Volume 8, Issue 7, July 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165

Plant Growth Promoting Hormones

from Algae - Review
Subashini Murugan1, Vaishnavi Ramasamy1, Sam Ebenezer Rajadas1#
1 Department of Biotechnology, V.S.B Engineering College, Karur, Tamilnadu, India – 639111
#
Corresponding author: Dr. Sam Ebenezer, Associate Professor, Department of
Biotechnology, V.S.B Engineering College

Abstract:- Plant hormones are naturally occurring small making them an essential resource for human well-being and
molecule compounds that play an important role in the economic development.
normal functioning of the plant. It is present in very low
concentrations in plants and regulate plant development, These plants require factors like sunlight, oxygen,
growth, longevity and reproductive processes. Based on nutrients etc for the development. They also produce internal
their action, plant hormones are categorized into two factors like plant hormones or phytohormones. Furthermore,
categories, Plant Growth Promoters & Plant Growth they play role in growth promotion and inhibition activities,
Inhibitors. List of plant hormones include auxins, abscisic as well as stress tolerance and defence mechanism
acid (ABA), gibberellins (GA), Cytokinin (CK), ethylene (Egamberdieva et al., 2017). They are chemical substances
(ET), salicylic acid (SA), jasmonate (JA), peptides and that present in smaller concentration mostly found in higher
brassinosteroids (BR) have been found in a broad plants and microorganisms like algae, bacteria (Backer et al.,
spectrum of microalgal lineages. These hormones carry 2018), & fungi, yeast (Nimsi et al., 2023). In various taxa they
wide applications in stress resistance, pathogen defence, were found in comparable concentrations as in higher plants
enriching soil nutrient content. Besides plants, these (Tarakhovskaya et al., 2007). Among eukaryotes algae are a
hormones are widely found in various algal taxa in diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that can be found
concentrations comparable with their content in higher in a variety of aquatic environments such as ponds, lakes,
plants. This can be used as growth regulators for crops oceans, and even snow. They range in size from single-cell
growth and development. These hormones from algae are microalgae to multicellular seaweeds(Lekshmi et al., 2018).
determined using reverse-phase liquid chromatography - Their derived compounds and biomass have preferred
tandem mass spectrometry with multiple reaction applications. They have shown that algal biofertilizers were
monitoring. Their characterization methods, sources, important nutrient supplier to cereal crops (Shalaby, 2011).
types and usable synthetic hormones were reviewed in this Algae biofuels have developed as a clean, environmentally
article. responsible, and economically viable alternative to other
fuels. There are five different types of algae fuels: bio-
Keywords:- Phytohormones, growth & development, ethanol, biogas, biohydrogen, biodiesel, and biooil. The use
synthetic hormones, algal plant hormones. of algae as a food source for various purposes, such as the
synthesis of single-cell proteins, pigments, bioactive
I. INTRODUCTION compounds, medicines, and cosmetics ( Sharma et. al, 2017).
Plants are multicellular eukaryotic organisms consisting II. PHYTOHORMONES
about 3,00,000 species under the kingdom plantae. They are
useful for both animals and humans. They have a wide range Plant hormones are also said to be plant growth
of beneficial uses in both industries and domestic settings. promoting hormones. It is also claimed that plant hormones
Industrially, plants are used in the production of a variety of encourage plant development. They are organic substances
products such as medicines, perfumes, textiles and building produced naturally that manage and regulate plant
materials(Oguntona & Aigbavboa, 2023). Additionally, they development, including cell division, root and shoot
play a vital role in the food and beverage industries as they lengthening, blooming, fruit ripening, and photosynthetic
are used as ingredients for various food products and efficiency. They also help plants better withstand stress.
beverages. Moreover, plants are also used in the production (Wang et al., 2021). Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are the
of cosmetics, detergents(Huang et al., 2019), and food term for synthetic or man-made plant hormones. These
flavorings. Apart from industrial uses, plants also have hormones are responsible for their altered functions because
numerous benefits in domestic uses. Many indoor plants are they contain carotenoids, fatty acids, indole, terpenes,
also known for their ability to purify the air, making them a steroids, and substitutes for adenine (Asif et al., 2022).
popular choice for improving indoor air quality. Furthermore,
plants are used as home remedies and can contribute to The latest analysis infer that these hormones can reduce
overall health and well-being. Studies have shown that being human diseases like cancer, diabetes. They are all around in
around plants can reduce stress levels and boost cognitive plants in some cases they move from one site to other specific
function. In addition, plants can also be grown in home sites and found to confine with receptors resulting in varied
gardens for personal consumption or decorative cell function (Mukherjee et al., 2022). It is found that the
purposes(Medina et al., 2017). Overall, plants have diverse phytohormones were involved in potato sprout formation,
uses and benefits in both industrial and domestic settings, tuber initiation and its maturation as individual or combined
ones(Saidi & Hajibarat, 2021). They were also known to

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taking part in fruit development and ripening process (Fenn response to heat stress (Grover et al., 2013). One of the
& Giovannoni, 2021). By managing several enzymatic primary advantages of algae is their ability to produce a
activities as well as interactions between various variety of bioactive compounds including phytohormones.
phytohormones were identified to raise flower & seed count Every class of marine algae, ranging from Euglenophyta,
for the increased oil yield (Ashfaq & Khan, 2017). At the time Cryophyte, Pyrrophyta, Chlorophyta, Rhodophyta, and
of plant subjection to various stresses these hormones act us Phaeophyta,(Veronico & Melillo, 2021) contains
chemical messengers admitting them to function effectively phytohormones such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins,
(Rhaman et al., 2020). Recent research has shown that abscisic acid, and ethylene. These phytohormones have been
exogenous phytohormone treatment greatly reduced heat- found to be beneficial in multiple industries such as
induced damage and increased plant heat tolerance, agriculture, food and nutraceuticals, cosmetics(Ferri et al.,
suggesting that phytohormones play a key role in the plant's 2019), pharmaceuticals, and even biofuels.

III. DIFFERENT TYPES OF PHYTOHORMONES

PHYTOHORMONES

PLANT GROWTH PLANT

PROMOTERS GROWTH
INHIBITORS

INHIBITORS

 Auxin  Abscisic acid

 Cytokinin  Ethylene
 Gibberellin  Jasmonate

Fig. 1: Classification of phytohormones and their types

IV. PLANT GROWTH PROMOTERS

B. CYTOKININ
A. AUXIN: The cytokinin is derivative of N6-substituted adenine
Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), one of the naturally occurring compounds has a vital role in the development of nitrogen-
major hormone in plants. These short-term proteins can be fixing nodules. This plant hormone is a material of purine
incorporated from tryptophan through the tryptamine (TAM), which has the ability to trigger cell proliferation in tissue
indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPA) pathways (Santner et al., 2009). culture. Naturally occurring cytokinins are zeatin and
This auxin is predominantly found in the apical meristem of isopentenyl adenine while synthetic cytokinins are benzyl
shoots, immature leaves & seeds. It also consists of Indole-3- adenine, kinetin, diphenyl urea. They were initially produced
Butyric Acid (IBA), 4-chloro-indole-3-acetic acid as well. At in roots then moves through the xylem to shoot (Vaishnav &
minimized concentration auxin activates stem elongation, Chowdhury, 2023). When cytokinins are enforced with auxin
synthesis of enriched biomolecules & biomass. Where as in they set off callus differentiation into root. They are major
greater concentration auxin can constrain cell growth (Wang signalling molecules maintain cell division in root and shoots.
et al., 2021). It is scattered all over the plant via cell-cell Activate seed germination & assist lateral bud development.
transport system, regulating transcription and also involved in It shows a beneficial impact on cotton seedling and performs
inducing cell-wall related gene. Developing fruit and seed an important role in pathogenesis of plants by improving
comprise high levels of auxin. They improve the formation of disease resistance (Osugi & Sakakibara, 2015). They involve
adventitious and lateral roots (Vaishnav & Chowdhury, in varied developmental processes such as root growth and
2023). The 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid an artificial auxin branching, leaf senescence, apical dominance in shoot,
is extensively used as herbicide in horticulture and chloroplast production in leaves. A compound namely
agriculture. Its production is comparably high in young leaves glycosidic conjugates takes part in cytokinin transport, its
(Paque & Weijers, 2016). They activate differential growth in degradation, reversible and irreversible inactivation (Werner
regards to light incentive and gravity. A commonly known et al., 2001). Cytokinins, which are necessary for healthy
plant pathogen called Agrobacterium was found to produce growth and differentiation, work with auxins to speed up cell
auxin to steal plant cells for the nutrient synthesis (Zhao, division and slow down senescence, which, at least in its early
2010). By acting on the molecular bonds of the carbohydrates stages, is an organised phase of metabolism rather than
that make up plant cell walls, the hormone has an impact on simply the destruction of tissue. Senescence is exemplified by
plants. The process entails the introduction of water, the the fading of lone leaves, which happens as proteins age.
creation of new cell-wall material, and the irreversible
deformation of the cells. Auxins may work similarly to many
animal hormones in that they may affect protein synthesis to
exert their effects.

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C. GIBBERELLIN: stimulates ethylene production and many of exogenous auxin
Gibberellins (GA) are tetracyclic, diterpenoid growth are actually response to ethylene (FB Abeles et al., 2012). It
regulators also called as gibberellic acid. They consist of encourages negative geotropism, which makes sure that the
about 135 components with gibberellin as a basic structure, roots grow downward. Therefore, the presence of more roots
of which 70 gibberellins has been isolated. These diterpenoid in the soil denotes easy mineral absorption (Vaishnav &
components take part in cell elongation, seed development, Chowdhury, 2023).
fruit growth, control of flowering & regulate sex
determination. The levels of gibberellins can be altered by C. JASMONATE:
other hormones like auxin and ethylene (Yamaguchi, 2008). Jasmonate (JA) is a lipid-derived plant hormone that
GA3 is the mostly inquired plant growth hormone, it helps to regulates developmental processes such as pollen
reduce varied dwarf kinds of genetic restrictions. development, spike formation, fruit ripening, senescence and
Gibberellins, which are common in seeds, are also produced response to biotic and abiotic stress. JA not only occurs
in young leaves and roots. There is evidence that gibberellins, during plant growth, but also during seed germination (Yang
especially when administered to the entire plant, encourage et al., 2012). In plants, stomata regulate gas exchange, water
the growth of major stems. Gibberellins, in contrast to auxins, loss and help control plant resistance to plant pathogens. JA
have little impact on coleoptile fragments in tissue culture. is also involved in stoma closure. It serves as the main trigger
Gibberellins are involved in the bolting (elongation) of rosette for the amplification of secondary metabolites (Sohn et al.,
plants like carrots and dwarf pea growth promotion. After 2022). It is said as stress hormone that regulates plant
being exposed to specific environmental stimuli (such as cold responses to both biotic and abiotic stresses, such as those
or prolonged periods of sunlight), rosette plants elongate. brought on by pathogens and herbivores, as well as wounding
This is accompanied by an increase in the gibberellin content and ultraviolet radiation. It confers resistance to necrotrophic
of the afflicted plant. They were found in rice (Ueguchi- pathogens (Gomi, 2020). It has been reported that JA
Tanaka et al., 2005). During the absence of light, light decreases the number of grains in sorghum(Dampanaboina et
sensitive plants like lettuce, tobacco germinates badly that al., 2019).
can be treated with gibberellic acid to meet with the need for
light. They are mobile signalling members in plants. GA VI. DIFFERENT SOURCES OF PLANT
manipulation has a well-known contribution to agriculture HORMONES
through the establishment of dwarfing alleles into staple crops
 Plant sources: Plants themselves are a rich source of plant
this give rise to the rice & wheat production extensively
growth promoting hormones, with auxins, cytokinins,
(Binenbaum et al., 2018).
gibberellins, abscisic acid, and ethylene being the most
V. PLANT GROWTH INHIBITORS common. These hormones can be extracted from plant
tissues or synthesized artificially. The use of plant-derived
A. ABSCISIC ACID: hormones in agriculture is a cost-effective and sustainable
Abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant hormone that control approach to improve plant growth and productivity
numerous parts of plant development and improvement, (Rademacher, 2015).
including undeveloped organism development, seed lethargy,  Microbial sources: Microorganisms such as bacteria,
germination, cell division and lengthening, flower enlistment, fungi, and actinomycetes produce various plant growth-
and reactions to ecological burdens(Finkelstein, 2013). The promoting hormones such as auxins, cytokinin,
mode of action of ABA involves binding to specific receptors gibberellins, and abscisic acid. These hormones are
and activating signal transduction pathways that regulate produced by the microbes to establish a symbiotic
gene expression and promote stress tolerance (Cutler et al., relationship with the plants they colonize, providing the
2010). It takes part in production of protective proteins such plants with essential nutrients and growth regulators.
as dehydrins, osmoprotectants (Vaishnav & Chowdhury, Several studies have shown that the application of
2023). When exposed to environmental challenges like microbial-derived plant growth-promoting hormones can
drought, high salinity, and low temperature respond through improve plant growth, yield, and stress tolerance
the mediation of ABA. It is necessary for the development of (Mokrani et al., 2020)(de-Bashan et al., 2012). The
seed nutrient reserves and desiccation tolerance. hormones like gibberellins and abscisic acid can be
produced using microbial formation methods(Shi et al.,
B. ETHYLENE: 2017).
Ethylene is a volatile compound well known for its role in  Chemical synthesis: Chemical synthesis is another source
ripening of fruits such as apples, bananas, peaches, tomatoes of plant growth promoting hormones. The most common
etc. Depending on its concentration, application timing, and synthetic plant growth promoting hormones are synthetic
plant species it either helps or hinders growth and senescence auxins such as indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and
processes. In slower growing species, a favourable effect on naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), and synthetic cytokinins
the rate of leaf elongation was also observed at lower such as kinetin and benzyl adenine. These synthetic
concentrations. This effect was reversed at higher hormones are widely used in agriculture to promote plant
concentrations, indicating an inhibitory effect (Iqbal et al., growth, development, and yield (Sinha and Chaudhary,
2017). Treatment with ethephon, an ethylene releasing 2016).
compound, increased both ethylene biosynthesis and leaf area
expansion (Khan et al., 2008). The effects of ethylene on leaf
growth can be auxin-dependent or auxin-independent. Auxin

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 Bio stimulants: Bio stimulants are a group of natural or VIII. CHARACTERIZATION OF PLANT GROWTH
synthetic substances that enhance plant growth and HORMONES
productivity by stimulating natural plant processes such as
nutrient uptake, photosynthesis, and stress tolerance. Bio The development of effective analytical techniques for
stimulants may contain plant growth promoting hormones plant hormone analysis is necessary for the precise
as well as other biologically active compounds such as determination of plant hormones using chromatographic
amino acids, vitamins, and enzymes. The use of bio techniques with an MS system, multi class plant hormones
stimulants in agriculture is gaining popularity due to their can be analysed efficiently. Using ultra-high performance
environmentally friendly nature and potential to enhance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (UPHLC-MS),
crop performance (du Jardin, 2015). most of the plant hormones can be identified and quantified
 Waste sources: Waste sources such as compost and (Z.-Y. Cao et al., 2016). Samples were homogenised. 5µ of
vermicompost are rich sources of plant growth promoting the ISTD (Phytohormone standards and internal standards)
hormones. Compost and vermicompost contain high working solution and 1ml of 80% acetonitrile (ACN)
levels of auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins, which can containing 1% acetic acid (AcOH) were added to the
stimulate plant growth and improve soil health. The use of extraction solvent. Samples were then kept at 20ºc for 5 mins.
compost and vermicompost as soil amendments can Following that, samples were centrifuged at 15,900 rcf for 10
enhance plant growth and yield while reducing the min at 4ºC. For hormone extraction, the supernatant was
dependence on synthetic fertilizers. transferred to a fresh 1.5ml Eppendorf tube and dried using a
rotational hoover concentrator. The dried extract was purified
VII. ALGAL PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING with sep-pak tC18 cartridge and reconstituted in 1 ml of 1%
HORMONES: AcOH. A 1 ml of methanol wash followed by a 1 ml 1%
AcOH equilibration step was used to clean the tC18 cartridge.
Phytohormones were found in high concentrations in a After the samples was loaded into the cartridge, 1% AcOH
variety of algal species. Most of the time, the range of was used as a wash. In a fresh 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube, the
biological activities that algal hormones perform matches extract was eluted with I ml of 80% ACN containing 1%
those of the higher plant hormones(Tarakhovskaya et al., AcOH. A rotational hoover concentrator was used to dry the
2007). Due to the presence of plant hormones in the seaweed eluted extract before reconstituting it in 20L of 1% AcOH.
and microalgae extracts, these extracts are employed The extract was centrifuged at 15,900 rcf for 10 minutes at
commercially as growth stimulants or regulators in 4ºC after being vortexed for 30 seconds to dissolve the dried
agricultural crops(Stirk, 2006). Micro and macroalgal extract. Prior to UPLC-MS/MS analysis, samples were put
phytohormones are thought as exogenous growth regulators into vials with glass inserts and kept at 80ºC. For the
that influence the capacity to tolerate diverse abiotic and phytohormone profiling calibration, working solutions were
biotic stress conditions. The phytohormones such as auxins, prepared at 100 g mL-1 in methanol. To create the calibration
abscisic acid (ABA), salicylic acid (SA), jasmonates (JA), ranges at 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10 and 100 ng mL-1, phytohormone
Gibberellins (GA), cytokinins (CK), ethylene, working solutions were mixed and serially diluted with
brassinosteroids (BR) and strigolactones (SL) were also starting mobile phase [0.5% formic acid (FA) in MilliQ
found to be present in algal species. Phytohormones were water]. The ISTD concentration used for phytohormone
sought after in a number of algal taxa throughout the 1960s extraction was also added. C18 have been widely used for
and 1970s. During this time. phytohormone quantification (D. Cao et al., 2020).
A. CHLOROPHYTA: Other techniques such as enzyme-linked
A phylum made up of green algae that inhibit aquatic immunosorbent assay and bioassays are also used to
environments. Several of them can be found on terrestrial characterize phytohormones. These methods help in
habitats and in fresh water. characterizing the structure, function, and biological activity
of phytohormones (Killiny & Nehela, 2020). Recent research
B. PHAEOPHYTA: has reported use of UPLC MS/MS for the profiling of up to
A class of algae where the brown pigment fucoxanthin 43 phytohormones in a single analysis. Some of the other
frequently covers the green chlorophyll pigments, known as characterization methods used were tabulated below. (Table -
Brown algae. 1).

C. RHODOPHYTA:
The oldest type of eukaryotic algae primarily found in
freshwater lakes. They contain the pigment phycoerythrin
responsible for their red colour.

All these algal taxa contain a variety of substances with

hormonal activity(Tarakhovskaya et al., 2007).

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Table 1: Phytohormones & their characterization methods
S.NO PHYTOHORMONE CHARACTERIZATION METHOD REFERRENCE
(Anguiano-Cabello et al.,
1. Auxin Microplate technique using Salkowski reagent
2017)
2. Cytokinin Using pipette tip solid-phase extraction (Svačinová et al., 2012)
3. Gibberellin Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) (Okamoto et al., 2009)
4. Abscisic acid High throughput quantitative real time immune- (Su et al., 2018)
PCR (qIPCR)
5. Ethylene Gas chromatography (Cristescu et al., 2013)
6. Jasmonate Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) (Zhang et al., 2008)

IX. COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE ALGAL X. CONCLUSION

PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING HORMONES
The phytohormones are essential compounds for the
The plant growth regulators are described as substances plant growth and developmental processes. As they were
that are produced intentionally by humans to control the present in low concentrations, they can be obtained by other
growth and development. These growth-controlling agents resource such as algae which has wide range of applications.
are directly applied to a targeted plant in order to change its These algal growth promoters were found to increase crop
structure or internal functions in order to improve quality, yield, improve the quality of plants. They also help in
boost yields or ease harvesting. They are either sprayed on the enriching the nutrient content in the soil, develops pests and
plant foliage or infused into the soil around a plant’s base. Its disease control in the plants. Help the plants to endure various
effects are typically transient, and they might need to be stress such as biotic and abiotic stress. Hence the plant
applied again to have the intended effect. hormones can be produced or synthesized exogenously from
algae.
Each plant hormone can be created in synthetic forms
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