. This approach to research objectives is
called an ideographic strategy. We will discuss it further in theme 4.
The researcher does not give the same priority to conceptualisation and
operationalisation as the researcher conducting the first project. Rather than
deciding beforehand what aspects of the sleeping facilities to concentrate on,
the researcher tries to consider the whole situation. The researcher is aware
that familiar things and concepts are experienced and interpreted differently in
the prisoner’s life world. A certain gang refers to blankets as ‘‘ropes’’, for
instance, because blankets were knotted together in the past and used as rope
to escape from the cells on the second floor after the bars on a cell window had
been sawn off.
The researcher begins to gather data by
. identifying a prisoner in each cell who has been detained there for some
time already and knows the social interactions and circumstances well
. gradually building up a relationship of trust with that prisoner
The researcher gathers information by conducting a series of in-depth or

unstructured interviews with these prisoners. The interviews take place in an
unstructured way; in other words, they do not follow a question-and-answer
pattern. The researcher informs the prisoner what the object of the interviews
is. The researcher may proceed only if the prisoner gives permission for the
interviews. The interviewer arranges beforehand with the research case to
record the conversation on tape. The prisoner is given free rein to talk about
his experiences and conditions in his cell. The researcher will only interrupt him
if he strays off the point, and when he or she does not understand something.
In addition the researcher makes field notes as a way of recording significant
information or things like moodiness or anxiety in the prisoner. After each
interview the researcher analyses and interprets the content of the conversa-
tion. Follow-up interviews are arranged on a regular basis to
. collect more information about certain aspects
. clear up any obscurities
. check facts
A significant part of the data processing takes place in this way during the
process of gathering information. The data are processed in final form by
compiling a scheme for each research case. The researcher’s notes on one
prisoner’s experiences could look something like this:
SUMMARY OF PRISONER NEL’S EXPERIENCES IN CELL 8
Positive experiences Negative experiences
– Has slept next to friend for the last six – Enjoys reading but the cell lights
months above his desk are poor
– Enjoys the community singing in the – Ventilation often inadequate because
cell of too many people in the cell
– The geyser works well – Sometimes irritated if cellmates con-
– Good camaraderie among cell in- tinue to make a noise after lights out
mates
. . . . . . . . . . . 44
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 3
The prison authorities ought to attend to:
. cell lighting
. silence rules after cell lights have been switched off
. overcrowding
In this activity you had to indicate which one of the projects was an example of
quantitative research and which was an example of qualitative research. What
did you decide?
In the first example the researcher followed a quantitative research
methodology. The second research situation is in the tradition of qualitative
research methodology.
While you were doing the activity, you probably realised that the two research
methodologies are not always in opposition to each other. Both research
methodologies are of value in the activity above, and in many cases both are
followed in a single research project. You will learn more about this in study
unit 1.5.
The main differences between the two research methodologies may be
summarised as follows:
MAIN POINTS OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Quantitative research Qualitative research

methodology methodology
Research objectives Research is undertaken Research is aimed at

with a view to universal grasping/understanding
(generally valid) knowl- a phenomenon in a cer-
edge (nomoth etic retain context (ideographic
search strategy). research strategy). The
Research is descriptive objective is usually ex-
and explanator y (see ploratory-descriptive, and
theme 4). the explanation points to
a particular context (see
theme 4).
Conceptualisation Concepts are precisely Concepts may be inter-

demarcated so that only preted in various ways.
one meaning can be at- Concepts used by re-
tached to each. Concepts search objects are given
can therefore be opera- preference. A researcher
tionalised (quantified by interprets the phenomen-
items in a questionnaire, on being investigated
for example). from the wealth of mean-
ings of concepts.
Data gathering Is done by means of Is done mostly by quali-

quantitative methods. tative methods.
Data analysis Is usually done by means Is usually done by means

of descriptive and infer- of qualitative classifica-
ential statistical techni- tion schemes or cate-
ques. gories.
45 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .3
..........................................................
(a) Describe the central question in research methodology in your own words.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(b) Mark the two correct response options concerning the focus in research
methodology by ticking the appropriate blocks.
In research methodology the focus is on:
(i) the distinction between the natural and human sciences &
(ii)the researcher’s actual decisions in the research methodology &
(iii)the relation between science and society &
(iv) the manner or style of research (a qualitative or
quantitative research methodology &
(v) the universal validity of research findings &
(c) Complete the following sentence by filling in the missing words, phrases or
terms:
A qualitative research methodology is related to a .........................
conception of science, while a quantitative methodology is related to a
....................... conception of science.
(d) Indicate whether each of the statements below is true or false by writing T
in the block if the statement is true or F if it is false.
(i) In qualitative research it is accepted that the human
scientist does research in the same way as the natural
scientist. &
(ii) According to those who prefer the quantitative methodology,
the quantitative research methodology is eminently suitable as
a model for research in the human sciences. &
(iii) Proponents of the qualitative methodology emphasise the
radical differences between the methodology of the natural
and human sciences. &
(iv) Proponents of the qualitative methodology argue that the
scientist’s research object (the subject being observed) in
research in the human sciences is basically the same as in
the natural sciences. &
(v) Proponents of the qualitative research methodology are of
the view that the research object in the human sciences
makes methodological demands of a different kind on the
researcher than the research object in the natural sciences. &
(e) The following statements are related to points of difference between

quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. In each case indicate
. . . . . . . . . . . 46
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 3
whether the statement is true or false by writing T in the block if the
statement is true or F if it is false.
(i) In qualitative research the researcher is pursuing universal
tenets. &
(ii) Proponents of the quantitative research methodology follow a
nomothetic research strategy. &
(iii) Proponents of the qualitative research methodology strive to
grasp and understand research objects in a particular context. &
(iv) An ideographic research strategy is associated with a
qualitative research methodology. &
(v) In qualitative research, research concepts must be of such
an exact nature that they can be quantified. &
(vi) Proponents of the qualitative methodology do not focus on
quantifiable concepts, but instead prefer concepts that
relate specifically to the substance of the research object. &
Summary
In this study unit we formulated and explained the central question in the area of
research methodology. We also described the most significant difference between
quantitative and qualitative research methodology. The next unit deals with research
technology.
47 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .3
STUDY UNIT
1.4
Research technology

. define the following terms:
– research technology
– method
– technique
. state the considerations that determine a researcher’s methods

. list the main methods and techniques associated with the quantitative methodology
. list the main methods and techniques associated with the qualitative methodology
Key concepts
. Schedule: A written list indicating what information must be collected. An
information schedule is used to collect data from a documentary source, such as
a police dossier.
. Multivariate: This term indicates any (observable or measurable) aspect of a
phenomenon being studied or its surroundings that can assume different values,
such as gender, age, scholastic qualifications, type of crime and length of sentence.
. Life histories, using autobiographies and diaries: Detailed, first-hand reports in
which the inner experiences of individuals are documented, giving insight into how
they regard, interpret and understand the world around them and situations in which
they find themselves. These documents can be used for data gathering purposes.
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the core words or phrases in the study objectives
Guidelines
F e e d b a c k
The key terms or phrases you circled should have included:
. . . . . . . . . . . 48
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 4
. research technology
. method
. technique
. considerations that determine a researcher’s methods
. methods and techniques associated with quantitative methodology
. methods and techniques associated with qualitative methodology
Research technology includes the methods and techniques that scientists use in the
research process to gather and analyse information. The researcher makes use of a
method (a procedure for doing something) to make the phenomenon being observed
accessible. The method is a systematic way of working that the scientist follows in his
or her approach to the research phenomenon and the research object. Three
considerations or factors determine the method(s), namely
. the researcher’s approach in terms of the philosophy of science and research
methodology
. the aim of the research project
. the nature of the research phenomenon (area of research/investigation) and
research object (specific study object)
A scientific technique is an aid or one of the tools used to carry out scientific methods.
For example, interviewing is a technique used as part of the survey method to gather
data. Once a researcher has decided on a research method, he or she must then
consider what conceptualisation, operationalisation, and data collection and data
analysis techniques are the most suitable for the particular study or research. What we
are referring to here is the technique, the measuring instrument and the test the
researcher uses in collecting, analysing and testing information.
In quantitative research, researchers prefer the following methods and techniques:
. Conceptualisation of concepts that can be operationalised in measuring instru-
ments. Revise study unit 1.3 if you are uncertain about the concepts ‘‘conceptua-
lisation’’ and ‘‘operationalisation’’. Note in particular the example of a quantitative
research methodology as applied in research on sleeping facilities for prisoners.
. Quantitative data gathering techniques, for example structured questionnaires and
schedules. In a structured questionnaire the response options are listed. The
respondent has to mark one or more, as in the example of the application of
quantitative research methodology in research on prisoners’ sleeping facilities
(study unit 1.3).
. Quantitative data analysis techniques, which can vary from simple cross-tabulation
of data to complicated multivariate analysis techniques. Revise study unit 1.3,
paying particular attention to the explanation of the example on page 42 if you are
uncertain of the meaning of the term ‘‘cross-tabulation’’.
In qualitative research, researchers prefer the following methods and techniques:

. Conceptualisation of concepts that encapsulate the meaning of the research
object’s ‘‘lifeworld’’ (situation), action or interaction.
. Open (unstructured) questionnaires and unstructured interviews. In unstructured
questionnaires no response options are supplied. Instead, space is left for
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 4
49 . . . . . . . . . . .
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 4
respondents to formulate and write their answers in their own words. You
encountered the term ‘‘in-depth or unstructured interview’’ in study unit 1.3. If you
are uncertain about its meaning, revise that study unit, paying particular attention to
the example where a qualitative research methodology is applied to research on
prisoners’ sleeping facilities.
. Naturalistic or participant observation.
. Writing down life histories, using autobiographies and diaries.
. Analysis by means of non-quantitative frameworks and category systems.

..........................................................
(a) Complete the following sentences by filling in the missing words, terms or
phrases:
(i) Research technology refers to the ................ and ................ that the
scientist uses in the research process to collect and analyse
information.
(ii) The researcher makes use of a scientific method to make the
phenomenon being observed ...........................................................
(iii) Scientific ............................................ are aids that are used for
collecting and processing observational data.
(b) The particular methods that a researcher uses in research are determined
mainly by three factors or considerations. Describe each factor in a single
sentence.
(i) ..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
(ii) ..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
(iii) ..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
(c) The following statements relate to research technology (scientific methods

and techniques). In each case indicate whether the statement is true or
false by writing T in the appropriate block if the statement is true, or F if it is
false.
(i) Data analysis in qualitative research is usually done
according to descriptive and inferential techniques. &
(ii) Philosophy of science and research methodological
assumptions have no significant influence on the researcher’s
choice of research methods and techniques. &
(iii) The structured questionnaire is an example of a quantitative
data gathering technique. &
. . . . . . . . . . . 50
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 4
(iv) Participant observation is used in qualitative research to
collect information. D
Summary
In this study unit we explained the terms research technology, method and technique.
The next study unit deals with pluralistic or mixed research methodology.
Study unit 1.4

• • •• • • •• • • •
Study unit 1.4

STUDY UNIT
1.5
Pluralistic or mixed research

methodology

. show the relation between quantitative research technology and the naturalistic
school of thought
. show the relation between qualitative research technology and the anti-naturalistic
school of thought
. define the term ‘‘pluralistic or mixed research methodology’’
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the central terms or phrases in the study objectives
Guidelines
key terms and concepts.
F e e d b a c k
The key terms and concepts you circled should have included the following:
. the relation between quantitative research technology and the naturalistic
school of thought
. the relation between qualitative research methodology and the antinatur-
alistic school of thought
. pluralistic research methodology
From our discussion so far you should have realised that there is a specific relation
between
. the positivistic scientific conception and the quantitative research methodology, with
distinctive methods and techniques for data gathering and data analysis
. the humanistic scientific conception and the qualitative research methodology, with
distinctive methods and techniques for data gathering and data analysis
. . . . . . . . . . . 52
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 5
From this we can conclude that a researcher who favours or subscribes to a
positivistic conception of science will probably prefer a quantitative research
methodology. We can also conclude that a researcher who favours or subscribes to
a humanistic conception of science will probably prefer a qualitative research
methodology. This shows that the distinction between quantitative and qualitative
research methodologies is based on the differences between positivism and
humanism. Differences between positivistic and humanistic assumptions can in turn
be traced back to the naturalistic and anti-naturalistic scientific schools of thought,
respectively.
A c t i v i t y

. to summarise the relation between scientific schools of thought, concep-
tions of science, research methodologies and forms of research technology
Guidelines
Study-read the information above and think about the principles we have
discussed in theme 1 so far. Now complete the summary below by filling in the
following key terms or phrases in the appropriate blocks.
Key terms or phrases

participant observation, positivistic, cross-tabulation, qualitative schedule,
naturalistic, quantitative, unstructured questionnaire, life history, humanistic,
structured questionnaire, anti-naturalistic
Summary
Scientific schools of thought
Conceptions of science
Research methodologies
.
(i) (i)
Forms of research (ii) (ii)
technology (iii) (iii)
53 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .5
F e e d b a c k
Your summary should have looked like this:

Summary
Scientific schools of thought naturalistic antinaturalistic
Conceptions of science positivistic humanistic
Research methodologies quantitative qualitative
Forms of research (i) cross-tabulation (i) participant observation

technology (ii) schedule (ii) unstructured
(iii) structured questionnaire
questionnaire (iii) life history
In this theme we stressed the differences between quantitative and qualitative

research methodologies because
. the methodologies originate from opposing assumptions on social reality and
knowledge, among other things
. each methodology has a distinctive research technology by means of which a
specific type of data is collected
However, in some research projects, the quantitative and qualitative methodologies

are used together. We refer to this research style as a pluralistic or mixed research
methodology.
How did this situation come about?
Over the past few decades there have been some important changes in research
philosophy. Certain positivistic principles, including assumptions about the objectivity
ideal, value-free knowledge and generally valid knowledge, came to be questioned.
The result of this has been a narrowing of the traditionally accepted distance between
certain positivistic and humanistic ideas. This changed the way researchers thought
about research methodology.
The most important effect of this changed way of thinking was a greater appreciation
of the role of qualitative research methodology and qualitative research technology.
Researchers came to realise that a qualitative research methodology produces
distinctive information that differs from the type of data gathered through structured
questionnaires and schedules, for instance. Data generated by a qualitative research
methodology can thus make a supplementary contribution in a research project
. . . . . . . . . . . 54
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 5
making use of both qualitative and quantitative research technologies. Quantitative
and qualitative research methodologies may therefore complement each other – in
other words, they work together to achieve an improved or perfect result.
A c t i v i t y

. to formulate a definition of the pluralistic or mixed research methodology
Guidelines
Study-read the information above on the pluralistic or mixed research
methodology. Write the three parts of the definition in the space below.
Term:
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Class:
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Distinguishing features:
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
The term is pluralistic or mixed research methodology. With regard to

class, you needed to state clearly that this is a way of conducting research that
is different from purely quantitative and purely qualitative research methodol-
ogies. The distinguishing features of this methodology are:
. Research decisions are based on assumptions from both the quantitative
and qualitative research traditions.
. A research style is used that includes quantitative as well as qualitative
methods and techniques.
. The data are applied in a complementary way.
A definition of the pluralistic or mixed research methodology could read as follows: The
pluralistic research methodology is a style of research in which research decisions as
5 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 5
well as methods and techniques are based on both the quantitative and qualitative
research traditions. The research data are utilised or applied in a complementary way.
Think back to the example of research on prison sleeping facilities in study unit 1.3. If
you are uncertain of the details, revise that activity, as it will help you understand the
next application. The quantitative study using the questionnaire and the qualitative
study using in-depth interviews could be fruitfully combined in a pluralistic research
methodology. The researcher would then have started with a qualitative study by
conducting a series of in-depth interviews with some prisoners. With these findings as
a basis, the researcher would have been able to compile a questionnaire to be
completed by a representative group of prisoners. In this way the researcher’s
research decisions and methods and techniques would have had a quantitative and
qualitative basis. The data would have been applied in a complementary way. This
would have been a study conducted according to the pluralistic research tradition.
Review
..........................................................
We started this theme by defining science as an ordered system of scientific
knowledge and research as the process by which a system of scientific knowledge is
established and continually evaluated and expanded. We distinguished between the
natural and the human sciences, explained the concept ‘‘discipline’’ and asked the vital
question whether there is a fundamental difference between the natural and the human
sciences. We examined some claims to knowledge in everyday life and focused on
certain features or requirements on the basis of which scientific knowledge is
distinguished from everyday knowledge. One way in which knowledge is expanded is
through scientific research, which is a process that consists of a number of logical
decision-making steps.
We accepted the principle that reflection on science and scientific research takes
place from different perspectives, and identified three important ones as the
philosophy of science, research methodology and research technology.
We distinguished between positivism and humanism as conceptions of science on the
basis of the naturalistic and anti-naturalistic schools of thought in the philosophy of
science. With regard to research methodology, the emphasis is on the research
process and the actual decisions that a researcher has to make when undertaking a
research task. The distinction between the quantitative and qualitative research
methodologies is based on differences between the positivistic and humanistic
conceptions of science. Each of these research methodologies is carried out by means
of a distinctive research technology.
Although we accept that there is a definite relation between a positivistic conception of
science and a quantitative research methodology/research technology, and between a
humanistic conception of science and a qualitative research methodology/research
technology, we also saw that recent developments in the philosophy of science and
research methodology have laid the foundation for the concept of a pluralistic research
methodology and mixed methods.
Summary
In this study unit we showed you the relationship between quantitative research
technology and the naturalistic school of thought. We also showed you the relationship
between qualitative research technology and the anti-naturalistic school of thought.
The next study unit deals with the origins and development of the scientific idea.
. . . . . . . . . . . 56
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 5
..........................................................
phrases:
(i) A researcher who favours a positivistic conception of science will be
more attracted to a ........................................ research methodology.
(ii) A researcher who subscribes to humanistic principles would give
preference to a ..................................... research methodology.
(iii) When methods and techniques of both quantitative and qualitative
research methodologies are applied in a supplementary (comple-
mentary) way, we refer to a ....................................... methodology.
(b) Define the concept ‘‘pluralistic research methodology’’ in your own words.
7 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 5
ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
THEME 1
Study unit 1.1

1.1.1
(a) Your definition should have included the following core notions:
(i) Science is a system of scientific knowledge.
(ii) This knowledge is arranged logically or systematically.
(iii) This knowledge has specific features.
(b) (i) Natural

(ii) Human
(c) (i) The subjects or areas of reality being studied

(ii) The scientist’s approach
(d) (i) &x

(ii) &
R
(iii) &
x
(iv) &x
(v) &R
(e) (i) &x

(ii) &
R
(iii) &
x
(iv) &R
(v) &R
(f) (i) A demarcated area/field of study

(ii) Own or adapted study methods
(iii) A distinctive subject content and terminology
(g) (i) &x

(ii) &x
(iii) &R
1.1.2
(a) Your description should have contained the following key ideas:
. It is an activity or process that entails a scientist’s search for new knowledge
and insights.
. It consists of the collection, processing and expansion of knowledge.
(b) (i) &x

(ii) &
R
(iii) &
x
. . . . . . . . . . . 58
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 5
(iv) &
R
(v) &
R
(c) (i) &x

(ii) &
R
(iii) &
x
(iv) &R
(v) &R
(d) (i) &

F
(ii) &
T
(iii) &
T
(iv) &
T
(v) &
T
(vi) &
F
(vii) &
F
(e) (i) problem

(ii) research problem
(iii) collecting
(iv) ordering; processing
(v) research report
(vi) using or applying
(f) The primary aim in basic research is to obtain new knowledge and insights, while
applied research is directed at a specific practical problem.
Study unit 1.2

1.2.1
(a) Your definition should have contained the following concepts:
. critical reflection on the assumptions, foundations and implications of science
and scientific research
. functional perspective
. structural perspective
. critical perspective
(b) (i) &

T
(ii) &
F
(iii) &
F
(iv) &
T
(v) &
T
1.2.2
(a) (i) &x
(ii) &
R
(iii) &
R
59 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .1 . .5
(iv) &R
(v) &R
(vi) &x
(vii) &R
(viii) &
x
(b) (i) & R

(ii) &
x
(iii) &
x
(iv) & R
(v) & x
1.2.3
(a) (i) &
T
(ii) &
T
(iii) &
F
(iv) &
T
(v) &
T
(vi) &
F
(vii) &
F
(b) (i) & R

(ii) &
x
(iii) &R
(iv) & x
(v) & R
Study unit 1.3

(a) Research methodology is concerned with the question of how a study is planned
and carried out to ensure that the knowledge or findings emerging from it are of a
scientific nature.
(b) (i) &x
(ii) &
R
(iii) &
x
(iv) &R
(v) &x
(c) humanistic
positivistic
(d) (i) &

F
(ii) &
F
(iii) &
T
(iv) &
F
(v) &
T
. . . . . . . . . . . 60
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 5
(e) (i) &
F
(ii) &
T
(iii) &
T
(iv) &
T
(v) &
F
(vi) &
T
Study unit 1.4

(a) (i) methods; techniques
(ii) accessible
(iii) techniques
(b) (i) The researcher’s views in terms of the philosophy of science

(ii) The object of the research report
(iii) The nature of the research area and specific study object
(c) (i) &

F
(ii) &
F
(iii) &
T
(iv) &
T
Study unit 1.5

(a) (i) quantitative
(ii) qualitative
(iii) pluralistic
(b) It is a research methodology in which the researcher’s decisions on the study

(investigation) and the methods and techniques for gathering and analysing data
are based on quantitative and qualitative research principles. The data are applied
in a complementary (supplementary) way.
61 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 1 . 5
THEME
2
Origins and development of the

scientific idea
Introduction
In the first theme we decided on a particular approach to science and research. One of
the perspectives we adopted as part of this approach was the philosophy of science,
and particularly the philosophical question ‘‘What is science?’’ Before we try to answer
this question, we need to consider the development of the scientific idea. Theme 2 will
briefly show you how the scientific idea developed from the thinking of the Greek
philosophers to contemporary positivism and humanism.
This theme is divided into three study units.
Study unit 2.1: The Greek philosophers
2.1.1 Characteristic features of scientific thought in this period
2.1.2 Socrates
2.1.3 Plato
2.1.4 Aristotle
Study unit 2.2: The Renaissance

2.2.1 The natural sciences
2.2.2 Humanism
Study unit 2.3: Rationalism and empiricism in the 17th and 18th centuries
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Rationalism
2.3.3 Empiricism
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the key concept in this theme
Guidelines
Study-read the introduction above and circle the key concept.
63 . . . . . . .T .h e.m.e .2
F e e d b a c k
The key concept is ‘‘scientific idea’’. The scientific idea or scientific thought
refers to notions of what science is, and to the approaches and conceptions of
science adopted by those belonging to various schools of scientific thought.
Those who adopt different scientific approaches and support different schools
of thought often disagree about the nature of science.
Key concepts
. Rational beings: A reference to people as organisms with the ability to reason, or
intellectual powers. In terms of the branch of philosophy that studies what
knowledge is, or epistemology, this implies that human reason rather than empirical
reality or experience is the principal (main), most reliable source of knowledge. In
terms of behaviour it means that a person’s behaviour is a product of logical,
conscious decisions.
. True knowledge: Valid, reliable knowledge as defined in study unit 1.1 of theme 1.
. Cosmos: The universe or the orderly whole of reality.
. Objectivity: In this context the term does not refer to the researcher’s attitude, but
to something which is real in itself, which is really observable and which exists in the
external environment outside the human body.
. Scepticism: The doctrine that all knowledge is uncertain and that everything in the
human world is subject to systematic doubt.
. Induction: In this study guide the term relates to inductive arguments and inductive
methods. In inductive arguments, although there is some relation between the
premises (supporting evidence) and the conclusion, the conclusions are only
probable. The supporting propositions or premises offer only gradual support for the
conclusion. An inductive method or research strategy refers to the careful collection
of facts, which are then used as a basis for generalisations.
. Theory of ideas: Plato’s theory, in terms of which earthly reality is just a shadowy
reflection of true reality, which lies in the realm of ideas.
. Dualism: The notion that reality consists of two kinds of entities or things, namely
matter (the given or empirical reality of sense perception) and mind (an ideal reality).
. Idealism: The school of thought that holds that the human mind (intellect or reason)
is primary and that the ‘‘external world’’ (what people perceive with their senses) is
construed by the mind. Reality is therefore dependent on intellect, or is somehow
determined by it.
. Rationalism: An umbrella term for approaches that emphasise the importance of
reason or intellect in scientific work. The basic idea is that reason is the highest
principle of insight and that the whole of reality can be understood and explained in
terms of rational principles. This approach is associated with a particular view of the
origin of knowledge and of human behaviour that will be discussed in study unit 2.3.
. Mythic tradition: Traditions about gods and religion. A myth is sometimes
described as a story about gods.
. Deduction: In this study guide the term relates to deductive arguments and
deductive methods. In deductive arguments it is claimed that the conclusion follows
with absolute certainty from the premises (supporting evidence) of the argument. In
. . . . . . . . . . . 61
T h e m e 2
4
valid deductive arguments the truth of the conclusion is contained in the truth of the
premises. Scientists who use a deductive method or research strategy start by
recognising some universal (generally valid) law, theory or principle and then apply
it to explain or interpret particular phenomena. (In interpreting or explaining a
phenomenon or event researchers will try to show that the phenomenon is a
particular instance of a general law, theory or principle.)
. Empiricism: This approach holds that knowledge can be obtained only through
sensory observation of the world. Science is limited to objectively observable things,
and all scientific facts must be testable.
. Experimentation: Making observations (in this case of nature) under strictly
controlled conditions to test the correctness of a hypothesis (see 2.2.1).
. Exactitude: Precision, correctness, rigour.
. Construction: In this context the word means ‘‘synthesis’’, which is usually given
as the opposite of analysis. Whereas analysis refers to the separation of the parts
making up a whole or a phenomenon, synthesis is the combination of these parts
into a whole.
. Verifiability: Another word for verifiability is ‘‘testability’’, which is discussed in
theme 1 in relation to the features or requirements of scientific knowledge.
Verification is the process whereby a premise or hypothesis is proven correct or is
acceptable.
. Objectivism: The view that the human mind can perceive and know ideas that exist
independently of it.
. Subjectivism: The view that human consciousness is the primary reality and that
the only reliable way of knowing reality is through individual experience.
65 . . . . . . .T .h e.m.e .2
STUDY UNIT
2.1
The Greek philosophers

. list and briefly discuss the characteristic features of the Greek philosophers’ ideas
about science
. explain what you understand by
– Socrates’s views of self-knowledge
– Socrates’s views of knowledge
– the Socratic dialogue
. describe Plato’s views of reality and how people obtain knowledge about the world
. show how Plato’s ideas link up with idealism and how they later formed the basis of
rationalism
. describe Aristotle’s views of reality and how people obtain knowledge about the
world
. explain how Aristotle’s ideas about reality and knowledge formed the basis of
realism, and later developed into empiricism
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the keywords or phrases in the objectives
Guidelines
Study-read the study objectives at the beginning of this study unit. Complete
the following sentences by filling in the appropriate keywords or phrases.
(1) Realism and, later, ..................... developed from Aristotle’s concept of
science.
(2) The ............... of the Greek philosophers’ ideas about science.
(3) Plato’s views of ............... and ...............
(4) Socrates’s views of ..............., ............... and ...............
(5) Aristotle’s views of ............... and ...............
(6) Idealism and, later, ............... developed from Plato’s concept of science.
F e e d b a c k
You should have filled in the following key terms and phrases:
. . . . . . . . . . . 61
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 1
6
(1) empiricism
(2) characteristic features
(3) reality; knowledge
(4) self-knowledge; knowledge; Socratic dialogue
(5) reality; knowledge
(6) rationalism
2.1.1 Characteristic features of scientific thought in this period

The Greek philosophers’ notions of what science is relate to the following
characteristic features of the philosophy of the period:
. Humans are rational beings and human reason is primary, so true knowledge is
determined by reason or the mind. The Greek ideal was ‘‘sophia’’, meaning wisdom,
which should not be confused with learning or scholarship or academic
achievement. The main characteristic of a wise person was seen as the ability to
discern rationally so as to obtain knowledge of people and reality.
. Through their scientific thinking the Greek philosophers tried to penetrate to the
essence of things via observable phenomena. Take the concept of ‘‘nature’’ derived
from the Greek word ‘‘phusis’’. Nature is not just the world of observable things; it is
the true character and essence of these things that which makes things – what they
are.
. Reality forms one great, orderly and harmonious whole known as the cosmos. The
human intellect is capable of understanding the cosmos.
. The assumption was that the orderly whole or cosmos is objectively knowable.
A c t i v i t y

. to indicate the characteristic features of the Greek philosophers’ scientific
ideas
Guidelines
Study-read the information above.
Some of the statements below do not reflect the Greek philosophers’ scientific
ideas. Mark these statements by making a cross in the relevant block.
(i) Humans are irrational beings. &
(ii) The Greek philosophers tried to penetrate to the essence of
things via observable phenomena. &
(iii) Reality forms one great, orderly and harmonious whole (cosmos). &
(iv) The human mind cannot know reality objectively. &
(v) Because human reason is primary, the human mind or reason
can attain true knowledge. &
(vi) ‘‘Wisdom’’ and ‘‘learning’’ (scholarship) are synonymous.
(vii) The human mind can understand the cosmos or orderly reality. &
67 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .2 . .1
F e e d b a c k
. You should have marked the following statements with a cross:

(i)
(iv)
(vi)
The rest of section 2.1.1 contains the background to the Greek philosophers’ scientific
thinking. You just need to read this information.
Greek philosophy of science can be divided into three phases:
. the period of natural philosophy, which focused mainly on the origin, character and
structure of nature
. the classical period, which focused on human beings’ place in nature
. the late period, when Greek philosophy dominated; it ended after Plato’s death and
the closing of the Platonic Academy in 529 CE
During the first period the philosophers concerned themselves with questions relating
to the origin and nature of reality. When they did pay attention to human beings at all,
they did so mainly in the context of the religion of the time. During the classical period
the focus shifted, and human beings became the centre of scientific interest. As
students of the human sciences, our main concern is with the Greek philosophers of
the classical period and their conceptions of science. This period started at the end of
the Persian wars (466 BCE) and continued until Aristotle’s death in 322 BCE.
The search for knowledge and the beginning of systematic scientific work are
generally traced to the three great Greek philosophers of the classical period:
Socrates (470–399 BCE), Plato (428–348 BCE) and Aristotle (384–322 BCE).
Socrates’s contribution to the development of science is associated mainly with his
epistemology. Plato and Aristotle grappled with the question: ‘‘What is reality and how
can we know it?’’
The late period was marked by the decline of Athens. This period is also known as the
Hellenistic era. During this period, people began to question the traditional values of
Greek civilisation. One of the schools of thought dating from this time, known as
scepticism, questioned all certainty about truth, knowledge and generally accepted
values.
2.1.2 Socrates
Socrates’s main epistemological premise is summed up in his ideas about self-
knowledge and knowledge, which found expression in the Socratic dialogue. He
assumed that humans are rational beings with the ability to understand. True
knowledge or wisdom is therefore hidden in every being in the form of unchanging
concepts that are, so to speak, just waiting to be discovered. Self-knowledge consists
in becoming aware of, and gaining insight into, these unchanging concepts which are
present in all human beings because human beings are rational. Socrates’s insistence
on self-knowledge implies that nobody can obtain true knowledge unless he or she
starts with self-knowledge and self-criticism. Socrates’s famous claim that he was the
. . . . . . . . . . . 61
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 1
8
wisest of all human beings because he knew that he did not know was not a
confession of ignorance, but rather an acknowledgement that he did not yet
understand himself properly. For this reason he could not claim to have worked out
a complete system of true knowledge.
His view of knowledge was that all true knowledge is knowledge of general concepts.
Knowledge of phenomena (in a broad sense) comes from empirical or sensory
observation as well as from the concepts and opinions that one finds among people.
When Socrates studied a concept such as ‘‘justice’’, for example, he would observe
many examples of justice as it occurred in practice and in people’s ideas. Then,
through comparison and analysis, he would arrive at a formulation or definition of
justice. His aim was therefore to define justice as a general concept (the essence of
justice). This method gave rise to the principle of induction. Through his formulation or
definition of concepts Socrates emphasised the importance of conceptualisation, or
the clear demarcation of concepts in scientific work.
Socrates’s main scientific method of collecting knowledge was conversations. This
method became known as the Socratic dialogue. He believed that truth emerged from
the interaction between questions and answers, which he used to lead people to self-
knowledge and true insight. In the course of rational conversation he critically
assessed individuals’ opinions, corrected and supplemented them, and in the end
reformulated them as universally valid definitions.
A c t i v i t y

. to understand Socrates’s views of self-knowledge, knowledge and dialogue
Guidelines
Study-read the information above on Socrates’s idea of science.
Indicate whether each of the following statements about Socrates’s idea of
science is true or false by writing T in the block if the statement is true, or F if it
is false.
(i) Human beings are not capable of rational understanding. &
(ii) Knowledge lies outside a person and is, so to speak, just
waiting to be discovered. &
(iii) Nobody can have knowledge unless he or she starts with
self-knowledge and self-criticism. &
(iv) Knowledge is based partly on sensory observation. &
(v) Socrates’s method first introduced the principle of induction. &
(vi) Socrates was the first to emphasise the importance of the
clear definition of concepts (conceptualisation). &
(vii) The Socratic dialogue was a method of conversing with the
purpose of leading the dialogue partners to self-knowledge. &
F e e d b a c k
All the statements were true, except (i) and (ii).
69 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .2 . .1
2.1.3 Plato
Plato was Socrates’s pupil and Aristotle’s teacher. In the context of our discussion in
this theme, Plato is known mainly for the following:
. He supported the idea that rationality (mind or reason) dominates human life.
Plato’s view of human rationality was the core and basis of his concept of science
and was expressed in his famous Theory of Ideas, in which he stated his view of the
nature of reality and how it can be known. This was Plato’s greatest contribution to
later scientific thought.
. He was the founder of the famous Platonic (also called Athenian) Academy. It was
the first known institution for tertiary education, and can be regarded as the
forerunner of modern universities. The Academy existed for nearly nine centuries.
. Most important for our discussion is Plato’s view of the nature of reality and how we
can obtain knowledge of it. Plato’s scientific ideas about reality and knowledge rest
on the notion of a dualism between the world of sensory observation and the world
of ideas.
– On the one hand there is the given world (empirical reality) of sensory
observation, which is changeable and transient or impermanent. This world is
not a true, unchanging reality, and is considered inferior. Our sensory
observation and the material world can produce only opinions, not true
knowledge. True knowledge is unchanging, certain and final and we can only
obtain it from an unchanging reality.
– Beyond the given world of sensory observation is a world of ideas. The word
‘‘idea’’ refers to a notion or concept that cannot be perceived by the senses, but
can only be known through human reason or the mind. This means that true
reality is not the world of sensory observation and changing, transient
phenomena, but the realm of eternal, unchanging and indestructible ideas to
which people have access only through the mind or reason.
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish between Plato’s given world or empirical reality and his world
of ideas
Guidelines
Study-read the information above. Then read the statements below.
(1) True reality is a realm of eternal ideas.
(2) The things we observe around us are subject to change.
(3) We have access to reality only through human reason.
(4) True knowledge is not knowledge or opinions about the world of sensory
observation.
(5) True reality does not consist of transient phenomena, but of ideas.
(6) What we perceive with our senses is not true, eternal reality.
Now write the number of each statement in the appropriate category of the
framework below.
. . . . . . . . . . . 70
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 1
World of sensory observation World of ideas
F e e d b a c k
Your completed framework should have looked like this:
World of sensory observation World of ideas
2 1
4 3
6 5
Plato placed the emphasis on people’s rational ability and presented a rational
construction of an unchanging, eternal world of ideas as the essence of science. The
scientist’s task is to gain knowledge of this unchanging, ideal reality through pure
rational thought and conceptualisation. This means that reality is dependent on the
human mind, or is somehow determined by it. This view of reality later became known
as idealism, and laid the foundation for rationalism.
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish between the concepts ‘‘idealism’’ and ‘‘rationalism’’
Guidelines
Study-read the information above. The following statements about the
concepts ‘‘idealism’’ and ‘‘rationalism’’ are incorrect. Rewrite them in your
own words in the space provided and correct the mistakes.
(i) Idealism holds that the human intellect or reason is secondary and that
reality can be construed through sensory observation.
Correction:
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(ii) Rationalism is an approach that emphasises the importance of
experience and sensory observation as a source of knowledge.
Correction:
...............................................................................................................
71 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 1
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
Your corrections should have contained the following ideas:

(i) Idealism holds that only ideas actually exist and that the world of
sensory observation is an illusion. The human mind dominates, and
what we perceive is construed by the intellect. Reality is therefore
determined by the mind.
(ii) Rationalism is an approach that emphasises the importance of human
reason or intellect in research and scientific work. We must accept only
knowledge that the human mind can understand.
2.1.4 Aristotle
This Greek philosopher, in contrast to Plato, emphasised a sense of realism in the
search for the essence of things. From his reflections on questions such as ‘‘Do the
things around us really exist?’’ and ‘‘How do they exist and why are they the way they
are?’’, he concluded that the world of sensory observation (empirical reality) is the only
true, concrete reality. Scientists can know the world only through experience and can
explain phenomena rationally through sensory observation. Before Aristotle, scientific
explanation of phenomena through empirical observation and rational reflection was
fairly undeveloped and was mixed with a measure of superstition and mythic tradition.
Aristotle not only helped to get rid of the mythic element, but also laid the foundation
for the development of empirical studies on a scientific basis.
Socrates introduced induction as a scientific method. In addition to induction, Aristotle
also recognised deduction as a scientific method.
Aristotle’s views about reality (the empirical world) and knowledge (through sensory
observation) later became known as realism. This approach holds that objects exist
independently of the human mind and can be known by the human intellect or reason.
In other words, there is a physical reality that exists independently of the human mind.
This premise provided the basis of 17th and 18th century empiricism.
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish between the concepts ‘‘realism’’ and ‘‘empiricism’’
Guidelines
Study-read the section above.
The following two statements about realism and empiricism are both incorrect.
Rewrite them in your own words in the space provided and correct the
mistakes.
. . . . . . . . . . . 72
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 1
(i) Realism holds that reality is an ideal world and can only be known
through rational thought.
Correction:
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
(ii) Empiricism is an epistemological theory which emphasises the

importance of human reason in the process of obtaining knowledge.
Correction:
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
Your corrections should have contained the following ideas:

(i) Realism holds that observable reality exists independently of the human
mind. It focuses on concrete things around us that we perceive through
our senses.
(ii) Empiricism is a theory that accepts experience or sensory observation
as the only source of scientific knowledge about reality.

..........................................................
(a) Socrates’s main epistemological premises are contained in his views on
(write them down):
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(b) Complete the following sentences by filling in the missing words, phrases
or terms.
(i) Plato’s view of human .............................. was the core and basis of
his idea of science and was contained in his famous
.................................
(ii) The basic structure of Plato’s scientific ideas about reality and
knowledge is a ................................ . On the one hand there is a
.................., and above it there is an ....................... .
(iii) True reality is not the world of sensory observation but the eternal
realm of .................................., to which people have access only
through .......................... or the .......................... .
73 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .2 . .1
(iv) The scientist’s task is to gain knowledge of reality through pure
.............................. and .............................. . This view of reality later
became known as ............................... .
(c) Indicate which three of the following statements relate to Aristotle’s idea of
science by ticking the relevant blocks.
(i) The world of sensory observation is the only sure, concrete
reality. &
(ii) Reality is what humans construe rationally (through intellect
or reason). &
(iii) Aristotle introduced deduction as a scientific method. &
(iv) Reality can be known only through empirical observation. &
Summary
In this study unit we discussed the characteristics features of the Greek Philosophers’
ideas about science. The next study unit deals with the Renaissance.
. . . . . . . . . . . 24
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 1
STUDY UNIT
2.2
The Renaissance

. describe the development of scientific thought in the natural sciences during the
Renaissance
. explain what the term ‘‘humanism’’ means and how this approach developed during
the Renaissance
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the keywords or phrases in the learning objectives
Guidelines
key terms and concepts.
F e e d b a c k
The key terms and concepts you circled should have included the following:
. development of scientific thought during the Renaissance
. development of humanism
In the scientific sphere the Renaissance (14th to 16th centuries) is known particularly
for developments in two areas: the natural sciences and humanism.
2.2.1 The natural sciences

During the Middle Ages, thinkers followed ancient ‘‘authorities’’ and their ideas about
nature. The natural scientists of the Middle Ages never tried to prove anything
experimentally, and quite happily accepted the claims and statements of the
‘‘authorities’’ of antiquity. During the Renaissance the natural sciences were revived
when the Renaissance scholars broke free from the views of ancient ‘‘authorities’’ and
began to study nature, both animate and inanimate, for themselves. Observations
based on their own senses replaced speculations based on theoretical knowledge.
75 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .2 . .2
During the Renaissance the focus also shifted specifically to the mathematical
sciences. The mathematical character of the natural sciences led to a methodological
accuracy and exactitude which impressed people. This gave rise to the idea that
natural science held the key to all human problems, and had limitless possibilities.
2.2.2 Humanism
Alongside this interest a new spirit arose in Western Europe, namely humanism.
Humanism can be defined as a school of thought or approach which placed human
beings and their world in the spotlight. At first humanism was associated with the
realisation of true, free humanity. According to the humanists of the time, the ancient
Greek and Roman writers had already to a great extent described this ideal. This
explains the humanists’ intense interest in classical writings. What is significant for us
as students of the human sciences is the development of these human sciences as a
new branch, in addition to the natural and religious sciences. Later (especially in the
20th century) the concept of humanism broadened to include approaches that focused
on human beings and humanity. In the philosophy of science, humanism is usually
seen as an alternative to positivism, as explained in theme 1.
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish between developments in the natural sciences and develop-
ments in humanism during the Renaissance
Guidelines
Study-read sections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 above. The statements below relate to
developments in either the natural sciences or humanism during the
Renaissance. In each case, circle the correct alternative.
(1) The focus was on the importance of human beings and humanity.
Natural sciences/Humanism
(2) Accuracy of knowledge was emphasised. Natural sciences/Humanism
(3) Attention was focused on mathematical methods. Natural sciences/
Humanism
(4) Great importance was attached to human freedom and the essence of
human nature. Natural sciences/Humanism
(5) The foundation was laid for the development of the human sciences.
(6) Knowledge of natural sciences can be used to solve human problems.
F e e d b a c k

(1) Humanism
(2) Natural sciences
. . . . . . . . . . . 26
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 2
(4) Humanism
(5) Humanism

..........................................................
(a) Indicate whether each of the following statements about the development
of scientific thought in the natural sciences during the Renaissance is true
or false. In each case, write T in the block if the statement is true, or F if it is
false.
(i) Natural scientists during the Renaissance relied heavily on the ideas
of ancient ‘‘authorities’’ about nature.
(ii) Renaissance scholars started making empirical observations of
nature and experimenting with nature rather than relying on outdated
theoretical knowledge.
(iii) The mathematical sciences flourished during the Renaissance.
(iv) During the Renaissance the natural sciences lost their exactitude.
(b) The following statements relate to the development of humanism during

the Renaissance. Fill in the missing words or phrases.
(i) Humanism is a school of thought in which .......................................
and their ............................................................................. were
placed in the spotlight.
(ii) The establishment of during the Renaissance
laid the foundation for the development of the ............................
sciences.
Summary
In this study unit we described the development of scientific thought in the natural
sciences during the Renaissance. The next study unit deals with rationalism and
empiricism in the 17th and 18th centuries.
77 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .2 . .2
STUDY UNIT
2.3
Rationalism and empiricism in the 17th

and 18th centuries

. distinguish between the premises of rationalism and empiricism
. explain the difference between objectivism and subjectivism
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the key terms or phrases in the learning objectives
Guidelines
Study-read the study objectives at the beginning of this study unit. Rewrite the
key terms or phrases in your own words below.
F e e d b a c k
The key terms or phrases you wrote down should have included:
. distinction between rationalism and empiricism
. difference between objectivism and subjectivism
2.3.1 Introduction
Scientific development in the 17th and early 18th century amounted to a scientific
revolution which also influenced the general idea of science. During the preceding era
very little systematic, organised scientific thought had taken place. Now there was a
concerted effort to organise and systematise the wealth of scientific data and findings
and reduce it to elementary principles. The overemphasis of analysis made way for a
new focus on construction. Two other characteristics of the period were the following:
. The old scholastic approach was increasingly replaced by critical thought.
. The emphasis now fell on human reason.
‘‘Truth’’ became the main criterion of scientific knowledge, and people believed that
science was indeed a system of true knowledge. Scientists merely had to agree on
. . . . . . . . . . . 78
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 3
what that truth was. The scientific debate on issues such as what constituted reality,
truth and knowledge gave rise to the rationalist and empiricist approaches of that
period.
2.3.2 Rationalism
Rationalism is a broad philosophical approach. It is based on Plato’s thinking and has
significant implications for the idea of science. The underlying philosophy of 17th and
18th century rationalism – idealism – tried to explain the world in terms of ideas and
thoughts and to identify some sort of spiritual basis for all existing things. To arrive at
true knowledge, for example, scientists had to turn to the abstract level. ‘‘Abstract’’ is
the opposite of concrete, and so refers to
. things that cannot be perceived directly through the human senses
. things that do not relate to the visible world
We can state this differently, and say that true understanding of any phenomenon is
not a matter of its physical form, but the form it assumes in the human mind. The
actual truth of anything that what we perceive exists only in the abstract. What we see
and experience, then, is not truth, but mere objects of perception, like shadows on the
wall. As a result, all the emphasis was placed on human reason.
With regard to the origin of knowledge, the rationalists believed that knowledge came
from both sensory observation and intellect, but that only intellect could produce true,
reliable and valid knowledge. Knowledge obtained via the senses was viewed as
unclear, questionable and only relatively valid. Human reason was seen as the
primary source of knowledge. In explaining human behaviour, rationalism held that
behaviour is the outcome of logical, conscious decisions by an individual rather than a
product of irrational, unconscious forces.
Rationalism springs from the anti-naturalist tradition, which we discussed in theme 1.
This anti-naturalist tradition gave rise to anti-positivism or humanism, with its
qualitative research methodology.
2.3.3 Empiricism
Empiricism is another broad philosophical approach that grew from Aristotle’s realism.
The empiricist axiom is that objects exist independently of the human mind and can be
known by the human mind. Like rationalism, the principles of empiricism have
implications for the philosophy of science and specifically for the scientific idea.
Empiricism takes experience as its point of departure. All knowledge is based on
experience. (This is the direct opposite of rationalism, which takes human reason as
its point of departure.) According to the empiricists, knowledge can be obtained only
through sensory observation. It is not innate and cannot be obtained through
reasoning. Empirical knowledge is therefore based on observation and experience
rather than on pure speculation and reflection. This premise gives rise to certain
methodological principles, including the views that
. science should occupy itself only with objective, observable things, and scientific
facts must be verifiable
. the environment plays a role in the development of an individual’s or a group’s
characteristics and capabilities
79 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .2 . .3
This school’s critical attitude towards rationalism is based on naturalism, which we
discussed in theme 1. Ultimately empiricism led to positivism, the basis of quantitative
research.
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish between the concepts ‘‘rationalism’’ and ‘‘empiricism’’
Guidelines
Study-read sections 2.3.1, 2.3.2 and 2.3.3. The following statements relate to
rationalism and empiricism. In each case, circle the correct alternative.
(i) The rationalist approach originated from Aristotle’s/Plato’s views.
(ii) Realism/Idealism holds that objects exist independently of the human
mind and can be known by human beings.
(iii) Empiricism/Rationalism holds that knowledge is based on experience.
(iv) Rationalists/Empiricists argue that knowledge is based on empirical
observation rather than on pure speculation or reflection.
(v) Empiricists emphasise the rational powers of human beings/sensory
observation of reality.
F e e d b a c k

(i) Plato’s
(ii) realism
(iii) empiricism
(iv) empiricists
(v) sensory observation of reality
The one-sided emphasis on either human reason (Plato, and later rationalism)
or sensory observation of reality (Aristotle, and later empiricism) in the
scientific idea culminated in the dogmatic absolutisation of both approaches.
‘‘Dogmatic absolutisation’’ means clinging to one’s own view and refusing to
consider anyone else’s opinions or new information. Empiricism was a result of
the absolutisation of objectivism, and rationalism was a result of the
absolutisation of subjectivism.

..........................................................
(a) Complete the following sentences:
(i) Objectivism proceeds from the premise that
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . 80
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 3
(ii) Subjectivism proceeds from the premise that
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(b) Circle the correct alternatives:

(i) With which of the following philosophers do you associate
rationalism?
(a) Socrates
(b) Plato
(c) Aristotle
(ii) Idealism emphasises ...

(a) sensory observation
(b) dialogue
(c) human reason
(iii) Empiricism can be traced to ...

(a) Aristotle
(b) Plato
(c) Socrates
(iv) Which of the following keywords or phrases would you use to explain
the main premise of empiricism?
(a) intellect
(b) logical decisions
(c) sensory observation
Review
..........................................................
In the first theme we pointed out the differences between the naturalist and
antinaturalist approaches in the philosophy of science. We also mentioned that the
quantitative and qualitative research methodologies respectively developed from
positivism and humanism. We began this theme by explaining that the development of
the scientific idea was triggered by the philosophical question, ‘‘What is science?’’ The
purpose of this theme was to indicate briefly how the scientific idea developed.
However, we have given you merely an overview.
A c t i v i t y

. to show the connection between the study material in themes 1 and 2
Guidelines
Read themes 1 and 2 as a whole. Below is a diagram of the content of these
two themes. Complete the diagram by filling in the missing information.
81 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 3
Naturalism Anti-naturalism
Plato
Realism
Rationalism
Humanism
Objectivism
Quantitative methodology
F e e d b a c k
Your completed diagram should look like this:

Naturalism Anti-naturalism
Aristotle Plato
Realism Subjectivism
Idealism Rationalism
Empiricism Humanism
Objectivism Qualitative methodology
. . . . . . . . . . . 82
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 3
Positivism Quantitative methodology
81 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 3
THEME 2
Study unit 2.1

(a) (i) knowledge
(ii) self-knowledge
(iii) Socratic dialogue
(b) (i) rationality; theory of Ideas

(ii) dualism; given world of sensory observation; ideal reality
(iii) ideas; reason; intellect
(iv) rational thought; conceptualisation; idealism
(c) (i) &R

(ii) &
x
(iii) &
R
(iv) &R
Study unit 2.2

(a) (i) &
F
(ii) &
T
(iii) &
T
(iv) &
F
(b) (i) human beings; world

(ii) human
Study unit 2.3

(a) (i) there is a reality existing independently of human beings and that the human
mind can perceive and know that reality.
(ii) human consciousness is the primary reality and that the only reliable way of
knowing reality is through individual experience.
(b) You should have circled the following alternatives:

(i) b
(ii) c
(iii) a
(iv) c
Summary
In this study unit we distinguished between the premises of rationalism and
empiricism. The next study unit deals with quantitative measurement.
. . . . . . . . . . . 82
S t u d y u n i t 2 . 3
83 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .2 . .3
THEME
3
Quantitative measurement
Introduction
Quantitative research can be defined as the type of research in terms of which
observations of a phenomenon or phenomena are described through numerical
discourse. This type of research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of
quantitative traits and phenomena and involves the collection and analysis of
numerical data to identify statistical relations. More specifically, in this context,
quantitative research is associated with research that seeks to explain crime in causal
terms. For example, you may want to relate changes in the crime rate to changes in
other features, such as levels of unemployment. The justification in using statistical
data arises from the idea that most social problems are best understood through
positivism or the positivistic application of science. One of the hallmarks of quantitative
research is that there is already an established theory and practice that has been built
up over a number of centuries. In this theme we focus on the vital aspect of
quantitative measurement. This theme is divided into five units.
Study unit 3.1: The concepts of validity and reliability
3.1.1 When is thought or reasoning valid?
3.1.2 The validity and reliability of knowledge
3.1.3 How do we test the validity of knowledge?
Study unit 3.2: Levels of measurement

3.2.1 The nominal level of measurement
3.2.2 The ordinal level of measurement
3.2.3 Interval measurements
3.2.4 Ratio measurements
Study unit 3.3: Measures of central tendency

3.3.1 The mode
3.3.2 The median
3.3.3 The mean
Study unit 3.4: Measures of dispersion

3.4.1 Index of dispersion
3.4.2 The range
3.4.3 The variance and the standard deviation
Study unit 3.5: Hypotheses and levels of statistical significance
3.5.1 Types of hypotheses
3.5.2 Levels of statistical significance
•• • • •• • • •• •
Theme 3 85 . . . . . . .t .h e.m.e .3
STUDY UNIT
3.1
The concepts of validity and reliability
In this unit you will learn more about validity and reliability as criteria of scientific
knowledge. Although the concepts ‘‘validity’’ and ‘‘reliability’’ do not mean exactly the
same thing, the two terms are often used in the same context to refer to requirements
that scientific knowledge has to satisfy.
After studying this unit you should be able to:
. distinguish between the major traditional laws of logic
. discuss the concepts ‘‘validity’’ and ‘‘reliability’’
3.1.1 When is thought or reasoning valid?

The epistemological relationship (the relationship between subject and object) is a
rational relationship, that is, a relationship in which intellect plays a significant role.
Intellect translates perceptions into concepts, analyses the concepts and draws
conclusions. We call this activity ‘‘thought’’ to indicate the particular way in which the
intellect acts. (Because of this, thought can be regarded as a major component of
knowledge. Positivists do not always agree with this statement, however.)
Thought (or reasoning) is valid (logical) when it does not conflict with the rules of
reasoning (or laws of logic). The laws of logic are principles of reasoning which we can
define as formal rules that all thought must obey in order to be valid. These laws are a
priori. This means that they are not learnt from experience, but are instead accepted
as given. The laws of logic are
. independent of experience and true in all places and at all times (in other words,
they are true a priori)
. essential for organising our thinking scientifically
. descriptive, that is, they provide a form for the exact description of the activity of
reasoning
. prescriptive, that is, they provide the absolute conventional or established standards
of correct reasoning
We will now briefly discuss some of the most important traditional laws of logic or
fundamental rules of reasoning.
. Principle of identity
This rule requires that we should in all instances of reasoning use a term consistently
in the same way or with the same meaning.
. . . . . . . . . . . 18
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 1
Example: A = A. When we say that A = A, we are not providing any additional
information about A except that the term is repeated. It implies that if we do add
something to A or omit something from A, then we are no longer speaking about A. So
when I say A = A, I am also saying that A remains A in all situations. A remains the
same in spite of changes that happen around A.
. Principle of non-contradiction
We can express this rule as follows: A cannot be both B and non-B at the same time;
we cannot both affirm and negate something simultaneously. For example, a chair
cannot be both grey and not grey at the same time.
The principle of non-contradiction tells us that the same thing cannot at the same time
both have and not have certain characteristics; the same statement cannot be true
and false at the same time.
. Principle of sufficient reason (also known as the principle of rationality)

The basic axiom or rule is the following: any existing thing or true statement must have
sufficient reason for being the way it is and not some other way. For example, we have
to give reasons, justification or corroboration to prove that a statement or argument is
true or valid.
. Principle of cohesion
The truth of a statement (e.g. an argument) depends on its cohesion with other
statements. This principle relates to analysis and synthesis. Whereas analysis refers
to taking a phenomenon apart, synthesis refers to establishing a relation between the
cohering parts.
The logical principle of cohesion relates to synthesis. Knowledge should not be broken
up into separate parts, because then there is a danger that words, ideas and
statements may become meaningless. In the lifeworld, too, things do not exist
atomistically, but occur in contexts and relationships which give meaning to the
individual things.
The statement, ‘‘this person is a criminal’’, for example, can only be meaningful in
relation to what precedes it and what follows is. (Has the person committed a crime?
What was the nature of the crime? Has the person been convicted by a court? and so
on.)
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish between the major traditional laws of logic
Guidelines
Study-read the information above on the fundamental laws of logic. On the
dotted line next to each of the statements below, indicate which principle of
logic applies to it.
(1) An argument cannot be both correct and incorrect at the same time.
................................................................................................................
87 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .3 . .1
(2) The truth of a statement depends on whether or not its cohesion has
been demonstrated convincingly.
................................................................................................................
(3) The meaning that is attached to a concept must be unambiguously the
same in all instances.
................................................................................................................
(4) A claim must be supported by rational proof or logical reasons.
................................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
Your answers should have been as follows:

(1) Principle of non-contradiction
(2) Principle of cohesion
(3) Principle of identity
(4) Principle of sufficient reason
3.1.2 The validity and reliability of knowledge

The term ‘‘validity’’ refers to a methodological requirement set for
. research activities (e.g. observation, use of measuring instruments and other
techniques)
. research findings (e.g. the analysis and interpretation of collected data, conclusions
from analyses)
So if we say that knowledge is valid, we are referring to

. an absence of systematic bias and unsystematic (chance) errors. These terms
indicate
– preferences or an illogical attitude on the part of the researcher
– errors that may sneak in during data collection and processing
. the existence of a close correlation between activities performed in the research

process, the research results and the study object
We speak of internal validity and external validity.

Internal validity refers to validity within the research process or project. Internal
validity includes three kinds of validity: conceptual validity, content validity and
inferential validity.
. Some aspects of a study object may be only partially or not at all accessible through
sense perception, for example attitudes to the death penalty and fear of crime. You
would research aspects like these by means of theoretical and hypothetical
concepts in, for example, a questionnaire. In the following cases you could claim
conceptual validity:
– if the concepts (e.g. items in a questionnaire) accurately express the aspect that
you are investigating (e.g. fear of crime)
. . . . . . . . . . . 20
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 1
– if the meaning of the concept really captures and reflects the meaning of the
aspect that you are investigating (see conceptualisation and operationalisation
in theme 4)
– Conceptual validity is sometimes called theoretical validity.
. Content validity (validity of measurement) usually becomes an issue when

measuring instruments (e.g. questionnaires) or observation schedules are used.
The following questions have to be answered: Are the instruments suitable for
examining the study object? Do they really test and measure what they are
supposed to test and measure?
. Inferential (or logical) validity refers to the extent to which research results can be
logically inferred from the research setup. One question is whether the research
data offer enough evidence or support to allow us to draw certain conclusions
according to the laws of logic. Since inferential validity refers to the validity of logical
arguments in scientific work, we should briefly explain the difference between
inductive and deductive arguments. A logical argument (in which statements are
made to support or corroborate certain conclusions that are drawn) consists of two
parts: statements made to support or prove a conclusion (premises); and the
conclusion itself. We can represent a typical argument schematically as follows:
Statement or premise 1 Premise of argument:

Statement or premise 2 reasons for or justification or
corroboration of the conclusion
Statement or premise 3
Conclusion or argument:
Conclusion or inference statements made on the basis of the
premises; what ‘‘follows logically’’
from the premises
The relation between premises and conclusion depends on support or corroboration.

This makes it possible to distinguish between two types of arguments. In deductive
arguments the claim is that the conclusion follows from the premises with absolute
certainty. That is to say, if the premises are valid, so is the conclusion.
Here is an example of a deductive argument:
Premise 1: Shortly after Jack was assassinated, James was seen in the bar from
which the shots were fired.
Premise 2: James’s fingerprints were found on a gun that was found in the bar.
Premise 3: An eyewitness identified James as the assassin.
Premise 4: Ballistic tests showed that James’s gun could have fired the fatal shot.
Conclusion: James assassinated Jack.

This argument is deductive because the conclusion follows with absolute certainty
from the premises.
89 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .3 . .1
In inductive arguments there is some relation between premises and conclusion (the
supporting evidence is relevant), but the premises offer only a (considerable) degree
of support for the conclusion, so that the conclusion is characterised by a high degree
of probability.
Here is an example of an inductive argument:
Premise 1: James said in front of witnesses that he wanted to kill Jack.
Premise 2: Shortly after Jack was assassinated, James was seen in the bar from
which the shots were fired.
Conclusion: James assassinated Jack.

This argument is inductive because
. there is some relation between the premises and the conclusion or inference
. the relation is based on probability
External validity refers to the generalisation of the findings and conclusions of a

study to a larger group of similar phenomena. (We are speaking of research or
scientific work of universal or generalised/representative significance.) Not all
research has to meet the requirement of external validity (e.g. qualitative research
or scientific work of contextual significance need not be externally valid).
Let us explore the question of validity in relation to empirical scientific work of
contextual significance (research done according to a qualitative methodology) and
validity in relation to empirical scientific work of universal or generalised significance
(research done according to a quantitative methodology).
We know from experience that (almost) everything that is said and every question that
is asked is said or asked in a certain context. If we ignore this context we run the risk of
misconstruing or misinterpreting what has been said or asked. The more complete the
context, the clearer the meaning of what has been said or asked. Not only the things
we say but also our actions are contextual, including actions that are not accompanied
by words. Raising a wine glass, for example, could be any of the following actions,
depending on the context: drinking a toast, clinching a deal or participating in a
religious ceremony.
From this it should be evident that scientific work has both contextual significance and
a more representative or universal significance in the lifeworld. There is no rigid
separation between the two kinds of significance. It would be more correct to say that
the contextual significance and the universal significance of science are actually two
poles of a continuum. In the case of contextual scientific work (research), a
phenomenon is studied in its immediate context for the sake of its intrinsic significance
for that researcher. Examples of contextual research of contextual significance are
studies in the human sciences which are aimed at researching an individual case,
group or subculture in depth. Familiar instances in the criminological disciplines are
studies of specific phenomena or groups such as gangs, prostitutes and bank robbers,
with the aim of giving an in-depth description and explanation of the particular
phenomenon or group in the unique context where it occurs. Research of contextual
significance concentrates on internal validity, implying that these studies produce
accurate, realistic findings of the research object. To the extent that these studies offer
explanations, we speak of contextual explanation. Consider the example of the
humanist researcher who studied the phenomenon of gangs in prisons (study unit
1.2).
91 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .3 . .1
When scientists study phenomena for the sake of their universal significance, they
want their research object to be a representative example of a larger group or
population of similar phenomena. Often the aim of this kind of research is to study a
representative group of phenomena or people and then to generalise the findings of
the study to a (circumscribed) population. Hence the significance of these generalising
studies is not determined by the uniqueness of the research group. In fact, the
research group is chosen precisely because it is representative of a larger population.
So what we have is a sample of the total population. To produce universal results, the
sample must be representative. When the findings of such a study can be generalised
to all similar cases, these findings can lay claim to external (universal) validity (as well
as internal validity). It follows that the range of explanation of this kind of study is
universal. Consider the example of the positivist researcher who studied the
phenomenon of gangs in prisons (study unit 1.2).
A c t i v i t y

. to distinguish between internal and external validity
Guidelines
Study-read the information above on internal and external validity and research
of contextual and universal significance. Below is a diagram representing the
key concepts. Complete the diagram by filling in the missing information.
VALIDITY
................................. ..................................
VALIDITY VALIDITY
Conceptual validity
or theoretical validity
................................
................................
A scientific requirement
for research of
.......................................
significance
Content validity or
................................
................................
Logical validity or
.................................
.................................
. . . . . . . . . . . 92
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 1
F e e d b a c k
. Your completed diagram should have looked like this:
VALIDITY
INTERNAL EXTERNAL
VALIDITY VALIDITY
Conceptual validity
or theoretical validity
A scientific requirement
for research of
universal/general
significance
Content validity or
validity of
measurement
Logical validity or
inferential validity
The term ‘‘reliability’’ normally refers to the repeatability of studies and research results
by other researchers who use the same methods and techniques in similar research
situations. Reliability implies that both the researcher or research team and the
research object are characterised by a high degree of stability. (The stability of the
observer or the research object cannot always be assumed.) There is a difference
between external and internal reliability.
. External reliability relates to the repeatability of studies and research findings.
. Internal reliability requires consensus among researchers about what happened in a
research project and about the exact results of a piece of research.
3.1.3 How do we test the validity of knowledge?

Positivist researchers and supporters of quantitative research methodology tend to
emphasise the testability of knowledge. For the validity of knowledge to be testable,
that knowledge has to meet certain requirements (known as scientific requirements).
To make it possible for scientists to test or control knowledge (in their search for true,
certain or valid knowledge), that knowledge usually has to meet the following three
93 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .3 . .1
requirements:
. . . . . . . . . . . 94
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 1
. The way in which the knowledge was obtained must be repeatable (reliable). The
scientist’s method (arguments, choice of research object, data collection, analysis,
interpretation of results, and findings) should be accessible to other scientists for
careful critical evaluation. For example, if we say, ‘‘All water boils when it is heated
to a certain temperature’’, we are making a universal statement. This is acceptable,
because the statement can be tested at any time simply by heating water to that
temperature. If this were not possible, the statement would not be scientifically valid.
. Knowledge must be obtained through systematic observation.
. Data must be collected in a controlled way.

..........................................................
(a) Define the concepts below. In each case, write just one sentence.
(i) Laws of logic:
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(ii) A priori:
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(b) Explain the following principles. In each case, your answer should not be
longer than eight lines.
(i) Principle of identity
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(ii) Principle of non-contradiction

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(iii) Principle of rationality

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. . . . . . . . . . . 94
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 1
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(iv) Principle of cohesion

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(c) The following sentences relate to the concept ‘‘validity’’. Complete each
sentence by filling in the key terms or concepts.
(i) There are two kinds of validity, namely .................................. and
................................... validity.
(ii) Internal validity refers to
..........................................................................................................
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(iii) External validity refers to

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(d) Write each of the terms or phrases from the list below on the dotted line
below the sentence that best defines its meaning:
. inductive argument
. validity of measurement
. conceptual validity
. deductive argument
. inferential validity
(i) Concepts should accurately express the things that are being
investigated.
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(ii) The conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.

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95 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .3 . .1
(iii) It becomes an issue when measuring instruments or observation
schedules are used.
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(iv) It relates to the extent to which research results can be deduced

logically from the research setup.
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(v) The premises offer only probable support for the conclusion.
..........................................................................................................
(e) Draw a line connecting each of the terms in column A with the term in
column B that has the same meaning.
Column A Column B
logical validity theoretical validity
conceptual validity validity of measurement
content validity inferential validity
(f) The following sentences relate to the concept ‘‘reliability’’. Complete each
sentence by filling in the missing information.
(i) Reliability refers to the ............................................................. of
studies and the ..................................................... of research
results by other researchers in similar research situations.
(ii) Reliability implies that .................. the researcher and the
.................... and the ................................ are characterised by a
high degree of stability.
(iii) Repeatability of studies and repeatability of research findings
indicates ................................................. similar research situations.
(g) State three requirements for the testability of scientific knowledge.

...................................................................................................................
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(h) Complete the following sentences by filling in the missing information.

(i) Attempts to prove a hypothesis to be true are known as ..................
(ii) Attempts to prove a hypothesis to be false are known as ..................
Summary
In this study unit we discussed the most important traditional laws of logic or
fundamental rules of reasoning, as well as the concepts ‘‘validity’’ and ‘‘reliability’’. The
next study unit deals with the levels of measurement.
. . . . . . . . . . . 96
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 1
STUDY UNIT
3.2
Levels of measurement
In criminological research there are four levels of measurement of empirical data,

namely the nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio levels (Hoover 1984:104; Brown &
Curtis 1987:61; Phillips 1976:145, 149).
. identify the four levels of measurement of empirical data
3.2.1 The nominal level of measurement

This is the ‘‘lowest’’ (simplest) level of measurement. Van der Westhuizen (1982:94)
defines it as the allocation of numerical values to persons, things, cases or concepts
according to the rule that each person, thing or concept receives exactly the same
value rating in order to determine its presence or absence. In this type of
measurement all cases are arranged according to different categories or character-
istics in order of the frequency in which they occur (Huysamen 1976:13). In this way,
each case is placed in only one category (Corbetta 2003:71). The categories are
mutually exclusive. The only distinction between the categories is that they differ, for
instance, with regard to race, sex and marital status. Nominal measurements of this
kind have no quantitative value, and mathematical functions cannot be used to
manipulate them. Race can, after all, be measured only as race. There are no other
categories in which it can be measured. One of the most common inferential statistical
techniques applied at the nominal measurement level by criminologists is the chi-
square (Brown & Curtis 1987:61–62). The chi-square reveals whether the differences
that occur are coincidental or whether they can indeed be linked to the characteristics
that are being measured. We will elaborate on this important statistical technique and
give a practical example in theme 5, study unit 5.4.
3.2.2 The ordinal level of measurement

This level of measurement is somewhat more complicated. It is based on principles of
identity, discrepancy, and an excluded mean value (Phillips 1976:146). It arranges the
data in classes from highest to lowest (Van der Westhuizen 1982:101). An example is
social class, which is divided into upper, middle and lower classes (Corbetta 2003:71).
When we arrange police officers in order of rank, such as sergeant, lieutenant and
captain, we are applying the ordinal level of measurement. In ordinal measurement
there is no definition of the distances between the categories. Therefore, mathematical
functions cannot be applied to ordinal measurements (Brown & Curtis 1987:62).
97 . . S.t .u d. y .u .n .i t .3 .. 2.
3.2.3 Interval measurements
In interval measurements there is a fixed and constant distance between each point of
measurement (Phillips 1976:146; Corbetta 2003:72). Van der Westhuizen (1982:106)
states that this involves the allocation of identical numerical values to differences of
variable degrees, so that the intensity of the occurrence of the particular features of
people, things and phenomena can be measured. There is no absolute zero.
Intelligence measurements can be taken by means of interval measurements. Interval
measurements are a good way of measuring crime trends. Inferential statistical
techniques can be used to manipulate such data without their losing their meaning.
The correlation coefficient in particular is applied in this case (Brown & Curtis
1987:62). Smit (1983:209) states that interval measurements also indicate how much
one category differs from another.
3.2.4 Ratio measurements

Ratio measurements have equal intervals and an absolute zero (Van der Westhuizen
1982:114). They include all the features of nominal, ordinal and interval measure-
ments (Phillips 1976:147). Van der Westhuizen (1982:114) states that in ratio
measurement particular variations in degree of the characteristics of people, things
and phenomena are arranged in such a manner that the ratios between the different
variations of degree can be included. Victimisation investigations can therefore
produce data that stretch from zero to any maximum frequency. Normally the interval
and ratio measurements are used together in criminological research.
Hoover (1984:105) illustrates the measurement levels in the figure below.
Level of measure- Function Illustration Example

ment
Nominal Classify Xhosa/Zulu Ethnicity
Ordinal Classify and Order Lower/Middle/High Classes
Interval Classify 10 BC 10 AD Time divisions

Order 98 8C Temperature
Standardise
Ratio Classify Order 02/20/30 Income

Standardise Age
Absolute zero Weight
Distance
FIGURE 3.4: The nature of measurement levels
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the four levels of measurement
Guidelines
Study-read the information above, making sure that you understand how each
level is relevant to criminological research.
. . . . . . . . . . . 98
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 2
Summary
In this unit we discussed the four levels of measurement. The next study unit deals
with the measures of central tendency.
• • •• • • •• • • •
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 2
STUDY UNIT
3.3
Measures of central tendency
Objects of the same kind may vary in terms of their dimensions and characteristics.
We therefore tend to measure a reasonable number of objects if we want to find out
something useful about them. To describe the scores of a data set, we use those
measures that best represent a frequency distribution. We count the number of times
that a data value is obtained in a sample of scores, or we refer to a table. The
measures that describe scores that we will be discussing here are the mode, the
median and the mean.
. identify the three measures of central tendency
3.3.1 The mode

The mode is the score that occurs most commonly in a distribution, or the category
with the highest frequency. In table 3.1, Frequency Distribution Prisoners Executed
1977–1995, in your prescribed book (Vito, Blankenship & Kunselman 2008:64) the
mode is 0. This is because 24 states (as indicated in the f column and as 0 in the X
column) did not execute a single convicted offender between 1977 and 1995. Note
that the mode is not 104, which is the highest number in column X reflecting the
number of prisoners executed in one state. Neither is it 24, which is the highest
number in column f, representing the number of states. The mode is 0 because it is the
score linked with the greatest number of cases in the f column.
. . . . . . . . . . . 100
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 3
TABLE 3.1: Frequency Distribution Prisoners Executed 1977–1995
X (Number of f (Number of states fX (f times X)

prisoners executed) that executed X
prisoners)
104 1 104
36 1 36
29 1 29
22 1 22
20 1 20
17 1 17
12 1 12
11 1 11
8 1 8
7 1 7
6 1 6
5 3 15
4 3 12
3 1 3
2 3 6
1 5 5
0 24 0
N = 50 'ƒx = 313
Source: Vito et al 2008:64
A frequency distribution may have more than one mode. For example, if another value
(number of executions) had a frequency of 24 in table 3.1, it would also have been the
mode. If a frequency distribution has two modes we say that it is bimodal, and if it has
more than two modes we say that it is multimodal. The mode occurs in or near the
centre of a distribution, but it can occur anywhere in the distribution and indicates the
responses or categories that occur most frequently. The simplest way of determining
the mode is to construct a frequency table from a data set, and then construct a
polygon or histogram. This will not only indicate the mode, but will also show whether
the distribution is uni-modal (whether there is only one mode), bimodal or multimodal.
3.3.2 The median

The median is the middlemost score in a data set that has been ranked from lowest to
highest, like the one below. In this case the total number of observations is 13. Half the
observations fall above the median, and half fall below it. The median can also be
calculated by adding 1 to the total number of cases, and dividing the result by 2.
47, 48, 48, 49, 49, 50, 50, 50, 51, 51, 52, 52, 53
In the ranked series above, the middle 50 is the median because there is an equal
number of ranked figures on either side of it.
Have another look at table 3.1 above. The data on executions were collected from 50
states (f column). If we apply the formula, (50 + 1) 2 = 25.5. Counting from the
bottom of the f column, we see that 24 jurisdictions did not execute any prisoners
during the period 1977 to 1995. Next we see that 5 jurisdictions executed 1 prisoner
during that period. Therefore, the median (25.5) falls within the category 1, and shows
that about 26 (almost half) of the jurisdictions executed 1 or 0 prisoners between 1977
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 3
and 1995 (Vito et al 2008:64–66). These authors also explain that one of the
101 . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 100
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 3
characteristics of the median is its stability, because it is unaffected by extreme
scores. If one jurisdiction had executed 1 000 prisoners, it would be just one more
state in the frequency distribution. This shows that the median is calculated by
considering the number of cases, not their value. Even though the execution of 1 000
prisoners would make this jurisdiction the leading state in terms of the number of
executions, it would not affect the median. Like the mode, the median does not take
into account the magnitude of the scores on either side of it, and so it is not always a
very suitable figure to represent data. However, in data sets where there are a few
very extreme scores, the median is a better estimate of central tendency than the
mean. For example, the median would be a better estimate of the typical income of
people in a country.
3.3.3 The mean

The mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It is simply the sum of
the numbers divided by the number of numbers in a data set. The mean is also known
as the average.
The mean is the preferred measure of central tendency because it takes all the
observed values into account in deriving an estimate. Ideally it should be used only
with interval data, but in practice it is frequently used for ordinal and nominal data. The
researcher must be cautious in interpreting results.
Table 3.1 in your prescribed book shows that a total of 313 prisoners were executed in
the United States between 1977 and 1995, and as we have already noted, there were
50 jurisdictions. The mean obtained by dividing 313 by 50 is 6.26. We can interpret this
by reporting that each state executed an average of 6 prisoners during the period 1977
to 1995. The authors of your prescribed book point out that unlike the mode and
median, the mean is sensitive to extreme cases either very high or very low in a
distribution. They use the example of the Texas jurisdiction, where 104 prisoners were
executed between 1977 and 1995. This was an extreme score in this distribution,
since in the next closest jurisdiction 36 prisoners were executed, representing a
substantial difference of 68 prisoners. Bear in mind that the median for this distribution
was only 1, reflected in the fact that half the jurisdictions executed one prisoner or no
prisoners at all. The number of executions in Texas drove up the average number of
prisoners executed over the same period. Therefore, the mean of 6.26 was 5 points
above the median.
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the three measures of central tendency
Guidelines
Study-read the information above and make sure you know how to identify and
interpret the three measures of central tendency in criminological research.
. . . . . . . . . . . 102
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 3
Summary
In this study unit we discussed the three measures of central tendency. The next study
unit deals with measures of dispersion.
Study unit 3.3

• • •• • • •• • • •
Study unit 3.3

STUDY UNIT
3.4
Measures of dispersion
Measures of dispersion are also known as measures of variability. These measures

describe how scores are distributed around certain central tendency values. Look at
the following example of two sets of scores. The means are the same for both
distributions, but the scores are distributed differently, being more or less scattered
around the same point.
Distribution 1: 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65
Distribution 2: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110
In both distributions, the mean is 60. However, the scores in distribution 1 are more
closely distributed around the mean of 60, while the scores in distribution 2 are more
sparsely distributed around 60. In order to maximise our descriptive information about
any array of scores, we must know both the central tendency and its dispersion. We
will briefly discuss measures of dispersion such as the index of dispersion for nominal
levels of measurement, the range for ordinal levels and standard deviation for interval-
ratio levels of measurement.
. discuss the index of dispersion for nominal levels of measurement
. explain the range of ordinal levels and standard deviation for interval-ratio levels of
measurement.
3.4.1 Index of dispersion

The index of dispersion is a value between 0 and 1, and is used mainly when analysing
nominal data; however, in exceptional circumstances it can also be used for ordinal
level data. The value of 0 or approximate 0 is the index of dispersion when one
category of a variable appears in most cases. This value means that the data have
minimal dispersion or variability. However, when the value is 1 or close to 1, the
frequencies of the variable categories are more equally dispersed, and this value
means that the cases have maximum dispersion or variability. The example in your
prescribed book illustrates clearly that in a room of 20 individuals – all of them male
there is no variability and the index of dispersion would be 0. But if there were 10
males and 10 females in the room, then the index of dispersion would be 1, as each
category of the variable gender (male and female) contains an equal number for
maximum variability across the categories.
3.4.2 The range

The range is the difference between the smallest and the largest values in a set. Look
at the following series of values, where the mean (m) is 28.
. . . . . . . . . . . 104
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 4
26, 27, 27, 28, 28, 28, 29, 29, 30
12, 16, 20, 24, 26, 30, 34, 40, 50
4, 8, 12, 20, 28, 30, 36, 50, 64
The ranges of these three series are:

30–26 = 4
50–12 = 38
64–4 = 60
From one point of view, these numerical data do provide a measure of the dispersion
of the data. However, they do not take into account the number of scores. It is evident
that the value would be seriously affected by a single large or small score at the ends
of the data series. The range has limited use, and so ordinal or higher data are
required. This point is also made in the examples in tables 5.1 and 5.2 of your
prescribed book.
TABLE 5.1: Number of Prior Arrests for Drug Offenses Among Tuesday’s Drug Court
Clients
X f fX X fx2
(X – the
mean)
6 1 6 2 4
5 1 5 1 1
4 1 4 0 0
3 1 3 -1 1
2 1 2 -2 4
N=5 'ƒx=20 'x=2 'ƒx=10
TABLE 5.2: Number of Homicides Committed in 30 Cities in the State (pop > 50 000)
X f fX X x2 fx2
(X – the
mean)
10 1 10 5.1 26.01 26.01

9 2 18 4.1 16.81 33.62
8 3 24 3.1 9.61 28.83
7 1 7 2.1 4.41 4.41
6 2 12 1.1 1.21 2.42
5 12 60 0.1 0.01 0.12
4 1 4 -0.9 0.81 0.81
3 1 3 -1.9 3.61 3.61
2 3 6 -2.9 8.41 25.23
1 2 2 -3.9 15.21 30.42
0 2 0 -4.9 24.01 48.02
N=30 Sƒx=146 ƒx2=203.5
105 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .3 . .4
Table 5.1 shows a frequency distribution of the number of prior arrests for drug
offences. We see that in the X column the highest number of prior arrests for drug
offences was 6 and the lowest was 2. Therefore, the range was 4. Table 5.2 presents
data on the number of murders committed in 30 cities in the state with a population
larger than 50,000 (pop > 50,000). We note that the highest number of murders was
10 and the lowest was 0, so the range was 10 (10 – 0). Both these examples involve
range calculations using ratio level data, namely ‘‘the number of prior arrests’’ and ‘‘the
number of homicides committed’’. The authors argue that the data in table 5.2 were
grouped in categories by city population such as: 50,001–60,000; 60,001–70,000, and
continue until 150,001–160,000. They maintain: ‘‘Though the range in the number of
murders among these cities is 10, we may also interpret the range by city population,
for example, ‘‘the greatest difference in the number of homicides is between cities with
70–80,000 and 100–110,000 people.’’ This interpretation is possible when data are
ordinal level data or frequencies are presented using grouped data’’ (Vito et al
2008:81).
3.4.3 The variance and the standard deviation

More precise and more commonly used measures of dispersion are the variance and
the standard deviation. The variance gives us a sense of how closely concentrated a
set of values is around the mean value, and is calculated as follows:
1. Subtract the mean of the distribution from each of the values.
2. Square each result.
3. Add all of the squared results.
4. Divide the result by the number of values minus 1.
We will calculate the variance of the first set of values we used in section 3.4.2, which
is reproduced below.
26, 27, 27, 28, 28, 28, 29, 29, 30 (the mean (m) = 28)
Here is the calculation.

Variance = [(26 – 28)2+ (27 – 28)2 + (27 – 28)2 + (28 – 28)2 + (28 – 28)2 +
(28 – 28)2 + (29 – 28)2 + (29 – 28)2 + (30 – 28)2] 7 8 = 1.5
The variance of a distribution gives us the average of how far, in squared units, the
values in a distribution are from the mean. This allows us to see how closely
concentrated the scores in a distribution are.
Another measure of the spread of values around the mean of a distribution is the
standard deviation. The standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance.
Therefore, the standard deviation for the set of values is:
pffi 1.5 = 1.22
The variance and the standard deviation of distributions are the basis for calculating
many other statistics that estimate associations and differences between variables. In
addition, they provide us with important information about the values in a distribution.
For example, if the distribution of values is normal, or close to normal, we can conclude
the following:
1. Approximately 68% of the values fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
. . . . . . . . . . . 106
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 4
2. Approximately 95% of the values fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
3. Approximately 99% of the values fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean.
Therefore, assuming that the distribution is normal, we can estimate that because the
mean was 28 and the standard deviation was 1.22, approximately 68% of the
respondents are within approximately 1.22 (1 standard deviation) of the mean of 28.
Likewise, we can estimate that 95% of the respondents are within 2.44 (2 standard
deviations) of the mean of 28. This information has several important applications for
the researcher. It allows the researcher first to describe the overall characteristics of a
sample, second to compare individual respondents on a given variable (for example
gender), and third to compare an individual participant’s performance on one variable.
In your prescribed book the authors explain how to calculate the variance and
standard deviation by using the data in tables 5.1 and 5.2. Make sure that you
understand how the variance of 2 and the standard deviation of 1.41 are calculated by
using the data in table 5.1. Also make sure that you understand how the variance of
6.8 and the standard deviation of 2.6 are calculated by using the data in table 5.2.
Remember that the variance is the mean of the distribution of squared deviation
scores and the standard deviation is the square root of the variance. Also use State
Data Set I from your CD to calculate measures of dispersion for the variable
‘‘Prisoners executed between 1977 and 1995’’ using the SPSS. Follow the seven
steps listed in the prescribed book (Vito et al 2008:81–89).
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the measures of dispersion
Guidelines
Study-read the information in the section above and make sure that you know
how to identify and interpret the measures of dispersion in criminological
research.
Summary
In this unit we discussed the measure of dispersion. The next study unit deals with
hypothesis and levels of statistical significance.
107 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .3 . .4
STUDY UNIT
3.5
Hypotheses and levels of statistical

significance

. understand the stating of hypotheses and the concept of significance
. distinguish between the two types of hypotheses
Introduction
A hypothesis is an assumption or expectation about differences in the population or
relationships among variables. We get a better idea of the purpose of the hypothesis
by looking at the meaning of the Greek origin of the word. The compound Greek word
hypo-thesis means a sub-statement, or a proposition underlying a theory. The
hypothesis is the basis for a model, and a model is a road map for research. The
hypothesis lets us make new discoveries. A hypothesis is often described as the
researcher’s attempt to explain the phenomenon of interest. The hypothesis can take
various forms, depending on the question being asked and the type of study being
conducted. A hypothesis must make a prediction or predictions, usually about the
relationship between two or more variables. It should then be tested, and to do this the
researcher must gather and analyse data. After that, the hypothesis can be either
accepted (supported) or rejected (falsified). A prediction can be defined as a
description of things or events that have not yet occurred and have not yet been
observed. Scientific predictions are based on existing (tested) knowledge, and relate
to scientists’ ability to give universal explanations of phenomena.
A hypothesis is an assumption that is used as a basis for an argument or for empirical
research. Scientists have to test or prove hypotheses before they can claim that their
knowledge is certain or valid. Scientists therefore try to verify their hypotheses (in
other words, prove that their hypotheses are true). For example, a scientist can
formulate the following hypothesis: ‘‘Children whose parents are divorced commit
crime.’’ This scientist will then study a number of children of divorced parents.
Suppose the scientist finds that each of these children has committed crime. The
scientist will then generalise this finding to include all children whose parents are
divorced. This is an example of induction.
Induction always contains an element of doubt, and the scientist cannot prove the
hypothesis conclusively because it is not possible to observe all cases, present, past
and future (think of our example of children whose parents are divorced). Researchers
therefore proposed that hypotheses should be tested by falsifying them (proving them
false). So, in our example of children of divorced parents and crime, if we find one
case of a child with divorced parents who has not committed crime, then the
hypothesis has definitely been falsified. In this case falsification is deductively valid,
. . . . . . . . . . . 108
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 5
because we have argued as follows: if hypothesis is H, then observation O follows. (If
my hypothesis is correct and I study children of divorced parents, I will find that they
commit crime.) But O does not follow (not all children of divorced parents commit
crime). H is therefore false. That is a valid deductive argument.
Because falsification is deductive, some scientists are of the view that it is better to
falsify hypotheses than to verify them. In falsification scientists do not try to affirm their
own statements (hypotheses) or those of other scientists; instead they look for
evidence against these statements. Until this evidence is found, they assume that the
statements are true with a certain degree of probability. The greater the number of
unsuccessful attempts to falsify the hypothesis, the greater the probability that the
statement (‘‘children whose parents are divorced commit crime’’) is true. This
approach is more modest than verification, because it recognises or assumes that a
scientist’s statements may be wrong despite all the information that is available at that
time.
Regardless of what criterion of validity we apply, the testability of scientific knowledge
is always important. Empirically testable or operationalised concepts and hypotheses
remain the ideals of scientific research. However, scientific work must always allow
scope for statements that cannot be empirically proven. In the human sciences,
scientifically justified theorising also occurs in ways that are not empirically and
statistically testable.
3.5.1 Types of hypotheses

There are two types of hypotheses, namely the null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative
or research hypothesis (H1). The null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no
differences between the groups being studied, as, for example, in research studies
involving two groups of participants. However, if a particular research study does not
involve groups of study participants, but instead involves just an examination of
selected variables, the null hypothesis predicts that there will be no relationship
between the variables being studied. By contrast, the alternative hypothesis predicts
that there will be a difference between groups being studied or a relationship between
the variables being studied.
To get a better idea of the difference between null hypotheses and alternative
hypotheses, let us take an opinion poll of the public’s attitude regarding the
controversial topic of capital punishment as an example. The aim of the research is
to find out whether people are in favour of the death sentence, or are in favour of its
abolition. The public’s reaction will be measured, taking into account variables such as
education, age, race, sex, religion, occupation and marital status. The independent
variables are already present in the background data of the people being questioned.
The dependent variable is their opinion regarding the imposition of the death
sentence. This can be stated in the null hypothesis (H0) as follows:
There is no relationship between a person’s background and his or her attitude toward
the imposition of the death sentence.
The research hypothesis (H1) will be stated as follows:
There is a relationship between a person’s background and his or her attitude toward
the imposition of the death sentence.
When our actual results show a very low probability if the null hypothesis is true, we
have some empirical support for our alternative hypothesis. At this point we need to
109 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .3 . .5
realise that if we reject the null hypothesis when our observed results show a low
probability, we are taking a risk. Although the results are unlikely to have occurred by
chance under the null hypothesis, there is a remote possibility that they may have
occurred by chance in this particular instance. This remote possibility, or in statistical
terms low probability, shows how important it is to carry out repeated or cross
validation studies.
In quantitative studies a researcher or a team of researchers tends to include several
null and alternative hypotheses. The number of null and alternative hypotheses
included in a particular study will depend on the scope and complexity of the study and
the specific questions the researchers are asking. It is important to bear in mind that
the number of hypotheses has implications for the number of people who will be
participating in the study. As the number of hypotheses increases, the number of
participants needed also increases.
3.5.2 Levels of statistical significance

The level of significance will lead us to either reject or retain the null hypothesis. This
level can be set at any value the researcher chooses before the research project
begins. There are three levels that are commonly adopted, namely the .05 level, the
.01 level and the .001 level. A significance level of .05 means that we run the risk of
making a type 1 error 5 times out of 100. A type 1 error means that the null hypothesis
is rejected when it is in fact true. A significance level of .01 reduces the risk of making a
type 1 error to 1 time in 100. The highest level of significance for our purposes is the
.001 level, which reduces the risk of making a type 1 error even further, to 1 in 1 000.
In statistical thinking we never speak of proving or disproving a hypothesis; instead,
we speak of either retaining it or rejecting it. Owing to the uncertainty regarding the null
hypothesis, we can only accept or reject it within the set limits of probability. Having
stated the null hypothesis, we can then apply one of the statistical techniques to the
data. If the technique reveals that the difference between two variables would manifest
with a probability greater than 0.05 (p > 0.05), this would be considered a common
event, and the null hypothesis should be retained. This means that we accept the
assumption that there is no significant difference between the two variables. If the
statistical technique indicates that the difference between the variables or the sample
means would occur with a probability of 0.05 or less (p < 0.05), this would be
considered an uncommon occurrence, and therefore the null hypothesis should be
rejected. We can thus state that there is probably a significant difference between the
variables.
What is the value of the data where the difference between two means has a
probability of 10% (p < 0.10 and p > .005) and we have set the upper limit of
significance at the 5% (p < .005) probability level? The data definitely has value, but
we place less confidence in the difference. We also bear in mind that although
statisticians have laid down permissible levels of error, it is ultimately up to the
researcher to set his or her own levels. For example Siegel (1954) considered and set
the permissible level for his research projects at 10%.
A c t i v i t y

. to understand the stating of hypotheses and the concept of significance
. . . . . . . . . . . 10
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 5
Guidelines
Study-read the information above and ensure that you know how to set
hypotheses and appropriate levels of significance.

..........................................................
(a) Explain what a hypothesis is.
(b) Formulate a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis and discuss
their rejection or retention.
Summary
In this theme we firstly elaborated on the important concepts of validity and reliability.
This was followed by the four levels of measurement and the measures of central
tendencies and dispersion. The last study unit dealt with the types of hypotheses and
the concomitant levels of statistical significance. The next study unit deals with the
design and planning of the research process.
111 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .3 . .5
THEME 3
Study unit 3.1
(a) Define the concepts below. In each case, write just one sentence.
(i) Laws of logic:
Thought (or reasoning) is valid (logical) when it does not conflict with the rules
of reasoning (or laws of logic).
(ii) A priori:
This means that they are not learnt from experience, but are instead accepted
as given.
(b) Explain the following principles. In each case, your answer should not be longer
than eight lines.
(i) Principle of identity
This rule requires that we should in all instances of reasoning use a term
consistently in the same way or with the same meaning.
Example: A = A. When we say that A = A, we are not providing any
additional information about A except that the term is repeated. It implies that
if we do add something to A or omit something from A, then we are no longer
speaking about A. So when I say A = A, I am also saying that A remains A in
all situations. A remains the same in spite of changes that happen around A.
(ii) Principle of non-contradiction

We can express this rule as follows: A cannot be both B and non-B at the
same time; we cannot both affirm and negate something simultaneously. For
example, a chair cannot be both grey and not grey at the same time.
The principle of non-contradiction tells us that the same thing cannot at the
same time both have and not have certain characteristics; the same
statement cannot be true and false at the same time.
(iii) Principle of rationality

The basic axiom or rule is the following: any existing thing or true statement
must have sufficient reason for being the way it is and not some other way.
For example, we have to give reasons, justification or corroboration to prove
that a statement or argument is true or valid.
(iv) Principle of cohesion

The truth of a statement (e.g. an argument) depends on its cohesion with
other statements. This principle relates to analysis and synthesis. Whereas
analysis refers to taking a phenomenon apart, synthesis refers to establishing
a relation between the cohering parts.
The logical principle of cohesion relates to synthesis. Knowledge should not
be broken up into separate parts, because then there is a danger that words,
ideas and statements may become meaningless. In the lifeworld, too, things
do not exist atomistically, but occur in contexts and relationships which give
meaning to the individual things.
. . . . . . . . . . . 112
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 5
The statement, ‘‘this person is a criminal’’, for example, can only be
meaningful in relation to what precedes it and what follows is. (Has the person
committed a crime? What was the nature of the crime? Has the person been
convicted by a court? and so on.)
(c) The following sentences relate to the concept ‘‘validity’’. Complete each sentence
by filling in the key terms or concepts.
(i) There are two kinds of validity, namely internal and external validity.
(ii) Internal validity refers to validity within the research process or project.
Internal validity includes three kinds of validity: conceptual validity, content
validity and inferential validity.
. Some aspects of a study object may be only partially or not at all accessible
through sense perception, for example attitudes to the death penalty and
fear of crime. You would research aspects like these by means of
theoretical and hypothetical concepts in, for example, a questionnaire. In
the following cases you could claim conceptual validity:
– if the concepts (e.g. items in a questionnaire) accurately express the
aspect that you are investigating (e.g. fear of crime)
– if the meaning of the concept really captures and reflects the meaning of
the aspect that you are investigating (see conceptualisation and
operationalisation in theme 4)
– Conceptual validity is sometimes called theoretical validity.
. Content validity (validity of measurement) usually becomes an issue when

measuring instruments (e.g. questionnaires) or observation schedules
are used. The following questions have to be answered: Are the
instruments suitable for examining the study object? Do they really test
and measure what they are supposed to test and measure?
. Inferential (or logical) validity refers to the extent to which research
results can be logically inferred from the research setup. One question is
whether the research data offer enough evidence or support to allow us to
draw certain conclusions according to the laws of logic. Since inferential
validity refers to the validity of logical arguments in scientific work, we
should briefly explain the difference between inductive and deductive
arguments. A logical argument (in which statements are made to support
or corroborate certain conclusions that are drawn) consists of two parts:
statements made to support or prove a conclusion (premises); and the
conclusion itself. We can represent a typical argument schematically as
follows:
(iii) External validity refers to the generalisation of the findings and conclusions of
a study to a larger group of similar phenomena. (We are speaking of research
or scientific work of universal or generalised/representative significance.) Not
all research has to meet the requirement of external validity (e.g. qualitative
research or scientific work of contextual significance need not be externally
valid).
(d) Write each of the terms or phrases from the list below on the dotted line below the
sentence that best defines its meaning.
. inductive argument
. validity of measurement
113 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .3 . .5
. conceptual validity
. deductive argument
. inferential validity
(i) Concepts should accurately express the things that are being investi-
gated.
Conceptual validity
(ii) The conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.
Deductive argument
(iii) It becomes an issue when measuring instruments or observation
schedules are used.
Validity of measurement
(iv) It relates to the extent to which research results can be deduced logically
from the research setup.
Inferential validity
(v) The premises offer only probable support for the conclusion.
Inductive argument
(e) Draw a line connecting each of the terms in column A with the term in column B
that has the same meaning.
Column A Column B
logical validity inferential validity
conceptual validity theoretical validity
content validity validity of measurement
(f) The following sentences relate to the concept ‘‘reliability’’. Complete each sentence
by filling in the missing information.
(i) Reliability refers to the repeatability of studies and the research results by
other researchers in similar research situations.
(ii) Reliability implies that both the researcher(s) and the research team and the
research object are characterised by a high degree of stability
(iii) Repeatability of studies and repeatability of research findings indicates other
researcher who use the same methods and techniques in similar research
situations.
(g) State three requirements for the testability of scientific knowledge.

. The way in which the knowledge was obtained must be repeatable (reliable).
The scientist’s method (arguments, choice of research object, data collection,
analysis, interpretation of results, and findings) should be accessible to other
scientists for careful critical evaluation. For example, if we say, ‘‘All water boils
when it is heated to a certain temperature’’, we are making a universal
statement. This is acceptable, because the statement can be tested at any time
simply by heating water to that temperature. If this were not possible, the
statement would not be scientifically valid.
. Knowledge must be obtained through systematic observation.
. Data must be collected in a controlled way.
(h) Complete the following sentences by filling in the missing information.

(i) Attempts to prove a hypothesis to be true are known as induction.
(ii) Attempts to prove a hypothesis to be false are known as deductive.
. . . . . . . . . . . 114
S t u d y u n i t 3 . 5
Study unit 3.5
(a) Explain what a hypothesis is.
A hypothesis is an assumption or expectation about differences in the population
or relationships among variables
(b) Formulate a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis and discuss their
rejection or retention.
The null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no differences between the
groups being studied, as for example in research studies involving two groups of
participants. However, if a particular research study does not involve groups of
study participants, but instead involves just an examination of selected variables,
the null hypothesis predicts that there will be no relationship between the variables
being studied. By contrast, the alternative hypothesis predicts that there will be a
difference between groups being studied or a relationship between the variables
being studied.
115 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .3 . .5
THEME
4
Research process: design and

planning
Introduction
To understand what research design and planning are, you need to have a good grasp
of what design and planning in other contexts entail. In most contexts, the goal of
design and planning is to avoid possible mistakes before the actual work is done, and
this also applies to research in the human sciences. Research design and planning
are aimed at preventing mistakes before a research project is undertaken. Research in
the human sciences is subject to errors, which are called ‘‘invalidities’’. Invalidity
means that an observation or analysis of social problems and so on may be inaccurate
or incorrect. We could therefore describe research design and planning as the
blueprint of a proposed research project.
One of the aims of research in the human sciences is to find solutions to human
problems and to determine the facts. Before they can carry out these two actions,
researchers must determine exactly what they want to study, and they must decide
what will be the best way of conducting the study. These decisions fall within the scope
of research design and planning.
The content of this theme is dealt with in the following study units:
Study unit 4.1: Research design: towards formulating the problem
4.1.1 Decision-making steps in the research process
4.1.2 Step 1: Choosing a research topic
4.1.3 Step 2: Formulating the problem
Study unit 4.2: Research design: data collection

4.2.1 Step 3: Data collection
Study unit 4.3: Research design: data processing and analysis

4.3.1 Step 4: Data processing and analysis
4.3.2 Step 5: Report writing
Key concepts
. Contract research. This type of research is sponsored by organisations and is
mainly problem-oriented.
. Self-initiated research. Type of research undertaken by researchers at their own
initiative.
. Units of analysis. These are major entities that are being analysed in a research
study.
117 . . . . . . .T .h e.m.e .4
. Research goal. It refers to the aim that research should pursue.
. Research strategy. It is a plan of action that gives direction to research efforts.
. Quantitative data collection. Collection of specific data in quantifiable form.
. Study of literature. It refers to the effective evaluation of a body of text on a research
topic
. Questionnaire. It is a list of research or survey questions asked of respondents and
designed to extract specific information.
. Quantitative data analysis. It refers to the use of mathematical and statistical
modelling to collated numerical data.
. Report writing. Putting in writing the findings of a research project.
A c t i v i t y

. to identify what can be researched and how a study is conducted
Guidelines
Suppose you are a student of the criminological disciplines and you are asked
to investigate government corruption in a particular country.
The topic is certainly relevant and worth investigating. However, you cannot begin until
you have asked certain questions and found answers to them.
. Answer the following questions:
– What interests me specifically as a researcher?
– What does ‘‘corruption’’ mean?
– What kinds of misconduct must be studied?
– What does ‘‘government’’ mean?
– Who should be studied?
That is, should I study

. all civil servants?
. only civilian employees?
. elected civil servants?
– What is the aim of the research?
– Must I determine the extent of corruption?
– Should I investigate why there is corruption?
First you had to decide what aspects of the topic you want to research. You had to
clarify the meaning of ‘‘corruption’’ and ‘‘government’’. You had to select the kinds of
conduct or misconduct that are relevant. The aim of the research had to be spelled
out. You had to ask all the other questions, like the extent of corruption and the
reasons for it. This activity shows why research design and planning are essential if
research is to proceed smoothly.
. . . . . . . . . . . 118
T h e m e 4
STUDY UNIT
4.1
Research design: towards formulating

the problem

. identify the decision-making steps in the research process
. discuss two types of research that help to determine the choice of a research topic
. formulate or state a research problem
4.1.1 Decision-making steps in the research process

In the human sciences, researchers have to carry out various decision-making steps
before they are able to systematically undertake a research project. These decision-
making steps have to be taken in logical sequence, and although we will discuss them
individually, they cannot really be considered in isolation from one another. Together,
these steps make up research design and planning. They are:
. step 1: choosing a research topic
. step 2: formulating the problem
. step 3: data collection
. step 4: data processing and analysis
. step 5: report writing
4.1.2 Step 1: Choosing a research topic

The researcher must choose what phenomena to study in the research domain or area
within his or her discipline. The motives or reasons for this choice are important.
. Self-initiated research
Research is done for various reasons. Often it is self-initiated, which means that
researchers undertake the study at their own initiative or of their own accord. There
are several reasons for undertaking self-initiated research. Researchers often do so
because they are intrigued or puzzled by an interesting phenomenon and want to
know more about it.
Another reason for self-initiated research is to test a theory. Existing theories have to
be tested in practice to either find provisional support for them or to refute them. The
119 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .4 . .1
results are accepted provisionally, because it is possible that some other theory might
explain the same phenomenon just as well. Typical examples of this are the many
criminological theories to explain the causes of crime.
Self-initiated research can also generate hypotheses. In that case it usually takes the
form of exploratory research in some unexplored research area. The aim is to
formulate new hypotheses when the research has been completed. These hypotheses
provide a starting point for future research.
. Contract research
Contract research is usually commissioned by organisations such as the Human
Sciences Research Council, government departments or private companies. These
organisations then sponsor or finance the research. In contract research the sponsor
normally determines the research topic. Contract research is mainly problem-oriented.
It looks for answers to problems that the sponsor is experiencing. Sponsors face
practical problems, so answers have to be found in the short term. This kind of
research is called action research.
A c t i v i t y

. to see how many options there are when choosing a research topic
Guidelines
Indicate which kind of research commission you would prefer.
Contract research Yes No
Self-initiated research Yes No
Choose any relevant research topic in criminology, penology or police science

and formulate it in one sentence.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
First you had to state whether you prefer contract research or self-initiated
research. Remember, though, that in practice researchers have to be available
for both kinds of research commissions. Your choice of a research commission
will partly determine your choice of a research topic. Review the research topic
that you have written down to make sure that it is relevant. The topic must be
formulated as briefly as possible and should contain only the essential
concepts.
. . . . . . . . . . . 120
S t u d y u n i t 4 . 1
4.1.3 Step 2: Formulating the problem
Formulating a problem that ought to be researched is a complicated part of research
design and planning. In step 1 we said that the fact that a research project is either
self-initiated or contracted can limit and determine the choice of a research topic.
There are also other points to consider before a researcher can finally formulate the
research problem. These are the units of analysis, the research goal and the research
strategy.
. Units of analysis
The researcher must determine exactly who and what to study. These are the units of
analysis. Usually the units of analysis are the entities that the researcher will observe
and study in order to describe them. There are different kinds of units of analysis.
In the human sciences there are mainly four kinds of units of analysis: individuals,
groups, organisations and social artifacts. An example of research with individuals as
the units of analysis is a study of a number of individual prisoners’ experience of
punishment. Groups are a separate unit of analysis, since groups have certain
qualities that do not occur in individual behaviour. An example of research with groups
as the units of analysis is a study of the characteristics of juvenile gangs (e.g. their
jargon). Organisations as units of analysis are formal organisations with distinctive
characteristics such as organisational management, formal lines of authority and
policy. An example of research with organisations as the units of analysis would be
a study of criminology curriculums at South African universities. We can define social
artifacts as products of society, in other words, products of human beings and human
behaviour. In the criminological disciplines, social interaction, such as traffic offences
and crime, are particularly important.
Once you have chosen a unit of analysis, you can identify a population. The population
is the entire set that makes up the unit of analysis, for example ‘‘All victims of crime in
South Africa from 1985 to 1995’’. Usually the population is so large that you can study
only a portion of it. The portion has to be selected scientifically. This is known as
sampling. Samples may be representative or not representative of the population. We
will not describe sampling in detail here.
. Research goal
The research goal indicates what the research should achieve. The most common and
useful research goals in the human sciences are exploration, description and
explanation.
. Exploratory studies
Exploratory studies aim at exploring a relatively unknown field. Exploratory studies
also have various research objectives, for example:
. to gain fresh insight into a phenomenon
. to serve as a pilot study
. to determine priorities for further research
. to determine the need for research on a particular topic
. to develop methods for a more complicated study
An example of an exploratory study would be research into a new criminal subculture

among juveniles.
121 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .4 . .1
. Descriptive studies
Descriptive studies concentrate on in-depth description of a specific individual,
situation, group or organisation. The researcher observes a phenomenon and
describes what he or she has observed. Observation takes place according to
scientific principles and the description of what has been observed must also satisfy
scientific requirements. An example of a descriptive study would be a survey of the
prison population in South Africa according to variables such as age, gender and
qualifications.
The criminologist Mannheim (1973:3–4) pointed out the importance of descriptive
studies in the criminological disciplines, and explained that the description of data
should result in understanding of those data. The criminologist’s task is not simply to
describe data, but to understand them, since facts serve no purpose unless we
understand them.
. Explanatory studies
The research goal of explanatory studies is to explain certain phenomena. The
following example illustrates this. If a researcher decides to report on the incidence
and extent of crime in South African cities, the research goal would simply be
description. But if the same researcher wanted to find out why the incidence of crime
differs from one city to another, he or she is looking for an explanation of this
phenomenon. The goal of explanatory research is therefore to look for causes in order
to explain a phenomenon. This is also known as the determination of causal
connections.
Causal explanations are subject to conditions such as the following:
. There has to be a particular sequence of cause and effect.
. The observed phenomenon or phenomena must be the authentic cause(s) of
something else.
. There must be a relation between the phenomena.
In the criminological disciplines explanatory research is often used to study causation.
. Research strategy
In 1894 the philosopher Wilhelm Windelband made a distinction between nomothetic
and idiographic research strategies. Since then it has become customary to classify
research in the human sciences according to these two main categories. According to
Windelband, human scientists strive partly to determine general patterns or
regularities, and partly to research specific experiences. The first kind of research
looks for things that remain constant; the second looks for the unique content of
events. The search for general patterns is called a nomothetic research strategy, while
the search for unique content is called an idiographic research strategy. The extent of
alleged offences reported to the South African Police Service is an example of a
general pattern that remains constant. In this case you would use a nomothetic
research strategy. However, to research the personal experience of a police officer
working in a charge office you would use an idiographic research strategy.
Nomothetic research is considered to be universal. This means that you can
generalise your conclusions to a population on the basis of, for example, a
representative sample. Idiographic research is contextual. This means that the aim
is to give an in-depth description of the phenomenon, event or group within the context
of its unique lifeworld and world of meaning.
. . . . . . . . . . . 121
S t u d y u n i t 4 . 1
22
The difference between nomothetic and idiographic research strategies corresponds
to the difference between quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. The
nomothetic or general pattern approach is quantitative, that is, it uses measurements
and figures. The idiographic research strategy corresponds to qualitative research in
that observation focuses on underlying, unique and meaningful contents or the quality
of the data. There is therefore a clear distinction between a quantitative, nomothetic
research strategy and a qualitative, idiographic research strategy.
. Stating the problem
– Orientation
Stating or defining the problem is an outcome of step 1. Once you have chosen a
research topic, you carry out the first three phases of step 2, namely identifying the
unit of analysis, setting the research goals and deciding on the research strategy that
will be used. All this form part of the overall process of formulating the problem. Stating
the problem rounds off this process.
– Source of problems
The source of problems is the entire human lifeworld. There is a clear distinction
between personal problems and problems that need to be researched. To be
researchable, a problem must meet the requirements of scientific research
methodology. It must be of such a nature that it can be researched scientifically.
Professional experience is often a source of researchable problems. Teachers, for
example, may observe serious juvenile behavioural problems in the classroom. This
could lead to the identification of juvenile misbehaviour as a problem that should be
researched in the school context. Researchers also identify research problems
through reading recent research findings in a discipline. Research often leads to more
research: recommendations in a research report indicate a need for further research
into the topic. The original researcher may do this additional research, or some other
researcher may decide to investigate aspects of existing research findings. Testing of
theories is another source of research problems. There are many theories in the
criminological disciplines. Some of them, for example individually-oriented theories
and social process and structure theories, are attempts to explain crime. Although
some of these theories have been tested already, there is always scope for further
research. It is possible, for instance, to test a theory to explain crime by studying the
incidence of a particular type of crime in a particular residential area or among a
particular group of people.
From what we have said it is evident that there are different sources of research
problems. However, a problem must be scientifically researchable before we can call it
a research problem.
– Stating the research problem

A research problem has to be formulated in such a way that the reader will understand
exactly what problem the researcher is trying to solve. The problem must be
expressed in a grammatically correct, full sentence, and not in telegram style.
However, it should be expressed as concisely as possible (in other words, it should be
expressed in as few words as possible). The statement must be specific, and must
spell out the researcher’s exact meaning.
123 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .4 . .1
The title of the report should also reflect the main problem of the research project. The
title of the research report must meet the following requirements:
. It should clearly demarcate the research with regard to time and geographic
location.
. It should be clear.
. It should be interesting.
A main problem is often too broad and complex to study in its entirety. It may then be
subdivided into sub-problems to make research easier. The sub-problems are part of
the overall problem and have to meet the same requirements. Each sub-problem
should be a unit that can be researched fully. A next step is, where possible, to convert
the statement of the problem into a research hypothesis or hypotheses, as already
discussed in study unit 3.5.
A c t i v i t y

. to examine an example of human sciences research in order to illustrate the
discussion so far
Guidelines
. Photocopy or scan any research article in a human sciences journal,
preferably one dealing with one of the criminological disciplines.
. Read the article carefully.
. Identify the unit of analysis that was used.
. Indicate the research goal(s) pursued in the project described in the article
by making ticking the relevant block below.
Exploration & Decription & Explanation &
. What research strategy is used in the project described in the article?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
. Do you think that the research problem is stated clearly in the article?
Yes No
. If it is not clear enough, reformulate it in your own words.

.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
Whether you are able to do this activity successfully depends on whether you
consulted a research article. Remember that a research article is based on research
done in practice or in empirical reality. You should have concentrated especially on
step 2 of the research process, namely problem formulation. The unit of analysis used
. . . . . . . . . . . 124
S t u d y u n i t 4 . 1
in the project described in the article influences the author’s choice of research goals.
For example, if the unit of analysis is a newly established organisation for crime
prevention, the research goal would be exploratory. Whether the unit of analysis
chosen made quantification either possible or impossible indicates whether the
research strategy is nomothetic or idiographic. Finally you should have paid attention
to the problem stated in the article. Although this statement can assume many forms, a
research article should always deal with a specific problem. If the article states the
problem too vaguely, you should have tried to state it more clearly by reformulating it.

..........................................................
4.1.2
(a) Why would a researcher undertake self-initiated research?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(b) Why would a researcher undertake contract research?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
4.1.3
phrases:
(i) Units of analysis are usually the ......................... that are observed.
(ii) The research goal indicates what the ......................... is meant to
achieve.
(iii) Windelband calls attempts to determine general patterns or
regularities a(n) ......................... research strategy and the search
for the unique content of events a(n) ......................... research
strategy.
(b) List the four units of analysis in the human sciences.

(i) ..........................................................................................................
(ii) ..........................................................................................................
(iii) ..........................................................................................................
(iv) ..........................................................................................................
(c) List the three most common and most useful research goals in the human
sciences.
(i) ..........................................................................................................
(ii) ..........................................................................................................
(iii) ..........................................................................................................
Summary
In this study unit we discussed the decision-making steps in the research process. The
next study unit deals with data collection in the research design.
125 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .4 . .1
STUDY UNIT
4.2
Research design: data collection

. distinguish between the nature and types of data in the human sciences
. compile a survey of literature that relates to a research problem
. apply a quantitative data collection technique
4.2.1 Step 3: Data collection
. Nature of data in the human sciences

Data are information or facts gathered through observation. In order for information or
facts to be regarded as data, the observation must have been carried out scientifically;
that is to say, data collection has to be methodologically correct. Unprocessed data
are generally called ‘‘raw data’’, while the term ‘‘data’’ usually refers to processed data.
The unit of analysis and research goals of a project determine what research strategy
will be used. This leads to a statement of the research problem, as discussed in study
unit 4.1. The research strategy in turn determines the nature of the data that will be
collected. A quantitative research strategy will lead to the collection of numerical data,
and a qualitative research strategy will lead to the collection of mainly verbal data.
. Preparing for data collection

Before starting to collect data, a researcher has to make some practical preparations.
He or she has to decide on and arrange the locality where the data will be collected.
The choice of fieldworkers, if necessary, is also important. The researcher has to think
about such things as what training fieldworkers should have. Deciding on the number
of fieldworkers and their remuneration is part of the preparation for data collection.
Preparation also includes deciding on the manner in which research subjects should
be approached. The researcher has to decide what undertakings to make to subjects,
for instance assuring them that all information will be treated confidentially. In the case
of people with criminal records, the researcher may have to promise not to reveal the
research subjects’ names. The researcher should also establish whether the
techniques to be used are available and whether they can be applied to the specific
research project. Other things to calculate are what the research will cost and how
much time it will take to complete.
. Study of the literature

It is essential to study the subject literature before actually starting to collect data.
Obviously the focus will be on literature that relates to the research problem. The main
purpose of a literature study is to give the researcher a better grasp of the research
problem. The research problem is always focal in a literature study.
. . . . . . . . . . . 126
S t u d y u n i t 4 . 2
A survey of the literature offers the following advantages:
. It introduces the researcher to similar research.
. It may provide methods to solve similar problems.
. It can introduce the researcher to previously unknown sources of data.
. It can introduce the researcher to leading experts in his or her field.
. It helps the researcher to evaluate his or her own efforts by comparing them with the
research of other human scientists.
. It can help the researcher to establish whether a research topic is relevant and has
practical significance.
A survey of the literature fulfils some essential functions in a research project. The
discussion of the subject literature should be systematic and properly organised. As a
researcher, you should first outline the structure of the survey before you start
discussing the literature. Your statement of the research problem can be a useful
guideline when planning the survey of the literature.
You should clearly indicate the connection between the subject literature and the
research problem, and emphasise this throughout the survey. Always remember that
what you are writing is a survey of the literature that relates to your research problem.
What you are presenting is a survey of the literature. This means that you should not
just copy from the subject literature; instead you should focus on the purpose of your
discussion. Here are some guidelines for writing a survey of the literature:
. The discussion must be your own.
. Paraphrase sentences.
. Use short direct quotations where necessary.
. Use long quotations only in exceptional cases.
. Example of a quantitative data collection technique

The rest of this discussion will focus on an example of a quantitative data collection
technique. The emphasis is not so much on an actual statistical technique, since this
will be dealt with in theme 5 as part of quantitative research technology. Instead, the
focus is on the role of the questionnaire as a data collection technique in the design
and planning of the research process. Remember that you have to take a number of
decisions in order to complete each step in the research process.
In the human sciences, data often lie hidden deep in people’s attitudes, minds or
reactions. Consequently, the first problem is to design a technique that will allow you to
access these data. In the human sciences, questionnaires are probably the most
common technique for obtaining information from people.
An important advantage of questionnaires is that this technique enables a researcher
to reach people with whom he or she is not in direct, face-to-face contact.
Questionnaires can be sent via the postal service, or mailed electronically.
The language used in formulating the questionnaire must be perfectly clear and
unambiguous. The level of difficulty of the language should be adapted to the age,
educational level and language proficiency of the people who will be completing the
questionnaire.
Questionnaires must be designed in order to achieve a specific research goal. Many
questionnaires are not properly designed to indicate their purpose. If questionnaires
are poorly designed, respondents may not bother to complete and return them.
127 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .4 . .2
To obtain good feedback, follow these suggestions:
. Approach the respondent politely.
. Keep the questionnaire as simple and clear as possible.
. Consider the respondent’s convenience (e.g. enclose a stamped, addressed
envelope in which the respondent can return the questionnaire).
. The emphasis should be on general problems, not personal matters.
. The questionnaire should be as short as possible and should collect only data that
are necessary for the research project.
. The results of the research project should be made available to the respondent.
. Plan the data processing in advance, because that will determine how the
questionnaire is compiled.
A c t i v i t y

. to obtain some introductory experience of quantitative data collection in the
human sciences
Guidelines
. Consult section 4.1.2 of study unit 4.1 about step 1 of the research process
(choosing a research topic).
(formulating or stating the problem). Reread the activity in section 4.1.2 of
study unit 4.1 and your answer to it.
. Consult one book on the criminological disciplines in order to compile a
questionnaire. Ask someone with experience in your chosen research topic
to complete the questionnaire.

..........................................................
4.2.1
(a) Write a paragraph on conducting a study of the literature.
(b) Write a paragraph on questionnaires as an example of a quantitative data
collection technique.
Summary
In this study unit we discussed some introductory information of quantitative data
collection in the human sciences. The next study unit deals with data processing and
analysis.
. . . . . . . . . . . 128
S t u d y u n i t 4 . 2
STUDY UNIT
4.3
Research design: data processing and

analysis

. discuss data processing and analysis as a decision-making step in the research
process
. describe the basic process of quantitative data processing and analysis
4.3.1 Step 4: Data processing and analysis
. Quantitative data processing and analysis

The first phase of processing a questionnaire is known as editing. It is very important
to edit raw data, because this phase directly affects the analysis of the results of the
research project. Every questionnaire that is returned must be checked before being
processed.
Editing also includes a critical examination of completed questionnaires in terms of the
following criteria:
. Meeting sampling requirements. Questionnaires that are completed by respon-
dents who fall outside the sample should not be taken into account.
. Relevance. Make sure that respondents have not misunderstood questions, since
this could result in wrong answers.
. Completeness. All questions, sections and pages of the questionnaire must have
been completed.
. Legibility. All answers to open-ended questions must be clearly legible.
. Intelligibility. A written answer must be intelligible; respondents should not use
their own abbreviations that nobody else understands.
Often researchers have to contact respondents to check on aspects in the completed

questionnaires that are unclear. If the respondents cannot be traced, these
questionnaires may have to be omitted, either partly or completely.
After editing, the questionnaires have to be coded. This is a technical process in which
the researcher assigns a code to respondents’ answers so as to tabulate the collected
data.
Tables are usually compiled with the aid of a computer program. Tabulating entails
counting responses to questions and placing them in categories. For example, the
researcher will determine how many people answered either yes or no to a question
129 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .4 . .3
such as: ‘‘Have you ever been the victim of a crime?’’ Respondents who have been
crime victims form one category, and those who have never been victims of crime form
another.
Data is tabulated to determine the following:
. How are the data distributed, or who gave what answers?
. What is typical of the data?
. How do the responses differ?
. Are there any significant correlations between different sets of data?
Quantitative data are analysed mainly by applying statistical techniques such as

correlation analyses, analyses of variance, chi-square tests, t-tests and non-
parametric techniques. We will discuss some of these in detail in theme 5. When
analysing quantitative data the researcher has to take decisions such as the following:
. What will data analysis entail from a research point of view?
. What still has to be done to solve the research problem?
. What plan should be implemented to complete the data analysis?
After answering these questions, the researcher can draw conclusions from the data.
Another goal of data analysis is to make recommendations. These recommendations
could include possible solutions to the research problem, practical improvements or
ideas for future research.
4.3.2 Step 5: Report writing
. Goal of report writing

The last part of a researcher’s task involves sharing the findings of a research project
with other researchers or fellow scientists. The goal of research is to increase our
knowledge about a particular problem. This new knowledge must be made available to
other human scientists so that they can research the problem further. New knowledge
should also be released to people who can use it in practice. New research findings
should also become part of the existing system of knowledge. A report can assume
various forms, for example a journal article, a book, a master’s dissertation, a doctoral
thesis or a research report.
. Methodological guidelines
When writing a research report of whatever kind the writer has to follow certain
methodological guidelines. This means that the research report has to satisfy
methodological requirements. The entire research design that was used must be
indicated so as to enhance the validity of the data that were collected.
Here are some general methodological guidelines.
. The problem must be clearly stated.
. The report must specify the goals of the research.
. The report should contain information about the nature and relevance of data
sources.
. The report should provide all relevant details about the data collection.
. . . . . . . . . . . 10
S t u d y u n i t 4 . 3
. The report must describe the processing and analysis of the data.
. The conclusion must be based on data that relate to the research problem.
. The report should satisfy the technical requirements of the organisation (e.g. a
university). These technical requirements could relate to format, length, number of
copies, reference style and a summary.
A report should cover and reflect all the steps in the research process. One could even
say that a report should reflect not just the actual research process, but the entire
methodological procedure that was followed. We will discuss report writing for
quantitative research in theme 6, where we will focus specifically on how a research
report is compiled.
A c t i v i t y

. to get some introductory experience of report writing in the human sciences
Guidelines
(report writing).
. Note the purpose of report writing.
(choosing a research topic).
. Reread the activity in study unit 4.1. Take the research topic that you chose
there and write a table of contents for a report based on it.
. Make sure that your table of contents follows the methodological guidelines
discussed in section 4.3.2 of study unit 4.3. Also make sure that your table
of contents accords with your chosen research topic.
This activity introduces you to creating a framework for report writing. The table of
contents provides the framework of any research report. Think of it as a skeleton: it
holds up and gives structure to the report in the same way that a human skeleton holds
up and gives structure to the body. In compiling the table of contents you had to keep
your research topic in mind to make sure that the table of contents related to the topic.
Your table of contents should also have followed the methodological guidelines
discussed in section 4.3.2 of study unit 4.3.

..........................................................
4.3.2
Make a list of the methodological guidelines that have to be followed in report
writing:
(i) ............................................................................................................
(ii) ............................................................................................................
131 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 4 . 3
(iii) ............................................................................................................
(iv) ............................................................................................................
(v) ............................................................................................................
(vi) ............................................................................................................
(vii) ............................................................................................................

..........................................................
4.3.1
(a) List the criteria for a critical examination of completed questionnaires.
(i) ..........................................................................................................
(ii) ..........................................................................................................
(iii) ..........................................................................................................
(iv) ..........................................................................................................
(v) ..........................................................................................................
(b) List the decisions that have to be taken when analysing quantitative data.
(i) ..........................................................................................................
(ii) ..........................................................................................................
(iii) ..........................................................................................................
(iv) ..........................................................................................................
Review
..........................................................
Answers to self-assessment exercises.
. . . . . . . . . . . 132
S t u d y u n i t 4 . 3
THEME 4
Study unit 4.1
4.1.2
(a) Reasons for undertaking self-initiated research:
. personal interest
. to test theory
. to generate hypotheses
(b) Reasons for undertaking contract research:

. commissions
. problem-solving
4.1.3
(a) (i) units
(ii) research
(iii) nomothetic; idiographic
(b) (i) individuals

(ii) groups
(iii) organisations
(iv) social artifacts
(c) (i) exploration

(ii) description
(iii) explanation
Study unit 4.2

4.2.1
(a) Your paragraph should contain the following key concepts:
. study of the literature
. main purpose of the survey
. advantages of the survey
. points to bear in mind when writing a survey
(b) Your paragraph should contain the following key concepts:

. questionnaires as an example of a quantitative data collection technique
. practical guidelines when using questionnaires
. important considerations when compiling a questionnaire
. in order to get good feedback
133 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 4 . 3
Study unit 4.3
4.3.1
(a) (i) satisfy sampling requirements
(ii) relevance
(iii) completeness
(iv) legibility
(v) intelligibility
(b) (i) What are the results of the statistical tests?

(ii) What will data analysis entail?
(iii) What still has to be done to solve the research problem?
(iv) What plan should be implemented to complete the data analysis?
4.3.2
(i) The problem must be clearly stated.
(ii) The research report must specify the goals of the study.
(iii) The report must contain information on the nature and relevance of data
sources.
(iv) The report must contain all relevant details about data collection.
(v) It must describe data processing and analysis.
(vi) The conclusions must be based on data that relate to the research problem.
(vii) The report should satisfy the technical requirements of the organisation (e.g.
a university).
Summary
In this study unit we discussed data processing and analysis as a decision-making
step in the research process. The next study unit deals with quantitative research
technology.
. . . . . . . . . . . 134
S t u d y u n i t 4 . 3
THEME
5
Quantitative research technology
Introduction
The basis of any discipline is its theory and its methodology. Theory has to do with
such questions as ‘‘Why?’’ and ‘‘How?’’, whereas methodology asks the question,
‘‘What is ...?’’ Theory represents attempts to find rational explanations of reality. It
structures the essential elements of the subject, sums them up and examines them in
order to find answers to questions like ‘‘What causes crime?’’ or ‘‘Why do some people
become criminals?’’ Methodology includes the collection and analysis of accurate data
or facts, for example, ‘‘What is the incidence of crime?’’ or ‘‘Who commits crime?’’
Quantitative researchers have at their disposal various techniques for collecting data
that allow them to answer questions such as these. Quantitative technology is
associated with numerical data, for example official crime statistics. Quantitative
researchers guard against any unwanted influence on the quality of the scientific data
that may arise from the personal preferences and prejudices of either the researcher
or the researched. These researchers try not to overstep the boundary between
respondent and scientist, and so maintain a safe but healthy distance between the
provider of scientific data, who presumably will benefit from it, and the person who
collects it.
When deciding which technique or method to use, quantitative researchers remember
that techniques or methods are not an end in themselves but a means to an end,
namely the development of knowledge. In a sense the topic of a study determines
which techniques or methods are appropriate. A basic assumption of research is
therefore that the nature of the data determines the techniques that can be employed.
Quantitative data may lead to the use of sophisticated statistical analyses. You will be
introduced to some of these in study unit 5.4. You will also learn more about them at
postgraduate level. Especially in experiments, researchers single out certain factors to
determine how they influence the situation. This gives the researcher greater control
over the situation, even if the situation is artificial (e.g. experiments carried out in a
laboratory).
The five study units that follow deal with some of the quantitative methods and
techniques. This theme focuses on methods and techniques of data collection and
interpretation; you will learn about the characteristics of these methods and
techniques, and we will give you some examples. Your prescribed book will be a
valuable tool in helping you to understand and apply these methods and techniques
and to prepare for future studies at postgraduate level.
135 ...........
T h e m e 5
This theme is divided into the following study units:
Study unit 5.1: Experiments as a quantitative method
5.1.1 Introduction
5.1.2 Characteristics
5.1.3 Advantages of experimental studies
5.1.4 Drawbacks of experimental studies
5.1.5 Conclusion
Study unit 5.2: Surveys as a quantitative method

5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.3 Advantages of surveys
5.2.4 Drawbacks of surveys
Study unit 5.3: Quantitative techniques

5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Questionnaires
5.3.3 Postal or electronically mailed questionnaires
Study unit 5.4: Statistical techniques in data analysis and interpretation

5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Correlation
5.4.3 The chi-square test
5.4.4 The t-test
5.4.5 Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
5.4.6 Regression analysis
Key concepts
. Experiments: Studies conducted in a controlled environment in which the
researcher assumes a cause-effect relation between two or more variables and
manipulates these variables in a test situation.
. Survey research: Systematic data collection to explore the relation between
variables by giving each respondent an identical set of questions to answer.
. Questionnaire: A set of questions on a form, submitted to a number of people in
order to collect statistical information for analysis. A questionnaire may be
administered again for replication and cross-validation purposes.
. Statistical techniques: Tools for analysing collected data.
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the role of theory and methodology in a discipline
. to distinguish between quantitative and qualitative data
. . . . . . . . . . . 136
T h e m e 5
Guidelines
Study-read the introduction above, then answer the questions below.
(a) What is the function of theory in a discipline like criminology?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(b) What is the function of methodology in a discipline like criminology?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(c) What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative data?

(i) Quantitative data
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(ii) Quantitative data

...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
Your answers should have contained the following information:

(a) The functions of theory include
. developing explanations of a phenomenon such as crime
. investigating and summing up aspects relating to the phenomenon,
thereby structuring the study
. answering questions like ‘‘Why?’’ and ‘‘What causes it?’’
(b) The functions of methodology include

. collecting and analysing data by means of various data collection
techniques
(c) Quantitative data are presented numerically. An example is crime

statistics. Qualitative data are presented verbally (in words), for instance to
express subjects’ feelings and experiences.
137 ...........
T h e m e 5
STUDY UNIT
5.1
Experiments as a quantitative method

. distinguish between laboratory and field experiments
. identify the advantages and drawbacks of experimental studies
5.1.1 Introduction
When researchers want to study possible relationships between cause and effect,
they may perform experiments. Schaefer (1989:41) defines an experiment as an
artificially created situation that allows researchers to manipulate variables and
introduce control variables at the same time. What this means will become clear to you
as you study this unit.
There are different types of experiments, but for the purpose of this study unit we
distinguish between
. the classical experimental design or laboratory experiment
and
. the quasi-experimental design or field experiment (Neuman 1994:187)
(a) The classical experimental design or laboratory experiment involves three key
elements:
. equivalence
. pretesting and post-testing
. experimental and control groups
Example 1: VIEWS ON ABORTION

Two groups of female students, both in favour of abortion, are selected for an
experiment. The experimental group watches the film ‘‘The silent scream’’, in
which a foetus is expelled by means of instruments. The control group does not
watch the film. After watching the film more than half the students in the control
group have changed their minds and are now anti-abortion.
In the example above, two groups of students were selected and compared in terms of
corresponding characteristics such as gender, educational qualifications and a
. . . . . . . . . . . 138
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 1
positive attitude towards abortion. The subjects were then placed in one of two groups,
either the experimental group or the control group. The first group was subjected to an
experimental intervention, the film; the second group was not. Both groups’ reactions
were observed. Pretests were conducted to note conditions before the experiment
took place. After the experiment had been completed, further tests or observations
were done.
Hagan (1990:43) states that according to the logic of the experiment, it is assumed
that, since the two groups were equivalent in the pretest phase, any differences
observed in the posttest phase are attributable to the fact that one group was
subjected to an independent variable and the other group was not. The independent
variable (the film) therefore brought about the change in the experimental group.
Not all experiments make use of a control group, as the next example shows.
Example 2: MOCK PRISON

Haney, Banks and Zimbardo (1973) created a pseudo-prison situation. Under-
graduate students acted as volunteers and were given the roles of warders and
prisoners. Eventually the experiment had to be stopped because the ‘‘warders’’
got so carried away by their roles that they became more and more brutal and
aggressive towards the ‘‘prisoners’’. The prisoners, on the other hand, became
more hostile towards the warders and behaved passively.
Source: Hagan 1990:45
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the classical experiment with reference to three key elements
Guidelines
Study the characteristics and examples of the classical experiment. Then read
the example below, and answer the questions that follow.
Example 3: ELDERLY PEOPLE AND FEAR OF CRIME

A group of elderly people participated in an experiment in order to find an
answer to the following research question: ‘‘Does fear of crime influence
the behaviour of elderly people by motivating them to seek self-protection
and security?’’
The elderly people’s fear of crime was heightened by showing them
photographs of real-life crime situations. The reactions of the subjects were
noted. Most of them planned to fit new alarms and other security systems
in their homes.
. In what respect are the members of the research group equivalent?

.....................................................................................................................
. Is there a control group? Yes No
139 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 1
. To what experimental intervention was the research group exposed?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
. Did the posttest indicate heightened awareness of security?

.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
You should have answered as follows:

. Members of the research group were equivalent in respect of age.
. There was no control group.
. The experimental intervention entailed photographs of real-life crime
situations.
. The planned installation of new alarms and security systems reflected
heightened awareness of security.
(b) Quasi-experimental designs or field experiments are more commonly

conducted in the criminological disciplines. Generally, the situation is more
realistic. The advantage of field experiments is that they have greater external
validity because the more realistic situation allows broader generalisation.
Subjects in field experiments usually do not know that they are participating in
an experiment, and react spontaneously. Internal validity is lower, however,
because the researcher has less control over the experimental situation than in
the case of a laboratory experiment (Neuman1994:187).
Below are two examples of field experiments.
Example 4: FAMILY VIOLENCE

In 1984 two sociologists, Sherman and Berk, in collaboration with the Minnesota
state police, devised an experiment to examine the problem: ‘‘How should the
increasing incidence of family violence be dealt with?’’ The project focused on the
desirability of three different police responses to charges of family violence.
The police officers were divided into three groups. When they were called out to
investigate charges of family violence in homes, each of the three groups was told
to follow a particular procedure. The three procedures were:
. Arrest the alleged offender.
. Force the alleged offender to leave the home, as that person would then be
separated from the people being assaulted or threatened.
. Offer the people who are being assaulted or threatened advice, counselling or
mediation.
Source: Schaefer 1989:42
. . . . . . . . . . . 140
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 1
In this experiment there was no control group, as the purpose was to find out which
procedure would be most effective in preventing future family violence.
Schaefer (1989:42) reports that Sherman and Berk used two methods to determine
which of the three procedures was most effective.
. Police records were checked for the next six months to see whether the suspect
was associated with any further instances of domestic violence.
. Telephone interviews were conducted with the victims over a period of six months to
determine whether there were any further incidences of violence in which the same
alleged offender was involved.
The main finding in this experiment was the effectiveness of the first procedure.
Suspects who were arrested were less inclined to be involved in similar violence at a
later stage than in the case of the other two procedures that the police followed. Arrest
therefore appears to be an effective deterrent against family violence.
Example 5: PROJECT RAPE

In 1985 Harari and White conducted a field experiment on the San Diego State
University campus to find out whether a male passer-by would attempt to prevent
a rape from happening. The scene was set in the evening on a fairly isolated
campus footpath. The ‘‘attack’’ was clearly visible to all male passers-by, who
were either alone or in groups of two or three. In the ‘‘attack’’ a powerfully built
male who was hiding among the bushes grabbed a female student. While the man
was dragging her off, the female student dropped her books and screamed,
‘‘Rape! Rape! Help!’’ Hidden observers told the actors when to start an attack, and
the same observers recorded the behaviour and reactions of passersby.
Source: Neuman 1994:187
Assistance by passers-by was measured in two ways:

. movement towards the place of assault
. movement towards a police officer who was visible in a parking lot opposite the
scene
The finding of this field experiment was that 85% of males in groups and 65% of
solitary males made a clear attempt to help the woman (Neuman 1994:187).
A c t i v i t y

. to identify a field experiment
Guidelines
Carefully study the two examples of field experiments given above. Then read
the example below and answer the questions that follow.
141 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .5 . .1
Example 6: CANDID CAMERA
The Seattle Police Department conducted an experiment in an attempt to
find a better way of catching people who robbed shop owners.
Two groups of shops were selected in a high-crime area. Hidden cameras
were installed in the shops in the experimental group. These cameras were
activated by the shop owner when the shop was robbed. As soon as a
particular banknote was removed from the till, the camera would take
photographs, which could be used to identify the criminal.
A post-test of the two groups of businesses showed that in cases of
robbery involving the experimental group 30% more suspects were
arrested, charged and taken to court for prosecution. Almost 50% of
these robbers were convicted and sentenced by the court, whereas only
19% of the robberies in the case of the control group led to convictions.
. Why is this classified as a field experiment?

.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
. What was the experimental intervention in this study?

.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
. The post-test indicated that the photographs were effective in two respects.
What are they?
(i) ...........................................................................................................
(ii) ...........................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
The example illustrates the following:

. The experiment was conducted in shops, which is a realistic situation typical
of field experiments.
. The experimental intervention was the use of hidden cameras.
. The photographs were effective in the following two respects:
(i) They led to the arrest of a larger number of suspects.
(ii) They were effective evidence, which contributed to the conviction of
the accused.
5.1.3 Advantages of experimental studies

. Experimental studies can be conducted fairly quickly and are usually economical.
. . . . . . . . . . . 141
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 1
42
. Control of aspects such as factors to which subjects are exposed and the duration
of the experiment increases the validity of these studies.
. According to Haralambos and Holborn (1991:704), experiments lend themselves to
repetition. As long as the exact nature of the experiment is recorded, other scientists
can create identical situations and see whether they obtain the same results.
5.1.4 Drawbacks of experimental studies

. Particularly in the case of laboratory experiments the situation is unnatural because
it is created artificially. According to Hagan (1990:45), the control exercised in fact
leads to the creation of exceptional or atypical groups or situations, which limits
generalisation. The reactions of subjects in an artificial laboratory setting may differ
from the reactions of people in less structured but more realistic situations. Subjects
know that they are being observed, and this may influence their behaviour.
. It is difficult to find suitable people and conditions to conduct an experiment, and for
that reason students on campuses are often used as subjects. These subjects are
not necessarily representative of the general public. This creates problems relating
to generalisation.
. There are underlying ethical problems associated with experimental studies. The
subjects are human beings, and they can be manipulated by researchers to produce
the desired results.
. The final objection raised by Haralambos and Holborn (1991:704) is that
experiments cannot be conducted over a long enough period to allow one to study
things such as social change in a community.
5.1.5 Conclusion
Experiments are not really the most effective research method, particularly in the
criminological disciplines. One valid objection is that they assume that a population
consists of two mutually exclusive subclasses: criminals and non-criminals. A case in
point is the assumption that the prison population represents the criminal class and the
outside community represents the noncriminal class.
A c t i v i t y

. to describe the advantages and disadvantages of experimental studies
Guidelines
Construct a table consisting of two columns in order to compare the
advantages and drawbacks of experimental studies. Identify what you regard
as the principal advantages and what you regard as the greatest weaknesses
of experiments.
143 . . S.t .u d. y .u .n .i t .5 .. 1.
F e e d b a c k
Your answer could have looked like this.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
Advantages Drawbacks
Quick to perform Unnatural situation
Economical Limit generalisation
Control of factors to which subjects Problems of finding suitable subjects

are exposed to participate in the experiment
Duration Ethical problems
Repeatable
The greatest advantage of experimental studies is the extensive degree of

control that is exercised over the situation. The unnaturalness of the situation is
the greatest weakness.

..........................................................
(a) Discuss the three key elements of the classical experimental design with
reference to example 1, which deals with abortion.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(b) In what way does ‘‘Project rape’’ (example 4) reflect the more realistic
nature of field experiments?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(c) List four advantages of experimental studies.

(i) ..........................................................................................................
(ii) ..........................................................................................................
(iii) ..........................................................................................................
(iv) ..........................................................................................................
(d) List two important drawbacks of laboratory experiments.

(i) ..........................................................................................................
(ii) ..........................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . 141
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 1
44
Summary
In this study unit we distinguished between laboratory and field experiments. In the
next study unit we deal with surveys as a quantitative method.
• • •• • • •• • • •
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 1
STUDY UNIT
5.2
Surveys as a quantitative method

. describe the survey method
. identify the advantages and disadvantages of survey research
5.2.1 Introduction
Surveys are a common data collection method and are used mainly when the
population that is being studied is too big for direct observation. Market research
organisations, for example, conduct surveys to determine the popularity of products,
such as a certain brand of cool drink. Television and radio programmes, too, are
evaluated by means of survey research. In the criminological disciplines survey
research is used to record self-reporting crimes, for example, or to determine public
opinion on such things as the seriousness of crime, the efficiency of the police service
and the fairness of the criminal law system. Except in the case of large-scale surveys
like censuses (when the entire nation is counted), sampling is used for economic and
practical reasons. The value of a survey depends on the extent to which the sample
represents the population. The composition of the sample is therefore a determinant of
the success of a survey.
Surveys are a method of data collection that can be used to determine the incidence,
extent and distribution of a social phenomenon, such as car theft or taxi violence, at a
given time. Standardised data relating to a large number of people are collected:
usually the data are in statistical form and the most practical way of collecting data is to
use questionnaires. The following questions come from a questionnaire in a national
crime survey that was conducted in the USA in 1977.
Example 7: Were you a victim of crime?

The following questions refer to things that happened to you during the last six
months
‘‘Did you have your purse snatched?’’ & Yes – how many times?
& No
. . . . . . . . . . . 146
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 2
‘‘Did anyone beat you up, attack you
with something, such as a rock or a & Yes – how many times?
bottle?’’
& No
‘‘Was something stolen from you while

you were away from home, for instance & Yes how many times?
at work?’’
& No
Haralambos and Holborn (1991:728) identify three types of surveys:

. Factual surveys, which are used to collect descriptive data, as in the case of
censuses.
. Attitude surveys, which try to determine the community’s views on problems such
as fear of crime or capital punishment.
. Explanatory surveys, which attempt to test theories or hypotheses or to produce
new theories.
Townsend (in Haralambos & Holborn 1991:728) undertook a survey of poverty which
was both descriptive and explanatory. The survey was used both to determine the
extent of poverty and to develop theories to explain poverty.
Researchers try to generalise data by means of surveys. For this reason, surveys are
based on carefully selected samples. The success of a survey ultimately depends on
the quality of the data that it produces.
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the survey method on the basis of its characteristics
Guidelines
Study-read the section above. Then read the example below and answer the
questions that follow.
Example 8: Bankston and Thompson’s study of Firearms (1989)

ownership of firearms was researched in the american state of louisiana.
the researchers wanted to find out to what extent people carried firearms
when they were away from home because they were afraid of crime.
the following hypothesis was tested:
persons who are most afraid of crime and who believe that a firearm will
protect them will be more inclined to carry a firearm.
147 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .5 . .2
Questionnaires were posted to more than 4 000 people. The questions
focused on background information, attitudes, and the ownership and use
of firearms. The researchers found that roughly one third of the 1 000
respondents who returned the questionnaire occasionally carried firearms.
Source: Neuman 1994:115
(a) What kind of survey was this?

...................................................................................................................
(b) What characteristic of this research shows that it used a survey method?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(c) Identify the dependent and independent variables in this study.

(i) Independent variable:
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
(ii) Dependent variable:

...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
F e e d b a c k
The study of firearms was an attitude survey. The fact that questionnaires were
sent to a large number of people indicates that it was a survey. Firearms were
the independent variable that was used to test fear of crime, which was the
dependent variable.
5.2.3 Advantages of surveys

. Surveys can produce large volumes of data on a large number of people in different
localities within a short time.
. Surveys are valuable sources of information, provided the samples are properly
drawn and questions are accurately phrased.
. Surveys are the best method for describing certain characteristics of large
populations.
. The data produced by surveys are original.
. Survey data are collected relatively quickly and the methods used to obtain the data
are uniform.
5.2.4 Drawbacks of surveys

. Owing to the nature of surveys, survey data are often considered to be superficial. A
survey is a structured situation in which the researcher and the respondent each
play a particular role. The researcher asks the questions and the respondent
answers, so there is no real dialogue. As a result questions are not always qualified,
since there is no scope for further explanation or clarification.
. . . . . . . . . . . 148
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 2
. Schnetler (1989:4) mentions that the design of survey research can be problematic.
Respondents may be questioned about things which they know little about or which
they do not think important, for example computer fraud. As a result they may be
unable to respond properly or may not be motivated to participate in the survey.
Both these problems cast doubt on the validity of the data.
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the advantages and drawbacks of surveys
Guidelines
Study-read the information above. Then construct a table consisting of two
columns in which you identify the advantages and drawbacks of surveys.
F e e d b a c k
Your answer should have included the following information:
SURVEYS
Advantages Drawbacks
Large volume of data Nature of surveys leads to superficial

Large number of respondents data
Short duration Validity of data questionable
Valuable source of information
Describe characteristics of large
populations
Produce original data
Data collected quickly by uniform
methods

..........................................................
(a) Identify three types of surveys. Give an example of where an attitude
survey would be appropriate in your own subject.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(b) What do you consider to be the main advantage of surveys?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
149 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .5 . .2
(c) Why is the information collected by means of surveys often considered
superficial?
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
Summary
In this study unit we discussed the survey method. The next study unit deals with
quantitative techniques.
. . . . . . . . . . . 150
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 2
STUDY UNIT
5.3
Quantitative techniques

. discuss open-ended and closed questions as they appear in questionnaires
. discuss postal and electronically mailed questionnaires
5.3.1 Introduction
The main quantitative techniques, especially in survey research, are questionnaires
and interviews. Schaefer (1989:45) defines a survey as a study that is conducted
mainly by means of interviews or questionnaires, which provide researchers with
information on how people think and act.
5.3.2 Questionnaires
Questionnaires are probably the most widely used data collection technique. However,
drawing up a good questionnaire is not easy. To be effective, each question must be
simple and clear, so that respondents will understand it. The questions must also be
specific so that there will be no problems when the results are interpreted. Even fairly
unstructured questions must be formulated carefully in order to obtain the desired
information.
Kerlinger (1986:444–445) suggests that any researcher formulating questions for a
questionnaire should consider the following:
. Does the question relate to the research goal and the research problem?
. Is it the right kind of question?
. Does the question suggest what will be deduced from the answer?
. Does the question require knowledge and information that the respondent does not
have?
. Does the question involve sensitive information that may cause resistance among
respondents?
The key requirements are that questions should be as clear, relevant, simple and
unambiguous as possible. Each question should present only one idea. The following
are examples of common errors.
11 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 3
Poorly phrased Problem Improved version of
questions question
Has yo ur m othe r ever Confusing Has your mother ever gone

worked? out to work for a salary?
Are you in favour of legalis- Two ideas in the same Are you in favour of legalis-
ing the use of alcohol and question ing the use of alcohol by 16-
dagga by 16-year-olds? year-olds?
Don’t you think that the Leading question: the re- Are you in favour of legalis-
press is biased and we spondent is led towards a ing the use of dagga by 16-
should distrust all reporting? particular response year-olds?
Would you say that you

have a lot of confidence,
some confidence or very
little confidence in the
press?
Source: Adapted from Schaefer 1989:45
In questionnaires, two main kinds of questions are asked. These are open-ended or
unstructured questions, and closed or structured questions (Babbie 1990:127).
(a) Open-ended or unstructured questions

In the case of open-ended questions, respondents are requested to provide their own
answers to the questions. In other words, the question leaves everything to the
discretion of the respondent. Respondents are free to answer in their own words, since
no alternatives are offered. An example of an open-ended question would be: ‘‘What
do you regard as the most serious crime problem in the new South Africa?"
Usually open-ended questions are useful in the early stages of a study. They may help
researchers to demarcate their field more precisely. On the other hand, answers to
open-ended questions are difficult to interpret, tabulate and summarise in a research
report.
(b) Closed or structured questions

In the case of closed questions respondents are requested to select an answer from a
list of alternatives. Closed or structured questions are formulated so that answers can
be short and to the point. Sometimes the questions can be answered with a simple
‘‘yes’’ or ‘‘no’’, for example: ‘‘Have you ever been a crime victim?’’ In other cases,
respondents may have to choose between a number of alternatives (this limits the
number of possible responses), for example: ‘‘The primary task of the police service is
to protect society against crime. Do you fully agree/partly agree/disagree with this
statement?’’
Structured questionnaires are easy to complete, take up less time, make respondents
stick to the question, and are relatively objective, more acceptable and convenient to
complete. The questionnaire is cheaper, especially when large samples are involved.
Since the questions are in writing, there is a large measure of consistency. The data
obtained from questionnaires are also easy to tabulate and analyse, and there is less
risk of misinterpretation.
......... 152
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 3
The main drawback of closed questions, however, is the structure of the responses
(Babbie 1990:128). Response categories have to include all possible answers and
must also be mutually exclusive (i.e. respondents should not feel obliged to choose
more than one category).
A c t i v i t y

. to determine the requirements that a questionnaire should satisfy
Guidelines
Study-read the information about questionnaires above and reformulate the
poorly phrased questions below.
. Are you in favour of abolishing the death penalty and corporal punishment
as forms of punishment?
. Don’t you think that the police should be unarmed for the sake of better
relations between the police and the community?
Improved versions of questions

. Are you in favour of abolishing the death penalty?
. Are you in favour of abolishing corporal punishment?
. An unarmed police service will promote good relations between the police
and the community.
F e e d b a c k
Agree/partly agree/disagree
5.3.3 Postal or electronically mailed questionnaires

These questionnaires are posted or electronically mailed to respondents and are
returned to the researcher by post or electronic mail. The main characteristic of this
kind of survey is that respondents complete questionnaires on their own, and the
questionnaires are the only means of communication between respondent and
researcher (Dixon 1989:19). These questionnaires normally consist of structured
questions so that responses can be processed quickly.
Expenses are limited to the cost of printing and postage. The researcher is able to
reach people throughout the country, even in remote areas. Information can be
obtained from a large number of people in a short space of time.
A major drawback of these questionnaires is the low response rate, since respondents
are free to choose whether or not to complete the questionnaire. A poor response rate
can influence the value of the data, since the people who do not complete the
questionnaire may be the very ones who have a particular opinion about the topic.
13 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 3
Poor feedback is particularly common in the case of questionnaires on sensitive
issues like abortion. There is also a lack of control, since the researcher cannot verify
who completed the questionnaires and how correct the responses are.
A c t i v i t y

. to identify the advantages and limitations of postal or electronically mailed
questionnaires
Guidelines
Study-read section 5.3.3. Formulate a table consisting of two columns and use
it to identify the advantages and limitations of postal and electronically mailed
questionnaires.
F e e d b a c k
Your answer could have looked like this.
POSTAL AND ELECTRONICALLY MAILED QUESTIONNAIRES
Advantages Limitations
Respondents complete questionnaires Low response rate

on their own
Responses are processed quickly Poor feedback influences value of data
Expenses are low
Information obtained from large num- No control over who has completed the
bers of people within a short time questionnaires and how correct the
information is
Summary
In this study unit we discussed open-ended and closed questions as they appear in
questionnaires, as well as postal and electronic questionnaires. The next study unit
deals with statistical techniques in data analysis and interpretation.
. . . . . . . . . . . 154
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 3
STUDY UNIT
5.4
Statistical techniques in data analysis

and interpretation

. list the characteristics of the various statistical techniques
. state the advantages and limitations of each technique
5.4.1 Introduction
In this study unit we consider analysis and interpretation of data by means of statistical
techniques. Statistical techniques can be viewed as the keys to interpreting the
information contained in a data set. A data set contains information that has been
collected and organised by the researcher. The validity and reliability of the data are
extremely important. As we explained earlier in this study guide, validity is the degree
to which an instrument measures what it intends to measure, and reliability refers to
the extent to which the measure is a consistent and dependable indicator of
something, for instance, the level of crime.
5.4.2 Correlation
In statistics, an association or relationship between variables as shown by their
measurements or scores is known as correlation. One of the most commonly used
correlation coefficients is the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, which is
written as r. The size of the correlation coefficient varies from +1 through 0 to –1.
Most correlation coefficients tell us two things. First, they give an indication of the
magnitude of the relationship. A correlation of –.92 is the same size as one of +.92.
The sign has nothing to do with the size of the relationship, but it does give information
about the direction of the relationship. When two variables are positively related, as
one increases, the other one also increases. Here is an example of a positive
correlation: as violent crime increases, fear of being a victim of crime also increases.
Here is an example of a negative correlation: as violent crime decreases, fear of being
a victim of crime also decreases. Other variables may be inversely related. By this we
mean that as the one increases, the other decreases, for example, when visible
policing in a particular area increases, the number of burglaries decreases. The
absence of a relationship is denoted (reflected) by a correlation coefficient of .00 or
thereabouts.
Second, in addition to showing the direction and the strength of a correlation, the
coefficient can be used to determine the proportion for variance accounted for by the
association. This is known as the coefficient of determination (r2). The coefficient of
5 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 4
determination is easy to calculate, as you just need to square the correlation
coefficient. For example, if we found a correlation of .70 between cigarette smoking
and the use of cocaine, we could calculate the coefficient of determination as follows:
.70 x .70 = .49
The coefficient of determination is then turned into a percentage. Therefore, a

correlation of .70, as indicated in the equation, explains approximately 49% of the
variance. In this example, we could deduce that 49% of the variance in cocaine use is
accounted for by cigarette smoking. Alternatively, a correlation of .20 would have a
coefficient of determination of .04 (.20 6 .20 = .04), strongly indicating that other
variables are likely to be involved. Remember that correlation is not causation.
Therefore, we cannot infer from this correlation that cigarette smoking causes or
influences cocaine use. It is just as probable that cocaine-use causes cigarette
smoking, or that both unhealthy behaviours are caused by a third, unknown variable.
Although correlations are typically regarded as descriptive, they can unlike measures
of central tendency and dispersion – be tested for statistical significance. Tests of
significance allow us to estimate the probability that a relationship between variables
in a sample actually exists in the population and is not simply the result of chance.
Vito et al (2008:185–191) examine the bivariate correlation technique and compute the
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. You can also open State Data Set I
on your CD in order to examine the relationship between two ratio level variables in
each state, namely: ‘‘Percentage of People in Poverty, Average 96–97’’ (X is the
independent variable) and ‘‘Burglary per 100,000: 1997’’ (Y is the dependent variable).
In this case the set hypothesis is that the relationship is positive. This means that as
the average percentage of people living in poverty (X) increases, the burglary rate (Y)
also increases. Now click on the four choices of the menu (on pages 186–187) in order
to obtain information identical to figures 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 10.10, 10.11 and 10.12.
It is important to understand the interpretation of table 10.2 (page 191) ‘‘SPSS output
Correlation Matrix, Poverty and Burglary.’’ The r = .425. This figure squared is r2 =
.18; thus, only 18% of the variation in the burglary rate per 100 000 (Y scores) is
determined by the variance in the percentage of people living in poverty (X scores).
What is equally important is that it also means that 82% of the variation in the burglary
rate is determined and should thus be explained by other factors.
5.4.3 The chi-square test

The chi-square statistical technique enables researchers to test hypotheses using
nominal or ordinal data. It does this by testing whether one set of proportions is higher
or lower than you would expect it to be by chance. This test summarises the
discrepancy between observed and expected frequencies. The smaller the overall
discrepancy between the observed and expected frequencies, the smaller the chi-
square will be. Conversely, the larger the discrepancy between the observed and
expected frequencies, the larger the value of the chi-square will be. The chi-square is
therefore a type of significance test that is widely used in criminological research. It is
based on the null hypothesis, which is the assumption that there is no relationship
between two variables in a population. To put it simply, the chi-square test compares
what you actually get with what you expected, given a null hypothesis or no
relationship.
. . . . . . . . . . . 156
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 4
Example of the chi-square quantitative data analysis technique applied
manually
Let us imagine that we are investigating a possible relationship between gender and
whether people fear becoming victims of crime. To test this relationship, we select a
sample of 200 people at random. Our sample is made up of 80 men and 120 women;
140 (70%) of our sample report that they fear becoming victims of crime and the
remaining 60 (30%) do not. If there is no relationship between gender and fear of
becoming a victim of crime, then 70% of the men in the sample should report fear of
becoming a victim of crime and 30% should report no such fear. Moreover, women
should report fear of becoming a victim of crime in the same proportion. Table 5.4.3
(part I) shows that based on this model, 56 men and 84 women expressed fear of
becoming a victim of crime, and 24 men and 36 women reported no such fear.
Part II of table 5.4.3 shows the observed fear of becoming a victim of crime for the
sample of 200 people. Note that 40 of the men say they are afraid of becoming a victim
of crime, and the remaining 40 say they are not. Of the women in the sample, 100
report being afraid of becoming a victim of crime, and 20 report no such fear. If we
compare the expected and observed frequencies (parts I and II), we note that
somewhat fewer men report fear of becoming a crime victim than expected, whereas
somewhat more women than expected experience this fear.
The chi-square is computed as follows: For each cell in the tables, we first subtract the
expected frequency for that cell from the observed frequency. We then square this
quantity, after which we divide the squared difference by the expected frequency. We
carry out this procedure for each cell in the tables, and then add the results. Part III of
table 5.4.3 presents the cell-by-cell computations. The final sum is the value of the chi-
square, namely 25.39. The magnitude of the chi-square value allows us to estimate
the probability of a relationship or not between the two variables. To determine the
statistical significance of the observed relationship, we must use a standard set of chi-
square values. We must therefore compute the degrees of freedom. For the chi-
square, the degrees of freedom are computed as follows: the number of rows in the
table of observed frequencies, minus one, is multiplied by the number of columns,
minus one. This is written as (r – 1) 6 (c – 1). In the present example, we have two
rows and two columns, so there is 1 degree of freedom. Turning to a table of chi-
square values (see appendix A: Distribution of X2) we find that, for 1 degree of
freedom and random sampling from a population in which there is no relationship
between two variables, 10% of the time we should expect a chi-square value of at
least 2.7. Thus, if we select 100 samples from such a population, we should expect
about 10 of those samples to produce chi-squares equal to or greater than 2.7.
Moreover, we should expect chi-square values of at least 6.6 in only 1% of the
samples and chi-square values of at least 10.8 in only 0.1% of the samples. The
higher the chi-square value, the less probable it is that the value can be attributed to
sampling error alone. In our example, the computed chi-square value is 25.39. In this
case we can assume no relationship between gender and fear of becoming a victim of
crime in fewer than 0.1% of a large number of samples. Thus, the probability of
obtaining a chi-square of this magnitude is less than 0.001 if random sampling has
been used and if there is no relationship in the population. This result can be reported
by stating that the relationship is statistically significant at the 0.001 level, and we
reject the null hypothesis by accepting the alternative hypothesis that a relationship
does indeed exist between the two variables of gender and fear/no fear of becoming a
victim of crime.
7 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 4
TABLE 5.4.3 Illustration of Chi Square (Adapted from Maxfield & Babbie, 2008:423)
I Expected cell frequencies Men Women Total
Fear of victimisation 56 84 140
No fear of victimisation 24 36 60
Total 80 120 200
II Observed cell frequencies Men Women Total
Fear of victimisation 40 100 140
No fear of victimisation 40 20 60
Total 80 120 200
2
III (Observed Expected) 7 Men Women
Expected
Fear of victimisation 4.57 3.05 Chi square = 25.39
No fear of victimisation 10.66 7.11 P < .001
The chi-square test is an approximation, because it is not completely exact. However,

it is a very good approximation when the sample size is large. When the sample size is
very small, the chi-square test is not necessarily valid even if the p value is less than or
equal to .05 (p 4 .05). The general rule is to try to avoid using the chi-square when
fewer than 5 cases are expected in any category. The problem of small sample size
can sometimes be avoided by grouping similar categories together, and adding up the
counts in each one.
5.4.4 The t-test

The t-test was designed to determine whether or not a significance difference exists
between the means of two small samples, each consisting of three or more items. It
can be used when we have a dichotomous categorical independent variable (either
nominal or ordinal) and a continuous interval or ratio dependent variable that can be
used to calculate a mean. Small samples may be used. A sample of 30 is adequate,
but larger samples are preferred.
Vito et al (2008:145–157) distinguish between
(a) the t-test for related or paired samples, and
(b) the t-test for independent samples
The t-test for related or paired samples is used when the same people are compared
over time, and the analysis is therefore based on two measurements of the same
variable for the same people over a period of time. Vito et al compared the means of
mathematics and reading scores of 20 prison inmates before and after completion of
the inmate literacy programme. They established that the higher the reading scores on
the Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment System (CASAS) scale, the better the
performance. The analysis was performed using the SPSS, and the results showed
that the mean score in mathematics went up 10.4 points (from 216.2 to 226.6). The t-
test value of 3.611 was statistically significant at the p = .002 level, which is much
lower than the p 4 .05 level of significance set. This meant the rejection of the null
hypothesis and the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis, thus indicating that the
. . . . . . . . . . . 158
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 4
findings had some relevance beyond the existing population, as the chances seemed
good that the programme implemented would benefit prison inmates in other similar
locations. The mean score on the reading test also showed an improvement of 12.75
points (from 221.85 to 234.6) and the t-test value of 4.45 was statistically highly
significant at the .000 level; again the null hypothesis could be rejected. This means
that the reading scores of prison inmates would probably improve if they participated in
the educational programme.
Vito et al also used the SPSS to compute an independent samples t-test. This time
they used the NCSD set to compare the mean scores awarded by Anglo and Minority
respondents when rating the police. You will be given this data set to help you gain
practical experience in data analysis and interpretation. In the survey, respondents
were asked to rate the police according to (i) how quickly they responded to calls, (ii)
their friendliness, and (iii) their fairness in dealing with the public. Responses to each
question were associated with the following scores: (5) very high, (4) high, (3)
average, (2) low and (1) very low; thus, the higher the score, the higher the
respondent’s rating of the police. Previous research findings revealed race to be one
of the strongest predictors of attitudes toward the police, with minority groups being
distrustful of the police and viewing themselves as victims of discriminatory treatment.
The null hypothesis set by the researchers posited that there would be no difference in
mean police rating scores between the Anglo and Minority respondents.
In using the SPSS, you need to take the following steps to run the t-test for
independent samples:
1. Open the NCSD data set.
2. Click on ‘‘Analyse’’, then on ‘‘Compare Means’’, and then on ‘‘Independent-
samples T test’’.
3. The next window shows the box ‘‘Independent-Samples T test’’. Scroll down until
you find the variable ‘‘Police Rating Score’’ and click on the arrow to paste it into
the ‘‘Test Variable(s)’’ window.
4. Find the variable ‘‘Race Recode’’, click on it, and then click on the arrow in the
box to paste it into the ‘‘Grouping Variable’’ window. Then click on the box
‘‘Define Groups’’.
5. The next screen shows the box ‘‘Define Groups’’. Type ‘‘1’’ in the blank space for
Group 1 and ‘‘2’’ in the blank space for Group 2. Then click on the box labelled
‘‘Continue’’.
6. You will then return to the ‘‘Independent-Samples T test’’ screen. Click on the
box labelled ‘‘OK’’ to obtain your computer output and statistics.
The data under Group Statistics in the output file contains descriptive statistics
concerning the two groups. The mean police rating score of the ‘‘Anglos’’ variable is
10.85. The mean police rating score of the ‘‘Minorities’’ variable is 9.52. The ‘‘Anglo’’
survey respondents gave the police a higher average rating than the ‘‘Minority’’
respondents. However, to find out whether this mean difference of 1.33 between the
scores awarded by the ‘‘Anglos’’ and ‘‘Minorities’’ also exists in the entire population
from which the sample was drawn, the t-test must be correctly interpreted in terms of
direction and value before the null hypothesis can be either rejected or retained. What
must be borne in mind is that for the null hypothesis to be rejected, the significance of
the statistical results must be equal to or less than .05 (p 4 .05). If we look at the
output file, we note that the significance level of F is .199. We cannot reject the null
hypothesis, because .199 is greater than .05. We will have to assume that the
variance in police rating scores is equal across the two groups. We can therefore use
the results labelled ‘‘Equal variances assumed’’ to interpret the t-test values. The t
159 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .5 . .4
value is 6.031 with 876 degrees of freedom, and because the SPSS always computes
the level of significance for a two-tailed test, we can directly interpret the significant
level in the standard way. In this case our research hypothesis is one-tailed, and we
simply divide the listed level of significance by 2 (.000 divided by 2 is .000). Because
the significance level is below .05 we can reject the null hypothesis and accept the
alternative hypothesis, namely that the ‘‘Anglos’’ have a higher opinion of the quality of
police service than the ‘‘Minorities’’ do.
Vito et al (2008:154) summarise the process of significance testing and the null
hypothesis in the steps below.
1. The research and null hypotheses are developed and stated.
2. The means of two samples (or of the parts of the sample divided into two) are
computed and compared.
3. Based on this analysis, a conclusion is reached about
(a) whether there is a difference between the means, and
(b) the nature of this difference (whether it supports the research hypothesis or
not)
4. The equality of variance between the two samples is calculated and determined.
5. The t ratio (the difference between the sample divided by the standard error of
the difference) is computed.
6. The probability of this ratio is determined.
7. A decision is made concerning the null hypothesis. If the probability of the t ratio
is equal to or less than .05, the null hypothesis is rejected. If it is greater than .05,
the null hypothesis is accepted. If we are to reject the null hypothesis, the
significance level in the printout must be less than or equal to .05.
5.4.5 Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique designed to examine means
across more than two groups by comparing variances. It is based on the variability,
that is, variance from the mean, in each sample and in the combined samples.
Essentially, ANOVA is a technique that separates the variation that is present into
independent components, which are then analysed in order to test certain hypotheses.
The simplest application of ANOVA is one-way analysis of variance, also called the
one-variable-of-classification analysis of variance. The hypothesis that is tested by
means of the analysis of variance is that the means of several populations are equal.
In a one-way variance situation each observation is classified into one sample or
another on the basis of a single criterion, namely the population from which it came.
There is also a two-way analysis of variance (also called the analysis of variance for
two variables of classification). This is a little more complicated than the one-way
analysis, and we are not going to deal with it in this module.
The one-way analysis of variance is used to test for differences among three groups or
more, since the two-group case can be dealt with by means of a t-test. When the
scores are divided into three or more groups, the variance can be divided into two
parts.
1. The average variability of the scores (means) within each group is called within
group variance. This variation due to differences within individual samples is also
known as SS(W), which stands for ‘‘sum of squares within groups’’.
2. The variation of group scores (means) from the total mean of all groups is
referred to as between group variance. This variation due to the interaction
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S t u d y u n i t 5 . 4
between the samples is also known as SS(B), which stands for ‘‘sum of squares
between groups’’.
ANOVA therefore compares the ratio of between group variance and within group
variance, in other words the variance among the individual means in the groups and
the variance among the means of the different groups. What needs to be established
is whether the between group variance is significantly larger than the within group
variance; if this is proved to be the case, then the null hypothesis should be rejected.
The F-test (F-ratio) is a ratio of the two estimates of variability and can be computed by
dividing the between group mean square by the within group mean square. This
measures how different the group means are from one another (the numerator) with
regard to the general overall amount of randomness in the situation (the denominator).
Thus, it provides a measure of whether the group means are ‘‘more different from one
another than is reasonable’’ for the situation if the groups were identically distributed. If
the null hypothesis is accepted, the observed and estimated within group and between
group variation should be about the same and the F-test value equals 1. If the null
hypothesis is rejected, it means that the observed between group variation should
exceed its estimate and the F-ratio is greater than 1. One-way ANOVA establishes
whether or not the F-ratio exceeds 1 by an amount so great that it cannot be explained
by chance. If the F-test value is statistically significant, the group means are not equal
and the null hypothesis can be rejected, but in order to highlight where the differences
come from, we have to use the Bonferroni comparison procedure to tell us where the
significant difference between the means originates.
Your prescribed book emphasises the following requirements for the effective use of
ANOVA.
1. The data must be a random sample from a population.
2. The single dependent variable must be a measure at the interval level in order to
compute the mean.
3. The independent variable must be a measure categorically at either the nominal
or ordinal level.
A c t i v i t y
Your prescribed book gives guidelines for calculating ANOVA manually and by
using the SPSS. Since calculating ANOVA manually is a very complicated
procedure, we recommend that you use the SPSS State Data Set I on your CD
by following the five steps from pages 165 to 172. Pay particular attention to
the F-ratio of 3.69, the significance level of .018 and the application and
interpretation of the Bonferroni procedure.
5.4.6 Regression analysis

Regression analysis is a technique that helps researchers to determine or predict the
specific function relating variable Y to variable X. The general formula for describing
the association between these two variables is Y = f(X), which we read as ‘‘Y is a
function of X’’. This is also called the linear regression formula. Like correlations,
regression analysis examines the association or relationship between variables, but
unlike correlations, the main purpose of regression analysis is prediction. For example,
correctional institutions may be able to predict or come close to predicting whether a
prisoner about to be released will reoffend or not reoffend by considering
161 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 4
the person’s age when they were first committed to an institution, whether or not they
engage in substance abuse, employment history, current behavioural patterns and
release plan.
There are two basic types of regression analysis, namely simple regression and
multiple regression. In simple regression, we aim to predict the dependent variable
with a single independent variable. In multiple regression, we may use any number of
independent variables to predict the dependent variable. It is therefore a technique
that allows additional factors to enter the analysis separately so that the effect of each
can be estimated.
Another type of regression is logistic regression, which is unique in its ability to predict
dichotomous variables, such as the presence or absence of a specific outcome, based
on a specific set of independent or predictor variables. Like a correlation, logistic
regression provides information about the strength and direction of the association
between the variables. Furthermore, logistic regression coefficients can be used to
estimate odds ratios for each of the independent variables in the model. These odds
ratios can tell us how likely it is that a dichotomous outcome will occur, given a
particular set of independent variables.
A difficulty associated with regression models is that they may be controversial owing
to the nature of the data used to develop the model and not because of the statistical
techniques employed to attain it. The researcher should therefore be careful when
drawing causal inferences and making predictions.
Note on pages 198 to 199 of your prescribed book and in table 11.1 how accurate
regression analysis provided information on the expected size of the US prison
population from 1995 to 1999. Then study the example of how to calculate regression
coefficients manually and conduct a regression analysis on the murder rate per
1 000 000 for the USA during the period 1976 to 1998. You need to consult tables 11.2
and 11.3, figures 11.1 and 11.2 and the formulas on page 201 in order to predict the
murder rate for 2005.
Summary
In this theme we introduced you to various methods and techniques associated with
the quantitative approach to research. We explained that the nature of the research
determines what approach, method(s) and techniques are suitable for data collection,
processing and interpretation. The next study unit deals with report writing.
. . . . . . . . . . . 162
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 4
THEME 5
Study unit 5.1

(a) Discuss the three key elements of the classical experimental design with reference
to example 1, which deals with abortion.
. Equivalence
. Pretesting and post-testing
. Experimental and control groups
(b) In what way does ‘‘Project rape’’ (example 5) reflect the more realistic nature of
field experiments?
The finding of this field experiment was that 85% of males in groups and 65% of
solitary males made a clear attempt to help the woman (Neuman 1994:187).
(c) List three advantages of experimental studies.

. Experimental studies can be conducted fairly quickly and are usually
economical.
. Control of aspects such as factors to which subjects are exposed and the
duration of the experiment increases the validity of these studies.
. According to Haralambos and Holborn (1991:704), experiments lend them-
selves to repetition. As long as the exact nature of the experiment is recorded,
other scientists can create identical situations and see whether they obtain the
same results.
(d) List two important drawbacks of laboratory experiments.

. Particularly in the case of laboratory experiments the situation is unnatural
because it is created artificially. According to Hagan (1990:45), the control
exercised in fact leads to the creation of exceptional or atypical groups or
situations, which limits generalisa-tion. The reactions of subjects in an artificial
laboratory setting may differ from the reactions of people in less structured but
more realistic situations. Subjects know that they are being observed, and this
may influence their behaviour.
. It is difficult to find suitable people and conditions to conduct an experiment, and
for that reason students on campuses are often used as subjects. These
subjects are not necessarily representative of the general public. This creates
problems relating to generalisation.
Study unit 5.2

(a) Identify three types of surveys. Give an example of where an attitude survey would
be appropriate in your own subject.
. Factual surveys, which are used to collect descriptive data, as in the case of
censuses.
. Attitude surveys, which try to determine the community’s views on problems
such as fear of crime or capital punishment.
. Explanatory surveys, which attempt to test theories or hypotheses or to
produce new theories.
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S t u d y u n i t 5 . 4
(b) What do you consider to be the main advantage of surveys?
. Surveys can produce large volumes of data on a large number of people in
different localities within a short time.
. Surveys are valuable sources of information, provided the samples are properly
drawn and questions are accurately phrased.
. Surveys are the best method for describing certain characteristics of large
populations.
. The data produced by surveys are original.
. Survey data are collected relatively quickly and the methods used to obtain the
data are uniform.
(c) Why is the information collected by means of surveys often considered superficial?
Owing to the nature of surveys, survey data are often considered to be superficial.
A survey is a structured situation in which the researcher and the respondent each
plays a particular role. The researcher asks the questions and the respondent
answers, so there is no real dialogue. As a result questions are not always
qualified, since there is no scope for further explanation or clarification
......... 164
S t u d y u n i t 5 . 4
THEME
6
Report writing
Introduction
Writing the report is the final stage of the research process. Some research may
consist of only literature research and quantitative data, whilst other research may
consist of data from the literature and qualitative data. Some may even contain
quantitative or qualitative data only. But as a general rule, and as the ideal, research
should contain all three elements to ensure the most valid and reliable data.
In this theme you will be guided through the process of producing a research report.
You will learn how to combine the data from literature research, quantitative research
and qualitative research to produce a research report.
This theme consists of the following study units:
Study unit 6.1: Guidelines for good research report writing
6.1.1 Introduction
6.1.2 Guidelines for good report writing
6.1.3 Summary
Study unit 6.2: The research report writing process and some common mistakes
6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 The writing process
6.2.3 Common mistakes
6.2.4 Summary
Study unit 6.3: Quantitative research report writing

6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Quantitative research report writing
6.3.3 Summary
Study unit 6.4: Preparing for publication

6.4.1 Introduction
6.4.2 The starting point
6.4.3 Rationale
6.4.4 Classification of articles
6.4.5 Choosing a journal
6.4.6 Submitting an article
6.4.7 How are articles submitted for publication evaluated?
6.4.8 Reacting to the evaluation of your manuscript
6.4.9 Summary
165 . . . . . . .T .h e.m.e .6
Key concepts
. Readers
. Style and tone
. Logic and clarity
. Honesty and objectivity
. Findings and recommendations
. Composing
. Rewriting
. Abstract
. Evaluation of manuscript
. Journal
. Publication
. . . . . . . . . . . 166
T h e m e 6
STUDY UNIT
6.1
Guidelines for good research report

writing
6.1.1 Introduction
Research findings must be reported so that they can be shared with other researchers.
The findings are recorded in a research report, which may take the form of a
dissertation (at master’s level), thesis (at doctoral level), article (for a scientific journal)
or an assignment (as for an academic course). While the presentation and layout of
the various reports differ, all have to comply with certain basic requirements (Goddard
& Melville 2001:88–93).
6.1.2 Guidelines for good report writing
. The readers
A very important aspect to be considered by the author of a report is who the readers
of the report are likely to be, because this will determine the form it should take. The
writer must consider the background knowledge of his or her readers and inform them
fully, since they must be able to evaluate the reliability of the results for themselves.
Communication is more effective when tailored to a specific audience. Therefore, the
research report will look different depending on whether it is prepared for an instructor,
students, professional scientists or the public.
Instructors may want more emphasis on clear, logical thinking, whereas reports aimed
at students should concentrate on a solid grasp of the methodological and substantive
concepts. So, when writing for students, it is good policy to define technical terms and
label each part of the report. Start with the research question and present the report as
an answer, using straightforward language to explain why you have conducted the
various steps of the research (Neuman 2000:465).
If the research report is meant for scholars, it is not necessary to define technical
terms. It is probably also not necessary to explain standard procedures such as
random sampling. Scholars are more interested in how the research links to abstract
theory or to previous findings in the literature. Only a condensed description of the
research design is needed. Scholars would rather pay close attention to how the data
was collected and how variables were measured. They want the section on the data
analysis to be comprehensive, so the section discussing the results should be
meticulously written. A research report aimed at scholars should be compact and
tightly written (Neuman 2000:465).
167 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .6 . .1
When a research report is prepared for the general public, the language should be
simple and nontechnical, and concrete examples should be included. The focus
should be on the practical implications of the findings. No details of the research
design are needed in the reports for this audience (Neuman 2000:465).
. Style and tone

Because they are scientific documents, research reports are written in a narrow range
of styles with a distinct tone. This is because their goal is to communicate the research
methods and research findings clearly. Therefore, they do not advocate a particular
position (Neuman 2000:465). The proposed readership influences the style and tone
of the report.
Style refers to the types of words as well as the length and form of sentences and
paragraphs, while tone refers to the attitude of the writer toward the subject matter.
The style of research reports is formal and succinct; in other words, they are not
conversational and they say a lot in a few words. Their tone reflects distance from the
subject matter, because research reports are professional and serious. Research
reports do not use flowery language, because they do not aim to entertain (Neuman
2000:465).
The style of research reports should be objective, accurate and clear. When readers
find carelessness in the writing or in disclosing how the research was conducted, they
will question the results. Because the detail of research reports can be complex and
the complexities can lead to confusion, clear writing is essential. To facilitate clear
writing, short, declarative sentences are the answer. Conclusions must be limited to
what was supported by the evident findings (Neuman 2000:466).
. Logic and clarity

While the research may be of very high quality, and be valid and reliable, the effective
transfer of knowledge depends on the standard of the report. According to Van der
Westhuizen (1977:126) the author must ensure that his or her report complies with the
requirements of scientific logic and clarity at least. Follow a logical train of thought. Be
sure that each point follows logically from the previous one. Write clearly, without
repeating yourself. State your point of view concisely and avoid woolliness or padding.
Avoid words that sound impressive, but do not mean anything. If you use tables, they
must be clear and understandable. If explanatory notes are required, they must be
comprehensive.
Logic and clarity in writing do not ‘‘just happen’’. It requires hard work, and certain
steps have to be involved. The research report covers aspects such as the research
question, the research design, the data collection techniques, the findings and the
implications of the findings. An outline is used to organise all these elements for a
proper report. Outlines consist of topics, also called subheadings. If topics are not
used properly, they can become a barrier to clarity in writing (Neuman 2000:466–467).
One way to test whether or not a particular topic contributes to the clarity of the report
is to read just the outline (the topics or subheadings). If the outline reflects a logical
train of thought, the various topics are likely to contribute to the clarity of the report.
Landman (1980:412) provides the following guidelines for writing a report:
. Theme
Keep to the theme. If you digress, there is a danger that you will begin to write about
subjects unrelated to the theme.
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S t u d y u n i t 6 . 1
. Honesty and objectivity
Be honest and objective. Present the standpoints as you have encountered them.
Do not become subjectively involved or make the situation look better (or worse!) If
uncertainties exist, mention them. In fact, do not hesitate to highlight them, as these
uncertainties may stimulate future research. It is also extremely important to be
honest about sources. Sources must be correctly acknowledged and recorded so
that recognition is given to the authors quoted, and also so that readers can
examine the original text themselves. All sources consulted must be listed.
. List the findings and recommendations

In the last part of the research report, inferences and deductions have to be made,
based on the findings. The researcher must state without bias what he or she has
ascertained. It is also important to make recommendations about improvements to
current practice and suggest possible new subjects for research. This part of the
report is very important, since it contains the researcher’s own ideas and
recommendations. Many reports fail because the researcher does not reveal his
or her own ideas.
6.1.3 Summary
Good report writing boils down to common sense: consider the readers. This implies
that the style and tone should be set to their level of expertise, that the report should
be logical and clear, and that the writer should stick to the theme. Social scientists will
not read your work again if they suspect dishonesty or detect subjectivity instead of
objectivity. The next study unit deals with the writing process and some common
mistakes.
169 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .6 . .1
STUDY UNIT
6.2
The research report writing process

and some common mistakes
6.2.1 Introduction
When a reader reads a piece of research for the first time, he or she usually does not
think about it in terms of the writing process. Writing may seem easier than it is,
especially when you read the work of a skilled and seasoned researcher. However,
easy reading does not equal easy writing. There is a process behind the printed result,
and common mistakes may slip in.
The techniques below are associated with good writing (Neuman 2000:467).
6.2.2 The writing process

. Prewriting
You learn to write by writing! It takes time. It takes effort. It only improves with
practise. Starting is the difficult part. Begin with a file full of notes, outlines and lists.
You could file some or all of these in a computer folder.
. Composing
The first draft consists of the ideas you have to capture. Free-writing, drawing up the
bibliography, preparing the data presentation and drafting the introduction and
conclusion are the first steps in composing the report. Many writers start with free-
writing (writing down as quickly as possible whatever comes to mind regarding the
topic). During free-writing you do not stop to reread what you have written, you do
not struggle to find the correct word, and you do not worry about grammar and
spelling. The idea of free-writing is simply to capture the ideas, and you can clean
up later.
. Rewriting
This phase consists of evaluating and polishing the report. This is the phase during
which you improve coherence, proofread for errors, check citations and review the
use of language. Rewriting helps the report writer to express himself or herself
better. It is not unusual for professional researchers to rewrite reports a dozen
times. Rewriting should not discourage you. Actually, it reduces the pressure. It lets
you produce a rough draft, which can be polished later. A draft is a complete report,
from introduction to conclusion. During rewriting the focus is on improving clarity.
Therefore it consists of slow re-reading. It also helps to ask others to read and
comment on the rough draft. Constructive criticism is very helpful.
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S t u d y u n i t 6 . 2
Revising and editing are important during rewriting. Revising refers to inserting new
ideas, and editing refers to correcting spelling, grammar, verb tense, sentence length,
and the organisation of paragraphs. Check the voice: passive voice tends to obscure
the meaning. Avoid repetition of words, ideas and phrases.
It is important to rewrite the introduction (and the title!) after you have completed the
draft. This will ensure that the introduction and title are true reflections of the content
and what is said.
6.2.3 Common mistakes

De Wet, Monteith, Venter and Steyn (1981:296) cite several mistakes commonly made
in writing a report:
. The problem was not clearly defined.
. The researcher did not study what he or she was meant to study.
. The problem was too broad to be dealt with by only one person with limited means.
The research was not clearly defined in the first part of the report.
. Instead of stating and defining the problem and objective in the first chapter, the
writer deals with these facets in various places throughout the report, making it
difficult to form a clear picture of the objective and problem.
. An unimportant problem has been studied; as a result, the entire report is worthless.
Although the above applies to all kinds of research reports, there are differences
between quantitative and qualitative research reports.
6.2.4 Summary
The important thing is to start writing! During the writing process the researcher should
be on the lookout for common mistakes. There are differences between quantitative
and qualitative research reports. The next study unit deals with quantitative research
report writing.
171 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .6 . .2
STUDY UNIT
6.3
Quantitative research report writing
6.3.1 Introduction
As you know by now, research reports should incorporate the results of literature
surveys, qualitative research and quantitative research. In this unit, we will focus on
writing quantitative research reports.
6.3.2 Quantitative research report writing

Research reports that are based on quantitative data are usually more structured than
those based on qualitative data. Quantitative criminological research reports usually
contain the following:
. Executive summary or abstract

Neuman (2000:471–472) explains that these reports usually begin with an abstract or
executive summary, which is between 50 and 300 words in length. If a report is
published in the form of an article in a scholarly journal, the abstract is usually printed
on the first page of the article. An abstract or executive summary contains information
regarding the topic, the research problem, the findings and any elements of unusual
research design or unusual aspects of data collection. Abstracts or executive
summaries tell less informed readers what is in the report, and tell more informed
readers whether or not the full report may contain particular information they need.
Readers therefore use abstracts and executive summaries to help them decide
whether it would be helpful to read the full report.
. Presentation of the problem

Neuman (2000:472) explains that the first part of a quantitative research report sets
out a definition of the research problem. This is usually done under subheadings such
as ‘‘Introduction’’, ‘‘Problem definition’’, ‘‘Literature review’’, ‘‘Hypotheses’’, or ‘‘Back-
ground assumptions’’. Whichever subheading the writer uses, the presentation of the
problem includes a statement of the research problem as well as the rationale
(reasons) for the research that was conducted.
. Description of the research methods

Following the presentation of the problem, the quantitative research report continues
with a description of the research methods. This includes an account of how the
research was designed and how the data was collected. Researchers use
subheadings such as ‘‘Methods’’, ‘‘Research design’’ and ‘‘Data’’. This section can
also include information under subheadings such as ‘‘Measures’’, ‘‘Sampling’’, or
. . . . . . . . . . . 172
S t u d y u n i t 6 . 3
‘‘Data manipulation’’. This is the most important section of the report when the
research methodology is evaluated. For this evaluation, the following questions are
important: What type of study was it (experiment, survey)? How were the data
collected (questionnaires, interviews)? How were the variables measured, and how
were the validity and reliability of the measurements tested (statistical techniques)?
What is the sample? How many subjects were involved? How were they selected?
How did the researcher deal with ethical issues?
. Findings and tables

When they present the data, researchers use the minimum number of charts or tables.
They very rarely present the raw data in the report. The tables are used to analyse the
data and test hypotheses. For this purpose researchers publish frequency distribu-
tions, tables with means and standard deviations, correlations, chi-square and other
statistics. When the findings and tables are presented, the researcher’s focus is on
presenting a complete picture rather than providing excessive detail or irrelevant data.
. Discussion
In this section the writer gives the readers a concise, unambiguous interpretation of
the findings. This takes the form of a candid discussion of the results. The reader is
given the opportunity to examine the data and arrive at either the same or different
interpretations. One approach is to organise the discussion section according to the
hypotheses. However, unanticipated findings, as well as alternative interpretations,
weaknesses and limitations should also be discussed.
. Conclusion
In the conclusion, the research question and the summarised findings are restated.
The purpose is to summarise the report. The summary is the last section of the
research report, followed only by source references and appendices.
6.3.3 Summary
Because they are more structured, research reports based on quantitative data
captured by means of questionnaires are easier to write. Research reports based on
qualitative data captured by means of interviews are less structured, and so they are
more difficult to write. This gives the writer more freedom with regard to the layout, but
he or she is hampered by the fact that these research reports may be more difficult to
publish because they are usually much longer than those based on questionnaire data
capturing. The next study unit deals with the preparation for publication.
173 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .6 . .3
STUDY UNIT
6.4
Preparing for publication
6.4.1 Introduction
Researchers want to share their findings with the scientific community. They do this by
publishing the results of their research in scholarly journals. This is the true testing
ground for the active researcher. However, as you will see in this unit, having research
published is not always easy.
6.4.2 The starting point

The starting point for publication is acceptable research. Usually scholarly journals
accept only first-time work, in other words, research that has not been published
previously in other journals. The research should promote new ideas and should have
yielded new results. Most scholarly journals emphasise empirical research, and so the
proposed article should be based on newly acquired quantitative or qualitative data.
6.4.3 Rationale
Knowledge dissemination is the most important reason for publishing research. New
research results form the basis for further research by other scientists. Publication is
also a strong incentive when scientists require funding for further research.
6.4.4 Classification of articles

Scholarly journals publish different types of articles. The research article is one in
which new findings are promoted. Review articles review existing researched results.
Announcements state the findings only, and precede the publication of a full-fledged
research article. Correspondence between scientists who are arguing a point is also
published. Scholarly journals also publish book reviews, which review and evaluate
the content of new books and online-journals.
6.4.5 Choosing a journal

When selecting a journal to publish in, keep certain points in mind. Your research
should be written in the language preferred by that journal. Select a journal that
generally publishes research in your field of specialisation. Consider the status of the
journal. Status is usually determined by whether it is a national journal, an international
journal or a departmental journal (in other words, a journal published by a particular
academic department).
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S t u d y u n i t 6 . 4
6.4.6 Submitting an article
When the researcher writes an article, he or she has to follow the technical
requirements for that particular journal. Usually these are listed in each journal. If not,
you can ask the editor to supply them. Editors usually require at least two copies of
your article, typed in double spacing. They send these to review editors. The review
editors evaluate the articles and advise the editor whether or not to publish them.
When you choose a title for your article, choose one that makes a statement (captures
readers’ interest) without being dramatic. You need to supply an abstract or executive
summary, which is placed at the very beginning, even before the introduction.
6.4.7 How are articles submitted for publication evaluated?

The editor starts the evaluation process. He or she sends the article to two or more
specialists. The names of the author(s) are removed during the evaluation process so
that the evaluator does not know who the writer is. This is called blind evaluation. The
review editors apply the guidelines for evaluation, which may differ from journal to
journal. After completing the evaluation, the review editor writes a report and submits it
to the editor. Review editors are usually instructed to answer the following questions:
1. Does the research make a definite contribution to the field?
2. Are theoretical points clear?
3. Are theory and empirical work integrated?
4. Was enough relevant literature consulted?
5. Was the empirical research conducted thoroughly?
6. Were the correct data analysis techniques applied?
7. Were the data interpreted correctly?
8. Is the layout of the manuscript clear and logical?
9. Is the use of language clear and appropriate?
10. Are the headings, tables and figures in accordance with the requirements of this
journal?
6.4.8 Reacting to the evaluation of your manuscript

Most manuscripts have to be rewritten. Very few manuscripts are accepted the first
time! If the editor of a journal returns a report stating that the article has been
summarily rejected, it is unlikely that he or she will reconsider it for publication even
after some changes. However, if the article is accepted in principle, the researcher
should start rewriting it as soon as possible and resubmit it to the same journal. When
the editor recommends a drastic review, the problems are usually related to research
methods and it will be difficult for the same journal to reconsider publication without a
comprehensive methodological review, which usually boils down to repeating the
research.
6.4.9 Summary
Publication is the final stage of research. This is the stage during which the researcher
shares his or her newly acquired knowledge, which may form the basis of further
research by the scientific community. The next study unit deals with research ethics.
175 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .6 . .4
THEME
7
Research ethics
Introduction
Babbie (2001:469) points out that we would probably all agree that conducting
research that requires children to be tortured is unethical. However, there are other
aspects of research ethics that are not so obvious. Research ethics refers to
conforming to the standardised conduct of a given profession or group. This definition
is also the driving force behind various ethical codes of conduct for research.
In the brief study units making up this theme we will focus on the principles that are
generally agreed on as being proper in social research. You will then be given two
ethical research codes. These will not be discussed.
This theme consists of the following study units:
Study unit 7.1: The four pillars
7.1.1 Introduction
7.1.2 Pillar 1: Voluntary participation
7.1.3 Pillar 2: No harm to the participants
7.1.4 Pillar 3: Anonymity and confidentiality
7.1.5 Pillar 4: No cheating of colleagues
7.1.6 Summary
Study unit 7.2: The ethical code of the American Sociological Association
Study unit 7.3: Code of conduct of the American Association for Public Opinion
Research
Key concepts
. Voluntary participation
. No harm to participants
. Anonymity
. Confidentiality
. Responsibility
. Integrity
. Credibility
. Ethical codes
. Professional contribution
177 . . . . . . .T .h e.m.e .7
STUDY UNIT
7.1
The four pillars
7.1.1 Introduction
When human behaviour is researched, ethical issues are always involved. The
credibility of the social researcher is linked to how he or she deals with these issues.
All of us consider ourselves as being ethical. Yet we all (sometimes!) plunge into
things without seeing the ethical issues that may be apparent to others, and which we
recognise only once they have been pointed out to us (Babbie 2001:469). The aim of
this study unit is to focus on the four pillars on which ethical social research rests.
7.1.2 Pillar 1: Voluntary participation

Any type of social research intrudes on the lives of the respondents. Filling in a
questionnaire and participating in interviews are activities the respondents did not
request, and may take up a lot of their time. Research always disrupts the regular
activities of respondents (Babbie 2001:470). This sentiment is echoed by Neuman
(2000:282), who observes that researchers intrude into the private life of the
respondents with what are sometimes very personal questions. Therefore, social
scientists agree that an ethical requirement for responsible social research is the
voluntary participation of the respondents.
Social research often requires very personal information about the respondents. It
may be so personal that it is unknown even to the respondents’ own friends and family
members, yet sometimes social research requires that this information be revealed to
total strangers. Other professionals, such as the medical profession, may also require
very personal information, but this may be justified by the fact that obtaining this
information is meant to serve the best interest of the patient. Social researchers can
seldom make such claims, yet they may require even more personal information than
the medical doctor. However, when the researcher wants to generalise the findings of
the research, it would probably be good if a fairly large number of reluctant
respondents could also be ‘‘forced’’ to participate. This is important, because society
as a whole does not consist only of people who are always willing to participate in any
venture, and the views of the reluctant should also be heard (Babbie 2001:471;
Neuman 2000:283).
7.1.3 Pillar 2: No harm to the participants

Whether or not they volunteer for the study, the respondents should never be harmed
in any way by social research. In practice this means that no information should be
released that could embarrass them, including information about any unpopular
attitudes, demeaning characteristics, or even deviant behaviour (Babbie 2001:471).
. . . . . . . . . . . 178
S t u d y u n i t 7 . 1
Social research has the potential to harm respondents psychologically, and so the
researcher should be extremely careful. The nature of the questions asked could
cause the respondent to start agonising about his or her morality or even injure a
fragile self-esteem (Babbie 2001:471).
The most important aspect concerning voluntary participation is informed consent: the
respondent must understand all the risks involved in participating in the research
before he or she actually participates in it (Neuman 2000:283; Babbie 2001:471).
7.1.4 Pillar 3: Anonymity and confidentiality

Guaranteeing a respondent’s anonymity means making sure that no-one can
associate a given response with a given respondent. Guaranteeing confidentiality
means that the researcher is able to identify a given person’s response, but promises
not to do so in public (Babbie 2001:472).
Anonymity makes it difficult to trace who has and who has not returned questionnaires.
Confidentiality may make the respondent reluctant to participate when very personal
information has to be revealed to a total stranger. It may not always be easy to
maintain confidentiality, because courts of law do not consider social research data to
be a ‘‘privileged communication’’.
To ensure anonymity and confidentiality, researchers can remove all identifying
information from the questionnaires the moment it is no longer required. Similarly,
once all follow-up interviews have been conducted with respondents, their details can
be removed (Babbie 2001:474).
7.1.5 Pillar 4: No cheating of colleagues

Pillars 1 to 3 related to the ethical responsibilities of the researcher toward the
respondents. This one relates to the researcher’s responsibility to the scientific
community (Goddard & Melville 2001:110–111). No-one knows better than research-
ers themselves what the limitations and failures of a particular research project were.
Researchers are under obligation to make these known to their readers. Even
negative findings should be reported, because these too are related to the research.
Generally speaking, social science grows through honesty and openness. Deception
retards its growth. When researchers do not cheat their colleagues, they may save
them from making the mistakes they themselves made (Maxfield & Babbie 2008:59–
60).
7.1.6 Summary
The four pillars of voluntary participation, no harm to the respondents, anonymity and
confidentiality and no cheating of colleagues actually boil down to good manners to be
observed during research. When we study any form of human behaviour, ethical
issues are always involved. However, informed consent, the right to privacy and
protection from harm are fairly subjective ethical criteria for guiding research ethics.
Violations are sometimes justified by arguing that the harm to the individual outweighs
the benefit to society. However, to ensure their credibility as scientists, creative
researchers should adhere to the requirements of ethical research at all times.
179 ...........
S t u d y u n i t 7 . 1
STUDY UNIT
7.2
The ethical code of the American

Sociological Association
Bailey (1982:509–510) cites the ethical code of the American Sociological Association,
which is reproduced below.
1. Objectivity in research
In their research sociologists must maintain scientific objectivity.
2. Integrity in research
Sociologists should recognise their own limitations and, when appropriate, seek
more expert assistance or decline to undertake research beyond their
competence. They must not misrepresent their own abilities, or the competence
of their staff to conduct a particular research project.
3. Respect of research subject’s rights to privacy and dignity
Every person is entitled to the right of privacy and dignity of treatment. The
sociologist must respect these rights.
4. Protection of subjects from personal harm
All research should avoid causing personal harm to subjects used in research.
5. Preservation of confidentiality of research data
Confidential information provided by a research subject must be treated as such
by the sociologist. Even though research information is not a privileged
communication under the law, the sociologist must, as far as possible, protect
subjects and informants. Any promises made to such persons must be
honoured.
6. Presentation of research findings
Sociologists must present their findings honestly and without distortion. There
should be no omission of data from a research report which might significantly
modify the interpretation of findings.
7. Misuse of research role
Sociologists must not use their role as a cover to obtain information for other
than professional purposes.
8. Acknowledgement of research collaboration and assistance
Sociologists must acknowledge the professional contributions or assistance of
all persons who collaborated in the research.
9. Disclosure of sources of financial support
Sociologists must report fully all sources of financial support in their research
publications and any special relations to the sponsor that might affect the
interpretation of the findings.
. . . . . . . . . . . 180
S t u d y u n i t 7 . 2
10. Distortion of findings by sponsor
Sociologists are obliged to clarify publicly any distortion by a sponsor or client of
the findings of a research project in which they have participated.
11. Disassociation from unethical research arrangements
Sociologists must not accept such grants, contracts, or research assignments as
appear likely to require violation of the principles above, and must publicly
terminate the work or formally disassociate themselves from the research if they
discover such a violation and are unable to achieve its correction.
12. Interpretation of ethical principles
When the meaning and application of these principles are unclear, sociologists
should seek the judgment of the relevant agency or committee designated by the
American Sociological Association. Such consultation, however, does not free
sociologists from their individual responsibility for decisions or from their
accountability to the profession.
13. Applicability of the principles
In the conduct of research the principles enunciated above should apply to
research in any area either within or outside the United States of America.
181 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .7 . .2
STUDY UNIT
7.3
Code of conduct of the American

Association for Public Opinion
Research
This code, as reproduced by Babbie (2001:478), upholds just two basic principles,
each with some clarifying stipulations. It starts off with a declaration, as follows:
We, the members of the American Association for Public Opinion Research, subscribe
to the principles expressed in the following code.
Our goal is to support sound practice in the profession of public opinion research. (By
public opinion research we mean studies in which the principal source of information
about individual beliefs, preferences, and behaviour is a report given by the individual
himself or herself.)
We pledge ourselves to maintain high standards of scientific competence and integrity
in our work, and in our relations both with our clients and with the general public. We
further pledge ourselves to reject all tasks or assignments which would be inconsistent
with the principles of this code.
THE CODE
I Principles of professional practice in the conduct of our work
A We shall exercise due care in gathering and processing data, taking all reasonable
steps to assume the accuracy of the results.
B We shall exercise due care in development of research designs and in the analysis
of data.
1. We shall employ only the research tools and methods of analysis which, in our
professional judgment, are well suited to the research problem at hand.
2. We shall not select research tools and methods of analysis because of their
special capacity to yield a desired conclusion.
3. We shall not knowingly make interpretations of research results, nor shall we
tacitly permit interpretations, that are inconsistent with the data available.
4. We shall not knowingly imply that interpretations should be accorded greater
confidence than the data actually warrant.
C We shall describe our findings and methods accurately and in appropriate detail in
all research reports.
. . . . . . . . . . . 182
S t u d y u n i t 7 . 3
II Principles of professional responsibility in our dealings with people
A The public
1. We shall cooperate with legally authorised representatives of the public by
describing the methods used in our studies.
2. We shall maintain the right to approve the release of our findings whether or not
ascribed to us. When misinterpretation appears, we shall publicly disclose what
is required to correct it, notwithstanding our obligation for client confidentiality in
all other respects.
B Clients or sponsors
1. We shall hold confidential all information obtained about the client’s general
business affairs and about the findings of research conducted for the client,
except when the dissemination of such information is expressly authorised.
2. We shall be mindful of the limitations of our techniques and facilities and shall
accept only those research assignments that can be accomplished within these
limitations.
C The profession
1. We shall not cite our membership in the Association as evidence of
professional competence, since the Association does not certify any persons
or organisations.
2. We recognise our responsibility to contribute to the science of public opinion
research and to disseminate as freely as possible the ideas and findings that
emerge from our research.
D The respondent
1. We shall not lie to survey respondents or use practices and methods which
abuse, coerce, or humiliate them.
2. We shall protect the anonymity of every respondent, unless the respondent
waives such anonymity for specific uses. In addition, we shall hold as privileged
and confidential all information that tends to identify the respondent.
Conclusion
This unit dealt with the issue around research ethics. It is important to take note of all
the principles involved in research ethics, most important the four pillars on which
ethical social research rests.
183 . . .S .t u.d .y .u n. i .t .7 . .3
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Quantitative

ONLY STUDY GUIDE FOR c My 3 7 0 9

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

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Theme 1 Reflection on science and research: the approach in this module 1

Study unit 1.1 Science and research 4

Study unit 1.2 Philosophy of science 20

Study unit 1.3 Research methodology 36

Study unit 1.4 Research technology 48

Theme 2 Origins and development of the scientific idea 63

Study unit 2.2 The Renaissance 75

Study unit 3.2 Levels of measurement 97

Theme 4 Research process: design and planning 117

Study unit 5.2 Surveys as a quantitative method 146

Study unit 5.3 Quantitative techniques 151

Theme 6 Report writing 165

Theme 7 Research ethics 177

THEME 1: REFLECTION ON SCIENCE AND RESEARCH:

THEME 2: ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC

THEME 3: QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT

THEME 5: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNOLOGY

THEME 7: RESEARCH ETHICS

CMY3709: QUANTITAVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ONLINE

SPECIAL LEARNING OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

In this orientation we will

The purpose of this module

After studying this module, you should be able to

These are the specific learning outcomes for CMY3709:

These are also the assessment criteria for CMY3709.

11 . . . O. r.i .e n. t.a .t i.o .n

Compilation of this study guide

13 . . . O. r.i .e n. t.a .t i.o .n

Learning content and definitions of terms

xv . . . O. r.i .e n. t.a .t i.o .n

Reflection on science and research:

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Why do you need to do this activity?

Why must you do this?

The concepts you should have filled in are:

(c) Research technology

Science and research

Why do you need to do this activity?

Why do you need to do this activity?

A definition of science could read as follows: Science is (may be defined/described/

Inorganic or Organic or Humans as

FIGURE 1.2: Man and nature in reality

Why do you need to do this activity?

Inorganic or inanimate Organic or animate Humans as sociocultur-

........................................ ........................................ ........................................

Why do you need to do this activity?

Why do you need to do this activity?

Why do you need to do this activity?

The term is research. The class is an activity or a process. The

Research is therefore an activity or process that usually entails a scientist’s

. Gathering/collecting information or data. Before gathering the information or

Why do you need to do this activity?

They are not in the correct order.