School of Energy, Geoscience,

Infrastructure and Society

Course Notes

D29GS Geology and Soil Properties

Dr Ian Smith
Dr Melis Sutman

Session 2022/23
These course notes have been written and compiled by Professor Ian
Smith, Geotechnical and Educational Consultant, specifically for the
students of Heriot Watt University studying at the Edinburgh, Dubai
and Malaysia campuses.

Additional support and reading should be gained from Smith’s

Elements of Soil Mechanics, 9th Edition.

Specifically, refer to the following

Chapters:

Chapter 1 Classification and physical

properties of soils

Chapter 6 Site investigation

Chapter 14 Compaction and soil

mechanics aspects of highway design

In addition, Waltham T. (2009) Foundations of Engineering Geology, 3rd

Edition, Spon Press will be helpful for the Engineering Geology part of this
course.

Professor Ian Smith

Geotechnical and Educational Consultant
http://www.profiansmith.com

September 2020

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Contents:
SECTION 1 – INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING GEOLOGY ............................................................ 5
1.1 Civil engineering projects ..................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Engineering Geology ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.2.1 Structure of the Earth ..................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Plate tectonics ................................................................................................................................ 6
1.3 Formation and types of rocks ............................................................................................................... 7
1.3.1 Rock cycle ..................................................................................................................................... 7
1.3.2 Igneous rocks ................................................................................................................................. 7
1.3.3 Sedimentary rocks ......................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.4 Metamorphic rocks ........................................................................................................................ 8
1.4 Rock and mineral identification............................................................................................................ 8

SECTION 2 – ENGINEERING GEOLOGY APPLICATION .................................................................... 10

2.1 Geological structures and discontinuities ........................................................................................... 10
2.1.1 Folds ............................................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.2 Joints ............................................................................................................................................ 11
2.1.3 Outcrop ........................................................................................................................................ 11
2.1.4 Faults ........................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Geological maps ................................................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Uses of rocks and minerals in civil engineering ................................................................................. 12
2.4 Formation of soils: weathering, erosion and deposition ..................................................................... 13
2.4.1 Weathering .................................................................................................................................. 13
2.4.2 Erosion......................................................................................................................................... 13
2.4.3 Residual and Transported Soils ................................................................................................... 14
2.5. Ground collapse ................................................................................................................................. 15
2.5.1 Ground subsidence ...................................................................................................................... 15
2.5.2 Sinkholes and dissolution of limestone ....................................................................................... 15
2.5.3 Mining subsidence ....................................................................................................................... 16
2.5.4 Expansive and collapsible soils ................................................................................................... 16
2.6 Stability of slopes ............................................................................................................................... 17
2.6.1 Rock slopes .................................................................................................................................. 18

SECTION 3 – GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING .................................................................................... 19

3.1 Geotechnical engineering projects ...................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Geotechnical design work................................................................................................................... 20
3.2.1 Stratigraphy ................................................................................................................................. 20
3.2.2 Classification of soils................................................................................................................... 20
3.2.3 Stiffness of soils........................................................................................................................... 20
3.2.4 Strength of soils ........................................................................................................................... 20
3.2.5 Groundwater regime .................................................................................................................... 21
3.2.6 Chemical and other aspects of the ground ................................................................................... 21
3.3 Soil Mechanics ................................................................................................................................... 21
3.3.1 Origin of soil................................................................................................................................ 21
3.3.2 Structure and fabric ..................................................................................................................... 21
3.4 Granular and cohesive soils ................................................................................................................ 22

SECTION 4 – INTRODUCTION TO SITE INVESTIGATION ................................................................. 23

4.1 Main Objectives of Site Investigation ................................................................................................ 23
4.2 Site Investigation Procedure ............................................................................................................... 24
4.3 Planning of ground investigations ...................................................................................................... 25
4.3.1 Desk study ................................................................................................................................... 25
4.3.2 Walkover Survey ......................................................................................................................... 27
4.3.3 Planning the spacing and depth of investigation points ............................................................... 28
4.4 Site exploration methods .................................................................................................................... 29
4.4.1 Trial pits....................................................................................................................................... 29
4.4.2 Hand excavated boreholes ........................................................................................................... 30
4.4.3 Boreholes ..................................................................................................................................... 30
4.5 Soil sampling ...................................................................................................................................... 33
4.5.1 Degree of sample disturbance ...................................................................................................... 34

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 Example 4.1: Area ratio ........................................................................................................................ 35
4.6 Field tests ............................................................................................................................................ 35
4.7 Laboratory tests .................................................................................................................................. 35
4.8 Geophysical testing............................................................................................................................. 36
4.9 Geotechnical reports ........................................................................................................................... 36

SECTION 5 - CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS............................................................................................. 40

5.1 Drying soils ........................................................................................................................................ 40
5.2 Determination of water content, w ..................................................................................................... 40
Example 5.1: Water content determination .......................................................................................... 40
5.3 Classification of granular soils - Particle size distribution ................................................................. 41
5.3.1 The effective size of a distribution, D10 ....................................................................................... 43
5.3.2 Grading of a distribution.............................................................................................................. 43
5.3.3 The uniformity coefficient Cu ...................................................................................................... 43
Example 5.2: Particle size distribution ................................................................................................. 44
5.4 Classification of cohesive soils ........................................................................................................... 45
5.4.1 The consistency limits ................................................................................................................. 45
5.4.2 Liquid limit (wL) and plastic limit (wP) ....................................................................................... 46
5.4.3 Plasticity index (IP) ...................................................................................................................... 46
5.4.4 Liquidity index ............................................................................................................................ 46
5.4.5 Shrinkage limit ............................................................................................................................ 46
5.4.6 Determination of liquid and plastic limits ................................................................................... 47
Example 5.3: Liquid limit test .............................................................................................................. 49
Example 5.4: Liquid and plastic limit tests........................................................................................... 50
5.5 The British Soil Classification System ............................................................................................... 51
Example 5.5: Soil classification (i) ....................................................................................................... 52
Example 5.6: Soil classification (ii)...................................................................................................... 54
5.6 Description of soils ............................................................................................................................. 56

SECTION 6 – SOIL PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................. 57

6.1 Void ratio, e ........................................................................................................................................ 57
6.2 Porosity, n ........................................................................................................................................... 57
6.3 Degree of saturation, Sr....................................................................................................................... 58
Example 6.1: Void ratio and degree of saturation ................................................................................ 58
Example 6.2: void ratio and porosity .................................................................................................... 59
6.4 Particle density (ρs) and specific gravity (Gs) ..................................................................................... 59
Example 6.3: Specific gravity test ........................................................................................................ 61
6.5 Density and unit weight ...................................................................................................................... 62
6.5.1 Bulk density, ρ............................................................................................................................. 62
6.5.2 Sand replacement test .................................................................................................................. 62
Example 6.4: Sand replacement test ..................................................................................................... 63
6.5.3 Dry density, ρd ............................................................................................................................. 63
6.5.4 Unit weight, or weight density, γ ................................................................................................. 63
6.5.5 Buoyant, submerged or effective unit weight γ' ........................................................................... 64
6.5.6 Density index ............................................................................................................................... 64
6.6 Summary of soil physical relations..................................................................................................... 64
Example 6.5: Bulk density, dry density and water content................................................................... 65
Example 6.6: Dry and saturated unit weights ....................................................................................... 65

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 SECTION 1 – INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

1.1 Civil engineering projects

Civil engineers are privileged to be able to be involved in the design,

construction and maintenance of various sized projects that provide society
with the infrastructure that we need for modern life. Projects vary in size from
fairly small-scale developments to vast, expensive schemes in categories
including: highways, bridges, structures, airports, rail, water infrastructure,
tunnels and energy. Since all civil engineering projects interact with the
ground, it is vital that civil engineers have an awareness of Engineering
Geology and more so, of Geotechnical Engineering. This course starts you off
on that process.

1.2 Engineering Geology

1.2.1 Structure of the Earth
The Earth has a radius of about 4000 miles and is made up of distinctive
layers, as indicated in Figure 1.1.

crust
outer core

upper mantle
inner core

lower mantle

Figure 1.1. Structure of the Earth.

Crust (6 to 40 miles thick): surface rocks and soils

Mantle (1800 miles thick): solid rock (mainly olivine)
Outer Core (1400 miles thick): molten iron and nickel.
Inner Core (1700 miles thick): iron and nickel (solid due to enormous
pressures).

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1.2.2 Plate tectonics
The upper mantle and crust form a zone known as the lithosphere, which is
made up from large rock plates (oceanic, continental, or a combination of
both). Convection currents circulate within the mantle due to its heat, which in
turn cause the plates to move laterally. The study of the movement of the
plates is known as plate tectonics. The plates are shown in Figure 1.2. It is the
movement of these plates (about 1 – 9 cm per year) that cause many
geological processes such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to occur at
the plate margins. The plates themselves are relatively stable – it is the
actions at the plate boundaries that cause the geological activity. The
geological activity also drives the rock cycle (see Section 1.3.1).

Figure 1.2. The tectonic plates.

There are three types of plate boundary:

Divergent boundary: Constructive. Plates move apart, resulting in

upwelling of material from the mantle to create
new sea floor. This creates new oceanic plate and
features submarine volcanoes e.g. formation of
Iceland.

Convergent boundary: Destructive. Plates move together, resulting in the

subduction (consumption) of oceanic lithosphere
into the mantle. Convergence can also result in
the collision of two continental margins to create a
major mountain system. Here the overriding plate
thickens and crumples to form mountain range
e.g. Andes, Himalayas.

Conservative boundary: Also known as transform fault boundary. These

display sideways movement only without the
production or destruction of lithosphere. These
cause major earthquakes e.g. San Andreas Fault.

At constructive plate margins new oceanic crust is created where two plates
are moving apart and magma rises to fill the gap. This occurs at mid-ocean
ridges and causes the older material to be displaced sideways at an average

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rate of 4 cm per year. This is known as sea-floor spreading. As the magma
rises, it forms oceanic volcanoes and causes earthquakes.

At destructive plate margins two plates collide and one dips beneath the other,
producing deep sea trenches. Magma is forced up along the margin to form
chains of volcanoes around which earthquakes occur. If the two plates are
continental, new mountain ranges are created.

1.3 Formation and types of rocks

1.3.1 Rock cycle
The rock cycle is driven by plate tectonics, and the rocks and soils we have to
deal with are ‘deposited’ within that cycle.

Figure 1.3. The rock cycle.

We will look at the formation of soils in Section 2. For now, let’s stick to rocks.

1. Magma forms inside Earth, rises towards the crust and cools and
solidifies.
2. The magma crystallises above or below the Earth’s surface: Igneous
rocks are formed.
3. At the surface, rocks undergo weathering.
4. Rock particles (sediments) moved downslope and transported by glaciers,
rivers and wind.
5. Eventually, the sediments are deposited in oceans and floodplains, where
they will undergo lithification.
6. Sedimentary rocks are formed.
7. If the sedimentary rock is subjected to great pressures and/or intense
heat, it will react and will change to a metamorphic rock
8. Metamorphic rocks subjected to very high pressure or temperature will
melt creating magma that will eventually crystallise into igneous rock, and
the cycle starts again.

1.3.2 Igneous rocks

As seen from Figure 1.3, when the magma cools, it solidifies by crystallising into
a mixture of minerals to form an igneous rock. Extrusive igneous rocks are those
that arrived on the surface of the Earth as molten lava and cooled. Intrusive

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igneous rocks are formed from magma that forced itself through cracks into rock
beds below the surface and solidified there. Igneous rocks can be classified as
either Acid or Basic – depending on the amount of SiO2 content in the rock.

Examples:
Granite, basalt, gabbro.

1.3.3 Sedimentary rocks

Weathering reduces the rock mass to fragmented particles, which can be more
easily transported by wind, water and ice. When dropped by the agents of
weathering, they are termed sediments. These sediments are typically deposited
in layers or beds called strata and when compacted and cemented together
(lithification) they form sedimentary rocks.

Examples:
Shale, sandstone, chalk.

1.3.4 Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphism through high temperatures and pressures acting on sedimentary
or igneous rocks produces metamorphic rocks. The original rock undergoes both
chemical and physical alterations.

Examples:
Slate, quartzite, marble.

1.4 Rock and mineral identification

The identification of rock type is often necessary in civil engineering works where
either the rock head becomes the bearing strata for the project, or where
excavated rock is to be reused on the project as fill, road stone, or aggregate.

When identifying a rock it is useful initially to determine whether it is igneous,

sedimentary or metamorphic. Colour, texture, grain size and mineral layering
are useful indicators in helping with this. The properties of the minerals that
comprise the rocks are also useful indicators – both as to what the minerals
are and to what the type of rock is.

Minerals are substances of crystalline form made up from a particular

chemical combination. The main minerals found in rocks include quartz,
feldspar, calcite, and mica. In addition to colour, minerals possess the
following physical properties:

• streak: colour of the scratch line when scratched with hard object
• lustre: appearance of freshly broken surface (e.g. shiny, bright, dull
etc.)
• cleavage: breaking along defined planes
• fracture: breaking along irregular fracture lines
• hardness: what materials a mineral will scratch and what materials, in
turn, will scratch it

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The Mohs hardness scale is used as a basis for evaluating the hardness of
minerals:

1. Talc (softest)
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Feldspar
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10.Diamond (hardest)

Any mineral in the hardness scale will scratch the minerals below it.

Rock identification is of course made easier if it can be compared against an

existing sample or image of a known rock type. For a comprehensive set of
images of different types of rock, see Wikipedia.

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SECTION 2 – ENGINEERING GEOLOGY APPLICATION

2.1 Geological structures and discontinuities

The tectonic processes described in Section 1 put enormous heat, pressures

and stresses onto the rock masses as they form and afterwards. These cause
plastic folding and brittle failures within the rock masses. This enables
movement within the rock mass to take place, which can cause expansion or
subsidence of the ground surface. In addition, these discontinuities in the rock
mass present geotechnical engineers with challenges in anticipating likely
behaviour of the rock if loaded.

Figure 2.1. Strike and dip.

When analysing geological structures, two terms, strike and dip, are often
used. Refer to Figure 2.1. The strike is the direction of the line formed by the
intersection of a fault or other planar feature and a horizontal plane. The dip is
the angle at which the planar feature is inclined to the horizontal plane (it is
measured in a vertical plane perpendicular to the strike of the feature).

2.1.1 Folds
A fold is a flexure in rock. i.e. a change in the amount of dip of a bed within the
rock mass. In the vertical sense they can occur in an upwards (anticline) or a
downwards (syncline) direction. The degree and shape of the fold can also
vary as indicated in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2. Folds: anticlines, synclines, gentle to strong, rounded to angular

shape (from Waltham, 2009)

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2.1.2 Joints
Joints are fractures within the rock mass where no movement of the rock
takes place along the crack. Nearly all rock masses will possess joints of
some form. The amount, length and depth of joints varies throughout a rock
mass.

2.1.3 Outcrop
An exposure of rock at the surface is called an outcrop. Outcrops give a ready
indication of the type of rock present at that location. The presence of
outcrops on a site also suggests that the depth to rock head is shallow at that
location. This is useful in foundation design work.

2.1.4 Faults
A fracture in rock along which there has been an observable amount of
displacement is termed a fault. Faults commonly create zones of badly broken
ground – that are weaker and less stable than the adjacent rock – with
implications for foundation bearing capacity, slope stability and tunnel roof
integrity.

There are several types of fault. The three major types are shown in Figure
2.3.

1. Normal fault 2. Reverse fault 3. Tear fault

Figure 2.3. Different types of faults.

2.2 Geological maps

A geological map is a representation of the rocks and overlying principal soil

types for a particular region. They can be very useful in gaining an
understanding of the major rock types and discontinuities that are present on a
site. Traditionally, engineers used hard copies of the maps but now we tend to
use the online provision of the British Geological Society, through the Geology
of Britain viewer facility, see Figure 2.4.

The data used to produce the maps has been accumulated over decades.
Different rock types and groups are represented by different colours, and
symbols indicate the presence of geological features and structures.
Topographical features are also included and cross-sections can be
established using the information and key provided on the map.

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 (a) (b)

Figure 2.4. Geological mapping: (a) hard copy map; (b) online BGS viewer.

2.3 Uses of rocks and minerals in civil engineering

Approximately 200 Megatons of stone are used in Britain per year. Less than
1 Mt. is used as dimension stone (large, uncrushed - used for structural
masonry, cladding etc.). The rest is used as aggregate (i.e. crushed rock used
in road mixes and concrete). The main civil engineering uses of some rocks
and minerals are given below.

Rock Use Properties

Basalt aggregate strength, widespread availability
Gabbro aggregate strength, widespread availability
Granite structural masonry, strength, durability, widespread
decorative features, cladding, availability, appearance
aggregate
Slate roofing, fireplaces durability, impermeable, laminar
Sandstone structural masonry strength, durability, widespread
availability
Limestone structural masonry, asphalt strength, durability, widespread
mixes availability
Bauxite aluminium production chemical
Marble architectural features, stone hardness, durability, appearance
floors, cladding

Mineral Use Properties

Pyrites Grinding tools hardness
Pozzolan Cement base chemical
Salt Road de-icing chemical
Gypsum Plaster manufacture chemical
Corundum grinding, cutting hardness
Hematite pigments, polish manufacture chemical
Diamond drilling, coring hardness

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2.4 Formation of soils: weathering, erosion and deposition

The effects of weathering and transportation largely determine the basic

nature of the soil (i.e. the size, shape, composition and distribution of the
grains). The environment into which deposition takes place and subsequent
geological events that take place there largely determine the state of the soil,
(i.e. density, moisture content) and the structure or fabric of the soil (i.e.
bedding, stratification).

2.4.1 Weathering
The weathering of rocks is the breakdown of the parent rock into smaller
particles. It can be caused by both physical and chemical processes.

Physical weathering:
Thermal expansion: fractures due to changes in temperature
Frost shattering: fracturing as fissure water freezes and expands
Unloading joints: stress relief fractures due to overburden removal
Wetting & drying: movement due to changes in moisture content
Root action: tree root expansion in fissures

Chemical weathering:
Processes include leaching, oxidation, and hydrolysis.

2.4.2 Erosion
Once the particles of rock are small enough, they can be transported away
from the site of their formation by ice, water and wind. Erosion is defined by
the product of the two processes of weathering and transportation.

Water erosion
Water is the main agent of erosion: its power increases greatly with velocity.
Rivers erode by down-cutting the sides to form V-profile valleys. Erosion can
occur laterally too - notably on outside of river bends.

The velocity drops with distance downstream. Large gravels can be

transported in the faster flows but only fine silts and clay particles can be
carried as far as the estuary. Deposition is due to velocity loss, gradient loss,
and bends, so the sediment is sorted by size.

In a youthful river, the flow is fast and erodes the banks to form the V-shaped
cross-section. The river is not subject to much lateral erosion and therefore
has a meandering appearance – Figure 2.5 (a).

As the river matures, the bends (spurs) are eroded through lateral erosion and
the river profile becomes more rounded. The river becomes less meandering
and the process can lead to the formation of ox-bow lakes – Figure 2.5 (b).

13
 cross-section
cross-section

(a) (b)

Figure 2.5. River erosion: (a) youthful river; (b) mature river.

Glacial erosion
Glaciers form where winter snowfall exceeds the summer melt: snow layers
accumulate, and the compressed lower zones are squeezed out as flowing
ice.

Debris of all sizes is picked up and transported by glaciers. Deposition occurs

at glacier edges, bases, and terminal melt zone. The material deposited is
called glacial till.

Wind erosion
In dry desert environments, wind erosion is predominant. The wind moves dry
sand by rolling, sliding, or bouncing. The action tends to round the sand
particles. Dunes are built up by the deposition of the particles. Deposition
occurs when the wind speed drops, or in the lee of obstacles.

2.4.3 Residual and Transported Soils

Residual soils
These have been formed entirely by in situ weathering and have remained at
their original location. They occur mainly in tropical regions and other areas
not subjected to glaciation. A common example are the laterites, materials
found to be rich in the oxides of iron and aluminium, which occur in South
America, parts of Africa, India, Sri Lanka and Australia.

Transported soils
As the term suggests, these have been moved from their original location and
deposited elsewhere. The principal agents of transportation are: water, ice
and wind. The size and shape of the particles in a transported soil deposit are
strongly influenced by the agent of transportation and the mode of deposition.

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Transportation

• Water or wind: grains become sub-rounded or rounded, grain sizes are

sorted producing poorly-graded deposits (e.g. single-size sands).

• Ice: grinding and crushing occur, size distribution becomes wider, deposits
are well-graded, ranging from rock flour to boulders.

Deposition

• In flowing water: decreasing sized particles are deposited as velocity drops,

e.g. gravels in river terraces, sands in floodplains and estuaries, silts and
clays in lakes and seas.

• In still water: horizontal layers of successive sediments are formed, which

may change with time.

• From glaciers: deposition varies from well-graded tills and boulder clays to
poorly-graded deposits in moraines and outwash fans.

• In arid conditions: scree material (usually poorly-graded and lies on

slopes), wind-blown sands (generally uniformly-graded and cross bedded).

2.5. Ground collapse

We have seen that geological processes are live physical events. Most of the
processes are slow in nature, but they can lead to triggers that result in a swift
and sometimes catastrophic ground movement, such as earthquakes, ground
collapse and landslides. We will complete this section by taking a brief look at
the problems of ground instability – problems which confound the design and
construction challenges of building at or near such locations.

2.5.1 Ground subsidence

Subsidence is the reduction in volume accompanied by downward movement
of soil which causes a localised lowering of the ground surface level. If
structures, pavements or services are in the affected area, they will be
damaged or even destroyed.

In order for the subsidence to occur there must either be voids beneath the
ground into which the soil can fall, thus creating the subsidence (these voids
range in size from fairly small pockets to vast underground caverns) or the soil
must shrink/expand in response to changes in water content.

2.5.2 Sinkholes and dissolution of limestone

In areas where limestone or chalks are present, subsidence caused by the
dissolution of these carbonate rocks is possible. Carbonate rocks can dissolve
slowly over time due to the chemical reaction with (even slightly) acidic
groundwater and rainwater. This reaction leads to the loss of the rock material
as it is literally dissolved away. The resulting volume reduction of the rock
creates an ever-increasing void. Through time that void can become very
15
significant in size. The soil above the limestone at first may be able to “bridge”
the void and provide support to all soil above. However, as the void grows,
and/or as the surface loading increases, eventually the soil will collapse into
the void.

The scale of the collapse will depend on the size of the void. If the volume of
the void is of several cubic metres, the collapse will cause a sinkhole.
Sinkholes can be frightening and devastating geological events where, with no
warning, an area of ground (and everything on it: houses, cars, vegetation,
people) will fall deep into the void several metres below. Some sinkhole
examples are shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6. Examples of sinkholes.

2.5.3 Mining subsidence

Mining activities (mainly coal, but also salt, clay, limestone etc.) result in vast
voids in the rock from where the minerals or rocks have been mined. These
voids/caverns, for worker safety, of course were supported during the mining
process. However, years and decades after the mining ended, these no-
longer-maintained mines can occasionally collapse due to erosion of the mine
support system (which may have been just the original rock above the mine
level). In a similar progressive collapse system to that experienced in
limestone dissolution, the soils above the abandoned mine fall into the void
and cause excessive settlement at the surface. This process may be slow and
gradual, or swift, unexpected, and therefore potentially catastrophic.

2.5.4 Expansive and collapsible soils

Some soils are susceptible to swelling, collapse or both. The behaviour of
these soils in these situations is largely controlled by the water content of the
soil.

Clays
Desiccation in clays is the process where, as the soil dries due to conditions
such as a long period of hot weather, it shrinks and reduces in volume
causing subsidence and lowering of the ground level above. This can cause
damage to roadways and shallow housing foundations. These soils will also
likely swell once they are wetted again, which causes further change in
ground level and additional distress to any affected structure.

Peat
Peat is an organic soil, of extremely high compressibility. The high organic
content, and the fibrous nature of the soil, means that peats have very high
water contents. Numerically, the mass of water in a peat soil can be at least

16
10 times the mass of the dry particles. Because of this, peats compress
significantly under any load, causing significant settlement and lowering of the
ground surface. Because of the engineering difficulties posed by loading a
peat soil, such soils are often excavated and removed if possible. If
excavation is not an option, then consideration of the likely settlement of the
ground under loading, together with a review of remedial measures available
to limit the movement, would be part of the engineering design process.

2.6 Stability of slopes

Landslides, or landslips, are movement of soil or rock down a natural or
engineered slope. They are caused by changes in the loading conditions of
the slope, changes in the groundwater conditions within the slope, or by a
reduction in the shear strength of the soil.

There are several forms of landslides including planar slides, rotational slips,
soil flows and rockslides and topples. The effect of a landslide can range from
the completely insignificant to the catastrophic. Figure 2.7 shows a few
examples of the consequences of landslides.

17
 Figure 2.7. Consequences of landslides.

2.6.1 Rock slopes

We will look at the stability of soil slopes in later years, where numerical
analyses can be used to assess the safety of a slope against failure. For now
let’s look briefly at the failure mechanisms encountered in rock slopes.

Translational slides and topples in rock masses are dependent upon the
spatial arrangement of the discontinuities within the mass and their
relationship to the geometry of the slope. Representations of the 3 main
modes of failure are shown in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8. Modes of failure in a rock slope.

Plane failure: In which slip is controlled by a single discontinuity, although

others may exist as release surfaces.

Plane failure occurs due to sliding along the single discontinuity. The
conditions for sliding are that:

(i) the strikes of both the sliding plane and the slope face lie parallel
(±20°) to each other.
(ii) the failure plane "daylights" on the slope face.
(iii) the dip of the sliding plane is greater than the angle of friction resisting
movement.
(iv) the sliding mass is bound by release surfaces of negligible resistance.

Wedge failure:
Wedge failure occurs due to sliding along a combination of discontinuities.
The conditions for sliding require that the angle of friction is overcome, and
that the intersection of the discontinuities "daylights" on the slope surface.

Topples
Toppling occurs as movement due to forces that cause an overturning
moment about a pivot point below the centre of gravity of the unit. If
unchecked it will result in a fall or slide.

18
SECTION 3 – GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Geotechnical engineering, or geotechnics, is the branch of civil engineering
concerned with the design and analysis of foundations, excavations, slopes,
retaining walls, embankments and tunnels. In essence, geotechnical
engineering is concerned with the civil engineering aspects pertaining to the
ground. Soil mechanics is the sub-discipline of geotechnics which looks at the
behaviour of soils in civil engineering.

3.1 Geotechnical engineering projects

• Foundations
The foundation of a structure is in direct contact
with the ground and transmits the load of the
structure to the ground. Foundation types include
pad, strip, raft, and piles. When designing
foundations, the bearing capacity of the soil and
the potential settlement must be analysed.

• Excavations
To permit work within the ground, excavations
are made to the required depth. The sides of the
excavations must be stable (usually braced) to
allow work to be carried out safely.

• Slopes, embankments and cuttings

Problems of slope instability occur in both natural
and constructed slopes. Analysis is performed to
assess the stability of slopes to try to prevent
slips and landslides etc.

• Embankments
Embankments are constructed by compacting
successive layers of soil until the required height
is reached. The compaction process (e.g. type of
equipment, amount of work) is decided by the
geotechnical engineer.

• Retaining walls
Retaining walls are used to support changes in
ground level which are too steep or too high to
remain stable if left unsupported.

19
• Tunnels
Can be constructed through soil or rock. Method
of construction depends on ground conditions. In
addition to ensuring the tunnel will satisfy all
design requirements, the design must ensure
that the impact on other buried structures
(foundations, services etc.) does not exceed
tolerance limits (e.g. movement, vibration).

3.2 Geotechnical design work

Now that we have seen some of the categories of geotechnical structures,
let’s begin to look at the aspects that are important to enable a safe and
economical geotechnical design to be carried out. The purpose of the design
is to ensure that the structure will not fail within its design life. Failure in
geotechnics can be brought about by movement and/or collapse of the
ground… either rapidly, or slowly over time.

3.2.1 Stratigraphy
We saw in Section 2 how soils are formed. The layering of soils and rocks
across a site is known as the stratigraphy. Knowing the stratigraphy of the
soils is a fundamental geotechnical requirement. Careful exploration and
sampling of the soils (see Section 4) will enable a visual determination to be
made of the make up and extent of each layer of soil encountered.

3.2.2 Classification of soils

In addition to understanding the layering of the soils, the engineer will often
need to know what the particle make up and the natural water content of the
different soils are. These characteristics are obtained via classification testing.
We will look at the classification of soils in Section 5.

3.2.3 Stiffness of soils

The settlement of foundations, particularly over long periods of time, depends
on the stiffness of the soils present. Soft clay soils will deform reasonably
quickly beneath an applied load. Firmer and stiffer clays will deform much
more slowly. The deformation leads to a reduction in volume of the soil
beneath the applied load which manifests as a settlement at the foundation
level, or ground surface. The process of volume reduction in a clay soil over
time due to an applied loading is known as the consolidation of the soil.
Granular soils (sands and gravels) settle much quicker than clays. Volume
reduction in these types of soils is known as settlement and tends to happen
immediately upon application of the load. Stiffness is covered later on in your
degree.

3.2.4 Strength of soils

The internal strength of a soil (i.e. its resistance to shear failure) affects the
load that a soil can withstand before collapsing. It is the strength of the soil
that enables it to support applied loads and pressures. If a load is applied to a

20
soil, it induces a stress within the soil which varies depending on depth and
closeness to the load. A soil can withstand a certain amount of applied stress
before it will collapse. During the design of foundations, retaining walls,
embankments and other geotechnical structures, we check that the applied
stresses will not exceed the safe amount that the soil can withstand. Strength
of soils is covered in Year 4.

3.2.5 Groundwater regime

The behaviour of soils, especially clays, is affected by the groundwater
regime. The presence of the groundwater table and any flow of water taking
place through the soils significantly affect the stress regime in the soils and
the applied pressures which the soil may be inducing on to a structure such as
a retaining wall. It is important to realise right from the outset that it is the
water in a soil that gives geotechnical engineers one of their biggest
challenges when analysing likely behaviour of the soil during and after
construction.

3.2.6 Chemical and other aspects of the ground

Soils contain sulphates and other chemicals. Usually these are small in
amount and have little effect on the design aspects. However, where the
sulphate content is high, concrete can suffer degradation, and so protection of
the concrete or the use of sulphate-resisting cement may need to be
considered. On some brownfield sites there is a good chance that the soil will
be contaminated by oils, hydrocarbons, toxins etc. and here the ground will
need to be treated or sealed as part of the construction process. This is of
particular concern if the groundwater regime suggests the water in the soil is
flowing.

3.3 Soil Mechanics

Soil mechanics is the branch of civil engineering which is concerned with the
mechanical behaviour of engineering soils. Understanding the origin and
structure of a particular soil is an important aspect in considering the likely
behaviour of that soil under loading, excavation and placement.

3.3.1 Origin of soil

As we saw in Section 2.4, soils are the results of geological events. The
nature and structure of a given soil depends on the geological processes that
formed it:

• breakdown of parent rock - weathering, decomposition, erosion, etc.

• transportation to site of final deposition - gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.

3.3.2 Structure and fabric

Soils consist of grains mixed up with water and air. The water and air contents
are readily changed by changes in conditions and location: soils can be
perfectly dry (have no water content) or be fully saturated (have no air
content).
21
Natural soils are almost never consistently the same from one point in the
ground to another. The content and nature of the grains vary, but more
importantly, so does their arrangement. The arrangement and organisation of
particles is referred to as the soil fabric. The fabric, together with consideration
of soil density and any inter-particle forces acting within the soil mass is
termed its structure.

3.4 Granular and cohesive soils

In the broadest sense there are two types of soil: granular (e.g. sands,
gravels) and cohesive (clays, silts). These are illustrated in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1. Granular (left) and cohesive (right) soils.

Granular soils are formed from loose particles without strong inter-particle
forces, as depicted in Figure 3.2 (a).

Cohesive soils are made from particles bound together with clay minerals.
The particles are flaky and sheet-like and retain a significant amount of
adsorbed water on their surfaces (Figure 3.2 (b)). The ability of the sheet-like
particles to slide relative to one another gives a cohesive soil the property
known as plasticity. We will look at plasticity in Section 5.4.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.2. Particles of soil: (a) granular; (b) cohesive.

22
SECTION 4 – INTRODUCTION TO SITE INVESTIGATION

A site investigation is an essential part of the preliminary design work on any

important civil engineering structure. Its purpose is to obtain information about
the proposed site that can be used by the design engineers to achieve a safe
and economical design. Information retrieved during a site investigation can
be very diverse and can include information about the past history of the site
and ground information such as the sequences of strata and the depth of the
groundwater level. During the ground investigation phase, samples of soil and
rock can be taken for identification and laboratory testing, and in situ testing
may be performed.

The primary objectives of a site investigation are listed in BS 5930: Code of

practice for site investigations (BSI, 1999):
(i) to assess the general suitability of the site for the proposed works;
(ii) to enable an adequate and economic design to be prepared;
(iii) to foresee and provide against difficulties that may arise during
construction due to ground and other local conditions;
(iv) to predict any adverse effect of the proposed construction on
neighbouring structures.

In addition a site investigation is often necessary to assess the safety of an

existing structure or to investigate a case where failure has occurred.

4.1 Main Objectives of Site Investigation

A site investigation is employed for both new and existing works. The
objectives of the investigation are slightly different for each:

1. New works

• General choice of site: suitability of different sites and different parts of

the same site;
• Design: to enable a safe and economic design to be prepared;
• Construction: to plan best method of construction.

2. Existing works

• Safety: report on the ultimate and serviceable safety;

• Design: design of extensions etc.;
• Investigation: investigate the causes of geotechnical failures; recommend
remedial works.

23
4.2 Site Investigation Procedure
Figure 4.1 shows the simplified organisation of a site investigation.

Decision to develop site and

carry out site investigation

Geology, history, etc.

Desk study

Topography, access, etc.

Reconnaissance

Ground investigation
• preliminary investigation Soil profile
• main investigation

Field tests Samples Laboratory tests

Geotechnical Report

Design

Figure 4.1. Simplified organisation of a site investigation.

In general, there are three stages to a site investigation:

i. Planning and design

Planning: Desk study, site reconnaissance, procurement,
establishing any constraints

Design: Consideration of nature of project, site investigation

strategy, planning site activities

24
ii. Ground investigation

Stage I : Preliminary or exploratory

Stage II: Main or detailed
Stage III: Supplementary
Specialist studies: In-situ testing, geophysics

iii. Records and reports

Throughout, and particularly at the end of, the investigation, reports are
written for the client. These may be preliminary, main or supplementary
reports. The site investigation contractor can produce both factual and
interpretative reports.

These activities are expanded on in the following sections.

4.3 Planning of ground investigations

The most significant (and the most expensive) part of a site investigation is
the ground investigation (i.e. that stage where the ground profile and
groundwater levels are established and where samples of soil and rock are
taken for identification and testing). In order to maximise the value and
relevance of the information and data gleaned during the ground investigation,
it is critical that the investigation is well planned. Careful planning ensures that
a cost-efficient investigation is achieved and that all the information required
for the geotechnical design is obtained. This careful planning is achieved by
performing several pre- ground investigation information searches,
assessments and analyses.

4.3.1 Desk study

The desk study is generally the first stage in a site investigation. The size and
extent of the study will vary according to the nature of the project and the
anticipated ground conditions. It involves collecting and collating published
information about the site under investigation and pulling it all together to build
a conceptual model of the site. This model can then be used to guide the rest
of the investigation, especially the ground investigation. Much of the
information gathered at the desk study stage is contained in maps (online and
hard copies), published reports, aerial photography and personal recollection.

Sources of Information
Desk study information can be collected from a wide variety of sources. Often,
sufficient information is available at local sources - in which copies of the
various relevant national data may have been collected. It can be necessary
to contact both local and national sources of information to ensure complete
data are assembled.

Geological maps
Geological maps provide information as to the likely extent and characteristics
of the material on and around a particular site. It is important that the range of
geological information available is appreciated and that an elementary
interpretation of such information can be attempted. Geological maps, and the
online Geology of Britain Viewer service, are produced by the British
Geological Survey (BGS).

25
Topographical (Ordnance Survey) maps
Topography refers to the physical shape of the ground. Topographic
information can highlight access problems, geomorphological problems (e.g.
hill creep due to steep slopes), and geomorphological features (e.g. various
land forms associated with glacial conditions). OS maps are available online
(subscription required) and in hard copy formats.

Ordnance survey maps give very detailed topographical information which can
help in interpreting site conditions. Old maps are useful in locating features
which are now concealed, and for detecting features which are undergoing
change, and for assessing their rate of change.

Pedological maps
A pedological soil survey is the study classification, mapping and description
of the agricultural soil conditions in the area. The soil relates to the top 1-1.5m
which is affected by vegetation and the elements. Soil maps give a good
indication of the surface soil type and its drainage properties. The surface soil
type can often be related to the parent soil lying beneath, and so soil types
below 1.5m can be interpreted from the maps too. Soil survey maps for
Scotland (online and hard copy) are produced by the James Hutton Institute.

Aerial Photographs
With careful interpretation of aerial photographs we can deduce information
on land forms, topography, land use, historical land use, and geotechnical
behaviour. High res photography can be gained for specific areas using
drones. Lower res, and slightly dated, images may suffice for some projects
though and can easily be studied using Google Earth.

Land Features
Aerial photographs/images sometimes show colour changes enabling
underlying rock formations to be seen below drift deposits. This enables us to
make some assumptions about the rock profile. Additionally, outcrops of rock
in the area can aid assessment of the local geology. Also, the presence of dry
river valleys may provide hydrogeological information about the flow of ground
water.

Landslip
Landslips can be quite common, especially in areas where interbedded soils
and rock materials are contained within steep sloping topography with an
active erosive force at the base of the slope. Slope instability can be detected
on aerial photographs/images when it occurs in the large scale.

Landfill
Aerial photographs/images can define the extent and possible nature of the
dumped material in former landfill sites. The presence of a former landfill site
would prompt more investigation into the structure, depth and composition of
the landfill. Landfilled areas have variable, made ground conditions and may
be experiencing significant vertical settlement. There may be a source of
methane gas and potential leachate problems into ground water systems may
exist. A site investigation within such areas would include specialised tests,

26
e.g. ground water measurements, contamination assessments, and gas
measurements for methane.
Mining records
The presence of former mine workings can be a potential hazard to any future
construction project. The position and depth of the workings can be
established from mining records. Mining records can be obtained from the
British government archives.

Groundwater and flood information

SEPA have produced several flood maps and research reports describing the
groundwater conditions, for several areas of the country. Also, BGS provide
access to a database of well records that could provide information regarding
groundwater levels, discharge rates etc.

Existing site investigation reports

These are often the most valuable source of geotechnical information. If a site
investigation has been performed in the vicinity in the past, then information
may already exist on the rock and soil types, drainage, access etc. The report
may contain details of the properties of the soils too.

Services & Utilities

A desk study must determine the size, location and type of utility that pass on,
over or under the site under investigation and, the details of any utilities that
pass close enough to the site to be able to provide a service to it (either
temporarily or as part of the permanent infrastructure).

The first type of information is to ensure that ground investigation and

subsequent constructional activities do not disrupt existing services. The
second type of information is important to the value of the site if developed.

Historical information
Changes in site occupancy and therefore use over time are likely to influence
the site’s suitability for its current or proposed purpose. To overlook that a site
is of archaeological interest or, perhaps, that it may have been used as a
quarry in the past may prove a significant omission in the overall assessment
of that site.

Important information can often be recovered from old maps, title deeds,
parish records, local knowledge, or even place names.

Former Land Use

A previous use of the site, or the resources beneath the site, can influence the
potential future use of the site. Limited record keeping often makes
identification of a previous use of a site difficult. A desk study should include
consideration of the extent and likely influence of any former land use.

4.3.2 Walkover Survey

Opinions formed of the nature of a site must be confirmed by physical
inspection of the site. There are many features of a site earmarked for
construction that cannot be fully appreciated from examination of documents
and photographs.

27
A walk over survey should be undertaken on every site under investigation -
sometimes this entails modes of transport other than legs. But the site must
be inspected at as close quarters as is possible.

4.3.3 Planning the spacing and depth of investigation points

In order to obtain quantitative data on the soil and rock types and properties,
the ground investigation is performed. This phase involves the sampling of the
ground using recognised sampling procedures and specialist equipment. The
extent of the sampling, and subsequent testing, depends mainly on the size
and nature of the proposed structure, but is also influenced by the degree of
variability of the soils on the site. Investigation points are locations on the site
where profiling and sampling of the ground occurs. The ground is investigated
and sampled by using various methods as described in the following section.

Guidance on the spacing and depth of the investigation points are

summarised in Table 4.1 and Table 4.2. As can be seen, the nature of the
project influences significantly the recommended extent and number of
investigation points.

Structure Spacing Layout

High-rise and industrial structures 15 – 40 m Grid pattern
Large area ≤ 60 m Grid pattern
Linear structures (e.g. roads, railways, 20 m – 200 m Linear
walls etc.)
Special structures (e.g. bridges, stacks, 2 – 6 investigation points per
machinery foundations) foundation
Dams and weirs 25 m – 75 m Along relevant
sections

Table 4.1. Guidance values for spacing and pattern of investigation points.

Foundation type Depth criteria*

Shallow foundations for high-rise and civil engineering The greater of:
projects za ≥ 6 m;
za ≥ 3.0 bf
Raft foundation za ≥ 1.5 bB
Linear structures: roads and airfields za ≥ 2 m
Linear structures: canals and pipelines The greater of:
za ≥ 2 m;
za ≥ 1.5 bAh
Pile foundations za ≥ 5 m;
za ≥ 1.0 bg
za ≥ 3.0 DF

* The depths are measured from the reference levels shown in Fig 4.2.

Table 4.2. Guidance values for depth (za) of investigation points.

28
 bf za
bB za

(a) Shallow foundation. (b) Raft foundation.

za bAh

za

za
(c) Roads and trenches. DF

bg

(d) Piles and pile groups.

Figure 4.2. Depth (za) of investigation points for various structures.

4.4 Site exploration methods

4.4.1 Trial pits
A trial pit is simply a hole excavated in the ground that is large enough if
necessary for a ladder to be inserted, thus permitting a close examination of
the exposed sides. The pit is created by removing successive layers of soil
using a hydraulic excavator until the required depth is reached. Progression
by cuts of depth about 400 mm is quite common. The excavated soil is usually
placed beside the pit to enable easy backfilling once the pit is ready to be
closed up again. The sides of the trial pit are never assumed to be stable and,
if personnel are to enter the pit to perform close inspection of the soil, to take
samples or to perform in situ testing, the sides of the pit must be fully
supported.

29
Groundwater conditions can be accurately established from a trial pit and
undisturbed block soil samples are obtainable relatively easily. In addition,
undisturbed samples can be obtained using cylindrical steel sampling tubes
gently pushed in to the soil by the excavator bucket.

Below a depth of about 4 m, the challenges of side support and the removal of
excavated material become increasingly important and the cost of trial pits
increases rapidly. In excavations below groundwater level the expense may
be prohibitive. Trial pits should not be made at locations where pad
foundations might be cast later in the project.

4.4.2 Hand excavated boreholes

A hand auger can be used in soft and loose soils for creating a borehole of up
to about 6 m (using extension rods) and is useful for site exploration work in
connection with roads. A choice of auger types exist, each of which is used for
a specific type of soil. In clay soils a clay auger as shown in Figure 4.3(a) is
used, whereas in sands and gravels, the gravel auger (Figure 4.3(b)) is used.
The auger is connected to drill rods and to a cross bar at the top to enable the
auger to be turned by hand and advanced into the soil. A rotary engine
arrangement nowadays is more commonplace than the cross bar.

38 mm 200 mm

(a)
(b) (c)

Figure 4.3. Hand augers: (a) clay auger; (b) gravel auger;
(c) 38mm undisturbed sample tube.

Hand excavated boreholes are useful for cheap, rapid sampling and
assessment of ground conditions where only 1 or 2 locations on a site are of
interest. For larger scale investigations, the boreholes will invariably be
created using full scale drilling equipment. All samples of soil retrieved from
hand excavated boreholes are classified as disturbed.

4.4.3 Boreholes
In most ground investigations, several boreholes are required and these are
often taken down to many metres in depth. Thus, specialist drilling equipment
is required to form these.

Two main methods of forming boreholes exist: cable percussion boring and
rotary drilling.

30
 Cable percussion boring
This method is sometimes referred to as the shell and auger method. The
equipment is shown in Figure 4.4.

Pulley

Tripod
assembly

Diesel engine powered

direct drive free-fall winch

Cutting tool

Figure 4.4. Cable percussion boring.

The principle of operation is described in Elements of Soil Mechanics. The

winch, powered by the portable diesel generator, lifts the cutting tool (Figure
4.5) towards the top of the A-frame. In clay soils, the clay-cutter is used; in
more sandy and gravelly soils the shell is used.

This is an extremely versatile and relatively inexpensive means of forming a

borehole. It can be used in different soil types and this is essential for any
borehole forming equipment. If boulders or cobbles are encountered, these
can be broken down using a heavy chisel in place of the cutting tool until the
obstruction is clear, then progress can continue.

31
 140 or
1830 mm

194 mm

cutting shoe clack

Clay cutter Shell, with clack fitted Chisel

Figure 4.5. Cable percussion cutting tools and samplers.

In clay soils, the soil is simply wedged inside the clay-cutter and is removed
by hand from inside using steel bars pushed through the side slots. In
granular soils the material is retrieved by means of the shell. This cutting tool
is fitted with a clack (a hinged lid) that closes as the shell is withdrawn and
retains the loose particles inside. The soil is removed and sampled by opening
the clack once the shell is at ground level.

Rotary drilling
Rotary drilling involves using a high-powered, truck mounted motor to rotate
drilling rods connected to a drill bit into the ground as shown in Figure 4.6.
The technique was traditionally used mainly for boring and sampling rock,
though the technique is becoming increasingly used in soils work too. The
heavy-duty drill bit (interchangeable types exist for whether boring or sampling
is taking place) is attached at the end of the drilling rods and rotates at high
speeds to cut into the ground and move downward.

32
 Figure 4.6. Rotary drilling rig.

The drilling rods are hollow so that a water-based coolant mixture can be
pumped down them and out through holes in the drill bit into the surrounding
space within the borehole. This fluid has several functions: it acts as both a
coolant and as a lubricant to aid the cutting process, it provides pressure
balance during drilling to resist inflow of groundwater to the borehole and it
provides the means by which the cuttings of soil and rock are pumped up
around the drilling rods to the surface for removal.

4.5 Soil sampling

Samples are taken regularly during the ground investigation so that specific
ground properties required in the geotechnical design can be established.
Samples are taken to a geotechnical testing laboratory for specific tests.

Two types of soil sample can be obtained: disturbed samples and undisturbed
samples.

Disturbed samples
The soil excavated from a trial pit, or the soil from the clay cutter or the shell
from a borehole, can be collected as disturbed samples. Such soil has been
remoulded and is of no use for shear strength tests but is useful for
identification, classification and chemical tests such as liquid and plastic limit
determination, particle size distribution and sulphate testing. Disturbed
samples are usually collected in plastic sampling bags or airtight tins or jars,
and are labelled to give the borehole or trial pit number, the depth and a
description of the contents.

Undisturbed samples (cohesive soil)

Undisturbed samples can be achieved using different equipment and
techniques in different situations. There will always be an element of
disturbance to any sample of soil taken from the ground, but that disturbance
can be minimal if care and appropriate methods are used.

(i) Trial pits

In a trial pit samples can be cut out by hand if care is taken. Such a sample is
placed in an airtight container and as a further measure to avoid change in
water content may be sealed in paraffin wax.

(ii) Hand excavated boreholes

In a hand excavated borehole, the hand auger can be used to obtain useful
samples for unconfined compression tests and employs 38 mm sampling
tubes with a length of 200 mm (Figure 4.3(c)). The auger is first removed from
the rods and the tube fitted in its place, after which the tube is driven into the
soil at the bottom of the borehole, given a half turn, and withdrawn. Finally, the
ends of the tube are sealed with end caps.

(iii) Cable percussion borehole

With the cable percussion boring rig, 100 mm diameter undisturbed samples,
commonly referred to as U100 samples, are collected in a steel sampling tube
fitted with a cutting shoe, driven into the soil under the percussive action of the

33
falling weight assembly. Two approaches to retrieving the sample exist: a
standard system using a steel sampling tube and cutting shoe as shown in
Figure 4.7(a) and a plastic liner system where the liner fits inside a larger steel
tube and cutting shoe assembly, Figure 4.7(b). The degree of disturbance
(see Section 4.5.1) is different between both systems.

Steel “U100”
Plastic liner inside steel tube
sampling tube

Taper angle
Cutting shoe
α
Cutting shoe

D1 = 104.5 mm D1 = 102 mm
D2 = 119 mm D2 = 124 mm
D1
D1
D2
D2

(a) Standard system (b) Plastic liner system

Figure 4.7. Cable percussion equipment to obtain undisturbed samples:

(a) standard system; (b) plastic liner system.

Despite their popularity in the UK, U100 samples are likely to become less
used in the site investigation industry in the coming years as the degree of
disturbance to the samples is considered nowadays unacceptably high.

Other sampling techniques exist – see Elements of Soil Mechanics for details.

4.5.1 Degree of sample disturbance

No matter how careful the technique employed there will inevitably be some
disturbance of the soil during its collection as an ‘undisturbed’ sample, the
least disturbance occurring in samples cut from the floor or sides of a trial pit.
With sample tubes, jacking is preferable to hammering although if the blows
are applied in a regular pattern there is little difference between the two.

There are various measures that can be used to assess the degree of sample
disturbance based on the dimensions of the sampling tube but the most
commonly used is the area ratio, Ca:

34
 𝐷𝐷22 − 𝐷𝐷12
𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎 = × 100
𝐷𝐷12

where D2 and D1 are the external and internal diameters of the cutting
shoe respectively as shown in Figure 4.7.

It is generally agreed that, for good undisturbed 100 mm diameter samples,

the area ratio should not exceed 25%, but in fact most cutting heads have
area ratios about 28%. For 38 mm samples the area ratio should not exceed
20%. Thin-walled sample tubes, of any diameter, have an area ratio of about
10%.

Example 4.1: Area ratio

Determine the area ratios for the two U100 sampling systems shown in Figure
4.7.

Solution:

4.6 Field tests

Another key source of geotechnical information obtained from a ground

investigation is the results of field tests. Field tests can be employed to
determine soil properties such as strength, stiffness, density and groundwater
conditions. Descriptions of the most common tests are provided in Elements
of Soil Mechanics.

4.7 Laboratory tests

As we saw in Section 4.5, soil samples are taken during a ground

investigation. The samples are transported to a soils laboratory for testing.
Throughout the geotechnical courses we will learn about various lab tests that
are employed. Lab testing is used to determine classification, strength,
compressibility, permeability and chemical properties of the various soils on a
site. Descriptions of each test will be given in this (see Section 5) and
subsequent geotechnical courses.

35
4.8 Geophysical testing
Geophysical testing can be employed (mainly on large projects) to reveal
information from beneath the ground surface by using non-invasive and non-
destructive testing techniques. The methodologies rely on contrasts in
physical properties to detect features in the subsurface soils and rocks. The
testing is fairly specialised and is carried out by specialist geophysics
consultants, as part of the overall ground investigation.

Several geophysical methods exist. The choice of which method to adopt for a
particular site, or part of a site, will depend on several factors, not least what
specifically it is that we are trying to establish (e.g. stratigraphy, presence of
underground services, rock faults, groundwater conditions etc.)

Some of the more common methods available are:

• Ground penetrating radar;

• Electromagnetic ground conductivity
• Electrical resistivity imaging
• Magnetics surveying
• Microgravity
• Seismic refraction
• Seismic surface wave ground stiffness
• Seismic reflection

Details on each of these techniques, and their application in establishing

locations of hidden features and/or structures, can be found in the RSK
geophysical testing handbook on Vision.

4.9 Geotechnical reports

All of the information retrieved during a site investigation must be compiled in
written reports and submitted to the client. The reports are the end product of
all the investigation work and provide the client and their representative
consultants with the information relevant to enable an efficient foundation
design and construction plan to be evolved.

Eurocode 7 (the Geotechnical Eurocode) stipulates the requirements of two

reports:
• Geotechnical Design Report (GDR), described in Eurocode 7 Part 1
• Ground Investigation Report (GIR), described in Eurocode 7 Part 2

The ground investigation report is the final product of the exploration

programme encompassing all of the subject areas described throughout this
section. It comprises an account of the desk study, the series of laboratory
testing reports, the field investigation, sampling and measurement reports, the
field testing reports and any other relevant reports, together with an
interpretation of the ground conditions across the site. The report will also
include any limitations and constraints of the various test results so that the
designer can assess the relevance of the test results to the geotechnical
design.

36
The geotechnical design report contains the GIR along with the results from
the calculations performed to verify the safety and serviceability during the
geotechnical design. Along with the calculations, relevant drawings and
foundation design recommendations are included, as is a plan of supervision
and monitoring for the site.

The GIR is generally prepared in sections, and typically will include the
following:

Preamble
This introductory section consists of a brief summary which gives the location
of the site, the date of the investigation and name of the client, the types of
bores put down and the equipment used.

Description of site
Here a general description of the site is given: whether it is an open field or a
redevelopment of a site where old foundations, cellars and walls, etc., remain.
Some mention is made of the general geology of the area, whether there are
old mineral workings at depth and, if so, whether the report has considered
their possible effects or not. A map, showing the site location and the
positions of any investigation points, is usually included in the report.

Description of subsoil conditions encountered

This section should consist of a short, and readable, description of the general
subsoil conditions over the site with reference to the borehole logs. The
relevance and significance of any in situ testing carried out is also included.

Vertical sections (soil profiles) are generally prepared, showing to scale the
sequence and thickness of the strata. Design engineers are mainly interested
in the materials below the subsoil, and with stratified sedimentary deposits
conditions may be more or less homogeneous. Glacial clay deposits can also
be homogeneous although unstratified, but they often have an erratic
structure in which pockets of different soils are scattered through the main
deposit and make it difficult to obtain an average value for the deposit’s
characteristics. Furthermore, the clay itself may vary considerably, and at
certain levels it can even decrease in strength with increasing depth.

Besides the primary structure of stratification, many clays contain a secondary

structure of hair cracks, joints and slickensides. The cracks (often referred to
as macroscopic fissures) and joints generally occurred with shrinkage when at
some stage in its development the deposit was exposed to the atmosphere
and dried out. Slickensides are smooth, highly polished surfaces probably
caused by movement along the joints. If the effect of these fissures is ignored
in the testing programme the strength characteristics obtained may bear little
relationship to the properties of the clay mass.

With the application of a foundation load there is little chance of the fissures
opening up, but in cuttings (due to the expansion caused by stress relief)
some fissures may open and allow the ingress of rain water which will
eventually soften the upper region of the deposit and lead to local slips.
Fissures are more prevalent in overconsolidated clays, where stress relief

37
occurs, than in normally consolidated clays, but any evidence of fissuring
should be reported in the boring record.

Borehole logs
A borehole log is a list of all the materials encountered during the boring. A log
is best shown in sectional form so that the depths at which the various
materials were met can be easily seen. A typical borehole log is shown in
Figure 4.8. It should include a note of all the information that was found:
groundwater conditions, numbers and types of samples taken, list of in situ
tests, time taken by boring, etc.

Figure 4.8. Example borehole log.

38
Laboratory soil tests results
This is a list of the tests carried out together with a set of laboratory sheets
showing all tests results, e.g. particle size distribution curves, liquid limit plots,
Mohr circle plots, etc.

Evaluation of geotechnical information

It is in this section that firm recommendations as to possible foundation types
and modes of construction should be given. Unless specified otherwise, it is
the responsibility of the architect or consultant to decide on the actual
structure and the construction. For this reason the GIR should endeavour to
list possible alternatives: whether strip foundations are possible, if piling is a
sensible proposition, etc. In the accompanying GDR, design calculations of
each type of foundation are presented. If correlations were used to derive
geotechnical parameters or coefficients, the correlations and their applicability
are also recorded.

If the investigation has been limited by specification or finance and the ground
interpretation has been based on limited information, it is important that this is
recorded.

39
SECTION 5 - CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS

5.1 Drying soils

Soils can be either oven or air dried. It has become standard practice to oven
dry soils at a temperature of 105°C - 110°C but it should be remembered that
some soils may be damaged by such a temperature. The specimens should
be dried either to a constant mass or for the minimum recommended duration.
Usually, drying a fine soil at 105°C to 110°C for 16 h is sufficient. Coarse soils
may often be dried to constant mass in a period of about 4 h at this
temperature. Constant mass is regarded as the point at which there is less
than 0.1 % further change in mass of the dry soil when dried for a further
period of at least 1 h. Further information on soil drying can be found on BS
EN ISO 17892-1:2014.

Oven drying is necessary for water content and particle specific gravity (see
Section 6.4) tests but air drying should be used whenever possible for other
soil tests that also require the test sample to be dry.

5.2 Determination of water content, w

The most common way of expressing the amount of water present in a soil is
the water content. The water content, also called the moisture content, is
given by the symbol w and is the ratio of the weight/mass of water to that of
the dry soil:

w is usually expressed as a percentage. The water content of the test

specimen below 100% should be reported to one decimal place and above
100% to the nearest whole percent. The procedure of water content
determination is explained in detail in BS EN ISO 17892-1:2014.

Example 5.1: Water content determination

A sample of soil was placed in a water content tin of mass 19.52 g. The
combined mass of the soil and the tin was 48.27 g. After oven drying the soil
and the tin had a mass of 42.31 g.

Determine the water content of the soil.

Solution:

40
5.3 Classification of granular soils - Particle size distribution

The size of the soil particle, especially for granular soils, is essential for
understanding its engineering behaviour. The range of possible particle sizes
for soils is vast. Thus, a standardised system is necessary to ensure
consistency between engineers in the classification of granular soils.

Sieve analysis is a usual method for the determination of the particle size
distribution (PSD) of coarse-grained soils. In this method, a specimen of dry
soil is shaken mechanically through a series of wire square mesh sieves. The
aperture size of each succeeding sieve is smaller than the one above. By
weighing the mass of soil retained on each sieve, the particle size distribution
for the soil is obtained.

Nest of sieves used in a particle size distribution test.

The particle size scale is based on the limits for each fraction listed in the
table below and in Figure 5.1, according to BS EN ISO 17892-4:2016.

Soil Group Particle Size Fractions Symbol Range of Particle Sizes (mm)
Large boulder lBo >630
Very Coarse Soil Boulder Bo >200 and ≤630
Cobble Co >63 to ≤200
Gravel Gr >2.0 to ≤63
Coarse gravel cGr >20 to ≤63
Medium gravel mGr >6.3 to ≤20
Fine gravel fGr >2.0 to ≤6.3
Coarse Soil
Sand Sa >0.063 to ≤2.0
Coarse sand cSa >0.63 to ≤2.0
Medium sand mSa >0.20 to ≤0.63
Fine sand fSa >0.063 to ≤0.20
Silt Si >0.002 to ≤0.063
Coarse silt cSi >0.02 to ≤0.063
Fine Soil Medium silt mSi >0.0063 to ≤0.02
Fine silt fSi >0.002 to ≤0.0063
Clay Cl ≤0.002

41
 A: Clay; B: Silt; C: Sand; D: Gravel; E: Fine; F: Medium; G: Coarse

Percent Passing (%)

Particle Size (mm)

Sedimentation Sieving
Figure 5.1. Particle size distribution chart.

The smallest aperture generally used for soils is that of the 0.063 mm size
sieve. Below this size (i.e. silt sizes) the distribution curve must be obtained by
sedimentation (using pipette or hydrometer tests).

• If a sample has less than about 10 % of particles smaller than 0,063

mm, sedimentation test is not normally required.
• If all of the sample is smaller than 2 mm and has less than about 10 %
of particles larger than 0,063 mm, a full sieve test is not normally
required.
• For all other samples, a combination of sieve test and sedimentation
should be performed in order to determine the full particle size
distribution.

The results of the sieve analysis are plotted with the particle sizes horizontal
and the summation percentages vertical. As soil particles vary in size from
molecular to boulder, it is necessary to use a log scale for the horizontal plot
so that the full range can be shown on the one sheet. Moreover, log-scale
allows to see the same level of details at both ends of the scale

The smallest aperture generally used in soils work is that of the 0.063 µm size
sieve. Below this size (i.e. silt and clay sizes) the distribution curve must be
obtained by sedimentation (following either a pipette or hydrometer method of
analysis). Unless a centrifuge is used, it is not possible to determine the range
of clay sizes in a soil, and usually it is adequate to just obtain the total
percentage of clay sizes present. The procedures for sieve, pipette and
hydrometer analyses are given in BS EN ISO 17892-4: 2016.

The PSD indicates the distribution of the particles within the soil. The shape of
the curve reflects the uniformity of the particles – see Example 5.2.

42
5.3.1 The effective size of a distribution, D10
An important particle size within a soil distribution is the effective size which is
the largest size of the smallest 10%. It is given the symbol D10. Other particle
sizes, such as D60, D30 and D85, are defined in the same manner.

5.3.2 Grading of a distribution

For a granular soil, the shape of its grading curve indicates the distribution of
the soil particles within it. The flatter the curve, the larger the range of particle
sizes in the soil. Similarly, the steeper the curve, the smaller the size range. If
the shape of the curve is not too steep and is more or less constant over the
full range of the soil’s particle sizes, then the PSD extends evenly over the
range of the particle sizes within the soil and there is no deficiency or excess
of any particular particle size. Such a soil is said to be well graded.

If the soil has any other form of distribution curve then it is said to be poorly
graded. According to their distribution curves there are two types of poorly
graded soil:

• if the major part of the curve is steep then the soil has a particle size
distribution extending over a limited range with most particles tending
to be about the same size. The soil is said to be uniformly graded;
• if a soil has large percentages of its bigger and smaller particles and
only a small percentage of the intermediate sizes then its grading curve
will exhibit a significantly flat section or plateau. Such a soil is said to
be gap graded.

5.3.3 The uniformity coefficient (Cu) and Coefficient of curvature (CC)

The grading of a soil is best determined by direct observation of its particle
size distribution curve. This can be difficult for those studying the subject for
the first time but some guidance can be obtained by the use of a grading
parameter, known as the uniformity coefficient:

Another coefficient employed for soil gradation is the coefficient of curvature:

Inserting these two coefficients into the table below, the shape of the grading
curve is determined (BS EN ISO 14688‑2:2018).

Term Cu CC
Uniformly graded <3 <1
Poorly graded 3 to 6 <1
Medium graded 6 to 15 <1
Well graded >15 1 to 3
Gap graded >15 <0.5
43
Example 5.2: Particle size distribution
A particle size distribution analysis on a sample of soil returned the following
results. Total sample mass = 241g

sieve size mass retained

(µm) (g)
3350 0
2000 3
1180 15
600 32
212 105
150 70
63 11
<63 5

Plot the PSD and determine the uniformity coefficient of the soil.
(You may wish to use the PSD template provided on Vision.)

Solution:

sieve size mass retained %age retained %age passing

(µm) (g)
3350 0
2000 3
1180 15
600 32
212 105
150 70
63 11
<63 5

44
5.4 Classification of cohesive soils

Cohesive soils derive their behaviour from their clay mineral content. The
index tests (consistency limits, Atterberg limits) are used to describe the water
content at which a standard type of plastic behaviour is seen. Atterberg limits
correspond to the threshold water contents at which certain types of
engineering behaviour of the soil can be expected. These water content
boundaries are unique to each soil but the expected soil behaviour is the
same (i.e. if we know the soil’s water content at a site relative to its Atterberg
limits, then we already know which type of engineering behaviour to expect
from that soil.)

5.4.1 The consistency limits (Atterberg limits)

Since the Atterberg limits are water contents where the soil behaviour
changes, they are usually shown on a water continuum (Figure 5.2). As seen
in Figure 5.2, the liquid, plastic and shrinkage limits apply to fine grained soils
in which the water content affects the physical properties. As the water
content increases, the state of the soil changes from a brittle solid to a plastic
solid and finally to a viscous liquid.

volume

1. shrinkage limit
2. plastic limit, WP
3 3. liquid limit, WL

1 2

w (%)
Brittle Plastic Liquid

Figure 5.2. Changes in total volume with water content.

45
In 1911 Atterberg suggested the concept of boundaries to the four states in
which a soil may exist:

• liquid limit: the boundary between the liquid and the plastic state;
• plastic limit: the boundary between the plastic and the semi-solid state;
• shrinkage limit: the boundary between the semi-solid and the solid state.

With reference to Figure 5.2, if we consider a cohesive soil with an extremely

high water content, i.e. a suspension of soil particles in water, the soil
behaves as a liquid and if an attempt is made to apply a shear stress there will
be continual deformation with no sign of a failure stress value. If the soil is
allowed to slowly dry out a point will be reached where the soil just begins to
exhibit a small shear resistance. If the shear stress were removed it will be
found that the soil has experienced a permanent deformation; it is now acting
as a plastic solid and not as a liquid.

5.4.2 Liquid limit (wL) and plastic limit (wP)

The water content at which the soil stops acting as a liquid and starts acting
as a plastic solid is known as the liquid limit (wL) As further moisture is driven
from the soil it becomes possible for the soil to resist large shearing stresses.
Eventually the soil exhibits no permanent deformation and simply fractures
with no plastic deformation, i.e. it acts as a brittle solid. The limit at which
plastic failure changes to brittle failure is known as the plastic limit (wP).

5.4.3 Plasticity index (IP)

The plasticity index is the range of water content within which a soil is plastic;
the finer the soil the greater its plasticity index:

5.4.4 Liquidity index

The liquidity index enables one to compare a soil’s plasticity with its natural
water content (w):

If IL = 1.0 the soil is at its liquid limit; if IL = 0 the soil is at its plastic limit.

5.4.5 Shrinkage limit

If the drying process is prolonged after the plastic limit has been reached the
soil will continue to decrease in volume until a certain value of water content is
reached, which is known as the shrinkage limit. Below the shrinkage limit the
volume of the soil remains constant with further drying, but the weight of the
soil decreases until the soil is fully dried.

The plasticity index, when plotted against the liquid limit on the plasticity chart
(Figure 5.3), enables the classification of cohesive soils (British Standard BS
EN ISO 14688‑2:2018.

46
To use the plasticity chart, a point is plotted whose coordinates are the liquid
limit and the plasticity index of the soil. The soil is then classified by observing
the position of the point. Two lines are present on the plasticity chart (1) A-
Line and (2) U-Line. A-line is an empirical boundary between inorganic clays,
whose points lie above the line, and organic silts and clays whose points lie
below. U-line indicates the approximate upper limit for natural soils. The
equations for both lines are noted on the table of plasticity chart below.

Figure 5.3. Plasticity chart for the British Soil Classification System.

X Liquid Limit, wL Y plasticity index, IP

Soil type Plasticity
Liquid limit
Cl Clay L Low <35
Si Silt M Medium 35 to 50
H High 50 to 70
V Very high >70
O Organic append to classification for organic material (e.g. ClHO)
U line IP = 0.9(W L - 8) A line IP = 0.73(wL - 20)

5.4.6 Determination of liquid and plastic limits

Determination of liquid and plastic limits is covered in EN ISO 17892-12,

where two methods are presented for the determination of the liquid limit: (1)
The Fall Cone Method, (2) Casagrande Method. Although Casagrande
Method has a long history of use, the Fall Cone Method is mentioned as the
preferred one due to its high repeatability. Further details on Fall Cone
Method are given in the next section.

Liquid limit test – Fall Cone Method

The apparatus is shown in Figure 5.4. The soil to be tested is air dried and
thoroughly mixed. At least 200 g of the soil is sieved through a 425 µm sieve
and placed on a glass plate. The soil is then mixed with distilled water into a
paste. Once the paste is formed, the liquid limit should be determined as soon
as possible.

47
A metal cup, approximately 55 mm in diameter and 40 mm deep, is filled with
the paste and the surface struck off level. The cone, with apex angle of 30° (or
60°) and mass 80 g (or 60 g), is next placed at the centre of the smoothed soil
surface and level with it. The cone is released so that it penetrates into the soil
and the amount of penetration, over a time period of 5 seconds, is measured.

Figure 5.4. Liquid limit test – cone penetrometer.

The test is now repeated by lifting the cone clear, cleaning it and filling up the
depression in the surface of the soil by adding a little more of the wet soil. The
table below gives the (1) Allowable cone penetration range, (2) Penetration
depth corresponding to the liquid limit and (3) Maximum difference between
two successive readings for two types of cone penetrometers.

Type of Cone 60 g/60° 80 g/30°

Allowable cone penetration range 7 - 15 mm 15 - 25 mm
Liquid limit (wL) determined at a penetration depth of 10 mm 20 mm
Maximum difference between two successive readings 0.4 mm 0.5 mm

If the difference between the two successive readings is less than 0.5 mm (or
0.4 mm) then the tests are considered valid. The average penetration is
noted. After each reading, a specimen of minimum mass of 15 g of the
remoulded paste is removed from the zone penetrated by the cone, and the
water content is determined according to ISO 17892-1.

The procedure is repeated at least four times with increasing water contents.
The amount of water used throughout should be such that the penetrations
obtained lie within a range of 15 to 25 mm (or 7 to 15 mm).

To obtain the liquid limit, the variation of cone penetration is plotted against
water content and the best straight line is drawn through the experimental
points. The liquid limit is taken to be the water content corresponding to a
cone penetration of 20 mm (or 10 mm), which should be expressed as a
whole number.

48
Example 5.3: Liquid limit test
The following results were obtained during a liquid limit test on a soil.
Determine the liquid limit.

Mass of wet soil Mass of dry soil Cone penetration

(g) (g) (mm)
31.2 25.0 16.0
37.8 28.2 18.3
36.0 24.6 21.3
40.8 26.3 23.5

Solution:

Plastic limit test

15-20 g of soil is mixed on the glass plate for rolling into a ball, which is then
rolled out between the hand and the glass to form a thread. The thread is then
divided into 2 portions, and each portion is divided into 3 sub-portions. Each
sub-portion is then rolled between the hand and the glass. The soil is said to
be at its plastic limit when it just begins to crumble at a thread diameter of 3
mm. At this stage a section of the thread is removed for water content
determination.

49
If the two plastic limit water content results differ by more than 2 % absolute
for values of wP ≤ 40%, or by more than 5 % relative for values of wP ≥ 40 %,
then the test should be repeated. The plastic limit is calculated as the average
water content from the two determined plastic limit water content.

Example 5.4: Liquid and plastic limit tests

A BS cone penetrometer test was carried out on a sample of clay with the
following results:

Cone penetration (mm) 16.1 17.6 19.3 21.3 22.6

Water content (%) 50.0 52.1 54.1 57.0 58.2

The results from the plastic limit test were:

Test No. Mass of tin Mass of wet soil Mass of dry soil +
(g) + tin (g) tin (g)

1 8.1 20.7 18.7

2 8.4 19.6 17.8

Determine the liquid limit, plastic limit and the plasticity index of the soil, and
thereafter, classify the soil.

Solution:

50
5.5 Principles of Soil Classification

BS EN ISO 14688: 2018 is used for the classification of soils across Europe.
As shown in Section 5.3, most soils are mixtures of particles of different sizes.
They consist of primary, secondary and sometimes tertiary size fractions.

Considering very coarse and coarse soils, the primary fraction, in terms of
mass, determines the engineering properties of the soil. The soil identification
is named by a noun stating the primary fraction and it is usually given in upper
case. BS EN ISO 14688-2: 2018 offers the principles of classification listed in
the table below. If two soil fractions are present in approximately equal
proportions, an oblique is placed between the relevant terms, e.g.
GRAVEL/SAND.

Soil Group Primary fraction Criteria

Very coarse Boulders (Bo) 50% of particles > 200 mm in size
Cobbles (Co) 200 mm > 50% > 63 mm
Coarse Gravel (Gr) 63 mm > 50% > 2 mm
Sand (Sa) 2 mm > 50% > 0.06 mm
Fine Silt (Si) Low plasticity or non-plastic
Clay (Cl) Plastic

On the other hand, for fine soils, the primary fraction, in terms of plastic
behaviour (not mass), determines the engineering properties of the soil.
Therefore, the plasticity chart, presented in Figure 5.3 should be used. The
intermediate terms of “silty CLAY” or “clayey SILT” should be used for material
that is borderline in behaviour between CLAY and SILT.

Secondary fractions modify the engineering properties of the primary soil

fraction. Depending on the existence of secondary fractions, they are added
as adjectives, given by lower case (e.g. sandy GRAVEL). The proportions of
the secondary coarse fraction are determined by mass fractions.

51
As in the case of primary fractions, if the secondary fraction is fine, the
plasticity chart should be used to identify it as “clayey” or “silty”.

The secondary fractions are placed in the order of increasing proportion when
there are two coarse soil secondary features, or coarse and then fine if one of
each, as shown in the following examples:

• sandy GRAVEL;
• medium sandy SILT;
• fine gravelly silty coarse SAND;
• very silty fine SAND;
• fine gravelly, coarse sandy SILT;
• slightly medium sandy CLAY.

Example 5.5: Soil classification (i)

The results of a sieve analysis on a soil sample were:

sieve size mass retained

(mm) (g)
10 0
6.3 5.5
2 25.7
1 23.1
0.600 22.0
0.300 17.3
0.150 12.7
0.063 6.9

2.3 g passed through the 63 µm sieve.

a) Plot the particle size distribution curve and determine the uniformity
coefficient and coefficient of curvature of the soil.
b) Classify the soil.

Solution:

52
53
Example 5.6: Soil classification (ii)
A set of particle size distribution analyses on three soils, A, B and C, gave the
following results:

Sieve size (mm) Percentage passing

Soil A Soil B Soil C
20 90 – –
10 56 – –
6.3 47 – –
2 44 – –
0.6 40 95 –
0.425 – 80 –
0.300 29 10 –
0.212 – 3 –
0.150 – – 100
0.063 5 1 91

Soil C: Since more than 10% passed the 63 µm sieve, a pipette analysis
(described in BS EN ISO 17892-4:2016) was performed. The results were:

Percentage passing
Particle sizes (mm) Soil C
0.04 78
0.02 61
0.006 47
0.002 40

Soil C was found to have a liquid limit of 48% and a plastic limit of 33%.
Plot the particle size distribution curves and classify each soil.

54
Solution:

The particle size distribution curves for the three soils are presented below:

100.0
Soil A
90.0
Soil B
80.0
Percentage passing

Soil C
70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 100.000

Particle size (mm)

55
5.6 Description of soils
Classifying and describing a soil are two operations which are not necessarily
the same. An operator who has not even visited the site from which a soil
came can classify the soil using the information obtained from grading and
plasticity tests carried out on disturbed samples. Such tests are necessary if
the soil is being considered as a possible construction material and the
information obtained from them must be included in any description of the soil.

Further information on a soil can be obtained in the laboratory from disturbed

soil samples but a full description of a soil must include its in situ, as well as
its laboratory characteristics. Some of this latter information can be found in
the laboratory from undisturbed samples of the soil collected for other
purposes, such as strength or permeability tests, but usually not until after the
tests have taken place and the samples can then be split open for proper
examination. Detailed information on the description of soils is available in BS
EN ISO 14688-1:2017 which are as follows:

• Particle shape
• Particle strength
• Mineral composition
• Fines content
• Consistency
• Colour
• Organic content
• Carbonate content
• Degree of decomposition of peat

Other relevant information, such as bedding, geological details, etc., obtained

from borehole data and site observations should also be included in the soil’s
description.

56
SECTION 6 – SOIL PROPERTIES

Natural soil comprises a mass of solid particles separated by spaces (voids).

Some of these voids are filled with water and some with air. Figure 6.1 shows
representation of the actual form of a soil, with an “idealised” form alongside.

Va AIR
Vv
Vw WATER
V
Vs SOLIDS

Figure 6.1. Actual and idealised forms of a section of granular soil.

From the idealised model, we can see that the total volume, V can be
considered as comprising the volume of solids (Vs) and the volume of voids
(Vv):

V = Vs + Vv

Moreover, the volume of voids (Vv) comprises of volume of air (Va) and
volume of water (Vw):

Vv = Va + Vw

6.1 Void ratio, e

The void ratio is the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to that of solids (Vs). It is
usually expressed as a decimal rather than a percentage.

Typical values of void ratios for sands usually range from 0.4 to 1.0. For clays,
the range is usually from 0.3 to 1.5.

6.2 Porosity, n

The porosity is the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to that of total volume (V).
Porosity can be related to void ratio as shown below:

57
6.3 Degree of saturation, Sr
The voids of a soil may be filled with air or water or both. If only air is present
the soil is dry (Figure 6.2.a), whereas if only water is present the soil is
saturated (Figure 6.2.b). When both air and water are present the soil is said
to be partially saturated (Figure 6.2.c).

Figure 6.2. Water and air contents in a soil.

The degree of saturation tells us what percentage of total void space contains
water. Therefore, it is expressed as follows:

Dry soil: Sr = 0%
Saturated soil: Sr = 100%
Partially saturated soil: 0% < Sr < 100%

Example 6.1: Void ratio and degree of saturation

A soil of total volume 200ml contains 25ml air and 30ml water. Calculate the
void ratio and the degree of saturation.

Solution:

58
Example 6.2: void ratio and porosity

A soil has a porosity of 0.45. What is the void ratio?

Solution:

6.4 Particle density (ρs) and specific gravity (Gs)

The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of the mass (or weight) of a
volume of the material, to the mass (or weight) of an equal volume of water.

e.g. for a soil with volume of solids, Vs and mass of solids, Ms;

where ρw is the density of water (= 1.0 Mg/m3 at 20°C) and γw is the unit
weight of water (= 9.81 kN/m3).

The density of the solid particles ρs is defined as:

therefore,

BS EN ISO 17892-3 specifies methods of test for determining the particle

density. For soils with particle sizes under 4 mm (or soils crushed to meet this
requirement, the fluid pycnometer method described in BS EN ISO 17892-3
applies. For coarser soils, larger pycnometers are required. Fluid pycnometer
used for soils with particle size below 4 mm, should have a volume of at least
50 ml, a glass stopper which has been ground to fit precisely, and a capillary
rising tube. Examples of fluid pycnometers from BS EN ISO 17892-3 is shown
in Figure 6.3.

59
 Figure. 6.3 Fluid pycnometer: (1) with capillary and thermometer, (2) only
with capillary.

In general, the fluid pycnometer method is based on the volume difference of

the liquid necessary to fill the pycnometer with and without the soil sample.
Here, the volume difference is equal to the volume of the solid particles
(without any voids). Then, the density of solid particles is calculated from the
dry mass of the soil particles and the volume of the solid particles.

To be more specific, dry method of the fluid pycnometer is described by BS

EN ISO 17892-3 in the following:

• Determine the dry mass of the clean and dry pycnometer (m0).

• Fill the pycnometer with reference fluid, without leaving any air in the
pycnometer or in the capillary. Place the pycnometer inside a water
bath or temperature-controlled room. Leave the pycnometer in the
water bath until the control fluid temperature is equal to that of the
water bath (a minimum of 1 h). If a temperature-controlled room or
cabinet is used, a minimum of 16 h should be allowed. Once
temperature equilibrium is obtained, determine the total mass of the
pycnometer (m1).

• Dry the soil sample according to ISO 17892-1. The sample should have
a dry mass of at least 10 g and should pass through a 4 mm sieve, if
using a 50 ml pycnometer. If larger particles are present, either crush
the particles or use a larger pycnometer. Place the dry specimen in the
pycnometer and determine the total mass (m2).

• Fill the pycnometer with control fluid. Ensure that trapped air in the
sample is removed, by mechanical agitation, by gentle heating or by
the application of vacuum. Then, fill the rest of the pycnometer with
control fluid until the top of capillary. Determine the total mass (m3).

Once all the above measurements are finalized, the equations below are
utilized to calculate the particle density (ρs) of the soil.

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First the dry mass of the soil sample (m4) is calculated:
𝑚𝑚4 = 𝑚𝑚2 − 𝑚𝑚0

Then, the particle density is calculated as follows, where ρL is the density of

the control fluid:
𝑚𝑚4
𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠 = (𝑚𝑚 )−(𝑚𝑚
𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿
1 −𝑚𝑚0 3 −𝑚𝑚2 )

If ρs is measured in units of Mg/m3 and the water temperature is assumed to

be 20°C, it follows that ρs and Gs are numerically equal and dimensionless.

Generally sands have an average value of Gs = 2.65 and clays an average

value of 2.75. The particle specific gravity of organic soils can vary
considerably. An organic clay can have a Gs value of about 2.60 whereas a
bog peat can have a value as low as 1.3.

Example 6.3: Specific gravity test

The mass of an empty pycnometer (including the cover and capillary) was
478.0 g. When completely filled with control fluid, the total mass was 1508.2
g. An oven dried sample of soil was inserted in the pycnometer and the total
mass was 676.6 g. Control fluid was added to the soil and, after a suitable
period of shaking, was topped up until the pycnometer was full. The total
mass was found to be 1632.6 g.

Determine the particle density of the soil knowing that water (ρL = 1.0
Mg/m3) was used as control fluid.

Solution:

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6.5 Density and unit weight
6.5.1 Bulk density, ρ
The bulk density of a soil is a frequently, easily determined, geotechnical
property. By sampling a soil of known volume, V, the mass, M can easily be
measured on lab scales and the bulk density determined:

Typically, steel/plastic sampling tubes of known length and diameter are

driven into the soil and the soil retrieved from that sampling tube – as
described in Section 4.5.

An alternative means of determining the bulk density of a (usually,

compacted) surface soil is via the in situ sand replacement test. Other
procedures exist for determining the bulk density such as using a nuclear
density gauge – see Chapter 14 of Elements of Soil Mechanics for details.

6.5.2 Sand replacement test

For granular soils the apparatus shown in Figure 6.4 is used. A small round
hole (about 115 mm diameter and 150 mm deep) is dug and the mass of the
excavated material is carefully determined. The volume of the hole thus
formed is obtained by pouring into it, sand of known density from a special
graduated container. Given the weight of sand in the container before and
after the test, the weight of sand in the hole and hence the volume of the hole
can be determined.

The apparatus shown in Figure 6.4 is suitable for fine to medium grained soils
and is known as the small pouring cylinder method.

Figure 6.4. The sand replacement method.

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For coarse grained soils a larger pouring cylinder is used. This cylinder has an
internal diameter of 215 mm and a height of 170 mm to the valve or shutter.
The excavated hole in this case should be about 200 mm in diameter and
some 250 mm deep. This larger pouring cylinder can also be used for fine to
medium grained soils.

Example 6.4: Sand replacement test

During construction of a highway, a sand replacement test was performed to

determine the in-situ density of the subgrade. The following results were
obtained:

Total mass of sand used in test = 8500g

Mass of sand retained in cylinder at end of test = 2500g
Mass of soil removed from hole = 5036g

Previously the following had been established in the laboratory:

Mass of sand held in cone beneath cylinder = 1760g

Density of sand = 1.6Mg/m3.

Determine the bulk density of the subgrade soil.

Solution:

6.5.3 Dry density, ρd

The dry density of a soil is determined from the bulk density and the water
content:

6.5.4 Unit weight, γ

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6.5.5 Buoyant, submerged or effective unit weight γ'
The weight of a soil below the water table is partly balanced by the buoyant
effect of the water. The proportion of weight balanced is equal to the weight of
the volume of water displaced.

If we consider unit volume;

buoyant unit weight = saturated unit weight - unit weight of water

6.5.6 Density index

A granular soil generally has a large range into which the value of its void ratio
may be fitted. If the soil is vibrated and compacted the particles are pressed
close together and a minimum value of void ratio is obtained, but if the soil is
loosely poured a maximum value of void ratio is obtained.

These maximum and minimum values can be obtained from laboratory tests
and it is often convenient to relate them to the naturally occurring void ratio of
the soil. This relationship is expressed as the density index, or relative
density, of the soil:

The theoretical maximum density of the soil occurs at e = emin. In this case,
the density index (ID) of the soil equals 1. Similarly, the theoretical minimum
density of the soil occurs at e = emax. In this case, the density index (ID) of the
soil equals 0.

6.6 Summary of soil physical relations

There are several inter-relations between the soil properties.

See the end of these notes for complete list of equations and notations.

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Example 6.5: Bulk density, dry density and water content

A soil had a wet mass of 2.180 kg and occupied a volume of 1.2 litres. After
oven drying the mass reduced to 1.890 kg. Calculate bulk density, water
content and dry density.

Solution:

Example 6.6: Dry and saturated unit weights

A sample of saturated clay has a volume of 245ml and, after oven drying, has
a mass of 453g. If Gs = 2.75, determine the dry and saturated unit weights of
the soil in its natural state.

V = 245 ml
Ms = 453 g
Gs = 2.75

Solution:

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Soil Physical Relations

66
 List of Symbols

Volume:
Vv = Volume of voids
Va = Volume of air
Vw = Volume of water
Vs = Volume of solids
V = Total volume

Mass:
Mw = Mass of water
Ms = Mass of solids
M = Total mass

Density:
ρb = Bulk density
ρd = Dry density
ρs = Particle density
ρsat = ρSAT = Saturated density
ρ′ = Submerged/buoyant density
ρw = Density of water

Others:
Gs = Specific gravity
Sr = Degree of saturation
w = Moisture content or water content
e = Void ratio
n = Porosity

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