BECKY KARWITHA MUTWIRI

ENC211-0034/2019

CHEMICAL STABILIZATION
Chemical soil stabilization is the process of blending and mixing chemical additives to
improve the engineering properties of the soil. The efficiency of the stabilization depends on
the reaction between the chemical/stabilizer used and the soil particle composition.
The primary mechanisms by which chemicals alter soil include:
1. Increase in particle size by cementation, internal friction among the agglomerates, greater
shear strength, reduction in the plasticity index, and reduced shrink/swell potential.
2. Absorption and chemical binding of moisture that will facilitate compaction.
Factors affecting chemical stabilization
1. Organic matter: The presence of a large amount of organic matter reacts with
hydration product and results in low pH value. This will retard the hydration process
and affect the stabilization of soil.
2. Presence of sulphates and sulphides: Presence of Sulphates and Sulphides retards
the stabilization of soil.
3. Moisture content: Moisture content is essential for hydration process and efficient
compaction. 20% of its own weight by hydrated cement and 32% of its own weight by
quick lime is taken from water content from the surroundings.
4. Freeze-Thaw and Dry-Wet Effect - Stabilized soils cannot withstand freeze-thaw
cycles. Therefore, in the field, it may be necessary to protect the stabilized soils
against frost damage.
5. Temperature: Pozzolanic reaction is sensitive to temperature changes. Pozzolanic
reaction slowdown in low temperature and leads to low strength of stabilized soil.
Various factors are considered in choosing the suitable chemical to be used stabilization
these include:
1. Chemical/soil compatibility
2. Dosage or application rate
3. Cure time
4. Degradation rate
5. Reapplication rate
While there are many chemicals that can be added to the soil for improvement the most
popular are:

  Calcium chloride -  It is mainly used in road construction work for stabilizing base
and sub base course.
 Sodium silicate -  It is mainly used for fine and medium sands. Sodium silicate
together with water and calcium chloride is injected for stabling soil deposit which
improves the shear strength of soil.
 Cement
 Fly Ash
 Lime
 Blast furnace slag

Fly Ash stabilization

Fly ash is a byproduct of coal from power plant. Traditionally, the byproduct is stored in
landfills or ponds, but fly ash can also be used as a bonding agent to increase the soil’s
strength. It is primarily used for soil stabilization as the subbase to paved roads. Since fly ash
is a dry additive, one large benefit of using fly ash in soil regularly above optimum moisture.
However, as a dry additive it has the disadvantage of being hard to apply, as well as posing a
health risk to workers due to the powder’s inhalation risk.
Another consideration when utilizing fly ash is the curing time. While the cure period varies
depending on the fly ash and soil, it is frequently longer than that of cement or lime-treated
soil.
There are two main types of fly ash, Class F and Class C.

 Class C fly ash is cementitious and pozzolanic by nature. Once the fly ash is wet, it
will harden because of the cementitious nature, while the pozzolanic supplies a silica
aspect.
 Class F Fly ash is only pozzolanic in nature, which means that it will not harden on its
own; it will need an activator such as gypsum or calcium hydroxide. The types of fly
ash are dependent on which coals the fly ash is derived from, this will vary by location
and region.
However, soil fly ash stabilization also has the following limitations:
(a) Soil to be stabilized shall have less moisture content; therefore, dewatering may be
required.
(b) Soil-fly ash mixture cured below zero and then soaked in water are highly susceptible to
slaking and strength loss
(c) Sulfur contents can form expansive minerals in soil-fly ash mixture, which reduces the
long term strength and durability.

Lime Stabilization
Lime is one of the additives, which is widely used in stabilization of fine-grained soils.
Various forms of lime such as hydrated high-calcium lime (Ca(OH)2), monohydrated
dolomitic lime (Ca(OH)2.MgO), and dolomitic quicklime (CaO.MgO)have been successfully
used as stabilizing agent for many years. Quick lime (calcium oxide) is delivered in the form
of coarse-grained powder. It reacts quickly with water producing hydrated or slaked lime,
generating heat and volume change
Ca0+H2O→Ca(OH)2+65.3kJ/mol
Quick lime must be handled with care; it can burn the skin in the presence of moisture it also
can cause corrosion of equipment. The main contribution of lime to the strength of soil is
from its ability to create cementation between soil particles. The higher the surface area of the
soil, the more effective this process of lime cementation is.
Cement stabilization
Cement may be considered as primary stabilizing agent or hydraulic binder because it can be
used alone to bring about the stabilizing action required. Cement reaction is not dependent on
soil minerals, and the key role is its reaction with water that may be available in any soil. This
can be the reason why cement is used to stabilize a wide range of soils. Numerous types of
cement are available in the market; these are ordinary Portland cement, blast furnace cement,
sulfate resistant cement and high alumina cement. Usually the choice of cement depends on
type of soil to be treated and desired final strength.
Hydration process is a process under which cement reaction takes place. The process starts
when cement is mixed with water and other components for a desired application resulting
into hardening phenomena. The hardening (setting) of cement will enclose soil as glue, but it
will not change the structure of soil. The hydration reaction is slow proceeding from the
surface of the cement grains and the center of the grains may remain unhydrated.
The ultimate effect on setting and gain in strength of cement stabilized soil may vary from
soil to soil. Therefore, this should be taken into account during mix design in order to achieve
the desired strength. Calcium silicates, C3S and C2S are the two main cementitious properties
of ordinary Portland cement responsible for strength development. Calcium hydroxide is
another hydration product of Portland cement that further reacts with pozzolanic 5 materials
available in stabilized soil to produce further cementitious material. Normally the amount of
cement used is small but sufficient to improve the engineering properties of the soil and
further improved cation exchange of clay. Cement stabilized soils have the following
improved properties:
• Decreased cohesiveness (Plasticity)
• Decreased volume expansion or compressibility
• Increased strength.
Blast furnace slag
These are the by-product in pig iron production. The chemical compositions are similar to that
of cement. It is however, not cementitious compound by itself, but it possesses latent
hydraulic properties which upon addition of lime or alkaline material the hydraulic properties
can develop. Depending on cooling system, itemized slag is in three forms, namely:
1. Air-cooled slag - Hot slag after leaving the blast furnace may be slowly cooled in open
air, resulting into crystallized slag which can be crushed and used as aggregate.
2. Granulated (merit 5000) or Pelletised slag - Quenching (i.e. sudden cooling with water
or air) of hot slag may result into formation of vitrified slag. The granulated blast
furnace slag or Merit 5000 (commonly known in Sweden) is a result of use of water
during quenching process, while, the use of air in the process of quenching may result
into formation of pelletised slag.
3. Expanded slag Under certain conditions, steam produced during cooling of hot slag
may give rise to expanded slag.
Bituminous Soil Stabilization:
Bituminous materials such as asphalts, tars, and pitches are used in various consistencies to
improve the engineering properties of soils. Mixed with cohesive soils, bituminous materials
improve the bearing capacity and soil strength at low moisture content. The purpose of
incorporating bitumen into such soils is to water proof them as a means to maintain a low
moisture content.
Construction methods
In-Situ stabilization
The method involves on site soil improvement by applying stabilizing agent without
removing the bulk soil. This technology offer benefit of improving soils for deep foundations,
shallow foundations and contaminated sites.
Planning of the design mix involves the selection and assessment of engineering properties of
stabilized soil and improved ground. The purpose is to determine the dimensions of improved
ground on the basis of appropriate stability and settlement analyses to satisfy the functional
requirements of the supported structure (Keller Inc.).
The technology can be accomplished by injection into soils a cementitious material such
cement and lime in dry or wet forms. The choice to either use dry or wet deep mixing
methods depend among other things; the in-situ soil conditions, in situ moisture contents,
effectiveness of binders to be used, and the nature of construction to be founded. Depending
on the depth of treatment, the in situ stabilization may be regarded as either deep mixing
method or mass stabilization.
Deep mixing Method - The deep mixing method involves the stabilization of soils at large
depth. It is an in situ ground modification technology in which a wet or dry binder is injected
into the ground and blended with in situ soft soils (clay, peat or organic soils) by mechanical
or rotary mixing tool.
Mass Stabilization - Mass stabilization is a shallow to deep stabilization method in which the
entire volume of soft soil can be stabilized to a prescribed depth. The technique is relatively
new and is highly suited for the stabilization of high moisture content such as clay, silty,
organic soils and contaminated sediments
Wet mixing- Applications of wet deep mixing involve binder turned into slurry form, which is
then injected into the soil through the nozzles located at the end of the soil auger
Dry Mixing - The method involves the use of dry binders injected into the soil and thoroughly
mixed with moist soil. The soil is premixed using specialized tool during downward
penetration, until it reaches the desired depth. During withdrawal of the mixing tool, dry
binder is then injected and mixed with premixed soil leaving behind a moist soil mix column.
Ex-situ Stabilization
The technology involves dislodging of the soils and or sediments from the original position
and moves to other place for the purpose of amendment. These can be encountered in
dredging of river channel and Ports. The main objectives of dredging can be either for
amending the contaminated sediments to reduce toxicity and mobility or to maintain or
deepen navigation channels for the safe passage of ships and boats.
Offsite treatment of the sediment can be done in confined disposal facilities (CDF) and then
be used or disposed at designated site. Method of removal, means of transportation,
availability of treatment location, disposal site or demand for reuse is key factors to consider
when planning for ex-situ stabilization. Treatment of sediments in CDF falls under ex-situ
mass stabilization method, which can be accomplished in several ways depending on natural
of sediments and water contents
The main advantage of ex situ treatment is that it generally requires shorter time periods than
in situ treatment, and there is more certainty about the uniformity of treatment because of the
ability to homogenize, screen, and continuously mix the soil. Ex situ treatment, however,
requires excavation of soils, leading to increased costs and engineering for equipment,
possible permitting, and material handling/worker exposure conditions.
Case Study
The Applications of Non-Standard Stabilizers to the Base Course of Rural Roads in
China
Problem statement: The engineering properties of the soil were weak and did not meet the
standard requirements of road construction. The cost of construction was high given the mass
construction of roads in China.
In the project, three types of soils were selected for laboratory tests and their properties
determined i.e silt, clay and sand
Procedure:
For rural road constructions, the in-situ mixing method was preferred due to its advantages
such as easy handling, simple equipment required, lower construction cost, longer application
history with more experience and easy to be promoted in China.
The in-situ mixing method followed included the following basic construction steps:
1) Preparation: to prepare soils to be stabilized with proper water contents
2) Spreading: to manually put the stabilizer in powder on the levelled ground bag by bag per
the designed dosage and then spread the powder on the surface homogenously or, to
homogenously spread the stabilizer in liquid form per designed dosage by a proper water
truck.
3) Mixing: to homogenously mix the stabilizer in either powder or liquid form with soils up to
the designed depth by different proper machines (such as rotorvator) and/or tools . It should
be noted that two or more mixing machines could be used together in order to increase the
quality and shorten the construction time
4) Compaction: to compact the well-mixed mixture after levelling and shaping.
5) Curing: to regularly spray water on the surface for the required days in order to gain higher
strengths and minimize the surface cracking.
Conclusion
The non-standard modified cement-base stabilizers in powder form have outstanding
performances in strengths among the whole stabilizer family which includes the standard ones
and non-standard ones;
The strengths of the non-standard stabilizers in powder form with three types of soils are
much higher than those of cement-soils or lime-soils and generally better than those of the
combined stabilizers; and
The laboratory and field tests results have proven that the non-standard stabilizers in powder
form are generally more effective than the standard stabilizers for soil stabilizations. The non-
standard stabilizers in liquid form are generally ineffective in improving the strengths of the
stabilized sols but they may have some effects on improving some properties of cement-soil
and lime-soil.
References
Perloff. W. H. (1976), "Soil Mechanics, Principals and Application", New York: John Wily,
& Sons
EuroSoilStab. (2002). Development of Design and Construction Methods to Stabilize Soft
Organic Soils: Design Guide for soft soil stabilization.
Al-Tabbaa, A. and Evans, W.C. (2005). Stabilization-Solidification Treatment and
Remediation: Part I: Binders and Technologies-Basic Principal. Proceedings of the
International Conference on Stabilization/Solidification Treatment and Remediation
Principles of Geotechnical Engineering 8th Edition