Historical cost

The historical cost of an asset at the time it is acquired or created is the value of the costs incurred in
acquiring or creating the asset, comprising the consideration paid to acquire or create the asset plus
transaction costs.[1] Historical cost accounting involves reporting assets and liabilities at their historical
costs, which are not updated for changes in the items' values. Consequently, the amounts reported for these
balance sheet items often differ from their current economic or market values.

While use of historical cost measurement is criticised for its lack of timely reporting of value changes, it
remains in use in most accounting systems during periods of low and high inflation and deflation. During
hyperinflation, International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) require financial capital maintenance in
units of constant purchasing power in terms of the monthly CPI as set out in IAS 29, Financial Reporting in
Hyperinflationary Economies. Various adjustments to historical cost are used, many of which require the
use of management judgment and may be difficult to verify. The trend in most accounting standards is
towards more timely reflection of the fair or market value of some assets and liabilities, although the
historical cost principle remains in use. Many accounting standards require disclosure of current values for
certain assets and liabilities in the footnotes to the financial statements instead of reporting them on the
balance sheet.

For some types of assets with readily available market values, standards require that the carrying value of
an asset (or liability) be updated to the market price or some other estimate of value that approximates
current value (fair value, also fair market value). Accounting standards vary as to how the resultant change
in value of an asset or liability is recorded; it may be included in income or as a direct change to
shareholders' equity.

The capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power model is an International Accounting
Standards Board approved alternative basic accounting model to the traditional historical cost accounting
model.

Historical cost basis (original cost)

Under the historical cost basis of accounting, assets and liabilities are recorded at their values when first
acquired. They are not then generally restated for changes in values.

Costs recorded in the Income Statement are based on the historical cost of items sold or used, rather than
their replacement costs.

For example,

a company acquires an asset in year 1 for $100

the asset is still held at the end of year 1, when its market value is $120
the company sells the asset in year 2 for $115
At the end year 1 the asset is recorded in the balance sheet at cost of $100. No account is taken of the
increase in value from $100 to $120 in year 1. In year 2 the company records a sale of $115. The cost of
sales is $100, being the historical cost of the asset. This gives rise to a gain of $15 which is wholly
recognized in year 2.

Measurement under the historical cost basis

Inventory

It is standard under the historical cost basis to report the cost of inventory (stock) at the lower of cost and
net realisable value.[2] As a result:-

A decrease in the realisable value of inventory to an amount below its historical cost is
recognised immediately[3]
An increase in the realisable value of inventory is not recognised until the inventory is
sold.[3]

Property, plant and equipment

Property, plant and equipment is recorded at its historical cost.[4] Cost includes:-

Purchase price, including import duties and non-refundable purchase taxes, after deducting
trade discounts and rebates;
Any costs directly attributable to bringing the asset to the location and condition necessary
for it to be capable of operating. These can include site preparation, delivery and handling
costs, installation, assembly, testing, professional fees and the costs of employees directly
involved in these activities.

In IFRS, cost also includes the initial estimate of the costs of dismantling and removing the item and
restoring it. Cost may include the cost of borrowing to finance construction if this policy is consistently
adopted. The historical cost is then depreciated: it is systematically reduced to the recoverable amount,
over the estimated useful life of the asset, to reflect the asset's usage. The depreciation (reduction of
historical cost) is charged to expense.[5] In most cases the "straight line" depreciation method is used,
resulting in the same depreciation charge each year until it is expected to be sold or no further economic
benefits obtained from it. Other patterns of depreciation are used if assets are used proportionately more in
some periods than others.

Financial instruments

Certain financial items may be recorded at historical cost which is the basic method of financial accounting.
Any initial issue premium or discount is amortized to interest over time, and the resulting value is often
described as amortized cost.[6]

Exceptions to the historical cost basis of accounting

Revaluation of property, plant and equipment

Under IFRS it is acceptable, but not required, to re-measure the values of property, plant and equipment at
their fair (current) values.[7] 'Fair value' is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability
settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm's length transaction. Such a policy must be
applied to all assets of a particular class. It would therefore be acceptable for an entity to revalue freehold
properties every three years. The revaluations must be made with sufficient regularity to ensure that the
carrying value does not differ materially from market value in subsequent years. A surplus on revaluation
would be recorded as a reserve movement, not as income.

Derivative financial instruments

Under IFRS and US GAAP derivative financial instruments are reported at fair value, with value changes
recorded in the income statement.[8][9]

Financial reporting in hyperinflationary economies

IFRS requires IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies which prescribes capital
maintenance in units of constant purchasing power in currencies deemed to be hyperinflationary.[10] The
characteristics of a hyperinflation include the population keeping its wealth in non-monetary assets or
relatively stable foreign currencies, prices quoted in foreign currencies or widespread indexation of prices.
This might arise if cumulative inflation reaches or exceeds 100% over three years. An entity operating in a
hyperinflationary economy:-

Records a gain or loss on its 'net monetary position' in its income statement.
Records non-monetary items (for example, property, plant & equipment) in the balance sheet
by applying indexation to their historical cost.

Management accounting techniques

In management accounting there are a number of techniques used as alternatives to historical cost
accounting, including:-

measuring profit on sale of inventory by reference to its replacement cost. If inventory with a
historical cost of $100 is sold for $115 when it costs $110 to replace it, the profit recorded
would be $5 only based on replacement cost, not $15;
charging economic rent for assets, particularly property. If a business uses a 20-year-old
property which it owns, depreciation on a historical cost basis might be insignificant.
However, the management accounts could show a notional rent payable, being perhaps
opportunity cost - the amount the business could receive if it let the property to a third party.

IASB approved alternative to historical cost accounting

The IASB's Framework introduced Capital Maintenance in Units of Constant Purchasing Power as an
alternative to Historical Cost Accounting in 1989 in Par. 104 (a) where it states that financial capital
maintenance can be measured in either nominal monetary units - the traditional HCA model - or in units of
constant purchasing power at all levels of inflation and deflation: the CMUCPP model.[11]

The specific choice of measuring financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power (the
CMUCPP model) at all levels of inflation and deflation as contained in the Framework for the Preparation
and Presentation of Financial Statements, was approved by the International Accounting Standards Board's
predecessor body, the International Accounting Standards Committee Board, in April 1989 for publication
in July 1989 and adopted by the IASB in April 2001.

"In the absence of a Standard or an Interpretation that specifically applies to a transaction,

management must use its judgement in developing and applying an accounting policy that
results in information that is relevant and reliable. In making that judgement, IAS 8.11 requires
management to consider the definitions, recognition criteria, and measurement concepts for
assets, liabilities, income, and expenses in the Framework. This elevation of the importance of
the Framework was added in the 2003 revisions to IAS 8."

[12]

IAS8, 11:

"In making the judgement, management shall refer to, and consider the applicability of, the
following sources in descending order:

(a) the requirements and guidance in Standards and Interpretations dealing with similar and
related issues; and

(b) the definitions, recognition criteria and measurement concepts for assets, liabilities, income
and expenses in the Framework."

There is no applicable International Financial Reporting Standard or Interpretation regarding the valuation
of constant real value non-monetary items, e.g. issued share capital, retained earnings, capital reserves, all
other items in Shareholders Equity, trade debtors, trade creditors, deferred tax assets and liabilities, taxes
payable and receivable, all other non-monetary receivables and payables, Profit and Loss account items
such as salaries, wages, rents, etc. The Framework is thus applicable.

The CMUCPP model is chosen by hardly any accountant in non-hyperinflationary economies even though
it would automatically maintain the real value of constant real value non-monetary items, e.g. issued share
capital, retained income, other shareholder equity items, trade debtors, trade creditors, etc., constant for an
unlimited period of time in all entities that at least in real value at all levels of inflation and deflation - all
else being equal. This is because the CMUCPP model is generally viewed by accountants as a 1970s failed
inflation accounting model that requires all non-monetary items - variable real value non-monetary items
and constant real value non-monetary items - to be inflation-adjusted by means of the Consumer Price
Index.

The IASB did not approve CMUCPP in 1989 as an inflation accounting model. CMUCPP by measuring
financial capital maintenance in units of constant purchasing power incorporates an alternative capital
concept, financial capital maintenance concept and profit determination concept to the Historical Cost
capital concept, financial capital maintenance concept and profit determination concept. CMUCPP requires
all constant real value non-monetary items, e.g. issued share capital, retained income, all other items in
Shareholders Equity, trade debtors, trade creditors, deferred tax assets and liabilities, taxes payable and
receivable, all items in the profit and loss account, etc. to be valued in units of constant purchasing power
on a daily basis. Variable real value non-monetary items, e.g. property, plant, equipment, listed and unlisted
shares, inventory, etc. are valued in terms of IFRS and updated daily.
The IASB requires entities to implement IAS 29 which is a Capital Maintenance in Units of Constant
Purchasing Power model during hyperinflation.

Advantages and disadvantages of historical cost accounting

Advantages

Historical cost accounts are straightforward to produce

Historical cost accounts do not record gains until they are realized
Historical cost accounts are still used in most accounting systems

Disadvantages

Historical cost accounts give no indication of current values of the assets of a business
Historical cost accounts do not record the opportunity costs of the use of older assets,
particularly property which may be recorded at a value based on costs incurred many years
ago
Historical cost accounts do not report/account the loss of real value of nominal monetary
items as a result of inflation or the gain in real value in nominal monetary items during
deflation.[13][14][15]

See also
Constant Purchasing Power Accounting
Deprival value
Fair market value
Inflation

References
1. "Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting" (https://www.ifrs.org/content/dam/ifrs/public
ations/pdf-standards/english/2021/issued/part-a/conceptual-framework-for-financial-reportin
g.pdf) (PDF). IFRS Foundation.
2. IFRS - IAS 2, Inventories, paragraph 9, IASC
3. Woodford, William; Wilson, Valerie; Freeman, Suellen; Freeman, John (2008). Accounting: A
Practical Approach (2 ed.). Pearson Education. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-409-32357-3.
4. IFRS - IAS 16, Property, Plant & Equipment, paragraph 15, IASC
5. IFRS - IAS 16, Property, Plant & Equipment, paragraph 50, IASC
6. "Fair Value as the Measurement Basis for Financial Instruments" (http://www.cfainstitute.org/
ethics/Documents/fair_value_as_measurement_basis.pdf) (PDF). CFA Institute. September
2010. Retrieved 2015-07-13.
7. IFRS - IAS16, Property, Plant & Equipment, paragraph 31, IASC
8. Wolk, Harry I.; James L. Dodd; Michael G. Tearney (2004). Accounting Theory: Conceptual
Issues in a Political and Economic Environment, 6th ed (https://archive.org/details/accountin
gtheory0000wolk_t2f3/page/133). South-Western. p. 133 (https://archive.org/details/accounti
ngtheory0000wolk_t2f3/page/133). ISBN 0-324-18623-1.
9. IFRS - IAS 39, Financial Instruments : Recognition and Measurement, paragraphs 46 and
47(a), IASC
10. IFRS - IAS29, Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies, paragraphs 8 and 9,
IASC
11. IASB Framework, Par. 104 (a): "Financial capital maintenance can be measured in either
nominal monetary units or in units of constant purchasing power."
12. IAS Plus, Deloitte (http://www.iasplus.com/standard/framewk.htm)
13. PriceWaterHouseCoopers (May 2006). "International Financial Reporting Standards" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20070926220656/http://www.pwc.com/gx/eng/about/svcs/corporater
eporting/IAS29Publication06.pdf) (PDF). PriceWaterHouseCoopers. Archived from the
original (http://www.pwc.com/gx/eng/about/svcs/corporatereporting/IAS29Publication06.pdf)
(PDF) on September 26, 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-26., page 3.
14. IASC Foundation Education (n.d.). "Technical Summary: IAS 29 Financial Reporting in
Hyperinflationary Economies" (http://www.iasb.org/NR/rdonlyres/C2563EF2-89A8-4ED7-82
A3-E31EDF33E428/0/IAS29.pdf) (PDF). IASC Foundation.
15. Kapnick, H. (1976). "Value-Based Accounting - Saxe Lectures (1975/76)" (http://newman.bar
uch.cuny.edu/DIGITAL/saxe/saxe_1975/kapnick_76.htm).

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