GEMMOLOGY

An Introduction to Gemstones
A gemstone is a mineral or an aggregate of a mineral which, due to one or more op
tical properties, can be rendered sufficiently beautiful though cutting and polishing, so as
to be used in jewelry or other decorative purposes. The cut and polished final product p
roduced from the uncut gemstone is called gem.
Exceptions to this general definition are the organic gem materials like pearl, amber,
coral and jet, which, although products of nature, are not strictly minerals. Similarly, La
pis Lazuli, one of the oldest known gemstones to be used by man, is not strictly a mine
ral but a rock dominantly constituted of the mineral lazurite with certain proportions of s
odalite, pyrite and even calcite.
The principal qualification of a gemstone lies in its beauty which can be rendered by
one or more of the optical effects including color, transparency, dispersion, luster, chato
yancy, iridescence etc. Skillful cutting brings out the beauty of a gemstone to its full ext
ent and therefore the valuation of a gem is also dependent on its cutting. Durability is a
nother important property. Because most gemstones are used for personal adornment, the
y should be able to resist abrasion. However, only 10 to 12 gemstones have hardness eq
ual to or more than 7 in Mohs scale. Rarity renders value and carat weight (caratage) ad
ds to it. Finally, the desirability of a gem is also subject to trends of fashion. For examp
le, the dark red pyrope garnet was much in vogue during the nineteenth century but is r
arely in demand today.
Gemstones have ever been in demand since the beginning of civilization. In ancient
Egypt lapis lazuli had been in great demand for amulets and ornaments such as scarabs
and the Ankhs. Lapis jewelry has been found through excavations at the predynastic Egy
ptian site of Naqada (3300- 3100 B.C.). Powdered lapis was used as eye shadows by me
mbers of the Egyptian royal dynasties. The ancient Sumerian tombs of Ur, located near t
he river Euphrates in lower Iraq contained more than 6000 lapis lazuli statuettes of birds
, deer and rodents as well as beads and seals. The Sumerian-Akkadian epic of Gilgames
h makes repeated references to this gem along with precious metal like gold, where, for
instance, the ‘Bull of Heaven’s’ horns were made of Lapis. Beads of lapis have been re
ported from Neolithic burials in Mehrgarh and other localities. It was also popular amon
gst the men of ancient Indus valley who had set up the Harappan colony of Shortugai n
ear the Lapis mines of Afghanistan. Similarly, carnelian, chalcedony, jasper and agate ar
e semiprecious gemstone that has been in use since Neolithic times. Ancient Egyptians a
lso knew of quartz, turquoise, olivine, fluorite and malachite. Diamond, the king of gems
, was known to the ancient Indians even 2500 years ago. Many of the world famous dia
monds like Koh-i-noor, Great Mughal, Orloff, Regent and Hope have their origin in Indi
a. The “Syamantak” of Mahabharata has been believed by many to be a diamond (some
even speculating, evidently without the slightest historical evidence, it to be one and the
same as the famous Koh-i-noor). By the time of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizati
ons, many of the gem mineral were known and the art of carving them was well underst
ood. The people not only used gems for personal adornment but their importance increas
ed in presumed supernatural powers endowed upon the wearers. They were believed not
only to protect the wearer from disease, fire, poison, intoxication, lighting and other disa
sters but also bestowed strength, power and wisdom. Thus, gemstones have been ever in
demand for beauty, as expression of power and wealth and for other supernatural beliefs.

Due to this ever increasing demand for different varieties of gems, the market is flo
oding with simulants, synthetics and composite stones alongside natural gems. Color enh
ancement of low quality gemstone is also a widely applied process from ancient days an
d the techniques have been further and further refined through advancement of technolog
y so much so that extremely careful scrutiny is now required to separate a natural, good
quality gem from a synthetically prepared or a poor quality color enhanced equivalent.
A Synthetic gemstone is basically an artificially prepared material having composition, c
rystal system, physical and optical properties comparable to its natural equivalent. Except
for gemstones with very complex chemical compositions (viz. tanzanite, topaz, tourmali
ne etc), most important gemstones can now be synthesized by various techniques. Amon
g the colored stones, the most important synthetics are that of ruby, sapphire, emerald, a
methyst and spinel. They closely resemble the naturals but have certain subtle difference
s to distinguish which the gemologists are called upon. Synthetic diamonds, grown from
a metallic flux at high temperatures and pressures, evoked much concern in jewellery tra
de ever since the first production of gem quality crystals in 1970s. However, since the c
ost is still too great to produce it industrially, the chief threat to diamond is not these sy
nthetic products but a variety of diamond simulants. A stimulant can be any material, na
tural or synthetic, which has the external appearance of the gem it imitates but quite diff
erent physical and optical properties. For example, gem quality kyanite (natural mineral)
has frequently been used as a stimulant of blue sapphire. Similarly, synthetically produce
d blue spinel also forms a common stimulant of blue sapphire. Cubic zirconium oxide (
CZ) is an artificially produced gem (without any natural equivalent) that has been sold b
oth as a stimulant of diamond and on its own accord as American Diamond. Many histo
rically famous gemstones have turned out to be simulants, one of them being the famous
emerald Buddha of Thailand which is actually jade. Composite gems are tricky things.
A doublet composite is constituted of two parts cemented together in such a way that it
resembles a single larger gemstone. It generally has a crown made up of natural gem an
d a pavilion of glass or synthetic or stimulant. Careful observation under microscope can
reveal the line of joint or perhaps a bubble along the cementing material. A diamond to
pped doublet made from thin crown section of diamond cemented to a pavilion of quartz
or some diamond stimulant has even deceived expert jewelers. A triplet has three parts.
For example, a ‘soude’ emerald is a triplet consisting of synthetic beryl/spinel/ colorless
quartz at the top and base and a thin layer of coloring material between the crown and t
he pavilion (girdle area) making up the third component of the triplet. Imitation gems ar
e cheap low quality materials, generally glass, that are made to imitate the natural ones i
n color and luster but are otherwise completely different. 3
4. 4. In contrast, an enhanced gem is a natural low quality gemstone that has b
een somehow treated to enhance its color or to impart color. The enhancement of
poor quality gemstone is an ancient art developed gradually with advancement of t
echnology. It includes processes as simple as dyeing or using mirror backs to as c
omplex as bombardment of the gemstone by charged particles like electrons or neu
trons. In view of all these possibilities it becomes necessary for a gemologist to un
derstand the true nature of a gemstone and its simulants and synthetics. Fortunatel
y, a number of instruments are now available, which when used with proper knowl
edge backup, can help a person to decipher the true character of the gem. The foll
owing sections therefore provide a brief review of the instruments that are commo
nly used in a gemological laboratory. Also the characters of some of the commonl
y used gemstone have been discussed along with their simulants and synthetics. H
owever, as it is that gemology is an ever researched subject and new synthetics, be
tter composites and finer enhancement techniques are constantly coming up, the de
tails of which remain jealously guarded, it is advisable to constantly update oneself
in this changing, varied and extremely interesting field of geology. CHAPTER - I
I Shapes & Cuts of Gems Gem cutting is the art of fashioning a rough stone into
a sparkling gem. Basically two broad styles of cutting are recognized: (1) cabocho
n cut and (2) faceted cut. Cabochon cut is the most primitive style of cutting that
can be traced back to Protohistoric times. This kind of cutting is presently applied
for opaque and translucent stones like turquoise, lapis lazuli etc. Also the gemston
es having special optical properties like chatoyancy (eg. Cat’s eye, tiger’s eye etc),
asterism (diopside, star ruby etc), opalescence (eg. Precious opal) or labradorence
(labradorite) are fashioned as cabochons. Primarily three types of cabochons are re
cognized (Fig 2.1): (a) Simple cabochons: Stones cut into a plainoconvex shape wi
th domed top and flat base (Fig 2.1a). (b) Double cabochons: Stones cut into bico
nvex shape, usually the upper dome is cut with greater convexity (Fig 2.1b). (c) H
ollow cabochons: Stones cut into a concavo-convex shape (Fig 2.1c). Generally us
ed for deeply colored transparent to translucent stones for increasing light transmis
sion through decrease in thickness. Circumference of a cabochon stone may be circ
ular, oval, polygonal or pear shaped, heart shaped etc. 4
5. 5. Faceted cut is the most common style employed for fashioning transparent
gemstones. Two fundamental faceting styles can be recognized: (a) step cut and (b
) brilliant cut (Fig 2.2a). There are further variations within these two styles of cut
ting which mainly depend on the shape of rough stones. These include shapes like
marquoise-, baugette-, lozenge-, oval- and pendeloque (Fig 2.2a). There are also mi
xed cuts. Additionally stones are cut into a few other shapes like briolette, star-sha
pe and heart-shape. Step cut is widely employed on emerald and stones of prismati
c habit. Essential parts of a feceted stones are: (i) crown and (ii) pavilion (Fig 2.2
b). The crown, also called bezel or top and consists of a large centrally placed hor
izontal facet called table and many polygonal facets. The pavilion, also known as t
he base or back, usually comprises of elongated triangular or kite shaped facets. C
ulet is an additional small facet often cut at the tip of the 5
6. 6. pavilion for preventing the stone from further damage and allowing some
amount of light to pass through the stone directly. This facet, so popular about a c
entury back, is more or less obsolete at present. The junction of the crown and the
pavilion is called girdle. Fig 2.2b diagrammatically presents the different facets of
a gem. CHAPTER - III Physical and Optical properties of Gemstones Gemstones
are extremely costly and therefore for gem testing no chemical test can be applied.
A series of physical and optical examinations are hence performed in gem testing
laboratories in order to identify a particular stone. 3.1. Physical properties of Gems
tones The following is a brief description of the physical properties of gemstones t
hat are commonly studied for identification purpose. 3.1.1. Crystal Systems and ha
bits Crystal habits, dependent upon the crystal systems and forms, when combined
with color, serve as a useful means to form an idea about the nature of an uncut r
aw gemstone. Table 3.1 gives an idea about the crystal habits and systems of som
e commonly used uncut gemstones while Plate- 6 Fig 2.2b. The different facets in
standard brilliant cut (from Geological Society of India, Memoir 45) Proportion of
cutting A particular proportion of cutting is essential to bring out the brilliance and
fire of a stone. It includes (a) ratio of lengths of crown and pavilion, (b) angles o
f crown facets and pavilion facets and (c) proportion of table facet to the rest of t
he facets. Depends upon the critical angle of reflection for the gem material conce
rned, the facets are angled and proportioned in such a way so as to obtain total int
ernal reflection from the stone. Ideal proportions for modern brilliant cut diamonds
have been given in Fig 2.2b.
7. 7. 1 provides photos of a range of crystals demonstrating the widely varying
forms and colors of common gemstones. Table 3.1. Crystal systems and habits of
some commonly used gemstones Gemstone Crystal system Habit Diamond Isometri
c Octahedron, dodecahedron, icoaitetrahedron (cubes rare), contact twin common (
macles) Corundum (Ruby, Sapphire) Trigonal Ruby: tabular hexagonal prism; Sapp
hire: tapering barrel shaped bipyramid Beryl (Emerald, Aquamarine) Hexagonal Six
sided prism, often striated vertically Apatite Hexagonal Six sided prism, often ter
minated with pyramid (also tabular prism and massive) Kyanite Triclinic Bladed a
ggregate Garnet Isometric Dodecahedron, icosatetrahedron (and combination of bot
h) Topaz Orthorhombic Flattened four sided prism with pyramidal or dome termin
ation (prism face often vertically striated) Spinel Isometric Octahedron and spinel t
win (contact twin) Tourmaline Trigonal Triangular prism (generally with rounded f
aces, heavily striated along length) Turquoise Triclinic Massive Zircon Tetragonal
Four sided prism with bipyramidal terminations Calcite Trigonal Rhombic prisms,
scalenohedra and six sided prisms Chalcedony Trigonal (microcrystalline) Massive,
botryoidal, mammilary, nodules Chrysoberyl Orthorhombic Prismatic crystals, triple
contact twins forming ‘hexagon’. Quartz Trigonal Six-sided horizontally striated p
rism with rhombohedral terminations Rhodochrosite Trigonal Massive Rhodonite Tr
iclinic Tabular and massive Rutile Tetragonal Four sided prism with pyramidal ter
minations (also acicular and massive granular) Scapolite Tetragonal Four sided pris
m (also massive) Felspar (Orthoclase) Felspar (Microcline and plagioclase) Monocl
inic Triclinic Crystal of both types resembles each other in habit; both are prismati
c and blocky with wedge shaped faces. Fluorspar Cubic Cube, interpenetrant cubes
and octahedral crystals (naturally occurring octahedral are rare, but the cubes 7

8. 8. cleave readily into this form Peridot Orthorhombic Prismatic Pyrite Cubic
Cube, dodecahedron (also massive and granular form) 3.1.2. Specific Gravity Speci
fic gravity of a substance is the ratio of its weight in air to the weight of an identi
cal volume of pure water (at standard atmospheric pressure and 4° C- the temperat
ure at which water is most dense). As specific gravity is a ratio, it has no unit of
measurement. Determination of specific gravity is one of the most effective and co
mmonly used modes of gemstone identification since specific gravity of each mine
ral is either a constant or can vary within a very short range depending upon the s
ubstitutions. It is equally applicable to both cut and uncut gemstones. The most co
mmon practice of measurement of SG is by hydrostatic method. Hydrostatic metho
d is based on the principle that an object immersed in a liquid experience an upwa
rd force (buoyancy or loss of weight) equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. T
he method includes weighing of gemstones in air and then weighing it again when
completely immersed in pure water. The SG of a specimen is determined as: SG
of Gem = weight of gem in air / weight of displaced pure water = (weight of gem
in air) / (weight of gem in air – weight of gem in water) Specific gravity of a ge
mstone is determined with the help of a single pan electronic balance with accesso
ries fitted for specific gravity determination (Plate-2). Precaution in measurement o
f specific gravity: Errors may be introduced by air bubbles adhering to the gem
stones and by surface tension of the water (cause friction like drag on the stone h
older). Bubbles can be avoided by thoroughly wetting the specimen before immersi
on. Residual bubbles can be removed by camelhair paint rush. Mixing a drop of
detergent with water can reduce surface tension effect. * A list of specific graviti
es of important gemstones in the order of increasing specific gravity has been prov
ided in Appendix-IB. 3.1.3 Hardness Hardness of a material is defined as the abilit
y of that material to resist abrasion. Comparative values of hardness in Mohs scale
for minerals are available in all standard mineralogical textbooks and form an imp
ortant property for identification of rough, uncut stones. However, hardness test for
cut and polished specimen should, if at all, be done with much more precaution s
ince any abrasion with harder material will leave a permanent scratch mark on the
polished 8
9. 9. surface. However, synthetic corundum pieces, kept in the laboratories, are
sometimes used as scratch plates for testing suspected diamonds. Hardness renders
durability although it is not the sole controller of the later. There is certain other l
esser important qualities like brittleness and toughness, which contributes to the du
rability of a stone. Zircon, for example, has a hardness of about 7 – 7.5, but is bri
ttle, as a result often suffers chipping. Similarly, diamond, even after being the har
dest known mineral is brittle because of its cleavage planes. On the other hand, tw
o jade minerals nephrite and jadeite have a considerable degree of toughness, despi
te their hardness values of 6 and 7 respectively. They do not represent single cryst
als, but a mass of microscopic interlocking fibers or crystals. As a result, they can
withstand much more wear and tear than the harder mineral zircon. 3.1.4. Cleavag
e and Parting Cleavage is a set (or multiple sets) of equally spaced planes in a cry
stal along which the atomic bonds are much stronger compared to the bonds acros
s the planes. As a result, the crystals (gemstones in present case) are easily cleava
ble along the cleavage planes. This property is usable both for identification of ra
w gemstones and for cutting and shaping of hard gemstones. Cleavage renders a g
em brittle. For example, with a sharp strong blow, even diamond, the hardest of al
l known minerals, is cleavable along its octahedral cleavage planes. The minerals
with very well developed cleavage (e.g. diamond, topaz etc) need special care duri
ng lapidary. In contrast to cleavage, parting planes are more widely spaced and les
s regular. Gemstones like corundum and labradorite have parting planes along the
planes of repeated lamellar twinning. 3.1.5. Fracture The way a gemstone breaks i
n a random direction (other than cleavage and parting) is called fracture. Many ge
mstones have conchoidal fracture pattern (e.g. quartz, garnet etc) but some have ha
ckly or splintery fracture pattern (e.g. nephrite, jadeite, ivory). In polished and face
ted kyanite, the cross fractures are often identifiable under microscope or through a
lens and serves as an important identifying property in addition to specific gravity
and refractive index. 3.1.6. Thermal and Electrical Conductivity Diamonds are ver
y good conductors of heat while most diamond simulants (except for moissanite) a
re poor conductors. At room temperature, the thermal conductivity of Type I diam
ond is about 1000 watts/m/°C and Type IIa is 2600 watts/m/°C. In contrast, the m
ost common diamond stimulant CZ (Cubic Zirconia) has a conductivity of only 10
watts/m/°C and white sapphire (another stimulant) has 40 watts/m/°C. This differen
ce in conductivity can be used for identification of diamond. Conventional diamon
d testers (thermolysers, Plate-2) differentiate between diamonds and most simulants
on the basis of this difference in thermal conductivity. 9
10. 10. A conventional diamond tester (battery or electricity operated) has a met
al tip that gets hot and measures the amount of heat loss from the tip when it is a
pplied to a substance. When this tip is applied to a diamond, the diamond takes th
e heat from the tip and the tester will indicate diamond. A diamond tester is able t
o distinguish the lesser conductors (simulants) from diamonds. However moissanite
being a high heat and electricity conductor diamond stimulant, needs others tests.
Some gemtones, notably amber, diamond, tourmaline and topaz generate static elec
tricity when vigorously rubbed with dry silk and become capable of attracting smal
l bits of paper. Tourmaline and untwined quartz have pyroelectric property i.e. dev
elops opposite charge at the ends of c-axis when heated. However, this property is
not exhibited by the common schrol variety of tourmaline. Piezoelectricity (charge
developed subjected to mechanical compression) is found in quartz and has got sev
eral industrial uses. However, such electrical properties, although of industrial uses
(e.g. quartz watches) are not commonly used by gemologists. Electrical conductivit
y is of interest to gemologist in the exceptional case of certain diamonds. This mi
neral is normally a good insulator but Type IIb diamonds have lattice imperfection
s with loose electrons. A potential difference applied to such a diamond will cause
a migration of electrons to the positive pole. This flow of electrons is small at fir
st, only a few milliamperes, but the flow tends to heat up the crystal which liberat
es more and more electrons from the atoms and the current increase rapidly to sev
eral amperes. All natural blue diamonds are Type IIB and therefore electroconducti
ve whereas blue diamonds created through enhancement by irradiation in high ener
gy electrons in an electron accelerator are nonconductive. Therefore, this property i
s frequently used to separate natural blue diamond from enhanced ones. 3.2. Optic
al Properties of Gemstones Any property of a gemstone that is dependent on light
is an optical property. In absence of chemical tests, the optical properties of the ge
mstones, particularly polished gems, need to be carefully studied for identification
purpose. The following is a list of the different optical properties commonly studie
d in gemological laboratories. 3.2.1. Color Color is the most attractive property of
a gemstone although generally ineffective for identification purpose. For example,
quartz can be colorless, transparent (rock crystal), purple (amethyst), pink (rose qu
artz), brown (smoky quartz) and even green depending upon the impurities present.
Similarly, depending upon small amounts of transition ion impurities, corundum c
an be red (ruby), pink (pink sapphire), blue (blue sapphire), yellow (yellow sapphir
e), green (green sapphire) and even colorless (white sapphire). Understanding the c
ause of coloration of crystals is therefore an important and interesting branch of m
ineral physics. For present purpose, only a brief idea about the different causes of
coloration of gemstones has been given. The gemologist should do better not to id
entify a gemstone only on the basis of its color. Plates 1 & 3 shows the wide vari
ation of colors encountered in the world of gemstones. Causes of coloration of ge
mstone 10
11. 11. When white light (wavelengths from ~ 400 to 700 nm) is incident on a
gemstone, it may be transmitted, scattered, reflected, refracted or absorbed. If the li
ght suffers no absorption, the mineral is colorless. Minerals appear colored when c
ertain wavelengths of light are absorbed. The perceived color results from the com
bination of those remaining wavelengths that reach the eye. The electronic process
es responsible for light absorption and color are as follows: (i) Crystal Field Transi
tion Crystal field transitions are electronic transitions between partially filled 3d or
bitals of transition elements. These are the elements of the first transition series wi
th atomic numbers from 22 to 29 and having electronic configuration of the genera
l form 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10-n 4s1-2 . The electrons in the partially filled d-o
rbitals can be excited by quanta of energy from the visible spectrum. Such electro
nic transitions are the basis for production of color. The transition elements are the
refore called chromophores. When such chromophoric transition element/elements a
re the major constituents of the composition of a crystal/gemstone, then the minera
ls are described as idiochromatic. e.g. The red color of almandine garnet (Fe3Al2S
i3O12) is attributed to Fe+2 while the blue color of turquoise [CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8
.5H2O] is due to the dominance of Cu+2 . In contrast, gemstones are allochromati
c when their color is attributed to small amounts of chromophores present as impu
rities within the crystal structure. Even less than 0.01% of such elements would be
enough to produce an appreciable perception of color. Table 3.2 lists the different
gem varieties of allochromatic corundum and the relevant chromophores while Ta
ble 3.3 is a list of the transition elements in order of increasing atomic number an
d the minerals (idiochromatic or allochromatic) to whom they have imparted the c
olor. Table 3.2. Gem varieties of corundum and their chromophores Gem (Corundu
m) Color Chromophore 1. White Sapphire 2. Ruby 3. Blue Sapphire 4. Yellow Sa
pphire 5. Padaparadscha White Red to pink – red Blue Yellow Orange – pink Pur
e Cr+3 Ti+4 – Fe+2 Fe+2 – Fe+3 Fe+3 + Fe+2 + Cr+3 Table 3.3. Transition ele
ments and minerals they have colored Titanium (Ti) Blue sapphire (with iron), blu
e zoisite Vanadium (V) Grossular garnet (Tsavorite), green vanadium beryl, synthet
ic corundum (alexandrite simulant), synthetic emerald (few), blue/violet sapphire C
hromium (Cr) Ruby, emerald, red spinel, pyrope garnet, chrome grossular garnet, d
emantoid garnet, uvarovite garnet (idiochromatic)) chrome diopside, green jadeite,
pink topaz, alexandrite, hiddenite (spodumene) 11
12. 12. Manganese (Mn) Rhodochrosite, rhodonite, spessartine garnet (all idioch
romatic), rose quartz, morganite (beryl, andalusite) Iron (Fe) Sapphire, sinhalite, pe
ridot, almandine garnet (all idiochromatic), aquamarine, blue-green tourmaline, enst
atite, amethyst Cobalt (Co) Synthetic blue/green spinel, synthetic blue quartz, cobal
t glass. Except for rare blue spinel is not found in any natural transparent gemston
e. Nickel (Ni) Chrysoprase (green chalcedony), synthetic green and yellow sapphire
. Copper (Cu) Malachite and Turquoise (both idiochromatic), diopside, synthetic gr
een sapphire The amount of energy absorbed depends not only on the chromophor
es but also on their positions in the lattice and the resultant nature and degree of c
rystal field splitting. For example, the red color of ruby and the green color of em
erald are both caused by small amounts of Cr+3 replacement at the Al+3 site. But
since in emerald the Al+3 (or Cr+3 ) are shared with BeO4 and SiO4 tetrahedra w
hile corundum consists of hexagonal close-packed layers of oxygen, Al+3 (or Cr+3
) occupying interstices between the layers, the nature of crystal field splitting and
hence energy absorption of Cr+3 is quite different for emerald and ruby. Hence th
e stark difference in color. Also, Color of some minerals differs depending on the
source of light. This phenomenon is known as alexandrite effect. Best example is
alexandrite a special variety of mineral chrysoberyl (BeO, Al2O3), from which the
effect derived its name. The chromophore in case of alexandrite is Cr3 that has an
absorption scheme intermediate between those of ruby and emerald. In incandescen
t light (more yellowish), its colour is red and in evenly balanced light or in day li
ght it appears green (ruby in night & emerald in day). Alexandrite showing conspi
cuous color change is much more valuable than diamond of same weight. This eff
ect is also revealed by V+ bearing corundum (bluish in daylight, purple in incande
scent light). The colors of some commonly used natural and synthetic gemstones h
ave been tabulated in Appendix-II. (ii) Molecular Orbital Transition / Charge Trans
fer Transition Molecular orbital transition occurs in minerals when valence electron
s transfer back and forth between adjacent ions. The electrons are thus contributed
to shared molecular orbitals and are as such delocalized. An well known example i
s the transition of electron between Fe+2 → Ti+4 which is responsible for the blu
e color of sapphire. The Fe-Ti transitions in sapphire absorb wavelengths in the gr
een, yellow, orange and red range of the spectrum making the crystal appear blue
in color. Also there can be simultaneous electron transfer between Fe+2 – Fe+3 an
d Fe+3 – O-2 which absorb energies in infrared and violet-ultraviolet portions of t
he spectrum respectively. (iii) Color Centers 12
13. 13. Coloration can be caused by structural defects. This can be an excess el
ectron that is unattached to any single atom and trapped at some structural defect l
ike a missing ion. This can also be an electron missing from its side forming a ho
le. Such a single electron is bound in place by the crystal field (electrical field) of
all the surrounding ions. Under such conditions it can occupy a ground state and s
everal excited states thereby causing color and fluorescence. Gemstones colored by
this include fluorite, amethyst, blue topaz and colored zircons. The smoky color of
quartz is attributed to a ‘hole color center’. (iv) Presence of impurities Mechanical
admixture of impurities can cause color. For example, finely dispersed chlorite or f
uchsite can make quartz appear green. Jasper appears reddish brown due to mecha
nical admixture of fine hematite. (v) Presence of organic substances The colouratio
n of organic gems like amber, coral etc are due to presence of dye like organic su
bstance in them. (vi) Band Theory In crystal like diamond, galena, pyrite there is
covalent bonding, which involves sharing of electrons between atoms rather than a
transfer. The colour of these materials (apart from those impurities) involves the ‘b
and theory’/’band gap colours’, and depends upon the energy gap between the ‘con
ductive band’ and ‘valency band’ rather than between energy levels of single atom.
In case of diamond there is a wide gap between these levels in terms of energy a
nd the crystal is essentially colorless and does not conduct electricity. Introduction
of other atoms into the diamond lattice can cause narrowing the width of band gap
s. This allows absorption of certain parts of visible light and as a result diamond s
hows color. 3.2.2. Luster The term luster refers to the general appearance of the m
ineral surface in reflected light. There are two types of luster: metallic and nonmet
allic. In minerals with metallic bonding, the energy gaps between the ground state
and excited states of electrons are generally much smaller than those for ionic and
covalently bonded substances. The energy of visible light is generally much smalle
r than the energy gaps in ionic and covalent structures. In metallic compounds, ho
wever, there are large numbers of excited states with energies that are available in
the entire range of the visible spectrum. This means that any quantum of energy st
riking the surface of a metal or partially metallic bonded crystal is absorbed and i
mmediately re-emitted as visible light. This results in the typical metallic luster wh
ere light is reflected almost completely. The ionic and covalent bonded crystals nor
mally have non-metallic luster. Depending upon the nature of luster they are classi
fied as vitreous, sub-vitreous, resinous, greasy, silky, adamantine, velvety and dull.
3.2.3. Physical Optical Effects 13
14. 14. Under this category are classified a number of optical effects involving
reflection, dispersion, scattering, interference etc. Iridescence: Interference of light i
n the interior of a mineral may produce a series of colors as the angle of incidenc
e changes (Opal in Plate-3). This is caused by the presence extremely thin layers o
r regular structures beneath the surface of a gemstone (e.g. presence of millions of
regularly arranged submicroscopic spheres (equal sizes) of cristobalite or silica gel
in precious opal). These layers or structures act as diffraction gratings for white lig
ht, enhancing some color and canceling others depending upon the interplanar spac
ing, wavelength of light, refractive index of mineral and angle of incidence. Opales
cence: Sometimes irregular internal structures lead to scattering of light within a m
ineral producing a milky appearance known as opalescence. Labradorescence: Iride
scence caused through light scattered by extremely fine (less than 1/10th micron or
thinner in width) exsolution lamellae in the range of An47 to An58 in labradorite
(labardorite in Plate-3). Adularescence: Also known as ‘shiller’, a bluish sheen, see
n in the moonstone variety of feldspar. Chatoyancy: In reflected light some minera
ls have a silky appearance which results from closely packed parallel fibers (acicul
ar growth) or from a parallel alignment of inclusions or cavities. When a cabochon
gemstone is cut from such a mineral / mineral aggregate, it shows a band of light
at right angles to the fibers or direction of inclusions. This property is known as
chatoyancy and is particularly impressive in cat’s eye, tiger’s eye and hawk’s eye
(Cat’s Eye in Plate-3). Asterism: In some crystals, particularly those of hexagonal
system, inclusions may be arranged in three crystallographic directions at 120° to e
ach other. A cabochon from such a stone shows what might be called a triple chat
oyancy, that is, one beam of light at each direction of inclusions producing a six p
ointed star. This phenomenon, often encountered in star rubies and sapphires, is ter
med as asterism (star ruby and star sapphire in Plate-3) and results from scattering
of light from inclusions of rutile arranged in three crystallographic directions. Star
diopside and some phlogopitic mica also show asterism. 3.2.4. Transparency Trans
parency affects both beauty and value of a gem. Transparency depends mainly on
the clarity of the substance. Light passing through a mineral is always subjected to
– (a) Reflection of some part at the surface. (b) Scattering by surface irregularitie
s. (c) Part absorption if it is colored (d) Absorption & scattering by inclusions. 14

15. 15. (e) Reflection & scattering by weak planes like cleavage, fracture etc. D
egree of transparency / clarity is very important in gem evaluation. Greater the tra
nsparency higher will be the quality of the gem. Inclusions and other flaws (extern
al or internal) as well as color reduce transparency. For a light color or colorless s
tone brilliance depends appreciably on its transparency. Deep color stones (like rub
y, emerald etc.) seldom occur in complete transparent form. There appears to be a
n unexplained reverse relationship between the depth of color and transparency (Fl
awlessness in rubies and emeralds). Similarly densely included stones are not very
transparent (for this reason chatoyant and star stones are usually not very transpare
nt). The following is a table of comparative transparency. Transparent An object vi
ewed through the stone can be seen clearly (e.g. rock crystal, topaz etc). Semitrans
pare nt The image of an object viewed through the stone will be blurred but still r
ecognizable. Translucent The stone will transmit some light but object cannot be s
een through it (e.g. chrysoprase, jadeite). Opaque The stone is sufficiently dense o
ptically to prevent the passage of any light (e.g. malachite, turquoise). 3.2.5. Refra
ctive Index Refractive index of a crystal is the Sine of the angle of incidence R.I.
= ------------------------------------- Sine of the angle of refraction However, only glas
s and crystals in isometric system are singly refractive while all minerals belongin
g to tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic systems
have two refractive indices. Refractive index / indices (R.I.) of each mineral is uni
que. There of course are overlaps in ranges, but still, determination of R.I. along
with other tests can help in mineral identification. The RI of a gemstone/gem is de
termined by Refractometer (Plate-2). The instrument is designed optically to use th
e phenomenon of critical angle (total internal reflection) to provide direct RI readi
ng and is also known as critical angle refractometer. However, the principle can o
nly be used if the RI of the gemstone being tested is less than the refractometer’s
lead glass prism which has an RI of 1.86 (if the gemstone’s RI is greater than the
RI of this prism, the ray will be refracted out and there will be no total internal re
flection). The gemstone is placed on this glass prism in such a way that one of its
flat facets is in good contact of the prism (Fig 3.1). In reality, however, a contact
fluid (saturated solution of sulphur in di-iodomethane and 15
16. 16. tetraiodoetylene with RI = 1.81) is used to ensure good optical contact
between the gem and the lead glass prism. The principle of total internal reflection
occurs as follows: (i) As light converge from the prism onto the surface of the ge
m (Fig 3.1a), ray I1 and I2 (which have larger angle of incidence compared to the
critical angle) are reflected back into the denser prism following the laws of total
internal reflection. Rays I4 and I5, whose angle of incidence is less than the critica
l angle are refracted into the gem. But ray I3, which is incident just at the critical
angle travels along the interface of the two mediums. Thus when light rays passes
from a dense medium to a rarer medium of gemstone, the light rays will be reflect
ed back from the surface of the gemstone over an arc of incident angle greater tha
n that of ‘critical angle’ of incidence. This ‘critical angle’ is determined by the RI
s of both the denser medium and the gemstone. The dense medium in the refracto
meter is a glass prism of known RI. The ‘critical angle’ gives the direct measure
RI of gemstone as follows: RI of rarer medium (gemstone) Sine of ‘critical angle’
= ---------------------------------------- RI of dense medium (prism of refractometer) RI
of gemstone = sine of critical angle x RI of refractometer prism RI for gemologic
al purpose is defined in terms of yellow monochromatic light having a wavelength
of 589.3 nm (sodium light) which gives sharpest and most easily seen shadow edg
e. Fig 3.1a Fig 3.1b The basic construction of the critical angle refractometer is sh
own in Fig 3.1b (from Read, 1997). Here, the light rays arriving at the interface b
etween the gemstone and the glass prism and having an angle of incidence less tha
n the critical angle (ION) are not reflected into the lens system. However, those ra
ys having an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle are reflected into th
e lenses and illuminate a scale graduated in RI values. The image of the scale is i
nverted by a mirror and then focused by the eyepiece. The end result is viewed as
a dark top section and an illuminated lower part. The horizontal shadow edge bet
ween the two parts is the measurement of the refractive index of the gem. 3.2.6. L
uminescence 16
17. 17. In contrast to the color of a gemstone, which is observed in daylight, th
ere are certain minerals, which produce color or visible light in darkness under cer
tain special circumstances. This phenomenon is known as luminescence. It is found
that when certain materials acquire surplus energy in one form or another (but bel
ow the level of burning or glow) they convert this energy into a ‘cold’ radiation w
hose wavelength generally lies in the visible section of the spectrum. The mechani
sm producing this ‘cold radiation’ or ‘luminescence’ is associated with the excitati
on of atoms within the material. The surplus energy acquired by luminescent subst
ances is used up in moving electrons out of their normal orbital state (ground state
) temporarily into orbits of a higher energy level (excited state). This high-energy
state is unstable so the electrons relax into a lower energy excited state that is slig
htly more stable. When these electrons eventually return to their more stable orbits
 (ground state) they give up the surplus energy in the form of electro-magnetic rad
iations. This emitted energy is always less than the excited energy. Since waveleng
th increases as the energy decreases, emission occurs at larger wavelengths than th
e excitation wavelengths. For example, stimulus of shorter wavelengths of ultraviol
et (less than ~ 400nm) rays can result in emission of longer wavelengths in the vis
ible range (e.g. natural ruby frequently give red [~700nm] luminescence under long
wave U.V). In case of gemstones, the best stimulant is the radiation by invisible s
horter wavelengths or ultraviolet rays (UV). UV lamps that produce light of two di
fferent wavelengths check luminescence of gemstones normally. 1. Short wave UV
lamp (253.7nm) 2. Long wave UV lamp(365 nm) Certain minerals respond better t
o short wave UV radiation while some fluoresce better in long wave UV radiation.
A substance is fluorescent if the emission of light stops as soon as the energy so
urce causing it is removed; if it continues to glow even after the source of stimula
nt is cut off, then it is called phosphorescence (e.g. Kunzite). Luminescence (fluore
scence / phosphorescence) should always be checked in dark room. In all forms of
luminescence, the light emitted is either due to some intrinsic property of the mat
erial (e.g. lattice defect in diamond) or due to the presence of luminescent impuriti
es called activators (e.g. Cr2O3 in ruby). 3.2.7. Pleochroism As pleochroism is an
useful identifying property for a gemstones, an instrument called Dichroscope is us
ed for quick discrimination. It consists of a cleaved rhomb of optical quality calcit
e (Iceland spar), which is mounted, in a glass tube having an eyepiece at one end
and a square aperture at the other end. A glass prism is cemented to each end of t
he calcite rhomb to allow the light to enter and leave in a straight line. When the
colored gemstone, if doubly refracting and pleochroic, is viewed in direction other
than that of an optic axis, the two images, 17
18. 18. which appear side by side, will differ in shade or color. Singly refractin
g stones will not show the change of shade or color. 3.2.8 Optic Sign and other o
ptical properties Ordinary unpolarized light waves vibrate in all directions at right
angles to their line of travel. If unpolarized light passes through a doubly refractiv
e material (such as gemstone) it emerges as two separate polarized rays. These ray
s will vibrate only in a single plane at right angle to each other and to their direct
ion of travel. Polarizing filters/ Nicol prism helps in producing this polarized ray b
y separating out ordinary rays from the extra-ordinary ray. Polariscope, a gemologi
cal instrument, uses two set of polarizing filters for getting crossed or extinction p
osition. This crossed/extinction position has practical application in identification of
gems. Use of Polariscope: 1. Optical character: - To ascertain isotropism/anisotrop
ism of a gem mineral. In isotropic (singly refracting) gems there will be little light
visible because the polarized light from the bottom filter passes through the sampl
e without being changed by it and is then blocked by the top filter while rotating t
he top filter. If the whole stone appears to alternate between transmitted light and
then blocking it (appearing alternate light and dark) during 3600 rotation, the stone
is anisotropic (doubly refracting). The test may be done in more than one directio
n of the specimen to avoid c-axis position. Red spinel can be differentiated from a
ruby by this method. 2. Strain: - Many gems and synthetics like diamond, synthet
ic spinel, glass etc show internal strain which result in anomalous double refraction
 when viewed in polariscope. This usually appears as vague dark patch or band m
oving across the sample as it is rotated. The similar patchy feature seen in syntheti
c spinel is called ‘tabby extinction’. 3. Interference figure: - Interference figure (un
iaxial or biaxial) of an anisotropic stone can be produced by holding it under cross
ed filter and superimposing a spherical bead (conoscope) over it. The sample has t
o be rotated till a distinct first order interference colour is obtained. 4. Pleochroism
: - In some doubly refracting colored gemstones the two rays travelling in different
speeds may emerge differing in shades or color. The rays are said to have experie
nced differential selective absorption. This is called pleochroism (Dichroic if light
split into two colours/shades-uniaxial, trichroic if light split into three colours/shade
s – biaxial). 3.2.9. Spectroscopy As discussed earlier, the perceived color of most
objects is the result of their ability to absorb certain wavelengths or colors in the l
ight passing through them or reflected off their surface. This suppression of part of
the spectrum in the illuminating light is known as selective absorption and helps i
n identification of some gemstones. In majority of the gemstones the color is relat
ed to the presence of transition elements and this color is due to the selective abso
rption of wavelengths in the light illuminating the gemstones. 18
19. 19. To know which wavelengths have been absorbed, a ‘spectroscope’ is us
ed. The spectroscope spreads out the light from the gemstones into spectral colors.
Absorbed wavelengths will form dark lines or bands across the spectrum and is cal
led absorption spectrum. The transition elements in a gemstone produce these lines
, bands or doublets (two closely spaced lines). The position of these lines or bands
can be different for different gems having same transition element. In some cases
light, which is illuminating the gemstone, stimulate the transition element, instead
of absorption, they emit light at these same wavelengths to produce emission spect
rum (fluorescent lines). Ruby and spinel produce fluorescent lines or emission spec
tra. The direct vision wavelength type prism spectroscope uses triple element Amic
i prism. This type of instrument disperses the visible spectrum over angle of 7° (fi
ve element prism produces about 10° of dispersion). The prism type produces brig
ht spectra but the spectrum it produces is not evenly spaced out across the range.
This is due to the characteristic of the prism which compresses the red end and in
creasingly spreads out it towards the violet end. Faint absorption lines and bands a
re difficult to observe in the spread out violet/blue end of the spectrum. Because t
he refraction in the prism is dependant on the wavelength of the light, the focus of
the spectroscope also needs resetting while viewing different area of the spectrum.
These disadvantages can be sorted out if diffraction grating is used instead of a p
rism. The spectrum produced by this type has the wavelengths distributed evenly a
nd in focus across the spectrum. But the resulting spectrum is not sharp and bright
as multiple spectra are produced on each side of the main one and tend to dilute
it. Plates 11A, 11B, 11C & 11D provide the positions of the absorption lines for a
number of common gemstones. CHAPTER - IV Inclusions & Internal features of
natural Gemstones Study of inclusions and internal features of a gemstone is one o
f the most fascinating subjects of gemology. Not only do they provide direct evide
nces to whether the concerned gem is truly of natural origin but also hint at the pr
ocess and place of origin of the gem. The internal features of a gemstone can broa
dly be divided into: (1) the features typical of a natural gem & (2) those typical o
f a synthetic product. The first has been discussed in this section while an overvie
w of the second has been provided in Chapter 5 under synthetic gemstones. A ge
mologist must however be extremely cautious while certifying a gem as ‘natural’ o
r ‘synthetic’ based on only one of these features. Solid mineral inclusions, which c
an be regarded as a positive sign of a gemstone’s natural origin can be introduced
in a synthetic by 19
20. 20. adding small crystals during growth of the gemstone in a flux or hydrot
hermal solution. Doublets may contain features of both natural and synthetic stones
. The internal features of a gemstone can broadly be divided into (i) growth zones,
(ii) twinning and (iii) inclusions. (i) Growth lines / zones : Natural gemstones ma
y possess straight growth lines/zones (Plate-4). Curved growth bands characteristica
lly indicate synthetic gems. (ii) Twinning : Some gemstones like corundum, quartz
and tourmaline are at times characterized by single or multiple twinning which gen
erally indicates natural origin. However, twin planes can now be synthetically gene
rated and therefore no more a confirmatory evidence. (iii) Inclusions : Though the
study of inclusions in a gemstone goes back at least to first century AD, the scien
ce could really make any phenomenal progress with discovery of microscope in th
e 17th century. Inclusions has again been subdivided into: (a) Protogenetic inclu
sions : These are inclusions formed before the formation of the gemstone. These a
re strictly solid inclusions. They can be heavily etched or corroded, being formed l
ong before the gemstone, or well formed euhedral, having formed shortly before th
e gem. Calcite inclusions in Mogok ruby (Plate-4), zircon in corundum, actinolite i
n tourmaline or emerald (Plate-4) or diamond inclusions in diamond are typical ex
amples of protogenic inclusions. (b) Syngenetic inclusions : These inclusions inc
lude solids, liquids and gases and have developed simultaneously with the host ge
m. They can be mono-phase (solid/liquid), bi- phase (solid & liquid or liquid & ga
s bubble) or tri-phase (solid, liquid and gas). It is at times very difficult to determi
ne whether a mono-phase solid inclusion is syngenetic or protogenetic. However, t
hey are generally syngenetic if they can be genetically related. Examples are spinel
octahedral in spinel, apatite inclusions in beryl (both are pegmatitic), mica or sphe
ne in corundum (both are metamorphic). Fluid inclusions (mono- or bi-phase) are
definitely syngenetic and are very good indicators of natural origin of a gemstone.
Primary cavities generally result where certain areas of the host have grown more
rapidly than others, forming, and eventually enclosing, voids. These voids can be v
acant (negative crystals) or contain a single phase liquid, liquid + gas (2-phase), li
quid + solid (2-phase) or liquid + gas + solid (3-phase). Photomicrographs of a nu
mber of bi-phase and tri-phase fluid inclusions have been shown in Plate-4 and Pla
te-4B. However the bi-phase nail like inclusion consisting of conical tubes capped
with phenakite crystals (Plate-4), if found in 20
21. 21. emerald, indicates that the gem has been synthetically developed throug
h Linde hydrothermal process. The process of development of such syngenetic flui
d inclusions is as follows: • (A) Rapid feathery growth is followed by later steady
growth. • (B) Subparallel growth traps fluids. • ( C) Dislocation etched out during
partial dissolution is later covered by new growth. • (D) Disturbed growth near a f
racture in the surface of a growing crystal results in trapping of primary fluid incl
usions. • (E) Primary fluid inclusions are trapped between or at the centers of gro
wth spirals. • (F) Enclosure of any foreign object on the surface of a growing crys
tal may include some of the growth fluid as well. (After Roedder, 1984) Negative
crystals can often be recognized by identical crystal orientation to the host, along
with their high relief, due to the liquid or gas filling. More substantial evidence is
provided by the gas bubble sometimes trapped within the liquid. (c) Epigenetic
inclusions : Inclusions that have developed in a gem subsequent to its formation ar
e called epigenetic inclusion. Rutile silk in corundum (Plate-4), that is produced th
rough exsolution from the later is considered to be epigenetic, although the time g
ap between host crystal formation and its cooling and exsolution may not be great.
Also, feathers/fingerprints may be epigenetic. In course of its evolution through ti
me, the gemstone bearing rock might have undergone polyphase deformation and t
he resulting strain leads to microfractures in the constituent minerals. Permeating fl
uids (metamorphic/hydrothermal) enters these cracks and as the mineral undergoes
healing, the fluid gradually forms a veil of disconnected or partly connected veil li
ke structure known as feathers/fingerprints. Such secondary fluid inclusion planes a
re quite common in quartz, corundum, peridot, spinel, topaz etc. The gemologist m
ust however remain very careful when studying such features because they are also
generated in synthetic gems. However, the later, generally have a twisted appeara
nce which is never the case in a natural crystal. As mentioned earlier, inclusions i
n a gem can indicate the petrogenesis and place of formation for the particular ge
m. For example, in Mogok ruby of Myanmer, the commonly noted inclusions are
pargasite, calcite, scapolite, yellow titanite, spinel, pyrite, yellow sphalerite and sho
rt stubby rutile silk needles. Such inclusions definitely indicate a metamorphic envi
ronment in a SiO2-deficient condition, possibly a metamorphosed limestone which,
in reality, is the setup for Mogok rubies. 40 Ar–39 Ar dates from single grains of
phlogopite syngenetic with the ruby indicate Miocene age for Mogok rubies in My
anmar (18.7 ± 0.2 to 17.1 ± 0.2 Ma). The metamorphism and development of ruby
in Mogok, along with rubies formed in Jegdalek in Afghanistan (Oligocene, 24.7
± 0.3 Ma), Hunza in Pakistan (10.8 ± 0.3 to 5.4 ± 0.3 Ma), Chumar in Nepal (5.6
± 0.4 Ma) etc are all formed during orogeny related metamorphism related to Hi
malayan uplift. 21
22. 22. Thinking in the reverse order, the inclusions mentioned above along wit
h the features like v- shaped reentrant angles in silk, dense white clouds of exsolv
ed TiO2, polysynthtic twinning accompanied by long, slender associated boehmite
needles, hexagonal irregular zoning and color treacles, very few or no liquid inclus
ions in a ruby indicate its Mogok origin. CHAPTER - V Synthetic Gemstones A s
ynthetic gemstone is an artificially prepared material having similar composition, cr
ystal structure, physical and optical properties as that of its natural counterpart. Th
ere remains only subtle differences between natural and synthetic materials that are
essential for a gemologist to understand and identify. This chapter has been divid
ed into two sections: the first part deals in brief with the different processes of pro
duction of synthetic gems while the second is an account of the various common p
roperties that, under microscope, indicates that a gemstone is synthetic. 5.1. Produc
tion of synthetic gemstones Gemstones are being synthesized since the beginning o
f the last century. It is part of the research related to crystal growth science. The p
roductions of this sythesised material have use in industries and jewelry. Some of t
hem find their way into gem trade as a fraudulent practice creating global scale co
ncern in identification. The following is a brief account of the different processes
used in production of synthetic gemstones: 5.1.1. Flame Fusion Process (or Verneu
il process) This method envisages formation of crystal from the melt brought about
by passage of powdered raw materials (high purity alumina powder) through a fla
me zone. Generally oxide gems like ruby, sapphires, spinels, star corundum etc. ar
e synthesized by this process. Transition elements are added as coloring agents to
create appropriate color similar to natural ones. Till date this process is carried out
mass scale production of corundum and spinel. Stones grown by this method gene
rally have gas bubbles / gas clouds inclusions, curved growth lines, occasional un
melted powder etc. which may be encountered as internal features. 5.1.2. Crystal ‘
pulling’ process (Czochralski Method) 22
23. 23. This process produces high purity crystals for LASER and Optical indus
tries. In this process a seed crystal is lowered into the Iridium/platinum crucible co
ntaining the molten source material. The crucible is heated by using radio frequenc
y (RF) induction coil. When the seed crystal comes in contact with the molten sou
rce it is gradually rotated and slowly pulled at a carefully controlled rate. The sour
ce material crystallizes on the seed and grows downwards as it is pulled out of the
melt. The temperature has to be controlled to get the best result. This technique h
elps in synthesizing large crystals ruby, YAG, GGG, scheelite, fluorspar, Lithium
Niobate, alexandrite (Crescent Vart / Inamori created Alexandrite), Cat’s eye Alexa
ndrite. 5.1.3. Flux-melt growth process The process is solvent based and uses the o
ld method of dissolving gem constituents having a high melting point in solvent or
flux having a much lower melting point. A heated platinum crucible is used, in w
hich, the gem-forming chemicals (for emerald: beryllium and alumina oxides with
chromic oxide as coloring agent) are dissolved in solvent or flux of lithium molyb
date heated to about 800° C. Slabs of silica glass are floated on the melt and the
beryllium and aluminum oxides combine with them to form beryl solution. Seed cr
ystals of natural or synthetic beryl are lowered into the solution in a platinum cage
and the temperature of the crucible is lowered to a preset level. As the beryl solu
tion is supersaturated, crystals of synthetic emerald precipitate out and grow on the
seed. This process is very slow. Accurate thermal gradient has to be maintained t
o enable the source material to dissolve at the bottom and to recrystallize at the to
p. The source material is replenished regularly. This process has been refined subs
equently to produce emerald (Chatham, Gilson, Lenix types), ruby (Kashan, Knisch
ka, Ramaura, Duros types), quartz, alexandrite and rare earth garnets (YAG, GGG)
. 5.1.4. Zone melting This method can be used as a process of refining or growing
high purity crystals from powder or partially fused powder. The equipment consis
ts of an RF induction coil, which is traversed along the length of the source mater
ial, melting it. As the coil moves on, the material cools and crystallizes or recrysta
llizes (refining). Alternatively, the induction coil can be stationary, and the source
material moved through it. Seiko synthetic rubies, sapphire and alexandrite produce
d by a variant of this process are called ‘floating zone melting’. Crystals made fro
m this process are free from inclusion and growth features. 5.1.5. Hydrothermal Pr
ocess Hydrothermal process involves growth of crystal from aqueous solutions of t
he source material. The process is based on the fact that water when heated in an
autoclave to more than 400° C forms superheated water and steam acts as a solve
nt for many minerals including quartz. The hydrothermal method synthesis imitates
the process by which quartz crystals and other gemstone in quartz vein and pegm
atitic phases form in nature. By using the solubility of source material in 23
24. 24. superheated water it is possible to produce a supersaturated aqueous sol
ution from which gem materials can be precipitated and grow on suitable seed cry
stals. It is a very slow process. Colorless quartz crystals up to 50X150 mm (mainl
y for use in electronic industries) can be grown in 3-4 weeks by this method. Vari
eties of synthetic emerald (Lechleitner, Linde, Biron etc.) are manufactured by this
process. Hydrothermal synthetic emerald shows feather like inclusions, nail head in
clusions and color zoning. Lechleitner synthetic emeralds reveal rectangular crack
markings and parallel fissures. 5.1.6. Skull-crucible process This process manufactu
res synthetic cubic zirconia, which is a commonly used stimulant of diamond. The
source ZrO2 powder has a very high melting point, around 2750ºC. It cannot be m
elted in any conventional refractory crucibles. So the crystal of this material is pro
duced by means of a ‘skull’ melting process. Lebedev Physical Institute, Moscow,
developed the method. The skull crucible consists of circular arrangement of water
-cooled copper pipes. The zirconia powder (ZrO2) along with some amount of stab
ilizer like MnO, CaO and Y2O3 is packed into the crucible and is heated by using
RF induction coil. The function of the stabilizers is to stabilize the cubic and tran
sparent states of molten zirconium oxide as it solidifies. Addition of appropriate ra
re earth and transition element can produce different color varieties of CZ. 5.1.7.
Diamond synthesis The Swedish company ASEA and General Electric (GE) of US
A were first to develop techniques between 1953 and 1955 to produce industrial gr
ade grit-sized diamonds on commercial scale. The basic technique involved is diss
olving of graphite in molten iron, nickel, manganese or cobalt at high temperature
and pressure. Metal acts as catalyst to reduce the temperature and pressure to conv
ert hexagonal atomic structure of graphite into more tightly bonded cubic structure
of diamond. In 1970 GE, America produced carat-sized synthetic gem quality diam
onds under laboratory condition. The technique employed a diffusion process in w
hich free carbon atoms were made to crystallize on synthetic diamond seeds in the
cooler section of a molten metal catalyst ‘bath’. Small diamonds placed in the hot
section were source material for free carbon. The production cost was prohibitive
to produce on commercial scale. In 1986, Sumitomo Electric Industries, Japan start
ed producing carat-sized transparent yellow synthetic diamonds for various industri
al purposes. In 1987 De Beers started synthesizing large gem-quality diamonds (lar
gest -11 carats). The main motive was to seek application of these diamonds in hi
gh-technology industries. The diamond crystals were modified octahedrons. They ar
e made by a flux method (Type Ib- contains nitrogen atom dispersed through out t
he crystal lattice and is very rare in nature). 24
25. 25. Constant research is going on to produce synthetic diamonds on comme
rcial scale for use in scientific industries. Of these above processes, the Verneuil
method (oldest one) has no similarity to the natural processes of crystallization. Th
e stones grown by this method are, for this reason, the simplest to recognize by th
eir inclusion patterns. The other processes are somewhat distantly similar to natural
processes. Consequently their products are more like natural gemstones, and for in
experienced observer, are more difficult to identify. 5.2. Identification of a syntheti
c gem It has already been mentioned that differences between natural and synthetic
gems is subtle. The following is a brief overview of the different characters that
help in identification of a synthetic stone. 5.2.1. Growth lines and color zoning In
Verneuil corundum and Verneuil red spinels curved growth lines and curved color
zonings (Plate-5) are generally observed. They are due to intermittent fall of drople
ts of molten alumina onto the boule’s upper surface. In contrast, growth lines and
color bands in natural corundum are straight and follow the hexagonal pattern of t
he crystal system (Plate-4). Such curved bands, along with gas bubbles (Plate-5) ar
e very useful in identification of synthetically made Verneuil ruby and sapphire. 5.
2.2. Twinning Twinning of some natural gemstones like corundum, quartz and chr
ysoberyl, when present, helps in verification of the natural origin of the gem. 5.2.3
. Response under UV Many a synthetic sapphires and synthetic spinels give distinc
t fluorescence under SW UV. For blue sapphires and colorless or blue spinels, the
fluorescence is chalk white or chalky blue. Dark orange-red fluorescence sometime
s characterizes the synthetic yellow sapphires. Such fluorescence under SW UV sh
ould be treated as indicators of synthetic origin of the stone. Synthetic gem quality
yellow diamonds produced by GE show no reaction to LW UV but fluoresce and
phosphoresce greenish yellow or yellow under SW UV. On uncut crystals an occas
ional large trigon may be present but not in the numbers seen to natural crystals.
Similarly, Sumito gem quality synthetic diamonds are inert to LW UV and fluores
ce under SW UV (but with no phosphoresce). De Beers gem quality diamond synt
hetics are inert to LW UV, but not all stones fluoresce under SW UV. Greenish-ye
llow stones phosphoresce after SW UV exposure. 5.2.4. Inclusions 25
26. 26. A study of inclusions is the most effective means of identifying a synth
etic stone. Natural inclusions have already been discussed in the foregoing chapter.
This section therefore treats with the inclusions that are likely to be encountered i
n a synthetic stone. The synthetic stones frequently contain gas bubbles which app
ear rounded to elongated (Plate-5) with thick dark outlines. Such gas bubbles (sing
le/trail or cloud, Plate-5) are definite features of synthetic origin for a gem. In rub
y, often residual flux is left within the stone and it takes on a dark wispy appeara
nce (Plate-5). Remnant of colored dye is at times encountered in some synthetic ru
bies (Plate-5). Twisted feather is another indicator of synthetic origin (Plate-5). In
contrast the natural stones have bi- or tri-phase inclusions or even mono-phase incl
usions that have a distinct look (Plate-4). It should however be remembered that a
mono-phase solid inclusion is not a definite proof of natural origin since such smal
l solid crystals can be added to the flux or hydrothermal solution during growth of
a synthetic. The following are the characteristic features commonly experienced w
hile studying the synthetic equivalents of some common gemstones: (i) Synthetic a
lexandrite is often characterized by swarms of dust like inclusions and triangular pl
atinum crystals obtained from walls of the boule. Tadpole shaped gas bubbles (Plat
e-5) may also be observed. (ii) Synthetic emeralds grown from flux melts generall
y have slightly lower SR and RI compared to natural ones (SG = 2.65 and R.I. =
1.560, 1.563 in synthetic and SG = 2.71 and R.I. = 1.577, 1.583 in natural crystals
). The low value in synthetic stones is due to absence of Fe which causes high cor
rosion of platinum of the apparatus. Twisted wispy veils or curved lace like feathe
rs are occasionally present. Sometimes, nail like inclusions consisting of fluid tube
s capped by phenakite crystals indicate synthetic origin for an emerald. (iii) Traces
of colorless seed plates and strong color banding parallel to these plates help in i
dentification of synthetically grown amethyst. (iv) Curved growth lines or color ba
nds, clouds of minute gas bubbles, tadpole shaped bubbles (Plate-5), fire marks ne
ar facet junctions (parallel cracks caused by overheating), paint splash, flux filled
whitish zones and black distorted hexagonal platinum and silver platelets are some
indicator features for synthetic rubies and sapphires studied under microscope. (v)
Synthetic spinels, in addition to fluorescence under SW UV, shoe a peculiar cross
hatch pattern (tabby extinction) under crosses polars. 5.2.5. The Plato test for Vern
euil corundum Dr. W. Plato developed this test for identification of Veneuil corun
dum lacking detectable inclusions, growth lines and color zonings. First the directi
on of the stone’s optic axis is found by using the conoscope adaptation of the pola
riscope and marked with a felt-tip pen. The stone 26
27. 27. is then viewed in this orientation under crossed polars while in an imme
rsion liquid. If two sets of bands intersecting at 60° are visible, then the stone is a
synthetic Verneuil corundum. CHAPTER – VI Gemstone Enhancement Enhancem
ent of Gemstone to color an otherwise colorless gem, to impart better color to poo
rly colored ones or to change color into an attractive shade is an age old practice.
As early as first century AD, Pliny the Second published his 37 volume Natural H
istory in which were documented many gemstone treatments. Many centuries later,
when Camillus Leonardus published his Speculum Lapidum, he expanded on the e
arlier writings of Pliny. It appears that presence of bubbles in glass imitations and
even doublets were known to both these writers. 6.1. Foils, Color backing and dye
ing The use of colored foil or paper behind a poorly colored or colorless natural g
em in a closed setting was commonplace in antique jewelry. Mirror backs were als
o employed to lighten a dark stone. Another relatively simple way of improving or
changing a gemstone’s color was to dye it. Original organic dyes have now been
replaced with inorganic stable ones. Microcrystalline and polycrystalline gem mater
ials having more porous surface are suitable for this kind of treatment. For exampl
e, a black onyx stimulant has been produced by boiling chalcedony in sugar soluti
on and then treating the stone with sulphuric acid. It is generally possible to distin
guish staining under microscope specially when there are minute surface cracks tha
t reveal a concentration of dye. Painting the pavilion of a gem has also been used
to enhance its color. With yellow Cape series diamonds, a thin translucent coat of
blue or violet paint on the pavilion will make the stone appear less yellow. Most d
yes can be removed by washing the stone in suitable solvents. The bluish fluoride
coating (as used on camera lenses) is however more tenacious and requires abrasiv
e and boiling water to wear off. 6.2. Impregnation of coloring agent Some gem m
aterials (such as turquoise) are legitimately impregnated with colorless paraffin wax
(or plastic nowadays) to stabilize them and prevent attack from acidic perspiration
. Less legitimate but widely practiced is the use of colored impregnants to increase
the value of colorless or pale colored gemstone. Colorless oils are used to hide su
rface cracks while colored oil serves the double purpose of hiding surface flaws an
d improving the color appearance of emeralds, rubies, sapphires, opals and ambers.
The oiling of stones, especially rubies, is frequently carried out by the dealers in
the mining areas, and it is not unusual to find bottles of ‘red ruby oil’ with the ru
by traders in Thailand. Nowadays many synthetic gems are also treated in this wa
y. The fluid entering the microcracks often resemble ‘feathers’ and render the synt
hetic a false appearance of being natural. 27
28. 28. 6.3. Heat treatments An increasing number of gemstones are now subjec
ted to various forms of heat treatment to improve or change their color. Many citri
nes are, for example, the result of heat treatment of poor-colored amethyst to 450°
C. Blue-green aquamarine is heated to around 450°C to get the popular shades of
blue aquamarine. Orange- and apricot coloured beryl when heated to 400°C produc
e the pink morganite variety. Pink topaz can be produced by heating yellow or yel
low- brown topaz to 550°C and then cooling. The blue color of sapphire can be d
eepened by heating it around 1600°C in a reducing environment. Heating the stone
in a similar range in oxidizing environment causes lightening of color. Stones sub
jected to heat treatment can sometimes be identified by the effects of high tempera
ture on inclusions which have a different coefficient of expansion compared to the
stone. They may have expanded producing circular stress features. Other tell tale si
gns are total absence of silk, dispersion of the hexagonal color bands and a chalk
white fluorescence under SW UV. 6.4. Surface diffusion Pale or colorless corundu
m can be transformed into the rich colors of ruby or sapphire by first packing the
faceted stone into a clay mixture containing the appropriate transition element (Cr2
O3 for ruby and FeO and TiO2 for sapphire). The stones are then heated at aroun
d 1750°C for a period of several days to induce the color producing elements into
their surface. In earlier days the results were at best skin deep (less than a tenth of
a millimeter), but thicker layers of diffusion can now be produced. 6.5. Irradiation
methods The mechanism by which irradiation increases or modifies color in gems
tones is to do with the production of color centers. γ rays, high energy electrons o
r neutrons are commonly used for such purposes. Blue topaz is frequently produce
d from colorless varieties by irradiation and subsequent heating. Diamond through
neutron bombardment can be made to change its color to homogeneous green whic
h on subsequent heating becomes yellow or golden yellow. When bombarded with
high energy electrons in an electron accelerator, diamond can become pale blue. H
owever, an ‘open umbrella’ effect around the culet is seen in diamonds irradiated t
hrough the pavilion. For diamonds irradiated through the table, a dark ring will be
visible around the girdle. Also irradiated diamonds have absorption bands in the in
frared at 1936 nm and 2024 nm. 6.6. Glass filling Surface cavities and fractures of
faceted rubies and sapphires are at times filled with fused glass rendering them le
ss visible and improving the overall appearance of the stone. Frequent presence of
bubbles in these fused infillings and their lower r.i. (being more evident if the ston
e is dipped in methylene iodide) help in identification of such treatments. 28
29. 29. 6.7. Laser drilling of diamond Laser drilling is at times used to make a
fine hole in a diamond and reach an inclusion. In case of a dark inclusion, a bleac
hing agent is leached through the hole onto the inclusion. The hole is then filled u
p with transparent gel or epoxy resin. CHAPTER - VII Popular Gemstones, their s
ynthetics and simulants It has already been discussed in Chapter-I that vast majorit
y of gemstones are minerals (mostly single crystals and in some cases crystal aggr
egates or cryptocrystalline materials) and are therefore necessarily inorganic in char
acter. However, a few (like lapis lazuli) are aggregates of more than one mineral a
nd are thereby rocks. Some other gem materials have organic source. This section
deals with some important and popular varieties of gemstones belonging to each of
these categories. For properties of most other varieties of naturally occurring gems
, the reader can consult Appendix-IV which lists the different gemstones in alphab
etical order (prepared by CGL, Kolkata). 7.1. Gemstones as minerals Most gemsto
nes are single crystals while some are crystal aggregates. Yet others can be crypto
crystalline materials. In this section, a few precious and semi-precious gemstones t
hat have been traditionally valued in India have been discussed. The other gemston
es have been listed in alphabetical order in Appendix-IV (prepared by CGL, Kolka
ta). 7.1.1. Diamond Diamond, the king of gems was traditionally known as ‘vajra’
in ancient India and ‘Heera’ in present days. Compositionally, diamond is almost p
ure carbon with covalent bonds forming mostly octahedral (Plate-3B), but also cubi
c or dodecahedral crystals in isometric system. Twinned octahedra are called ‘macl
es’ and have re-entrant angles. Diamonds are highly prized if they are colorless an
d transparent. But it may also occur in shades of yellow (Cape series), brown (bro
wn series) and green (Plate-3B). Also ‘fancy’ shades of diamond like red (very rar
e), pink, orange, yellow, brown, blue (e.g. the famous Hope diamond), green are al
so available. Industrial diamonds are generally of poor color and quality and are of
ten microcrystalline (boart). Gem quality diamonds have an adamantine luster. 29

30. 30. Diamonds have the highest hardness of all known minerals, 10 in Moh’
s scale. The cleavage is perfect, octahedral and plays a vital role during gem cuttin
g. Also such perfect cleavage makes the gem brittle in spite of having such great
hardness. Fracture is conchoidal to irregular. Specific gravity of diamond is 3.52.
Refractive index is 2.417. Dispersion is high (0.044). Depending upon their fluores
cence and energy absorption, Robertson, Fax & Martin (1934) classified diamonds
broadly into two types. They noticed that some diamonds are transparent to 300 n
m UV as also to 8μm infrared radiations. All other diamonds are opaque to both t
hese wavelengths. They named the common opaque type as Type I diamond and t
he transparent type as Type II diamonds. Type I diamonds contain nitrogen as an i
mpurity. In Type Ia the nitrogen atoms occur in clusters which do not affect the st
one’s color. In Type Ib the nitrogen atoms are dispersed throughout the crystal latt
ice causing the yellow color of Cape Series diamonds. Natural diamonds are mostl
y a mixture of Type Ia and Type Ib. Type I diamonds fluorescence in various colo
rs under LW UV. Type Ia diamonds can further be subdivided into Type IaA (whi
ch contain nitrogen atoms in pairs) and Type IaB (which contain groups of three n
itrogen atoms the N3 centres – and/or larger groups or aggregates of even numbers
of nitrogen atoms (four or six) Type II diamonds contain no nitrogen impurities.
Type IIa diamonds are pure carbon and contain no impurities. They do not phosph
oresce when irradiated with LW or SW UV light. Type IIb contain boron impuriti
es and irradiated with UV radiation produces a bluish fluorescence. Sometimes ther
e is a bluish or even red afterglow (e.g. the famous Hope Diamond). Type III dia
monds were discovered in meteorites by Dame Kathleen Lonsdale (and named ‘Lo
nsdaleite’). They have a hexagonal instead of cubic crystal structure. Colourless to
yellow Cape series stones have an absorption band in the violet at 415.5 nm (plus
other weak bands in the violet in strongly coloured stones). Brown series stones ha
ve a band in the green at 504 nm sometimes with two weaker bands in this area.
Diamonds have high thermal conductivity which differentiates it with most diamon
d stimulant except for moissanite. At room temperature, the thermal conductivity o
f Type I diamond is about 1000 watts/m/°C and Type IIa is 2600 watts/m/°C. In c
ontrast, the most common diamond stimulant CZ (Cubic Zirconia) has a conductivi
ty of only 10 watts/m/°C and white sapphire (another stimulant) has 40 watts/m/°C
. This difference in conductivity can be used for identification of diamond. Conven
tional diamond testers (thermolysers, Plate-2) differentiate between diamonds and
most simulants on the basis of this difference in thermal conductivity. Normally di
amond is a good insulator. However, Type IIb diamonds have lattice imperfections
with loose electrons. A potential difference applied to such a diamond will cause a
migration of electrons to the positive pole. This flow of electrons is small at first,
only a few milliamperes, but the flow tends to heat up the crystal which liberates
more and more electrons from the atoms and the current increase rapidly to severa
l amperes. 30
31. 31. Crystal inclusions in diamond include hematite, diamond, diopside, ensta
tite, garnet, olivine, zircon, black inclusions may be iron ores or graphite. Diamond
can be enhanced. Diamonds irradiated through neutron bombardment can be made
to change its color to homogeneous green which on subsequent heating becomes
yellow or golden yellow. When bombarded with high energy electrons in an electr
on accelerator, diamond can become pale blue. All natural blue diamonds are Type
IIB and therefore electroconductive whereas blue diamonds created through enhan
cement are nonconductive. Therefore, this property is frequently used to separate n
atural blue diamond from enhanced ones. Also, an ‘open umbrella’ effect (Plate-3B
) around the culet is seen in diamonds irradiated through the pavilion. For diamon
ds irradiated through the table, a dark ring will be visible around the girdle. Also i
rradiated diamonds have absorption bands in the infrared at 1936 nm and 2024 nm
. Laser drilling is at times used to make fine holes in a diamond and reach the dar
k inclusions (Plate- 3B). A bleaching agent is then leached through the hole onto t
he inclusion. The hole is then filled up with transparent gel or epoxy resin. The ye
llowness of the Cape series Type Ib diamond is attributed to dispersed nitrogen thr
oughout the lattice. By heating these diamonds under very high temperature and pr
essure conditions available in the diamond synthesis plant, the nitrogen atoms can
be made to group into clusters thereby converting the diamond to Type Ia which i
s colorless. Diamond has also presently been synthesized artificially as has already
been discussed in Chapter-V. However, the most pressing problem in diamond mar
ket is not the synthetics which are still too costly for mass production, but the dia
mond simulants (both natural and synthetic). Table 7.1 gives a list of commonly u
sed diamond simulants and their constants that can aid a gemologist in detecting th
e actual diamond. Table 7.1. A list of diamond simulants and their physical and o
ptical properties Gemstone R.I. DR Dispersion SG H Diamond 2.417 - 0.044 3.52
10 Flint glass 1.6-1.7 - 0.04 3.0-4.0 5 Quartz 1.54-1.55 0.009 0.013 2.65 7 Topaz
1.61-1.62 0.01 0.014 3.56 8 Zircon 1.93-1.99 0.058 0.039 4.68 7 Synthetic spinel
1.727 - 0.02 3.64 8 Corundum 1.76-1.77 0.008 0.018 3.99 9 Synthetic rutile 2.61-
2.897 0.287 0.280 4.2-4.3 6.5 YAG (Yttrium aluminium garnet) 1.83 - 0.028 4.58
8.5 Strontium titanate 2.41 - 0.190 5.13 5.5 Lithium niobate 2.21-2.30 0.09 0.120
4.64 5.5 GGG(Gadolinium gallium garnet) 1.97 - 0.045 7.05 6 31
32. 32. (CZ) Cubic zirconia 2.15-2.18 - 0.065 5.6-6.0 8 Moissanite 2.65-2.69 0.
104 3.21 9.25 7.1.2. Corundum The corundum group (Al2O3) of gemstones crystal
lizes in the hexagonal system. The famous gemstones belonging to this group are r
uby and sapphire. Ruby (known as ‘Manek’ or ‘Manikya’ in ancient India) occurs
as hexagonal prisms (Plate-6) and varies in color from dark red to pigeon blood re
d to deep pink. The name ruby itse;f has been derived from the Latin worb ‘ruber’
or ‘rubrum’ meaning red. Sapphire (‘Neelam’) has a bipyramidal habit and varies
widely in color (Plate-6). Accordingly they are termed blue sapphire, pink sapphire
, yellow sapphire (Pushyaraga or kanakapushyaraga), violet sapphire, orange-yellow
sqapphire (Padparadscha), white sapphire (colorless variety) and even green sapphi
re. However, originally the term sapphire was reserved for the blue variety, the na
me being derived from the Greek work ‘Sapphirus’ for blue. A variety of transitio
n ions, when present in trace amounts replacing for Al, are responsible for the wid
e range of colors encountered in the corundum group of minerals. Table 7.2 list th
e causative ions responsible for coloration in different varieties of rubies and sapph
ires. Table 7.1. Allochemical chromophores in different gem varieties of corundum.
Cr+3 Red Cr+3 + Fe+2 Dark red or brownish red Fe+2 Pale green Fe+3 Yellow
(through Fe+2 -Fe+3 or Fe+2 -O transfer Fe+3 + Ti+4 Colorless or pale yellow Fe
+2 + Ti+4 Blue (through Fe+3 + Ti+4 charge transfer) Fe+3 + Ti+4 + Fe+3 Gree
n Fe+3 + Ti+4 + Cr+3 Violet Fe+3 + Cr+3 + Cr+4 Orange - Padparadscha V+3 +
Cr+3 Greenish blue to bluish violet The specific gravity of corundum is 3.99 to 4
.1, hardness 9 in Moh’s scale and refractive index 1.76-1.77. DR is 0.008, dispersi
on low (0.018) and optic sign uniaxial negative. Cleavage is poor, fracture conchoi
dal to irregular and luster vitreous to subadamantine. Pleochroism is strong in ruby
(deep red, orange red) and medium in blue (blue, green blue); yellow and green s
apphire (two shades of body colour) orange sapphire (orange, colourless), purple sa
pphire (violet and orange). Corundum generally shows lumiscence under UV lamp.
Table 7.3, prepared by CGL, Kolkata, summarizes the fluorescence encountered in
the different varieties. Table 7.3. Fluorescence in corundum 32
33. 33. Gemstone LWUV SWUV X-rays Ruby (natural and synthetic) Red Red
Red (synthetic shows phosphorence) Sapphire (Pink, natural and synthetic) Red Re
d Red Sapphire (Green synthetic) Red Inert Inert Sapphire (Orange synthetic) Red
Red Red Sapphire (white) Orange Inert Orange Sapphire (Yellow- Sri Lanka) Apro
cot Apricot Apricot Sapphire (Blue-Sri Lanka) Inert Pink Pink Sapphire (Blue-Synt
hetic) Inert Green/blue (some) Green/blue (some) Absorption spectrum for ruby co
nsists of a doublet plus two further lines in the red, broad absorption band centere
d on 550 nm. With appropriate lighting the doublet lines in red may be seen as e
mission rather than absorption lines. For sapphire there is an indication of iron abs
orption band at 450 nm (in iron rich stones-471, 460 and 450 nm). Under microsc
ope, straight hexagonal zoning is a common feature in natural ruby. Twinning is al
so encountered at times. The inclusions can be mono-phase solid or feathers. Inclu
sions in corundum are of special significance. As already mentioned in Chapter-4,
these inclusions speak a lot regarding the genesis and locality of formation of the
gemstone. The following is a list of inclusions commonly encountered in rubies fr
om different areas: • Myanmar (Burma): Zircon, spinel and rounded colourless cry
stals, rhombs of calcite and yellowish sphene crystals. Rutile needles (Silk), wisp a
nd swirls of colour (Treacle). • Sri Lanka: Long sparse rutile needles (Silk), zircon
crystal with ‘haloes’, pyrite and biotite mica. • Tanzania: Rutile needles, apatite, z
ircon and calcite crystals. Whitish boehmite particles along intersecting twiniing la
mellae planes. • Thailand: Fewer inclusions than Myanmar stones. Reddish-brown
opaque almandine crystals. Partly healed cracks or feather surrounding crystals, yel
lowish apatite platelets. Very little silk (Rutile needles). The inclusions in sapphire
s are • Australia: Strong colour zoning, zircon crystals with haloes as in Sri Lanka
sapphires, crystals of plagioclase feldspar. • Cambodia: Plagioclase feldspar and re
d pyrochlore. • India (Kashmir): Milky zoning or cloudiness caused by layers of li
quid incusions; feathers and zircon crystals with haloes. • Myanmar: Convoluted h
ealing feathers (looking like crumbled flags), short thick rutile needles, apatite crys
tals. 33
34. 34. • Sri Lanka: Rutile needles forming silk, three phase inclusions, zircon c
rystal with haloes and feathers, lines of spinel octahedral. Elongate negative crystal
s. Star corundum is a special variety of ruby or sapphire with retile exsolutions alo
ng the crystallographic planes occurring in such a way that a properly cut cabocho
n will reflect a six rayed star on the C-axis. A twelve rayed star is occasionally vi
sible due to twinning of the corundum. Gem quality ruby comes from Afghanistan,
Myanmar(Burma), Cambodia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand and India
while sapphire is mined in East Africa, Kampuchea, Kashmir, Thailand, Australia,
USA. In India, corundum occurs in Andhra Pradesh (poor quality ruby and sapphir
e and star corundum), Jammu and Kashmir (blue sapphire), Karnataka, Kerala, Ori
ssa, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya and Madhya Pradesh. For further detail, the reader is
referred to the special volume ‘Gems and Gem Industry in India’ by R. V. Karant
h. The simulants of ruby include pink tourmaline or rubellite, red garnet (sold as
Arizona Ruby or Cape Ruby), garnet or rose quartz (sold as American ruby), red s
pinel and pink topaz. Also red glass and paste are frequently marketed as ruby. Pl
ate-6 shows a spinel (a part of the British crown jewelry that was originally taken
to be a ruby). The common stimulants of blue sapphire are kyanite, synthetically p
repared blue spinel, blue tourmaline or indicolite, iolite and zoisite along with glas
s imitations. Yellow sapphire is often simulated by citrine (generally burnt amethys
t) and even oligoclase. Enhancement, as discussed in Chapter-6 is also common in
the corundum group of gems. Synthetics are very common for the corundum group
. However, features like curved growth lines (Plate-5), remnants of dye (Plate-5), b
ubbles (Plate-5) and twisted feathers (Plate-5) can give them away. The gemologist
must also be careful about doublets (Plate-5) which may bear inclusions of both n
atural and synthetic origin. 7.1.3. Beryl The beryl group of minerals (Be2Al2 (SiO
3)6) occur as hexagonal prisms and have a wide variety of color and types : emer
ald (green, Plate-7, known as Panna in ancient India), aquamarine (blue green, Plat
e-7), heliodor (golden/yellow, Plate-7), morganite (pink, Plate-7), goshenite (colorle
ss), bixbite (red) and maxixe-type (dark blue which fades in daylight). Depending
upon substitutions, the specific gravity of beryl varies from 2.7-2.8, hardness is 7.5
- 8.0, refractive index 1.56-1.59, DR 0.005-0.008, low dispersion (0.014) and uniax
ial negative optic sign. The luster is vitreous. Poor basal cleavage is generally pres
ent. Pleochroism of beryl is medium to weak (emerald, morganite, bixbite, vanadiu
m beryl – shades of body colour : aquamarine – body colour and near colourless ;
maxixe and maxixe – type show light –blue dichroism when viewed perpendicular
to optic axis (aquamarine shows darker 34
35. 35. dichroic colour in the orientation). Luminescence in emerald is medium
red to pink fluorescence under LW UV, SW UV and X-rays, but inhibited by iron
oxide content, morganite – crimson fluorescence under X-rays. The absorption spec
trum of emerald shows significant differences in spectrum between the ordinary an
d the extraordinary ray. The ordinary ray has a doublet in the deep red (680/683n
m), a line at 637 nm, a broad weak absorption band centered on 600 nm in the ye
llow, and in chrome-rich stones a line in the blue at 471 nm. In the extra ordinary
ray, the doublet is stronger but the 637 nm line is missing; in its place are two di
ffuse lines at 646 and 662 nm, the broad absorption band is much weaker and ther
e are no lines in the blue. Blue aquamarine has weak bands in the blue (456 nm)
and violet (427 nm). Green aquamarine has a 537 nm band in the green in the ext
raordinary ray. Maxixe and maxixe-type dark-blue beryls have bands in the red (69
5, 654 nm) with weaker bands in the orange, yellow and yellow –green (628, 615,
581, 550 nm) As in corundum, the inclusions in beryl are good indicators of the
place of origin. The following is a list of inclusions observed in emeralds from dif
ferent places: • Brazil: Biotite mica and thin liquid films resembling paving stone.
• Columbia: Three phase inclusion with jagged ends, albite and pyrite crystals (Chi
vor mines); rhombs of calcite and yellow/brown rhombs of parasite (Muzo mines).
• India: Hexagonal negative crystals comprising two phase inclusions resembling ‘c
ommas’ and mica. • Pakistan: Flakes of mica, crystals of phenkite and thin liquid
films resembling the veil type of inclusions in flux-melt synthetics. • South Africa
(Transvaal): Green mica flakes of fuchsite. • USSR (Siberian): Flakes of mica and
green actinolite crystals in blade form. • Zambia: Tourmaline crystals, mica flakes,
elongate two phase inclusions, fibrous and acicular crystals. • Zimbabwe (Sandawa
na): Hair like tremolite fibres, mica. Aquamarine – two-phase inclusions, ‘rain’ and
 mica (most stones are free of inclusions). The simulants after emerald include de
mantoid garnet, green sapphire, peridot, jadeite, green tourmaline (verdite) in additi
on to imitation glass and paste. Synthetic spinel, topaz, zircon and glass are the aq
uamarine simulants. However, the SG and RI of the simulants give them away. Sy
nthetics are petty common. The gemologists should be cautious of features like bu
bbles, twisted wisp-like feathers, nail-head inclusions, phenakite crystal inclusions a
nd a network of fine surface cracks that commonly indicate that the emerald is syn
thetic. Also most flux melt synthetic emeralds have significantly lower RI (1.560-1
.563) compared to their natural than natural emeralds. 7.1.4. Garnet Garnet is an is
ometric aluminosilicate normally developing a dodecahedral crystal form, icositetra
hedral form being much less common. The principle end member varieties of garn
et 35
36. 36. are pyrope (Mg3Al2Si3O12), almandine (Fe3Al2Si3O12), spessertine (M
n3Al2Si3O12), grossular (Ca3Al2Si3O12), andradite (Ca3Fe2Si3O12) and uvarovite
(Ca3Cr2Si3O12). However, extensive solid solutions are possible between these e
nd members. Some additional terms for gem variety garnets are: • Hessonite : Gro
ssular garnet • Demantoid : Andradite garnet Table lists the properties of the differ
ent end member garnets. Table : Physical and optical properties for the end memb
er garnet compositions. Variety Refractive index Dispersion Specific Gravity Hardn
ess Almandine 1.76 – 1.81 0.024 3.8 – 4.2 7.5 Andradite 1.89 0.057 3.85 6.5 Gro
ssular 1.74 – 1.75 0.028 3.6 - 3.7 7.0 – 7.5 Pyrope 1.74 -1.76 0.022 3.65 – 3.8 7.
25 Spessartine 1.80 -1.82 0.027 4.16-4.19 7.25 Uvarovite 1.87 0.030 3.77 7.5 Gem
variety pyrope is red in color and has a vitreous luster. They are seldom found in
large sizes. Also their color, though fine, is frequently too dark to be appreciated.
Pyrope can be confused with red spinel but the constants are different. The absorpt
ion spectrum of pyrope has a dark band at 575 nm (yellow-green). Almandine is r
ed in color (sometimes purplish red) and has a vitreous luster. Sometimes the colo
r is so deep that it appears almost black. Siam ruby has almost the same color but
can readily be distinguished by SG and R.I. Also ruby is doubly refracting where
as isometric almandine has single refraction. Spectroscope provides an yet more ce
rtain test (the absorption lines of both ruby and almandine has been provided in A
ppendix-V). Almandine doublets are sometimes encountered with a table facet of a
lmandine and a pavilion of glass. In such cases there will be a layer mineral inclu
sions followed by typical gas bubbles. At times, the inclusions in almandine, orient
ed parallel to the dodecahedral faces can produce a weak star effect. Spessertine c
an range in color from yellow through orange to flame red. Often it closely resem
bles hessonite garnet in appearance though it lacks the granular inclusions and trea
cly swirls common in hessonite. Solid solution with almandine renders wine color
to the gem. The constants are close to almandine but the absorption spectrum can
be useful in distinction (Appendix-V). Grossular (hessonite) occurs in shades of or
ange-brown or honey-brown. Under microscope it has a peculiar granular appearan
ce resulting from numerous small inclusions. A massive green variety of hydrogros
sular has been found in South Africa and misleadingly called Transvaal jade. Also
pink to rose red varieties of this hydrogrossulars are used as gems. 36
37. 37. They have an SG range of 3.28-3.57 and sometimes even 3.63. The R.I.
for the later is 1.738. Hydrogrossular gives orange fluorescence under X-rays. An
dradite is a green variety of garnet and is called demantoid in its gem variety. A p
eculiarity of most of the demantoids is the nature of its inclusions. These are tiny
silky asbestos fibers often radiating from one or more centers. Also demantoid can
have a vitreous to subadamantine luster and might appear pink through Chelsea filt
er. Uvarovite is a green garnet but rarely occurs as gem. The inclusions present in
almandine garnet are the acicular crystals of rutile. Demantoid has typical ‘horsetai
l’ inclusion consisting of radiating byssolite (asbestos) fibres. Grossular (particularl
y hessonite variety) contains profusion of small crystals of apatite and /or zircon gi
ving a treacly (oily treacle) appearance while pyrope has occasional needle-like cry
stals. Spessartite – Shredded-looking feathers are sometimes present in spessertine.
7.1.5. Tourmaline Tourmaline is a complex borosilicate having a wide range of su
bstitutions. It occurs widely but is rarely of attractive color and transparency to be
used as a gemstone. Tourmaline crystallizes in the trigonal system. It has a prismat
ic habit with a pyramidal apex and pedial base. Vertical striations on the prism fac
es result from alternate twinning. The alkali-tourmalines (containing Na and at tim
es Li) are the most important from the point of view of gemology. These have the
lowest SG (varying between 3.01-3.06). Their color varies from attractive pink or
red (rubellite, Plate-8), green (verdite, Plate-8) or colorless (achroite, Plate-8). The
magnesian tourmalines (dravite) are brownish and have SG = 3.04-3.10. The iron r
ich tourmalines (schrol) vary in color from deep greenish blue to black (SG = 3.08
-3.20). Blue tourmaline is known as indicolite (Plate-8) and is highly prized. The b
est stones are pure blue without hints of green or gray. It tends to be of similar co
lor to dark blue topaz. A new variety of light and very lively blue was discovered
in Parabia, Brazil, and has achieved the highest prices paid for tourmaline. Analysi
s of this material show trace amounts of gold in the structure. Blue stones can be
found that are large and flawless. They do not suffer from the poor structure foun
d in rubellite. Yellow and orange tourmaline (Plate-8) maintains intermediate value
as long as it does not move into the brown region. Clean yellow and bright orang
e stones are sought after by collectors and find their way into a small amount of c
ommercial jewelry. Brown and orange- brown stones are quite common and are no
t highly valued. There is a special variety of tourmaline that shows a pink/red core
and a green rim along the length of the prism. It is called "watermelon" tourmali
ne (Plate-8), and is often cut and polished flat across a crystal face. It is sometime
s even faceted. Due to compositional gradations through substitution, color variatio
ns are at times observed along the length of a single crystal (Plate-8). The refracti
ve index of tourmaline is in the range 1.62-1.64. When the stone is rotated the lo
wer index moves while the higher one remains constant. Also tourmaline can show
weak to quite strong pleochroism depending upon the depth of body color. It is w
eakest in the pale green stone. Tourmaline is uniaxial negative. Blue and green sto
nes have a strong absorption band in the green at 498 nm,