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Thermochronometer record of Central Andean Plateau growth, Bolivia (19.5°S)
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DOI: 10.1029/2007TC002174
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TECTONICS, VOL. 27, TC3003, doi:10.1029/2007TC002174, 2008
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Thermochronometer record of central Andean Plateau growth,
Bolivia (19.5°S)
J. B. Barnes,1 T. A. Ehlers,1 N. McQuarrie,2 P. B. O’Sullivan,3 and S. Tawackoli4
Received 13 June 2007; revised 14 January 2008; accepted 29 February 2008; published 23 May 2008.
[1] Quantifying the timing, magnitude, and rates of thereafter by 15–20 Ma, and (3) dominantly eastward
exhumation and deformation across the central Andes is propagation of deformation from the IA since 20 Ma
a prerequisite for understanding the history of plateau with minor out-of-sequence deformation in the central to
rise. We present 23 new apatite and zircon fission track eastern SA. Citation: Barnes, J. B., T. A. Ehlers, N. McQuarrie,
thermochronometer samples to chronicle the exhu- P. B. O’Sullivan, and S. Tawackoli (2008), Thermochronometer
mation and deformation across the entire (500 km) record of central Andean Plateau growth, Bolivia (19.5°S),Tectonics,
Andean fold-thrust belt at 19.5°S in Bolivia. Exhu- 27, TC3003, doi:10.1029/2007TC002174.
mation and deformation are constrained with inverse
thermal modeling of the thermochronometer data, 1. Introduction
regional stratigraphy, geothermal gradients, and mass
deficits inferred from a balanced section. Results [2] Orogenic plateaus are important because of their
suggest the following: (1) Initial exhumation of the influence on mantle dynamics, orographic precipitation,
physical weathering rates, and their ability to trap large
Eastern Cordillera (EC) fore-thrust and back-thrust
sediment volumes in their protected interiors [e.g.,
belts began in the late Eocene to early Oligocene (27– Isacks, 1988; Molnar et al., 1993; Masek et al., 1994;
36 Ma) and continued in a distributed manner in the late Ruddiman et al., 1997; Beaumont et al., 2001; Sobel et
Oligocene to early Miocene (19–25 Ma). Interandean al., 2003]. Although models can simulate plateau growth by
zone (IA) exhumation began 19–22 Ma, followed by a temperature-dependent viscosity variations in a shortening
third pulse of exhumation (11–16 Ma) in the EC back- and thickening crust, they are limited by incomplete
thrust belt and initial cooling in the westernmost knowledge of the kinematic histories of plateau formation
Subandes (SA) 8 – 20 Ma. Finally, exhumation [Wdowinski and Bock, 1994; Royden, 1996; Willett and
propagated eastward across the SA during the late Pope, 2004]. Constraining the kinematics, timing, and rates
Mio-Pliocene (2–8 Ma). (2) Exhumation magnitudes of plateau erosion and deformation is necessary to understand
are spatially variable and range from maximums of both the processes involved in plateau formation as well as
<8 km in the EC fore-thrust belt to average values of the conditions under which they develop [e.g., Oncken et al.,
2006]. It is also important to quantify the along-strike
4 – 7 km across the EC, 2.5 – 3 km in the variations in the kinematic and erosion history of the central
Altiplano, 4–6 km in the IA, and 3 km in the SA. Andean plateau to evaluate the mechanisms that determine
(3) Exhumation rates range from 0.1 to 0.2 mm/a in plateau width. In this study, we present new data and
the EC, from 0.1 to 0.6 mm/a in the IA, and from 0.1 interpretations that chronicle the exhumation and deforma-
to 0.4 mm/a to locally 1.4 mm/a or more in the tion across the eastern flank of the central Andean plateau at
eastern SA. We synthesize similar constraints with its widest extent.
sediments throughout Bolivia and characterize plateau [3] The central Andean plateau occupies the core of the
development by (1) distributed deformation throughout Andes, rests 3 km in average elevation, encompasses over
the Altiplano and EC regions from 20 to 40 Ma with 500,000 km2, and straddles humid to semiarid latitudes
minor deformation continuing until 10 Ma, from southern Peru to northern Argentina (Figure 1) [e.g.,
(2) contemporaneous cessation of most EC deformation Isacks, 1988]. Numerous processes have been proposed to
influence Andean plateau evolution such as; crustal short-
and exhumation of the IA 20 Ma implying estab- ening/thickening [e.g., Lamb and Hoke, 1997; Kley and
lishment of the modern plateau width with significant, Monaldi, 1998; Elger et al., 2005], plate kinematics [e.g.,
but unknown crustal thickness and elevation shortly Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987; Oncken et al., 2006],
topography and subduction geometry [Gephart, 1994;
1
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Iaffaldano et al., 2006], inherited structure and stratigraphy
Arbor, Michigan, USA. [Allmendinger and Gubbels, 1996; Kley et al., 1999],
2
Department of Geosciences, Princeton University, Princeton, New thermal weakening [Isacks, 1988; Wdowinski and Bock,
Jersey, USA. 1994; Allmendinger et al., 1997; Lamb and Hoke, 1997],
3
Apatite to Zircon, Inc., Viola, Idaho, USA.
4
Técnico Internacional Programa APEMIN-II, Oruro, Bolivia.
and variable erosion resulting from latitudinal precipitation
gradients [Masek et al., 1994; Horton, 1999; Montgomery et
Copyright 2008 by the American Geophysical Union. al., 2001; Lamb and Davis, 2003; Sobel et al., 2003; Gillis
0278-7407/08/2007TC002174$12.00 et al., 2006].
TC3003 1 of 25
TC3003 BARNES ET AL.: CENTRAL ANDEAN PLATEAU GROWTH TC3003
plateau surface uplift occurred 6 – 10 Ma by lithospheric

mantle delamination or lower crustal flow.
[5] In the Bolivian Andes (15– 20°S), plateau deve-
lopment is coupled to the central Andean fold-thrust belt
where the kinematic history has been documented by
sequential kinematic restorations of balanced cross sections
[McQuarrie, 2002]. This kinematic linkage provides an
opportunity to correlate the kinematics and timing of
plateau deformation with its eastern flanking thrust belt.
Unfortunately, imprecise age and exhumation constraints
still exist on many of the structures in the thrust belt making
it difficult (1) to detail a deformation chronology in order to
test the sequential reconstructions, (2) to estimate the
variations in the associated erosional response to the defor-
mation, and (3) to use these constraints to improve our
understanding of plateau growth. To address these short-
comings, we present a transect of new thermochronometer
data at 19.5°S in southern Bolivia where both a kinematic
reconstruction and a preliminary chronology of the defor-
mation has already been proposed [McQuarrie et al., 2005].
This paper is a companion to McQuarrie et al. [2008] which
integrates similar data sets across the central Andean fold-
thrust belt 500 km to the north at 15– 17°S.
[6] At 19.5°S, the central Andean fold-thrust belt and
Figure 1. The central Andean fold-thrust belt and plateau plateau are broad, the climate is semiarid, and the topo-
in Bolivia. Topography is from the SRTM 90 m data set. graphic relief is subdued relative to northern Bolivia
Elev, elevation. Zone-bounding faults are modified from (Figure 1) [Isacks, 1988; Masek et al., 1994; Horton,
McQuarrie [2002]. Major zones: WC, Western Cordillera; 1999]. In this paper, we (1) present apatite and zircon
AL, Altiplano; EC, Eastern Cordillera; IA, Interandean fission track (AFT and ZFT) thermochronology results from
zone; SA, Subandes. Inset shows location in western central 23 samples to quantify the long-term deformation and exhu-
South America, and box outlines the study area in Figure 2. mation history across the entire thrust belt at 19.5°S
Solid lines are locations of two major additional thermo- (Figures 1 and 2), (2) quantify sample cooling histories
chronometer data transects in the south (A, Scheuber et al. with inverse thermal modeling of the AFT data, (3) incor-
[2006] and Ege et al. [2007]) and north (B, e.g., Barnes et porate the results within the regional stratigraphy and
al. [2006]) discussed in the text. structure, (4) refine the timing of deformation inferred from
the cooling histories, and (5) estimate the spatial variability
[4] Observations of the lithospheric structure, sedimen- of exhumation magnitudes with multiple methods. Finally,
tary record, and various proxies have been used to deduce we compare our results to those in southern Bolivia –
the chronology and mode of Andean plateau uplift. Defor- northernmost Argentina (19 – 23°S) and then throughout
mation was initially assumed to begin in the late Oligocene Bolivia (15 – 21.5°S). The combination of new and previous
(27 Ma) [Isacks, 1988; Sempere et al., 1990] and charac- thermochronometer, sedimentary, and geomorphic records
terized by distributed shortening (pure shear) until 10 Ma allows an analysis of spatial and temporal variations in
when it shifted to simple shear focused in the easternmost deformation in southern Bolivia, and finally a more com-
thin-skinned thrust belt of the Subandes where it continues plete and generalized history of central Andean plateau
today [Gubbels et al., 1993; Allmendinger and Gubbels, growth throughout Bolivia.
1996]. However, earlier Eocene-Oligocene (30– 40 Ma)
deformation has now been well documented with mapping 2. Geologic Setting
and seismic profiles [e.g., Elger et al., 2005], Cenozoic
basin sediments [e.g., DeCelles and Horton, 2003; Horton, 2.1. Central Andean Fold-Thrust Belt and Plateau
2005] and thermochronometer-derived exhumation [e.g., [7] The Andes reach their greatest west-east width of
Benjamin et al., 1987; Gillis et al., 2006; Ege et al., 500 km in southern Bolivia (Figure 1). The central Andean
2007]. These studies have argued that the Eocene to recent fold-thrust belt is commonly divided into the Western
deformation has accumulated both broadly within the pla- Cordillera, the Altiplano, the Eastern Cordillera (EC), the
teau region and propagated eastward toward the foreland. Interandean zone (IA), and the Subandes (SA). The Western
Perhaps most interestingly, mounting evidence inferred Cordillera is the modern volcanic arc that marks the Pacific-
from erosion surface remnants [Kennan et al., 1997; Barke Altiplano drainage divide. The Altiplano is a low-relief,
and Lamb, 2006], valley incision [Schildgen et al., 2007], internally drained basin filled with Tertiary sediments and
and soil carbonate isotopes [Garzione et al., 2006; Ghosh et volcanics. The EC is the highest relief region consisting of
al., 2006] has lead to the postulation that 2 – 3+ km of rapid deformed, predominantly Paleozoic sedimentary rocks with
2 of 25
Figure 2
3 of 25
overlying Tertiary volcanism that mark the eastern drainage in Figure 3. The Paleozoic section is locally thick in the EC
divide of the Altiplano. The IA and SA zones step and tapers toward the foreland [Sempere, 1995; Welsink et
progressively downward in topographic elevation and al., 1995]. A continuous succession of Ordovician through
upward in structural depth eastward exposing mostly Devonian marine siliciclastic rocks is overlain by a discon-
Devonian and Carboniferous through Mesozoic and Tertiary tinuous succession of nonmarine Carboniferous to Creta-
rocks, respectively (Figure 2) [McQuarrie, 2002]. Large ceous rocks [Sempere, 1995; McQuarrie, 2002]. Compared
basement structures are thought to be a principal cause for to central and northern Bolivia, much greater pre-Jurassic
these various structural levels of exposure that differentiate erosion and much less Andean age erosion in this region has
the Altiplano through SA (Figure 2b) [Kley, 1996, 1999; resulted in large exposures of Mesozoic rocks in the EC that
McQuarrie, 2002; Müller et al., 2002]. The Andean plateau rest directly and unconformably on the Silurian units
is the high-elevation landmass commonly defined by >3 km (Figure 2) [McQuarrie and DeCelles, 2001]. Tertiary
average elevation that includes the entire Altiplano and a synorogenic sedimentary rocks reach local thicknesses of
significant portion of the EC (Figure 2c) [after Isacks, 12 km in the Altiplano, 2.5– 5+ km in the EC, and
1988]. 3 – 4 km in the SA [Sempere et al., 1990; Dunn et al., 1995;
[8] The central Andean fold-thrust belt encompasses the Kennan et al., 1995; Lamb and Hoke, 1997; McQuarrie and
eastern Altiplano to SA and is an east vergent, thick to thin- DeCelles, 2001; Horton, 2005; Uba et al., 2006].
skinned retroarc fold belt that is the result of strain accu-
mulation from the South American plate overriding the 2.3. Thrust Belt Structure and Shortening
Nazca plate (Figure 1) [e.g., Isacks, 1988; Allmendinger et [10] McQuarrie [2002] used field and geophysical obser-
al., 1997; Jordan et al., 1997]. The EC is somewhat unique vations to construct a balanced section across the fold-thrust
because it has accommodated the strain with both a west belt at 19.5°S (Figure 2). Dominant structures exposed at
vergent back-thrust belt and an east vergent fore-thrust belt the surface are 1- to 10-km-thick thrust sheets deforming
[e.g., Roeder, 1988; McQuarrie and DeCelles, 2001]. In the the cover rocks. Individual thrust sheets in both the EC and
central Andes (14– 24°S), structural and stratigraphic data IA are tightly folded and have minor offsets (1 – 5 km).
have constrained the deformation in the EC from late The SA has multiple levels of detachments allowing for
Eocene-Oligocene (25 – 40 Ma) to early late Miocene thrust sheets with larger (5 –15 km) offsets that are less
(8 – 20 Ma) at which point it migrated eastward into the folded and hence more widely spaced. The balanced section
SA [e.g., Sempere et al., 1990; Kley, 1996; Kennan et al., indicates a total shortening of 326 km or 37% [McQuarrie,
1997; Kley et al., 1997; Lamb and Hoke, 1997; Elger et al., 2002]. More specifically, the EC has the highest magnitude
2005; Horton, 2005]. To date, two major transects of of shortening of 122 km or 37%, followed by the IA with 96
thermochronometer data exist across the thrust belt in km or 63%, and the SA with 67 km or 33%.
Bolivia; in the far north near Peru at 15– 17°S and in the [11] Although the geometry of the subsurface basement
far south near Argentina at 21.5°S (Figure 1; lines A and B). deformation is contentious, there is general agreement that
In the north, initial late Eocene-Oligocene (25– 40 Ma) large basement thrusts underlie the entire thrust belt except
rapid exhumation began in the EC followed by widespread the SA which feed deformation into the overlying cover
middle to late Miocene to present (0 – 15 Ma) exhuma- rocks [Kley, 1999; McQuarrie, 2002; Müller et al., 2002].
tion across the entire thrust belt from the eastern Altiplano These large basement features, combined with small
to SA [Benjamin et al., 1987; Barnes et al., 2006; Gillis et (1 – 5 km) offsets along individual surface faults, may
al., 2006; McQuarrie et al., 2008]. In the south, initial late provide a structural mechanism for potentially broad and
Eocene (36 – 40 Ma) exhumation began in the central EC, uniform uplift and exhumation in the Altiplano, EC, and IA.
more distributed early Oligocene (27 – 33 Ma) exhumation In contrast, the SA have more widely spaced thrust sheets
throughout the EC and Altiplano continued until 20 Ma, with larger individual offsets that are confined to the cover
IA exhumation occurred during the early to late Miocene rocks thereby precluding such a structural mechanism for
(9 – 18 Ma), and finally exhumation in the SA began in broad uplift.
the late Miocene (8 Ma) [Ege et al., 2003; Scheuber et al.,
2006; Ege et al., 2007].
3. Methods
2.2. Thrust Belt Stratigraphy
[12] In this study, we integrate new apatite fission track
[9] The Paleozoic to Tertiary stratigraphy of the thrust samples from across the eastern Andean plateau flank at
belt including local thickness variations has been well 19.5°S with the regional stratigraphy and a balanced cross
documented throughout southern Bolivia and is synthesized section. Methods used in the regional stratigraphic compi-
Figure 2. Geology, balanced cross section, topography, and thermochronology data across the central Andean fold-thrust belt at
19.5°S. The geology and cross section are simplified from McQuarrie [2002], and location is shown in Figure 1. BTB, back-thrust
belt; FTB, fore-thrust belt. (a) Regional geology and sample locations. (b) Balanced cross section (location in Figure 2a) with samples
projected onto the appropriate structures. (c) Transect profile of 80-km-wide swath-averaged mean topography with apatite (black
dots) fission track pooled ages. Note the log scale for the ages. Error bars are 2s. Zircon fission track ages (stars) are off the scale (shown
by arrows) with actual values adjacent to the symbol.
4 of 25
Figure 3. Regional stratigraphy and thickness variations of the central Andean fold-thrust belt in
southern Bolivia (modified from Figure 2 of McQuarrie [2002]). Slashes delimit formation name changes
from east to west, and arrows indicate major detachment horizons. Mz, Mesozoic; C, Carboniferous; Ord,
Ordovician; Huam., Huamampampa; ss, sandstone; congl, conglomerate; siltst, siltstone; sh, shale; gyp,
gypsum; ls, limestone; diam, diamictite; qtzite, quartzite; msiltst, metasiltstone; phyl, phyllite. Thickness
constraints span from 18 to 23°S; Superscript numbers are the following sources: 0, Kley and Reinhardt
[1994]; 1, Dunn et al. [1995]; 2, Sempere [1995]; 3, Moretti et al. [1996]; 4, Kley [1996]; 5, Kley et al.
[1997]; 6, McQuarrie and DeCelles [2001]; 7, McQuarrie and Davis [2002]; 8, balanced/restored section
from [McQuarrie [2002]; 9, Müller et al. [2002]; 10, Echavarria et al. [2003]; 11, Uba et al. [2006]; 12,
Coudert et al. [1995]; 13, Horton [2005]; 14, Sempere et al. [1997]. Asterisk indicates the average
thickness used in Figure 4 (see Appendix A for details).
lations and fission track analyses are outlined below and details in Appendix A). Specifically, we constructed repre-
detailed in the Appendices. sentative, regional sections measured from the range of
thicknesses used in the balanced and restored section of
3.1. Regional Stratigraphy McQuarrie [2002] because (1) it is the most proximal
[13] We compiled regional stratigraphic sections across estimate that spans the entire study area, (2) its regional scale
southern Bolivia (18– 23°S) to independently estimate the is most appropriate, and (3) the thickness variations them-
magnitude of exhumation by restoring the thermochronom- selves are derived from local field observations and sup-
eter samples to original stratigraphic depth (Figure 3) (see ported by some of the compiled sections themselves [Dunn et
al., 1995; Sempere, 1995; Gagnier et al., 1996; Kley, 1996;
5 of 25
Figure 4. Apatite fission track (AFT) ages integrated within representative stratigraphy across the central
Andean fold-thrust belt at 19.5°S. Error associated with stratigraphic thickness and sample location is
estimated to be 0.5 km. Asterisk indicates that the Tertiary is assumed to have been there after DeCelles
and Horton [2003]. Dv, Devonian; Sil, Silurian; additional abbreviations after Figures 1 – 3. Discordant
samples in italics. Gray regions are estimated depth to full resetting of AFT samples as defined by the
shallowest concordant AFT pooled age. Question-marked gray region is the inferred depth to fully reset and
concordant AFT samples in the Subandes (see text for discussion). Dashed lines bracket the range of
stratigraphic depths sampled in each zone. Lithologic thicknesses are schematic only after Figure 3.
Kley et al., 1997; Sempere et al., 1997; Horton et al., 2001; 3.2. Fission Track Thermochronology
McQuarrie and DeCelles, 2001]. Our calculated average 3.2.1. General Background
thicknesses are almost always within the compiled bounds [15] Fission track thermochronology uses the accumula-
(Figure 3). Figure 4 schematically shows these representative tion of damage trails (fission tracks) that form from the
sections along with approximate sample locations. spontaneous fission of 238U in minerals to constrain sample
[14] Stratigraphic thickness variations in the central thermal histories [e.g., Gallagher et al., 1998; Tagami and
Andean fold-thrust belt are large, but systematic (Figure 3). O’Sullivan, 2005]. Fission track ages are determined by
For example, the Ordovician thickens significantly south- measuring the parent (238U)/daughter (tracks) ratios and
ward along strike [McQuarrie and DeCelles, 2001; determining the age from the rate of 238U fission decay.
McQuarrie and Davis, 2002; Müller et al., 2002] and the Measured ages are cooling ages because the tracks are only
Paleozoic section generally thins eastward from a local quantitatively preserved above a particular closure temper-
maximum in the central EC [Roeder and Chamberlain, ature [Dodson, 1973], which is a function of mineral type,
1995; Sempere, 1995; Welsink et al., 1995]. Despite these composition, and cooling rate. Fission tracks subsequently
variations, it is useful to generalize the regional stratigraphy shorten (anneal) over a range of temperatures below the
so that samples collected on numerous structures in a region closure temperature. This temperature range is called the
can be interpreted together by evaluating them in the partial annealing zone (PAZ) [e.g., Hodges, 2003]. For
context of stratigraphic depth as a proxy for original depth common apatite, the closure temperature is 110 ± 10°C
prior to exhumation.
6 of 25
and the PAZ spans from 60 to 110°C [e.g., Gallagher et (Figure 2). Sample grain age and track length yields ranged
al., 1998]. For common zircon, the closure temperature is from the maximum (40 ages and 200 track lengths/sample)
240 ± 10°C and the PAZ spans from 180 to 240°C to poor (<10 ages and/or track lengths/sample) with most
[Brandon et al., 1998]. (17 of 23) samples yielding robust results (>10 ages and
[16] Cooling ages are commonly determined on 20– 40 track lengths/sample) (Table 1). The robust AFT pooled
individual grains resulting in a sample grain-age distribu- ages are Oligo-Miocene (14 – 30 Ma) in the EC, mostly
tion. The sample pooled age is determined by the daughter/ early Miocene (18 – 20 Ma) in the IA, and mid-Eocene to
parent ratio of all the grains summed (‘‘pooled’’) together Mesozoic (42 – 265 Ma) in the SA (Figure 2c and Table 1).
[e.g., Brandon, 1992]. A conventional c2 test is applied to Cooling histories inverted from this data are consistent with
the sample grain-age distribution to determine its degree of Eocene to recent cooling from temperatures of 65°C or
variance. Concordant (P(c2) > 5%) samples have low age greater. Consistently old, Paleozoic (385– 471 Ma) ZFT
variance and their pooled age is considered geologically pooled ages from the EC and IA indicate that the Tertiary
relevant [Galbraith, 1981; Green, 1981; Brandon et al., cooling experienced by both regions has been limited to
1998]. Conversely, discordant (P(c2) < 5%) samples, com- temperatures significantly <240°C (Table 2). Representative
mon for sedimentary rock samples, have significant age stratigraphic sections independently suggest all samples
variance suggesting that (1) other mechanisms such as were exhumed from variable depths of 3 – 8 km across
inhomogeneous uranium concentration and variable grain- the study region (Figure 4).
etching sensitivity are at work and/or (2) multiple compo- [21] All of the AFT pooled ages are younger than the
nent ages and variable thermal annealing from composi- sample depositional age and considered reset whereas the
tionally diverse grains exist that render the pooled age less ZFT pooled ages range from reset to mostly detrital [after
meaningful [Green, 1981; Tagami and O’Sullivan, 2005]. Brandon et al., 1998]. In detail, 100% of the individual AFT
Regardless of the age variance, measured ages and track grain ages in the EC and IA samples are reset and 53– 100%
length distributions are inverted for using empirically de- of the grain ages in the SA samples are reset. Mean track
rived annealing algorithms [Ketcham, 2005 and references lengths are short to long (9.97 –14.89 mm) with unimodel,
therein] to constrain permissible thermal histories. bimodal, and/or skewed length distributions suggesting a
3.2.2. Analytical Procedures wide range of cooling histories. AFT grain age and fission
[17] The mineral separations and fission track analysis track Dpar values span 0.96 – 2.96 mm. However, the
were performed using standard techniques (see Appendix B majority of grains analyzed have Dpar values of 1–
for details). In this study, most fission track ages reported 1.75 mm suggesting dominantly fast annealing calcian-
were determined by the new laser ablation method (LA- fluorapatite compositions [Donelick et al., 2005]. Despite
ICPMS [Hasebe et al., 2004; Donelick et al., 2005]) with the majority of grains lacking significant compositional
only a few ages determined by the more common external variation, only 10 of the 23 sample pooled ages are concor-
detector method (e.g., Gallagher et al., 1998). Following dant. The overdispersion of grain ages in the discordant
age analysis, the apatites were classified for annealing samples is not conventionally attributable to composition
kinetics using the parameter Dpar [e.g., Burtner et al., 1994]. [Carlson et al., 1999] because none of the samples exhibit
3.2.3. Data Analysis and Thermal Modeling correlations between Dpar and grain age or track length.
[18] Methods for determining fission track component [22] Below, we detail (1) the modeling results of the AFT
age populations within a discordant sample have been data from west to east across each zone mostly highlighting
developed for data collected with the external detector the good fit cooling histories with representative cooling
method. BinomFit uses a deconvolution algorithm to identify envelopes shown in Figures 5 – 8 and (2) the ZFT pooled
statistically significant populations ages from a population ages with ±2s errors and associated interpretations.
of grain ages measured from a sample [Brandon, 2002].
[19] Inverse thermal modeling of the AFT data was 4.2. Altiplano
performed with HeFTy [Ehlers et al., 2005; Ketcham, [23] Our Altiplano sample (AL1) is from the Cretaceous
2005] using the multikinetic annealing model of Ketcham El Molino formation west of Rio Mulato in the east vergent
et al. [1999] with c axis projected track lengths [Ketcham, Rio Mulato fold belt (Figure 2 and Table 1) [McQuarrie and
2003] (see details in Appendix C). We report the commonly DeCelles, 2001]. Local age control for the El Molino is
used probability of a worse fit designations good (0.5) and Maastrichtian to Danian (60 to 73 Ma) based on marine
acceptable (0.05) for the thermal history envelopes calcu- fossils and tuffs near the base [Sempere et al., 1997; Horton
lated with a Kuiper’s statistical test [Press et al., 1992; et al., 2001]. Given this, we assumed a depositional age of
Ketcham et al., 2000; Ketcham, 2005]. 60– 80 Ma for the thermal history modeling. Sample AL1
acceptable fits suggest postdepositional burial to 80°C
4. Results 40– 60 Ma, followed by > 10 Ma at PAZ temperatures of
70– 85°C prior to rapid exhumation to the surface broadly
4.1. Overview constrained to start between 3 and 30 Ma and end 0 –15 Ma.
[20] Twenty-three samples were analyzed from Creta-
ceous through Ordovician sandstones and quartzites ex- 4.3. Eastern Cordillera Back-Thrust Belt
posed over 4 km in mean topographic relief from the [24] We report seven samples (EC1 – 7) of Ordovician to
eastern Altiplano through the Subandes at 19.5°S Jurassic rocks exhumed from 4 to 7 km stratigraphic depths
7 of 25
Figure 5. Eastern Cordillera (EC) back-thrust belt thermochronology data integrated with the regional
structure and stratigraphy at 19.5°S. (a) Cross section from McQuarrie [2002] with samples projected
onto the appropriate structures. AFT, apatite fission track; ZFT, zircon fission track pooled age and 2s (Ma)
where available. VE, vertical exaggeration. Discordant samples are in italics. Summary table of selected
AFT data is directly below (see Table 1 for all data and abbreviations). (b) AFT pooled age (Ma) and track
length data in their regional stratigraphic context from Figure 4. Track length distribution histograms
uncorrected to c axis parallel; F, frequency; N, number of tracks measured, and mean track length (dashed
line). (c) Selected thermal modeling results showing acceptable (light gray), good (dark), and best (thick
line) fit cooling histories inverted from the AFT data. Boxes are modeling constraints. Old Cmpt, old age
component; Yg Cmpt, young component age. Track length (TL) distribution (c axis parallel) shown for the
data (bars) and best fit (line) model.
8 of 25
Figure 6. Eastern Cordillera (EC) fore-thrust belt thermochronology data integrated with the regional
structure and stratigraphy at 19.5°S. See Figure 5 caption for details.
across four different thrust sheets in the EC back-thrust belt dant sample EC3 demarcate acceptable cooling beginning
(Figure 5). Concordant sample EC1 modeling constrains 10– 15 Ma from 90°C with good fits refining initial
good fit cooling from 100°C 32– 35 Ma, followed by cooling to 15 Ma from 105°C.
slow cooling through the PAZ until 15 Ma, and ultimately [25] Samples EC4 – EC6 project onto the same structure
more rapid cooling until 0– 10 Ma (Figure 5c). Discordant implying their cooling histories should be related (Figure 5).
sample EC2 has two deconvolved component ages of 10.8 However, they overlie a blind thrust that may have imparted
and 33.6 Ma (Table 1). Good fit model results show EC3 different kinematic histories and thus we report their cooling
cooling began most recently 13 Ma from 105°C histories independently. Sample EC4 has poor data quality
(Figure 5c). We note these results are nearly identical to with acceptable rapid cooling from 90°C at > 5 Ma with
those obtained with only a fixed 50– 180°C constraint equal good fits constraining rapid cooling from 105°C 11 –
in age to between deposition and 1 Ma as most discordant 16 Ma. Good fit modeling results for discordant sample
samples are reported in this study. Model results of concor- EC5 suggests rapid cooling started from 105°C at 20– 25
9 of 25
Figure 7. Interandean zone (IA) thermochronology data integrated with the regional structure and
stratigraphy at 19.5°S. See Figure 5 caption for details.
Ma (Figure 5c). For sample EC6, model results define [26] We also report two ZFT results from samples EC4 and
acceptable rapid cooling from 100°C 29 –39 Ma with EC7 (Figure 5a and Table 2). EC4 was exhumed from the
good fits constraining initial cooling from 105°C 34 – greatest stratigraphic depths in the EC of > 7 km and has a
36 Ma. Finally, concordant sample EC7 modeling delim- discordant ZFT pooled age of 455 ± 42 Ma which is
its rapid cooling from 105°C 10 – 20 Ma. equivalent to the Devonian depositional age (Figure 5a). We
10 of 25
Figure 8. Subandes (SA) thermochronology data integrated with the regional structure and stratigraphy
at 19.5°S. See Figure 5 caption for details. Depo age, deposition age.
consider this ZFT sample unreset and probably detrital. EC7 across four different thrust sheets in the EC fore-thrust belt
has a discordant ZFT pooled age of 471 ± 42 Ma which is older (Figure 6). Acceptable modeling results for discordant
than the Silurian depositional age and considered detrital. sample EC8 suggest recent cooling began > 14 Ma from
[27] Collectively, the EC back-thrust belt samples were 100°C with good fits constraining initial cooling from
exhumed from 4 to 7 km stratigraphic depths and record three 21 to 25 Ma. Concordant sample EC9 good fit modeling
phases of rapid AFT cooling that started in the (1) late Eocene results define cooling from PAZ temperatures of 65– 80°C
(32–36 Ma; EC1 and EC6), (2) late Oligocene to early Miocene 4 –40 Ma. The most likely cooling history for samples EC8
(20 – 25 Ma; EC5), and (3) middle to late Miocene (11 – and EC9 must be defined by where the sample cooling
16 Ma; EC2 –4 and EC7). Two detrital Paleozoic ZFT ages envelopes overlap because they are structurally linked. In
indicate regional Tertiary cooling has been limited to this case, EC9 probably cooled rapidly from 21– 25 Ma
temperatures significantly < 240°C. as did EC8. Discordant sample EC10 good fit modeling
results constrain recent cooling from 100°C 19– 22 Ma
4.4. Eastern Cordillera Fore-Thrust Belt (Figure 6c). Acceptable modeling fits for sample EC11
[28] We report five samples (EC8 – 12) of Ordovician to constrain rapid cooling at 27– 30 Ma from 75°C with
Jurassic rocks exhumed from 4 to 8 km stratigraphic depths good fits refining cooling from 125°C 27 – 30 Ma
11 of 25
TC3003
Table 1. Apatite Fission Track Dataa
Elev, Fm Dpar, Dper, Ns, Area, S(PW), 1s S(PW), P (c2), Pooled Age, MTL ± 1s,
Sample ID Lat Long m Age n mm mm tracks cm2 cm2 cm2 x MS 1s x MS % Ma ± 2s mm (Nt, tracks)
Altiplano
05JBBL042 AL1 – 19.70 – 66.88 3706 K 36 1.57 0.36 244 3.76E-04 3.74E-05 2.65E-06 13.378 0.304 0.0 43.5 ± 8.6 12.06 ± 2.03 (48)
Eastern Cordillera
05JBBL037 EC1 20.09 66.39 3668 Sil 27 1.57 0.3 268 4.03E-04 5.94E-05 3.99E-06 13.476 0.306 60.9 30.3 ± 5.6 12.89 ± 2.02 (123)
05JBBL036 EC4b 20.07 66.21 3450 Ord 2 1.43 0.28 8 1.36E-05 4.09E-06 8.53E-07 13.528 0.307 0.3 13.2 ± 10.8 14.07 ± 0.94 (7)
05JBBL035 EC5 20.04 66.17 3290 Sil 39 1.48 0.31 254 9.40E-04 8.65E-05 4.23E-06 13.580 0.308 0.0 19.9 ± 3.2 13.16 ± 1.92 (162)
05JBBL034 EC6 20.00 66.17 3311 Sil 31 1.51 0.27 248 5.47E-04 6.13E-05 4.33E-06 13.678 0.310 0.0 27.6 ± 5.4 12.75 ± 1.99 (80)
05JBBL033 EC7 19.86 66.14 3747 Sil 11 1.19 0.21 22 1.48E-04 1.33E-04 3.57E-07 16.712 0.413 88.5 13.8 ± 6.0 14.89 ± 0.88 (13)
05JBBL031 EC8b 19.58 65.42 3156 Jr 8 1.43 0.29 34 1.10E-04 1.07E-05 1.44E-06 13.737 0.312 3.9 21.8 ± 9.6 14.47 ± 2.25 (9)
05JBBL030 EC9b 19.62 65.36 3253 Ord 4 1.9 0.47 6 3.40E-05 6.66E-07 8.95E-08 13.751 0.312 96.8 61.6 ± 53.0 11.64 ± 1.27 (10)
05JBBL029 EC10 19.58 65.27 3222 Ord 18 1.42 0.26 109 3.47E-04 3.94E-05 2.97E-06 13.780 0.313 0.7 19.0 ± 4.8 13.95 ± 1.37 (31)
05JBBL026 EC11 19.34 65.16 2255 Ord 36 2.02 0.57 380 1.18E-03 9.77E-05 5.30E-06 13.852 0.314 0.0 26.9 ± 4.2 13.49 ± 1.77 (195)
05JBBL022 EC12b 19.15 64.99 3065 Ord 7 1.56 0.29 22 7.28E-05 4.29E-06 4.47E-07 13.910 0.316 16.9 35.6 ± 17.0 12.83 ± 1.09 (6)
Interandean Zone
05JBBL021 IA1 19.08 64.82 2670 Dv 40 1.67 0.32 1844 1.06E-03 1.45E-04 7.55E-06 13.967 0.317 0.1 88.0 ± 10.8 12.32 ± 2.12 (202)
05JBBL019 IA2 19.06 64.77 2371 Ord 39 1.42 0.27 375 8.85E-04 1.36E-04 6.20E-06 14.066 0.319 83.9 19.4 ± 2.8 13.12 ± 1.88 (136)
05JBBL018 IA3 19.18 64.47 2051 Dv 39 1.31 0.26 298 8.45E-04 1.19E-04 6.61E-06 14.164 0.321 61.6 17.8 ± 3.0 13.82 ± 1.44 (161)
05JBBL017 IA4b 19.30 64.34 2125 Dv 8 1.27 0.23 26 6.16E-05 3.34E-06 3.47E-07 14.226 0.323 27.4 55.1 ± 24.6 11.16 ± 1.64 (22)
12 of 25
Subandes
05JBBL013 SA1b 19.51 64.17 1825 Dv 6 1.32 0.27 51 4.61E-05 7.50E-06 8.41E-07 14.252 0.323 2.0 48.3 ± 17.4 11.64 ± 2.15 (11)
05JBBL010 SA2 19.80 64.02 1236 Dv 39 1.39 0.29 645 6.28E-04 1.10E-04 6.22E-06 14.314 0.325 0.0 41.9 ± 6.0 11.50 ± 2.60 (169)
05JBBL008 SA3 19.85 63.73 1367 Cb 40 1.49 0.29 3403 1.33E-03 9.09E-05 4.76E-06 14.412 0.327 74.3 264.3 ± 31.6 11.14 ± 1.58 (167)
05JBBL006 SA4 19.81 63.72 1260 Cb 40 1.37 0.25 1332 7.09E-04 8.18E-05 3.81E-06 14.510 0.329 0.0 117.0 ± 13.8 10.62 ± 2.33 (164)
05JBBL003 SA5 19.84 63.48 1137 Cb 34 1.3 0.25 862 5.50E-04 6.01E-05 3.46E-06 14.602 0.331 0.0 103.9 ± 14.6 9.97 ± 1.87 (159)
05JBBL002 SA6 19.78 63.25 844 Cb 40 1.38 0.28 2466 7.79E-04 7.20E-05 3.55E-06 14.694 0.333 9.9 246.7 ± 28.6 10.79 ± 1.53 (159)
Elev, Fm Dpar, Dper, Ns, rs, 106 ri, 106 Ni , rd, 106 Nd, P (c2), Pooled Age, MTL ± 1s, C Ages,
2 2 2
Sample ID Lat Long m Age n mm mm tracks tracks cm tracks cm tracks tracks cm tracks % Ma ± 2s mm (Nt, tracks) Ma (Ng)
BARNES ET AL.: CENTRAL ANDEAN PLATEAU GROWTH
Eastern Cordillera
714 – 1B EC2 19.94 66.29 3900 Jr 29 1.69 0.46 123 0.224 4.564 2503 4.258 4040 3.0 11.9 ± 2.4 13.61 ± 1.67 (61) 10.8(25),33.6(4)
713 – 5B EC3 19.95 66.25 3550 Sil 13 1.59 0.39 27 0.162 2.754 460 4.267 4040 5.4 14.2 ± 5.8 13.23 ± 1.79 (31) –
a
SA, Subandes; IA, Interandean zone; EC, Eastern Cordillera; AL, Altiplano; Elev, elevation; Fm age, formation age; Cb, Carboniferous; Ord, Ordovician; Sil, Silurian; Dv, Devonian; Jr, Jurassic; K,
Cretaceous; n, number of grains measured; Dpar, the mean maximum diameter of fission track etch figures parallel to the c axis; Dper, the mean diameter perpendicular to the c axis; Ns, number of spontaneous
tracks (tracks) counted; Area, grain area analyzed; S(PW), area-weighted 238U/43Ca, summed over n grains in a sample; s, standard deviation; xMS, mass spectrometer zeta calibration factor; P(c2), probability
(%) of greater chi-square,; MTL, mean track length; Nt, number of track lengths measured; rs, density (cm 2) of spontaneous tracks; ri, density (cm 2) of induced tracks; rd, density (cm 2) of tracks on the
neutron fluence monitor (CN-1 glass); Nd, number of tracks counted in the dosimeter; C Ages, component ages and number of contributing grains (Ng). Read 3.76E-04 as 3.76 10 4. Bold, concordant
samples, italics, discordant samples.
b
Less than 10 measured grain ages and track lengths.
TC3003
Table 2. Zircon Fission Track Dataa

Elev, Fm Ns , Area, S(PW), 1s S(PW), P (c2), Pooled Age,
Sample ID Lat Long m Age n tracks cm2 cm2 cm2 x MS 1s x MS % Ma±2s
Eastern Cordillera
05JBBL036 EC4 20.07 66.21 3450 Ord 20 2306 6.46E-05 1.40E-05 1.86E-07 5.736 0.222 0.0 455 ± 42
05JBBL033 EC7 19.86 66.14 3747 Sil 20 2941 8.64E-05 1.71E-05 2.37E-07 5.692 0.220 0.0 471 ± 42
Interandean zone
05JBBL019 IA2b 19.06 64.77 2371 Ord 6 645 2.04E-05 4.67E-06 2.33E-07 5.751 0.223 0.0 385 ± 58
05JBBL018 IA3 19.18 64.47 2051 Dv 20 2947 9.08E-05 2.00E-05 2.89E-07 5.765 0.224 0.0 411 ± 38
a
Abbreviations and symbols same as in Table 1.
b
Less than 10 measured grain ages and track lengths.
(Figure 6c). Sample EC12 acceptable modeling fits suggest 10 Ma) initial cooling from the PAZ. Two reset and
recent cooling by > 20 Ma from 85°C with good fits unreset Paleozoic ZFT ages indicate local Tertiary cooling
refining cooling from 95°C more than 22 Ma. has been limited to temperatures significantly <240°C in
[29] Collectively, the EC fore-thrust belt samples were the IA.
exhumed from the greatest stratigraphic depths of mostly
7 km and record two phases of rapid AFT cooling that 4.6. Subandes
started in the (1) early Oligocene (27 – 30 Ma; EC11; maybe [33] We report six samples (SA1 – 6) from Devonian to
EC12) and (2) early Miocene (19 – 25 Ma; EC8 – 10, maybe Carboniferous rocks exhumed from 4 to 6 km stratigraph-
EC12). ic depths across five different thrust sheets in the SA
(Figure 8). Acceptable modeling results for sample SA1
4.5. Interandean Zone suggest recent cooling began from PAZ temperatures of
[30] We report four samples (IA1 –4) from Ordovician to <90°C 3 – 30 Ma with good fits refining cooling from 60
Devonian rocks exhumed from 5 to 7 km stratigraphic depths to 85°C 3 – 30 Ma. Discordant sample SA2 modeling
across two different thrust sheets in the IA (Figure 7). implies cooling began 50 Ma from 100°C, followed
Sample IA1 modeling results infer initial cooling began by residence in the PAZ until more recent cooling began
100 Ma from 80°C, followed by residence in the PAZ 8 – 20 Ma from 80°C (Figure 8c). Concordant sample
until a final episode of more rapid cooling to the present SA3 good fits imply significant residence in PAZ temper-
from at most 40 Ma (Figure 7c). Sample IA2 modeling atures of 75°C until recent, rapid cooling began 3–
results delimit recent cooling beginning 20– 22 Ma from 8 Ma (Figure 8c). For sample SA4, modeling suggests
100°C (Figure 7c). Taken together, these two samples significant residence in PAZ temperatures of 70– 75°C
are consistent with rapid cooling starting 20– 22 Ma and best until recent, rapid cooling began 4 – 23 Ma (acceptable
represented by the results from IA2. Good fit thermal fits) or 7 – 13 Ma (good fits) from 75°C. As part of the
envelopes for sample IA3 demarcate cooling from temper- same thrust sheet, samples SA3 and SA4 probably cooled
atures 90°C beginning 19 – 21 Ma (Figure 7c). For beginning 4 – 20 Ma (overlapping acceptable fits) or 7 –8 Ma
sample IA4, modeling results imply initial cooling began (overlapping good fits). Unfortunately, modeling did not
40 Ma from 100°C, followed by residence in PAZ produce any acceptable cooling histories for sample SA5.
temperatures of 55– 80°C until a final episode of more rapid On the basis of similarities in stratigraphic position, lithology,
acceptable cooling initiated from 3 to 20 Ma with good fits and AFT data, we assume a cooling history similar to SA4.
limiting final rapid cooling from 3 to 10 Ma. Finally, modeling of sample SA6 suggests significant resi-
[31] We also report two ZFT results from samples IA2 dence in PAZ temperatures of 65°C until acceptable recent,
and IA3 (Figure 7a and Table 2). IA2 was exhumed from rapid cooling began 2 – 19 Ma with good fits refining that to
the greatest stratigraphic depths in the IA of 7 km and has 2 –8 Ma.
a discordant ZFT pooled age of 385 ± 58 Ma, but low grain [34] Collectively, the SA samples were exhumed from 4
yield. The ZFT pooled age is younger than the Ordovician to 6 km stratigraphic depths and record Miocene to Pliocene
depositional age and hence considered reset, but not by the initial cooling (3 – 20 Ma; SA1 – 6). Oligo-Miocene cool-
Cenozoic Andean orogeny. IA3 has a discordant ZFT ing (10– 30 Ma; SA1 –2) began in the west, stepping
pooled age of 411 ± 38 Ma which is equivalent to the eastward to late Miocene (7 – 8 Ma; SA3 – 4) and eventu-
Devonian depositional age. We consider this ZFT sample ally as young as Pliocene (2– 8 Ma; SA6) in the easternmost
unreset and probably detrital. structure (Figure 8). One additional observation is that the
[32] Collectively, the IA samples were exhumed from 5 SA samples show a systematic decrease in age with strati-
to 7 km stratigraphic depths and record mostly rapid AFT graphic depth from concordant late Paleozoic to earliest
cooling starting in the early Miocene (19 – 22 Ma; IA1 –3). Mesozoic pooled ages exhumed from 4 km depths to
This early Miocene cooling is roughly uniform across most discordant mid-Eocene ages exhumed from 5.5 km depths
of the IA. Sample IA4 shows late Miocene or younger (3 – (Figure 8). Several Devonian to Tertiary exposures previ-
13 of 25
Figure 9. Chronology of deformation and exhumation across the eastern flank of the central Andean plateau at
19.5°S. Previous chronologic estimates (Ma*) and sequential kinematic reconstruction with foreland basin
deposits are from McQuarrie et al. [2005]. This previous chronology is based on an integration of published
structural, stratigraphic, and thermochronologic data in Bolivia. Grey boxes indicate a revised chronology based
on the thermochronometer data presented in this paper. Grey box text indicates sample ID(s) (top row) and the
age of initial rapid cooling (in Ma) from good (1) and acceptable (2) thermal modeling results. Black dots are
samples with ID number. Major exhumation and deformation episodes are highlighted with italicized text. NF,
no fits. Arrow is eastern edge of the Andean plateau/Tarabuco and Incapampa syclines (see Figure 2 for
location), and jagged line is the western edge of the Brazilian shield.
14 of 25
Figure 10. Thermochronologic constraints on the exhumation history across the central Andean fold-
thrust belt at 19.5 – 21.5°S. AL, Altiplano; BTB, back-thrust belt; FTB, fore-thrust belt. (A) Distribution
of recorded rapid cooling episodes inferred from apatite fission track (AFT) data compiled from this
study and others. See legend for appropriate references. Range of acceptable (open boxes) and good (gray
boxes) fits from inverse modeling of the AFT data for the onset of rapid cooling for this study as well as
summary results (dashed boxes) from Ege et al. [2007, Figure 12], Ege et al. [2003, Figure 2], and
Moretti et al. [1996, p. 24]. (b) Estimated exhumation magnitudes. Assumed surface temperature (Ts) and
geothermal gradients necessary to quantify these estimates are listed at the top of each region. Assumed
closure temperatures (Tc) for the different thermochronometer systems are listed in the bottom left corner.
Abbreviations and references are the same as in Figure 10a. Black deltas are from Ege et al. [2007,
Figure 13]. ZFT, zircon fission track. Vertical arrows indicate an upper limit due to not fully reset cooling
ages. Dashed lines are estimated from the representative stratigraphy with gray bars as estimated (or
inferred with question marks) depth to fully reset and concordant AFT samples from Figure 4. Dotted box
in the SA is the most likely estimate from the cross section for the SA where depth to AFT closure
represents a maximum because the cooling ages are not fully reset. (c) Cross section same as in Figure 2b.
15 of 25
Table 3. Shortening Rates for the Central Andean Fold-Thrust Belt (19.5°S), Southern Bolivia
Location Amount, km Time Interval,a Ma Rate, mm/a Time Interval, Ma Rate, mm/a
WC to EC 200 – 250a 45 – 70 8 – 10a – –

EC and IA 218b 40 – 15/20 8.5 – 11a 40 to 10 – 20 7.3 – 11
SA 67b 15/20 – 0? 3.5 – 4.5 20 – 0c 3.5c
SA 67b – – 8 – 0d 8.5d
Total 550a 70 – 0 7.8a – –
a
From McQuarrie et al. [2005].
b
From McQuarrie [2002].
c
Assuming oldest modeling good fit of sample SA2 represents initiation of deformation.
d
Assuming youngest modeling good fit of sample SA2 represents initiation of deformation.
ously analyzed along this transect also have Mesozoic to initiated in the middle to late Eocene (35 – 40 Ma)
early Tertiary AFT ages [Moretti et al., 1996]. followed by distributed deformation moving both west
and east reaching the Altiplano and SA by the mid-Miocene
(15 Ma) (Figures 9 and 10) [McQuarrie et al., 2005]. Late
5. Discussion Eocene to earliest Oligocene (27 – 36 Ma) rapid erosion in
5.1. Erosional Cooling of Thermochronometer Data the EC back-thrust and fore-thrust belts suggests distributed
deformation at this time (Figures 9b and 9c). Two samples
[35] In active orogens, thermochronometer cooling can
(EC1 and EC6) record the earliest cooling with robust grain/
result from erosional exhumation, tectonic exhumation along
track yields documenting erosion and deformation in the
normal faults, magmatism, and/or fluid flow [Ring et al., 1999;
back-thrust belt 32– 36 Ma (Figures 5c and 9c). Sample
Ehlers, 2005]. Erosional exhumation is a common mechanism
EC11 recorded the earliest cooling in the EC fore-thrust belt
for sample cooling in fold-thrust belts. In our study area
suggesting erosion and deformation started slightly later
(Figure 2), a lack of extensional structures, insignificant
from 27 to 30 Ma (Figures 6c and 9c). Two additional poor
Mesozoic rifting [e.g., Sempere et al., 2002], and volcanism
quality samples (EC9 and EC12) are consistent with this
spatially limited to the EC back-thrust belt supports that
early Oligocene or even earlier erosion. Our chronology
erosional exhumation was responsible for the cooling histories
implies either (1) the EC back-thrust belt started deforming
reported. Therefore, we assume that the initiation of deforma-
first or (2) the earliest (35– 40 Ma) EC fore-thrust belt
tion generates topography with erosion causing the onset of
deformation was not recorded by our samples because they
rapid (>10°C/M.y) exhumation recorded by the thermo-
are limited to the younger, eastern portion as predicted by
chronometer data [after e.g., Coughlin et al., 1998; Sobel
in-sequence deformation (Figures 2 and 9). Regardless, the
and Strecker, 2003; Barnes et al., 2006; Ege et al., 2007].
results attest to near contemporaneous exhumation in both
[36] Samples EC1– 7 in the EC back-thrust belt are prox-
directions 27– 36 Ma (Figures 9b and 9c). Sediments shed
imal (4– 25 km) to Tertiary volcanism suggesting their
by this exhumation were transported eastward into the
cooling histories could be associated with magmatism rather
adjacent foredeep deposits of the Incapampa syncline
than erosional exhumation (Figure 2a). For the following two
(Figures 2a, 9a, and 9b) [Horton, 2005; McQuarrie et
reasons, we conclude that magmatic heating was insufficient
al., 2005].
to overprint the erosion-related cooling signal in the sample
[38] Late Oligocene to early Miocene (19 –25 Ma) cool-
data. First, the AFT data display no correlation of age or track
ing suggests deformation across structures in the EC as well
length distribution with respect to distance to the nearest
as initial deformation of the IA at 19– 22 Ma (Figure 9d).
volcanic outcrop (Figures 2a and 5 and Table 1). Second, we
Although rapid erosion of samples EC8 –10 is consistent
applied a step change in heating [after Ehlers, 2005] to
with in-sequence deformation, they are all west of earlier
compute the potential thermal disturbance caused by the
exhumation recorded by EC11 indicating the opposite.
Miocene to recent ( < 1– 25 Ma) Los Frailes ignimbrite
Sample EC5 erosion is younger in age and intermediate in
flows nearby [Riera-Kilibarda et al., 1994; Barke et al.,
across-strike distance suggesting out-of-sequence deforma-
2007]. We assumed an initial intrusion temperature of
tion in the EC back-thrust belt. During this time (19 –
800°C, a 50°C country rock temperature, a 300-m-thick
25 Ma), a change from foredeep to intermontane basin
deposit (Riera-Kilibarda et al., 1994), and 32–64 km2/Ma
sedimentation suggests EC deformation waned while ac-
thermal diffusivities based on average and measured
tive deformation stepped eastward into the IA [Horton,
values of conductivity, density, and heat capacity from
2005]. The extensive and contemporaneous rapid erosion
southern EC rocks [Henry and Pollack, 1988; Ehlers,
portrays distributed deformation localizing sedimentation
2005]. The results predict a minor 10– 13°C temperature
in the EC, which waned shortly thereafter, and eventually
change 4 km (our most proximal sample distance) from
ceased by 15 Ma [McQuarrie et al., 2005] or 21– 25 Ma
the intrusion center.
[Horton, 2005]. This history is supported by only minor
5.2. Timing of Deformation at 19.5°S resolved acceptable cooling in the EC back-thrust belt
younger than 19 Ma.
[37] Previous work constraining the deformation history [39] The 19– 36 Ma deformation in the EC is associ-
at 19.5°S suggests the EC fore-thrust belt deformation ated with upper basement shortening (Figures 9a – 9d)
16 of 25
[McQuarrie, 2002; McQuarrie et al., 2005]. Similar magni- thrusting and exhumation starting 7 – 8 Ma. A dated tuff
tudes of shortening in the basement and cover rocks accounts from fluvial terraces on the Caipipendi thrust hanging wall
for most of the present-day crustal thickness of the EC and (second easternmost SA structure in Figure 8a) suggests
presumably some of the elevation of the Andean plateau inactivity for the last 1 Ma [Barke, 2004; pg. 63]. The
(Figure 9d) [McQuarrie, 2002]. This upper basement struc- model-constrained cooling envelopes are consistent with
ture eventually feeds slip in the IA causing early deformation in-sequence deformation propagating east with time as
in the IA cover rocks (Figure 9d). The recorded uniform proposed [McQuarrie, 2002; McQuarrie et al., 2005].
exhumation of the IA at 19– 22 Ma can be explained in two However, others have suggested out-of-sequence deforma-
ways: (1) by contemporaneous thrusting and exhumation in tion of the central and eastern SA structures over 6 Ma
the IA cover rocks fed by upper basement deformation or (2) [Moretti et al., 1996, Figure 11; Barke, 2004, pp. 148–151].
by more passive uplift above the leading edge of a subse-
quently lower basement structure as it began to migrate 5.3. Revised Shortening Rates
eastward feeding slip into the SA (Figures 9d and 9e). We [42] Previous shortening rates for the EC and IA were
prefer the latter explanation and suggest that the spatially 9 – 11 mm/a from 20– 40 Ma reducing to 4 – 5 mm/a in
uniform IA exhumation 19– 22 Ma signifies the initiation age the SA over the last 15– 20 Ma (Table 3) [see also Ramos et
for lower basement shortening which begins after cessation al., 2004]. We revise these rates by assuming the EC started
of the upper structure [McQuarrie, 2002]. Since it is the deforming 40 Ma and the SA started either 8 or 20 Ma as
older, upper basement structure that is responsible for a proto- suggested by the minimum and maximum good fit exhu-
Andean plateau of modern width we infer this to been mation histories of sample SA2 (Table 3). Two hundred
achieved by 15 – 20 Ma (between Figures 9d and 9e) eighteen kilometers of shortening across the EC and IA
[McQuarrie, 2002; see also Barnes et al., 2006]. from 40 to 10– 20 Ma translates to a rate of 7 –11 mm/a.
[40] Middle to late Miocene rapid cooling occurred in the Sixty-seven kilometers of shortening across the SA since
EC back-thrust belt (11 – 16 Ma), easternmost IA (IA4; 3 – 8 or 20 Ma produces shortening rates of 9 or 4 mm/a,
10 Ma), and initiated in the western SA (8– 20 Ma) (Figure respectively. Our revised shortening rates presented here
9e). Cooling in the EC back-thrust belt may be the result of suggest Miocene to recent rates either decreased by half
(1) strain accumulation from 12– 20 Ma evident by the from a long-term average of 8 mm/a or remained about
locally deformed early to mid-Miocene Mondragon Forma- the same to slightly increasing depending on the age of
tion 20– 30 km northwest of Potosi [Kennan et al., 1995] or initial SA deformation and the end of EC deformation.
(2) simply enhanced protracted erosion after deformation
had already ceased. No record of rapid exhumation and the 5.4. Exhumation Estimates
existence of the undeformed, regional San Juan del Oro
erosion surface [e.g., Gubbels et al., 1993] implies defor- 5.4.1. Geothermal Gradients and Depth to Closure
mation in the EC fore-thrust belt ceased by 10 Ma. The [43] The thermal structure across the thrust belt in south-
late Miocene exhumation (from PAZ temperatures) of the ern Bolivia varies by a factor of two and has been well
eastern IA can be explained by continued migration of the constrained by borehole measurements [Henry and Pollack,
lower basement structure as it advanced farther east 1988; Hamza and Muñoz, 1996; Springer and Forster,
[McQuarrie et al., 2005]. Limited thermogeochronology 1998; Hamza et al., 2005]. We quantify exhumation mag-
on Tertiary basin deposits and our recorded exhumation nitudes from AFT and ZFT effective closure depths using
show deformation in the SA began 8 – 20 Ma [Moretti et measured thermal gradients (Figure 10b) [Reiners and
al., 1996; Jordan et al., 1997; Barke, 2004; Uba et al., Brandon, 2006]. We assumed average closure temperatures
2006]. At about the same time, to the west, erosion and of 110°C for AFT [e.g., Gallagher et al., 1998] and 240°C
deformation of the Rio Mulato fold belt in the Altiplano is for ZFT [Brandon et al., 1998], and average surface temper-
broadly constrained between 3 and 30 Ma. The unconform- atures of 10°C for the Altiplano and EC, 15°C for the IA,
ably overlying and folded Miocene Tambillo Formation and 23°C for the SA [Springer and Forster, 1998; Instituto
sediments indicate both pre-Miocene and late Miocene Geografico Militar, 2000]. Mean surface temperatures and
(10 –14 Ma) Altiplano deformation locally [Kennan et proximal borehole measurements of the thermal gradient
al., 1995; Lamb and Hoke, 1997]. combine to represent the best available proxy for the
[41] Late Miocene to Pliocene (2 – 8 Ma) rapid exhuma- thermal field through which the samples cooled. Our
tion and deformation occurred throughout the central to selection criteria for thermal gradient estimates include
eastern SA (Figure 9f). Local deposition of shallow marine (1) measurement reliability, (2) location within the same
rocks in the Yecua Formation [e.g., Hulka et al., 2006; Uba physiographic province as the samples, (3) reported gra-
et al., 2006] place a maximum age of deformation on the dient has been corrected for near surface topographic
SA structures sampled by SA3 – 6 of 8 Ma. Late Miocene perturbations, and (4) location of measurement is within
exhumation is recorded by deposition of the Guandacay one crustal thickness distance (60 – 75 km in the Altipla-
Formation (2.1 – 6 Ma) in the Chaco (Figure 1) to the east no/EC, 50 – 60 km in the IA, and 40 km in the SA
that indicates a proximal foredeep outboard this deformation [Beck and Zandt, 2002]) of the samples to minimize
[Uba et al., 2006]. Overlapping good modeling fits of regional variations in basal heat flux biasing our calculation.
samples SA3 – 4 from the west limb of the Sararenda [44] Five measurements in the Bolivian Altiplano esti-
anticline [McQuarrie, 2002] in the central SA record mate a mean thermal gradient of 38 ± 10 (1s)°C/km [Henry
17 of 25
Table 4. Exhumation Estimates for the Central Andean Fold-Thrust Belt (19.5°S), Southern Boliviaa
Cross Section
Estimate, Length, Estimate, Thermochron Cross Section Timescale Cross Section Thermochron Estimate, Ege et al.,c
km2 km km Estimate, km Estimate,b mm/a From Estimate, mm/a mm/a mm/a
EC 725 – 1285d 194 3.7 – 6.6 2.6 – 6.5 – 40 Ma to 0 0.09 – 0.17 0.07 – 0.16 0.1 – 0.3
(<6 – 15; zft) (<0.15 – 0.38; zft)
IA 347 – 640d 56 6.2 – 11.4 2.6 – 6.5 – 20 Ma to 0 0.31 – 0.57 0.13 – .33 0.4
(<6 – 15; zft) (<0.30 – 0.75; zft)
b b
SA 192 – 432 130 1.5 – 3.3 <3.8 – 7.0 0.08 – 0.17 20 Ma to 0 0.08 – 0.17 <0.19 – 0.35 0.9 – 1.6
(20 – 0 Ma)
SA 192 – 432b 130b 1.5 – 3.3 <3.8 – 7.0 0.10 – 0.22 8 Ma to 0 0.19 – 0.41 <0.48 – 0.88 0.9 – 1.6
(15 – 0 Ma)
b b e
total 1264 – 2357 380 3.33 – 6.20 3.0 – 6.7 0.08 – 0.16 40 Ma to 0 0.08 – 0.16 0.08 – 0.17
(40 – 0 Ma)
a
Thermochrology (thermochron) estimates from the AFT data unless noted otherwise; zft, zircon fission track.
b
From Barnes and Pelletier [2006].
c
Derived by AFT data from Ege et al. [2007, 2003] for 21.5°S.
d
From McQuarrie et al. [2008].
e
Weighted average exhumation relative to each zones length as percent of the total thrust belt length.
and Pollack, 1988]. The high gradient is attributed to the flow studies treat the IA as part of the EC further justifying
position of a shallow (70 km) asthenospheric mantle the assumption of similar gradients between the EC and IA
wedge, partial melts in the midcrust, and proximity to the [Springer and Forster, 1998; Springer, 1999].
volcanic arc to the west [Springer, 1999]. This high geo- [47] SA sample cooling ages are not reset by the Miocene
thermal gradient suggests an erosion magnitude of 2.5 km to recent deformation allowing us to estimate a depth to
(range 2 – 3.5 km) for reset AFT samples. More specifi- AFT closure as a maximum limit on SA exhumation. Over
cally, the only measurement proximal to our Altiplano 1500 measurements from the southern Bolivia SA and
sample is located 50 km away at Nasama and has a adjacent Chaco plain yield a mean geothermal gradient of
gradient of 36°C/km ± 10% heat flow error [Henry and 22.4°C/km ± 35% (Figure 1) [Springer and Forster,
Pollack, 1988]. From this value, we estimate an exhumation 1998]. The low gradient is attributed to the SA being both
magnitude of 2.8 km ranging from 2.5– 3 km (Figure the locus of substantial late Tertiary sedimentation and
10b). In comparison, previously estimated Oligocene pale- proximal to the cold, Brazilian shield to the east [Springer,
ogeothermal gradients in the Altiplano to the south range 1999]. The 22.4°C/km ± 35% gradient suggests the SA
from 26 to 32°C/km ± 20% [Ege et al., 2007] suggesting erosion magnitude is less than 4 km (range 3 – 6 km).
this exhumation magnitude estimate is a minimum. Locally, three measurements (stations Monteagudo, Camiri,
[45] In the Bolivian Eastern Cordillera, twelve measure- and Guairay [Springer and Forster, 1998]) within 50 km
ments constrain a mean thermal gradient of 26 ± 8 (1s)°C/ of our samples suggest a lower mean gradient of 18 ±
km [Henry and Pollack, 1988]. The lower EC thermal 5°C/km indicating an average maximum exhumation mag-
gradient relative to the Altiplano is probably due to the nitude of 5 km with a range of <3.8 –7 km (Figure 10b).
large topographic effect from the higher relief (Figure 1). [48] A systematic decrease in SA sample cooling age
The 26 ± 8 (1s) °C/km gradient suggests an erosion with depth allows us to semiquantitatively test the validity
magnitude of 3.9 km (range 3 to 5.5 km) for reset AFT of using modern geothermal gradients to estimate erosion
samples and 9 km (range 7 – 13 km) if any of the ZFT magnitude. We estimate the paleothermal gradient through
samples had been reset. More specifically, three most which the SA samples were exhumed by assuming the
proximal measurements to our EC samples are located reconstructed sample stratigraphic depths are correct, AFT
100 – 150 km to the south and estimate a similar mean closure is 110°C, and the surface temperature is 23°C
gradient of 27 ± 11°C/km, but larger uncertainty (stations (Figure 8b). As we outline here, the AFT data imply the
Choroloque, Tatasi, and Chilcobija from Henry and Pollack SA samples were exhumed from within a fossil AFT PAZ
[1988]). This decreases the erosion magnitude estimate to (Figure 8) [e.g., Fitzgerald et al., 1995]. First, mean track
3.7 km and the range from 2.6 to 6.5 km for AFT and lengths are shortened, range from 9.97 to 11.64 mm, and
8.5 km with a range of 6 – 15 km for ZFT (Figure 10b). their variance generally increases with original stratigraphic
Estimated EC Oligocene paleogeothermal gradients to the depth. Second, the percentage of reset individual grain ages
south are similar, ranging from 19 to 32°C/km ± 20% within each sample (from 55– 60% (SA3 and 6) to 100%
[Ege et al., 2007]. (SA1)) increases with depth. Third, there is a systematic
[46] Unfortunately, no thermal gradient measurements decrease in pooled age with depth; two shallow, late
exist for the IA. Therefore, we assume the gradient is the Paleozoic to early Mesozoic, concordant ages overlie two
same as the EC at 27 ± 11°C/km with equivalent estimated intermediate-depth samples of much younger, and more
erosion magnitudes (Figure 10b). The estimated IA Oligo- significantly reset Cretaceous age, which in turn overlie
cene paleogeothermal gradient to the south is nearly iden- two mid-Eocene discordant ages (Figure 4). Fourth, sample
tical at 26°C/km ± 35% [Ege et al., 2007]. Regional heat cooling histories indicate residence in AFT PAZ temper-
18 of 25
atures that increase with depth from 65– 90°C (Figure 8c; both estimate and limit the exhumation magnitude. The
see also section 4.6). Finally, the youngest pooled ages average SA thermal gradient estimate (5 km) is a maxi-
(mid-Eocene) are discordant and substantially older than the mum because it represents a depth to full AFT closure and
maximum age of deformation in the SA (20 Ma [e.g., none of the sample ages were fully reset by the Miocene to
Barke, 2004; McQuarrie et al., 2005]), suggesting none of recent erosion and deformation. The stratigraphy estimates
the samples were exhumed from above AFT closure by the (4– 6 km) probably represent maximums because (1) sample-
Miocene deformation. On the basis of the sample depth specific reconstructed depths are up to 0.5 km less than
profile, full closure must have occurred below the deepest these regionally averaged stratigraphic thicknesses and
sample at 6 km (gray zone in SA; Figures 4 and 8). This (2) the assumption of a 3-km-thick Tertiary fill might be
suggests the SA samples resided in a paleo-PAZ with a too large. Give these considerations, we think the cross
minimum depth of 6 km to the 110°C isotherm section-derived magnitude of 3 km (1.5– 3.3 km) is the
corresponding to a paleogradient of < 15°C/km. This is best average estimate of the SA exhumation magnitude.
within the lower bound of the modern mean gradient (18 ± [51] We estimated exhumation rates from the cross section
5°C/km) used to estimate the exhumation magnitude above. and thermochronology-derived magnitudes assuming sim-
5.4.2. Exhumation Magnitude from the Balanced plistic timescales for the duration of exhumation across each
Section zone (Table 4). Rates for the EC range from 0.1– 0.2 mm/a
[49] Balanced cross sections and their restorations pro- with a maximum of 0.4 mm/a averaged over the last 40 Ma.
vide an independent method for estimating the first-order IA rates are higher ranging from 0.1– 0.6 mm/a with a
spatial variations in erosion magnitude across the thrust belt maximum of 0.8 mm/a averaged over the last 20 Ma. Rates
[Barnes and Pelletier, 2006; McQuarrie et al., 2008]. In for the SA range from 0.1 – 0.2 mm/a up to 0.4 mm/a
brief, the balancing of rock area can be used to reconstruct averaged over the last 20 Ma or 0.2– 0.4 mm/a up to
the amount of material eroded by projecting the stratigraphy 0.9 mm/a averaged over the last 8 Ma. However, rates
and structures above the present-day topography in the on individual structures could be much higher, especially
balanced section (Figure 2). Although a simplification, the eastern SA thrust sheets if they were exhumed as
dividing the estimated area removed by erosion by the recently as the Pliocene (i.e., 5 Ma; 0.8– 1.4 mm/a).
modern length of the thrust belt provides an average, [52] In summary, exhumation magnitudes generally de-
regional thickness of denudation. The eroded area estimates crease both eastward and westward from local maximums
at 19.5°S in Table 4 both exclude (lower range) and of 6– 8 km in the EC fore-thrust belt to 1.5– 3.3 km in the
include (upper range) a 3-km-thick Tertiary section (similar SA and Altiplano (Figure 10b). Exhumation rates range
to the modern estimate [Horton and DeCelles, 1997]) based from 0.1– 0.2 mm/a in the EC, 0.1– 0.6 mm/a in the IA,
on preserved deposits throughout the EC that document the and from 0.1– 0.4 to 1.4 mm/a or more in the eastern SA.
eastward migration of the foreland basin during the early to
mid-Tertiary [DeCelles and Horton, 2003]. Estimates are 5.5. Along-Strike Variations in Southern Bolivia/
725 – 1285 km2 of material removed from the 194-km-wide Northern Argentina (19 – 23°S)
EC, 347– 640 km2 from the 56-km-wide IA, and 192– 432 [53] The chronology of exhumation and deformation in
km2 from the 130-km-wide SA (Table 4). Total magnitude the central Andean fold-thrust belt is generally similar,
of removed material is estimated to be 1264 – 2357 km2. but differs in detail within an along-strike distance of
5.4.3. Synthesis of Exhumation Magnitudes and Rates 400 km from our study area southward to northernmost
at 19.5°S Argentina (Figures 1 and 10a). At 21.5°S, AFT exhu-
[50] Table 4 shows a comparison between denudation mation began in the central EC during the late Eocene
estimates derived from both the thermochronology and the (36 – 40 Ma) followed by distributed EC deformation [Ege
cross section. Both methods produce denudation estimates et al., 2007]. We document younger late Eocene to
for the EC that range from 3– 7 km. Although exhumation earliest Oligocene (27 – 36 Ma) distributed exhumation
is variable across the different EC structures, 4 – 7 km is in the EC, to the east and west of the oldest cooling
most consistent among the various estimates (Table 4 and recorded at 21.5°S (Figure 10a), also suggesting dis-
Figure 10b). Maximum exhumation of the EC is < 8.5 km tributed deformation. Wedgetop basin deposits near
constrained by several Paleozoic ZFT ages. The IA is Tupiza (21.5°S) suggest the EC back-thrust belt began
unique in that the cross section estimate of erosion is greater 34 Ma consistent with our earliest documented exhu-
than that given by the thermochronology (3 – 6.5 versus mation [Horton, 1998; Horton et al., 2002; McQuarrie et
6 – 11 km) with the representative stratigraphy suggesting al., 2005]. Distributed exhumation existed across the
an intermediate value 5 – 7 km. Significant structural entire EC at 21.5°S during the early Oligocene (27 – 33
overlap (3 – 5 km) recorded in the IA may have never been Ma) [Ege et al., 2007], whereas we document distributed
expressed as burial if erosion kept pace with faulting. Thus exhumation throughout the late Oligocene to earliest
removal of material was lateral verses vertical making the Miocene (19 – 30 Ma). In both transects (19.5° and
integrated ‘‘vertical’’ amount of exhumation an overesti- 21.5°S), erosional cooling during these times is generally
mate. Exhumation estimates across the IA are most likely consistent with (1) mostly eastward propagation of defor-
4 – 6 km. Maximum exhumation of the IA is also < 8.5 km mation from the central EC and (2) out-of-sequence
as constrained by two Paleozoic ZFT ages. In the SA, the exhumation and deformation across the EC back-thrust
cross section, closure depth, and the stratigraphy combine to belt that almost completely ceased by 20 Ma [Ege et
19 of 25
al., 2007]. A late pulse of late Miocene (11 – 16 Ma) 0.3 mm/a in the EC, from 0.1 – 0.6 mm/a in the IA, and
exhumation in the EC back-thrust belt at 19.5°S and 0.1– 1.6 mm/a in the SA (Table 4) [Ege et al., 2007].
10 –18 Ma growth structures in the western Tupiza basin
at 21.5°S [Horton, 1998] suggest limited deformation 5.6. Along-Strike Variations in Bolivia (15 – 21.5°S)
continued in the EC until 10 Ma. Additionally, thermal [56] Comparison of exhumation and deformation in
histories from the Uyuni-Khenayani Fault zone in the Bolivia (15 – 21.5°S) suggests a relatively cohesive evolution
central Altiplano (21.5°S) show exhumation began with some distinctive differences. For this comparison we
30 Ma [Ege et al., 2007] consistent with our Altiplano focus on ‘‘good fit’’ thermal histories reported in the
sample in the Rio Mulato fold belt, the along-strike literature. In general, the Bolivia EC experienced several
equivalent structure to the north. phases of rapid exhumation since the Eocene. Initial defor-
[54] During the early Miocene (18 – 22 Ma), the IA mation and exhumation began in the EC during the late
became active as exhumation and deformation continued Eocene to earliest Oligocene (30– 40 Ma) [e.g., Gillis et
uniformly along strike from 19.5 to 21.5°S (Figure 10a) al., 2006; Ege et al., 2007; and this study]. Next, the
[Ege et al., 2007]. Middle to late Miocene (8 – 20 Ma) southern Altiplano and EC (19.5 – 21.5°S) experienced
erosion and deformation continued into the eastern IA and extensive erosion and deformation throughout the Oligo-
western SA (Figure 10a) [Moretti et al., 1996; Echavarria et cene and into the earliest Miocene (20– 33 Ma) distin-
al., 2003; Ege et al., 2003; Uba et al., 2006]. Unfortunately, guished by out-of-sequence strain in the EC as
we can only say that model-constrained cooling of sample demonstrated by this study and Ege et al. [2007]. Unfortu-
AL1 is consistent with initial cooling anytime between the nately, extreme exhumation of the northern EC fore-thrust
early Oligocene and Pliocene (3 –30 Ma). Several lines of belt has exposed the lowest Ordovician phyllites and slates
evidence suggest deformation in the EC and Altiplano [see cross section and sampling gap in Barnes et al., 2006;
completely ceased by 7 – 13 Ma, including: minor folding McQuarrie et al., 2008] which are poorly amenable to AFT
of late Miocene (10– 14 Ma) sediments in the Rio Mulato analysis (e.g., sample EC4 in Barnes et al. [2006]) and
fold belt in the Altiplano [Kennan et al., 1995; Lamb and hence to date, preclude any noteworthy local constraint on
Hoke, 1997], elimination of growth structure evidence near the Eocene-Oligocene exhumation history. Limited exhu-
Tupiza (21.5°S) [Horton, 1998], the undeformed San Juan mation began in the northern IA by at least the late
del Oro erosion surface (18 – 22+°S) [Gubbels et al., 1993], Oligocene (>25 Ma), followed by substantial exhumation
exhumation histories in the Uyuni-Khenayani Fault zone of the IA all along strike since the early to mid-Miocene
(21.5°S) [Ege et al., 2007], and flat-lying ignimbrites. (15– 22 Ma) [see also Ege et al., 2007; McQuarrie et al.,
Finally, late Miocene to Pliocene (2 – 8 Ma) initial exhuma- 2008].
tion and deformation occurred in the central to eastern SA [57] Latest Oligocene to earliest Miocene (15– 25 Ma)
and continues today (Figure 10a) [see also Echavarria et is a crucial time period in plateau development throughout
al., 2003; Ege et al., 2003; Scheuber et al., 2006]. Bolivia. Sediment provenance indicates eastern and western
[55] Estimated magnitudes of exhumation across the highlands suggestive of an internally drained proto-Altiplano
thrust belt are remarkably similar between 19.5 and by 25 Ma [Horton et al., 2002]. Transition from
21.5°S (Figure 10b). A variety of methods have been used foredeep to intermontane sedimentation 21 – 25 Ma is
to estimate exhumation magnitudes across the southern immediately followed by a severe reduction (but not com-
Bolivia portion of the thrust belt: vitrinite reflectance and plete cessation) of upper crustal deformation throughout the
illite crystallinity (at 21.5°S) [Kley and Reinhardt, 1994], EC [Horton, 2005]. And finally, kinematic reconstructions
representative stratigraphy (this study), mass deficits in- suggest IA exhumation (and potentially the onset of SA
ferred from a balanced section (this study), and thermo- exhumation as well) both across and along strike 15–
chronology (19.5 – 21.5°S) [Ege et al., 2007; this study]. 20 Ma is associated with the onset of lower basement
In summary, exhumation magnitudes generally range from deformation signifying the modern width of the plateau
4 – 7 km in the EC (but may exceed that locally up to was established by this time [McQuarrie, 2002; Barnes
< 8.5 km) with the vitrinite and illite data suggesting, in et al., 2006; and this study].
particular, the Ordovician rocks were buried to great depths [58] The northern EC experienced a second exhumation
(5 – 7 km) 350 Ma, and subsequently exhumed either phase during the middle to late Miocene (11 – 15 Ma) to
(1) at a constant rate to the surface or (2) to 2 – 3 km present [Benjamin et al., 1987; Barnes et al., 2006; Gillis et
depths by 300 Ma, followed by recent rapid exhumation al., 2006; Safran et al., 2006; McQuarrie et al., 2008]. This
to the surface in the Tertiary [Kley and Reinhardt, 1994]. young (<28 Ma) exhumation is unrelated to deformation
In the IA, exhumation estimates range from 4 – 6 km as constrained by the maximum age of growth structures in
(and < 8.5 km) with the Devonian rocks supposedly first the local synorogenic sediments of the Luribay and Salla
buried by 4 – 6 km of sediments that were later eroded by formations [McFadden et al., 1985; Sempere et al., 1990;
the end of the Carboniferous, and subsequently followed a Lamb and Hoke, 1997; Kay et al., 1998; Gillis et al., 2006;
similar thermal history to the SA to the present [Kley and McQuarrie et al., 2008]. SA exhumation began in the west
Reinhardt, 1994]. Finally, estimates range from 2 to 8 – 20 Ma all along strike [Moretti et al., 1996; Ege et al.,
<5 km in the SA (Figure 10b and Table 4) [see also Kley 2003; Barnes et al., 2006; Scheuber et al., 2006], perhaps
and Reinhardt, 1994; Ege et al., 2007]. Estimated rates contemporaneous with a third exhumation pulse (11 – 16 Ma)
of exhumation in southern Bolivia range from 0.1 to
20 of 25
in the southern EC back-thrust belt (19.5°S) related to weakening is commonly considered a precondition of the
deformation or postdeformation erosion. The northern Alti- early Eocene through Oligocene distributed deformation in
plano experienced late Miocene exhumation and deforma- the plateau region because of shortening and magmatism
tion between 5 – 11 Ma constrained by mapping, [e.g., Isacks, 1988; Francis and Hawkesworth, 1994;
thermochronology, sedimentology of neotectonic strata, Wdowinski and Bock, 1994]. However, deformation gener-
and geochronology of volcanic rocks [Lamb and Hoke, ally precedes magmatism [e.g., Elger et al., 2005; Ege et al.,
1997; Barnes et al., 2006; McQuarrie et al., 2008]. In 2007; and this study] and the regional time-space distribution
contrast, the last gasps of shortening in the southern of deformation and magmatism precludes a direct connec-
Altiplano and EC ceased by 7 – 13 Ma [Gubbels et al., tion between the two because they vary independently
1993; Kennan et al., 1995; Lamb and Hoke, 1997; Horton, [Trumbull et al., 2006]. Second, the proposal that mantle
1998; Müller et al., 2002; Ege et al., 2007]. Finally, delamination caused 2 – 3+ km of rapid Andean plateau
exhumation is consistent with an eastward migration surface uplift 6 – 10 Ma also implies concomitant eastward
through the central and eastern SA during the Mio-Pliocene propagation of accelerated deformation into the SA
(2 – 8 Ma) in the south (19.5 – 21.5°S) [Ege et al., 2003; [Garzione et al., 2006; Ghosh et al., 2006]. The SA exhu-
Scheuber et al., 2006], but maybe more spatially uniform mation and deformation history is certainly consistent with
and somewhat earlier (5 – 12 Ma at 1s uncertainty; 4 – activation 8 Ma [Echavarria et al., 2003; Ege et al., 2003;
19 Ma at 2s) in the north [Barnes et al., 2006]. However, Barnes et al., 2006; Scheuber et al., 2006; and this study].
detailed analyses of structural geometries and isolated However, several western SA thermochronometer samples
geochronology suggest some out-of-sequence deformation are also consistent with earlier initial cooling 10– 20 Ma
in the SA [Baby et al., 1995; Roeder and Chamberlain, [Barnes et al., 2006; and this study] implying a more gradual
1995; Moretti et al., 1996; Barke, 2004]. eastward migration of deformation from the IA starting
[59] Comparison of exhumation magnitudes along strike 20 Ma which may not be consistent with the delamination
(15 –21.5°S) suggests most significant variations in the EC model.
with only minor differences in the Altiplano, IA, and SA. [62] We interpret the central Andean fold-thrust belt to be
Exhumation magnitudes for the Altiplano range from 2 – deforming as a Coulomb wedge which seeks to maintain
4 km [see also Barnes et al., 2006]. Reset biotite and taper by both eastward propagation and out-of-sequence
muscovite 40Ar/39Ar and ZFT ages in the northern EC deformation [Dahlen and Suppe, 1988; Dahlen, 1990;
fore-thrust belt suggest 9 – 11 km of Tertiary erosion Willett, 1992]. The early Eocene-Oligocene distributed
[e.g., Gillis et al., 2006] whereas local maximums from plateau region deformation could represent episodes of
the southern portion range from 6 – 8 km (Figure 10b) [see alternating wedge conditions leading to both propagation
also Ege et al., 2007]. However, neither 40Ar/39Ar nor ZFT and significant internal deformation, whereas the eastward
ages have been measured in the southern EC fore-thrust propagation since 20 Ma could represent a more stable
belt. Estimates for the EC back-thrust belt are 3 – 6 km condition promoting advance at a potentially reduced rate
with unreset ZFT ages limiting the maximum to < 8.5 km (Table 4). Evidence of out-of-sequence SA deformation
(Figure 10b) [McQuarrie et al., 2008]. The best estimates 6 Ma [Moretti et al., 1996; Barke, 2004] suggests some
for the IA are 5– 9 km in the north and from 4 – 6 km relatively recent readjustments of the wedge to rebuilt taper.
in the south IA with Paleozoic ZFT ages limiting the The history and changing modes of deformation of a central
maximum to < 8 km in the south [see also McQuarrie Andes ancient analog, the Nevadaplano and Sevier fold-
et al., 2008]. Finally, estimates for the SA in the north are thrust belt in the western United States [e.g., DeCelles,
3 – 4 km (from reset young component AFT ages) with an 2004], has been previously interpreted this way [DeCelles
upper limit of < 7 km from unreset zircon (U-Th)/He ages and Mitra, 1995]. The latitudinal contrast in erosion, which
[Barnes et al., 2006]. The best southern SA estimates are is believed to have existed since potentially as early as the
3 km by AFT samples exhumed from PAZ temperatures. late Miocene [Horton, 1999; Barnes and Pelletier, 2006], is
[60] Estimated rates of deformation in Bolivia (15 – probably effecting the wedge as suggested by (1) a larger
19.5°S) are similar. The EC and IA regions shortened at magnitude of concentrated exhumation in the northern EC
rates of 7– 11 mm/a from 25– 40 Ma (Figures 9 and 10) (9 – 11 km) compared to more distributed and limited
[see also McQuarrie et al., 2008]. The SA shortened at rates exhumation in the south (<8.5 km) constrained by ZFT
of 4 or 8 mm/a depending on initiation of deformation and 40Ar/39Ar thermochronometers [Benjamin et al., 1987;
either 15 –20 Ma or 8 Ma [McQuarrie et al., 2008]. Gillis et al., 2006; this study] and (2) younger and mixed
Average shortening rates at 21.5°S are 0 – 8 mm/a since 30– reset AFT cooling ages in the northern SA [Barnes et al.,
46 Ma, 5 – 10 mm/a since 10– 30 Ma, and 6 – 14 mm/a since 2006] compared to the unreset and discordant Mesozoic
10 Ma [Elger et al., 2005; Oncken et al., 2006]. AFT cooling ages in the southern SA [Scheuber et al., 2006;
this study].
5.7. Implications for Plateau Growth Models
[61] The integrated exhumation and deformation record 6. Summary and Conclusions
discussed above provides important constraints on central
Andean plateau growth and allows associated insights into [63] This study presents 23 new apatite and zircon fission
proposed models of plateau evolution. First, lithospheric track (AFT and ZFT) analyses spanning the entire central
21 of 25
Andean fold-thrust belt at its widest extent in Bolivia at deformation mostly propagated eastward from the IA with
19.5°S. Exhumation histories were quantified with ther- evidence for minor out-of-sequence deformation in the
mal modeling, interpreted in the context of the regional central-to-eastern SA.
geology, stratigraphy, geothermal gradients, and mass def-
icits inferred from a balanced section, and then integrated
with previous kinematic reconstructions and associated
Appendix A: Representative Stratigraphy
foreland basin deposits to refine the chronology and rate [69] Representative stratigraphic sections were con-
of deformation. Primary conclusions of this study are: structed from measurements of the balanced and restored
[64] 1. Cooling histories inverted from the AFT data are section of McQuarrie [2002] (Figures 2 and 4). We describe
consistent with Eocene to recent rapid cooling. (1) Distrib- the methodology proceeding from west to east and upsec-
uted exhumation of the Eastern Cordillera (EC) occurred in tion from the Ordovician through the Tertiary. Stratigraphic
the late Eocene to earliest Oligocene (27 – 36 Ma) and thicknesses and sample location errors are estimated to be
continued during the late Oligocene to early Miocene ±20% arbitrarily, but are not included for brevity.
(19 –25 Ma), (2) exhumation of the eastern Altiplano began [70] We estimate the average thickness of the Ordovician
anytime from 3 to 30 Ma, (3) exhumation across most of the at 5.5 km in the EC. The Silurian thins eastward from 4.2 to
Interandean zone (IA) began 19– 22 Ma, (4) exhumation of 1.2 km with averages of 2725 m and 1500 m for the back-
the western Subandes (SA) began 8 – 20 Ma, perhaps thrust and fore-thrust zones, respectively. The Devonian is
contemporaneous with a third exhumation pulse (11 – absent in most of the EC except for the eastern margin
16 Ma) in the EC back-thrust belt, and (5) exhumation of where it thickens rapidly to a maximum of 1650 m at the
the central-to-western SA propagated eastward during the EC-IA boundary for an average of 825 m in the EC fore-
late Miocene-Pliocene (2– 8 Ma). thrust belt. Presumably, the EC Devonian rocks were eroded
[65] 2. The exhumation chronologies characterize EC in pre-Mesozoic time [McQuarrie and DeCelles, 2001]. The
deformation as distributed, as opposed to previous kinemat- Carboniferous section is missing, the Mesozoic rocks are
ic reconstructions that assumed in-sequence deformation in 1500 m thick, and Tertiary rocks are only present locally
the direction of transport. However, Miocene to recent [e.g., Horton, 2005].
(0 – 20 Ma) exhumation of the IA and SA is consistent [71] The Ordovician thins eastward (4.15 – 1.65 km) with
with in-sequence deformation progressing eastward toward an average thickness of 2.9 km in the IA. The Silurian thins
the Chaco foreland. We propose that the propagation of eastward from 2.5 to 1.25 km for an average of 1875 m. The
deformation from the EC toward the SA, marked by average Devonian thickness is 2.5 km because it thickens
uniform IA exhumation 19– 22 Ma, indicates a switch from eastward from 1.65 to 3.35 km. The Carboniferous is absent
a higher to lower basement structure. The cessation of most here. The Mesozoic rocks range from 850 m thick to absent
EC exhumation signifies establishment of the modern from east to west for an average of 425 m. Tertiary rocks are
Andean plateau width and substantial crustal thickness not present regionally.
briefly thereafter by 15– 20 Ma. [72] Minimal Devonian is exposed in the SA, but it
[66] 3. Exhumation magnitudes decrease laterally from supposedly thins from 3950 to 500 m for an average of
local maximums of <8 km in the EC fore-thrust belt to 2225 m. The average Carboniferous thickness is 1700
average values of 4 – 7 km, 2.5– 3 km in the Altiplano, because it ranges from 1150 to 2250 m. Mesozoic units
4 – 6 km in the IA, and 3 km in the SA. Paleozoic ZFT range from 520 to 1200 m thick for an average of 860 m.
ages constrain maximum exhumation of the EC back-thrust Finally, Tertiary sediment thicknesses vary greatly among
belt and IA to < 8.5 km. the constraints, but average 3 km with a range from 2 to 4 km.
[67] 4. Shortening rates across the EC and IA from 40 to [73] Studies tracked the early mid-Tertiary migration of
10 –20 Ma range from 7 to 11 mm/a. Shortening rates the central Andean foreland basin system as a proxy of the
across the SA since 8 or 20 Ma range from 9 to 4 mm/a. hinterland thrust belt evolution [DeCelles and Horton,
These rates suggest the Miocene to recent rates either 2003; Horton, 2005; McQuarrie et al., 2005]. This suggests
decreased by half from the long-term average of 8 mm/a that Tertiary foreland deposits existed outboard the thrust
or remained about the same or slightly increased depending belt to the east which was subsequently uplifted and mostly
on the age of initial SA deformation and the end of EC eroded from the EC and IA. Consequently, we assume a
deformation. uniform 3-km-thick Tertiary foreland section from the EC
[68] Finally, we draw three important generalizations through the SA in our representative sections [after Barnes
from the integrated record of central Andean fold-thrust and Pelletier, 2006].
belt exhumation, deformation, and sedimentation through-
out Bolivia; (A) Deformation began in the EC 35– 40 Ma
and continued in a distributed manner throughout the Appendix B: Analytical Procedures
Altiplano and EC regions until 20– 25 Ma with minor, [74] Mineral separations and fission track analyses were
isolated deformation continuing until 10 Ma. (B) Uniform performed using standard techniques by Apatite to Zircon,
exhumation in the southern IA 18 – 22 Ma signifies Inc. Apatite and zircon concentrates were created using
establishment of the modern width of the Andean plateau standard heavy-liquid techniques [see Donelick et al., 2005,
with unknown, but significant crustal thickness shortly Appendix 1]. Apatite grains were immersed in an epoxy
thereafter by 15 –20 Ma. (C) From 20 Ma to present, resin that was cured at 90°C for 1 h. The cured mounts were
22 of 25
polished to expose grain surfaces, followed by etching in Ketcham, 2005] with the Cf irradiation option activated.
5.5 N HNO3 for 20.0 s (±0.5 s) at 21°C (±1°C) to reveal all We used 2s uncertainty, included Dpar values, and both the
natural fission tracks. Zircon grains were mounted in FEP traditional zeta and LA-ICPMS ratio methods as appropriate
Teflon. The zircon mounts were also polished followed by with the age and length data.
immersion in a eutectic melt of NaOH + KOH at 210°C [79] For each sample, an initial, open-ended model was
(±10°C) for 37 h and 10 min to adequately reveal the performed with all sample data as one kinetic population
naturally occurring tracks. with a starting temperature of (1) 200°C at a time that is 50
[75] Most AFT analyses and all ZFT analyses presented Ma older than deposition and (2) 20°C at present. This
here used the laser ablation (LA-ICPMS) method of model was run to assess how distinct the recent cooling
Donelick et al. [2005]. Age standards used to calculate history is without bias from multiple user-defined con-
the LA-ICPMS zeta calibration factor were (1) Durango straints. Next, a more refined model was run by imposing
apatite (30.6 ± 0.3 Ma) from Cerro de Mercado, Mexico, additional geologic constraints such as a fixed 10– 30°C
and (2) Fish Canyon zircon (27.9 ± 0.7 Ma) from the San temperature equal to the deposition age and a fixed 50–
Juan Mountains, Colorado. AFT sample 713– 5B and 714– 180°C temperature equal in age to either (1) the 2s range in
1B analyses used the external detector method [e.g., Gal- the concordant pooled age or the 2s range in discordant
lagher et al., 1998]. The age standard used to calculate the component age(s) (if available) or (2) between the sample
traditional zeta factor was the same Durango apatite. A zeta depositional age and 1 Ma for discordant samples to allow
calibration factor of 113.8 ± 2.9 (1s) (for RAD) was used. for the maximum flexibility in attempted thermal history
[76] Following age analysis, grain mounts were irradiated paths explored. These models defined the envelope of
by a 252Cf source in a vacuum to enhance the measurability permissible thermal histories given the samples’ local geo-
of the natural tracks [Donelick and Miller, 1991]. The logic context. Since we cannot delineate component ages
irradiated grain mounts were reimmersed in 5.5 N HNO3 and kinetic populations for discordant samples, we followed
for 20.0 s (±0.5 s) at 21°C (±1°C) to reveal any horizontal, this conservative approach and report the refined model
confined tracks. Both the track lengths and their angle results. This approach allows for identification of the full
relative to the crystallographic c axis were recorded. For range of sample cooling histories permitted by all measured
each apatite grain age and track length, a mean Dpar value ages and track lengths.
was determined from 1 to 4 measurements. [80] Modeled thermal history segments were designated
as episodic style, monotonic, and random spacing with
halved 5 times (5E) to provide the most simple. yet
Appendix C: AFT Data Analysis and Thermal flexible (‘‘allowed complexity’’) style of cooling paths
Modeling between constraints [Ketcham, 2005]. A 40°C/Ma maxi-
[77] We used BinomFit to deconvolve the component mum cooling/heating rate was imposed on all segments.
ages for sample 714 – 1B because it is both discordant and Inversions were run with a Monte Carlo search and 50,000
was analyzed with the external detector method. The new attempted paths.
LA-ICPMS-derived data are not compatible with BinomFit
because a non-Poissonian counting process is used in the [81] Acknowledgments. We thank SERGEOTECMIN of La Paz,
Bolivia, and especially Jaime Tito for logistical support. Nadja Insel
measurement of the U, Ca, and Si isotopes, and thus the assisted in the field. Financial support was provided to T. Ehlers by NSF
same statistical techniques cannot be applied. Consequently, grant EAR 0409289 and by a University of Michigan Scott Turner Award in
we conservatively modeled all the remaining sample AFT the Earth Sciences to J. Barnes. Discussions with B. Horton were also
helpful. Reviews by J. Spotila, V. Ramos, and Associate Editor M.
data as one kinetic population. Rushmore greatly improved the manuscript.
[78] We conducted inverse thermal modeling of the AFT
data with HeFTy beta version 6 [Ehlers et al., 2005;
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Thermochronometer record of Central Andean Plateau growth, Bolivia (19.5°S)

Article in Tectonics · June 2008

Jason B. Barnes Todd A. Ehlers

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Nadine McQuarrie Paul B. O'Sullivan

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Deep-time Thermochronology and Craton Evolution View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

plateau surface uplift occurred 6 – 10 Ma by lithospheric

Table 1. Apatite Fission Track Dataa

Table 2. Zircon Fission Track Dataa

WC to EC 200 – 250a 45 – 70 8 – 10a – –

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Barnes Etal 2008TECT

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Barnes Etal 2008TECT

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Thermochronometer record of Central Andean Plateau growth, Bolivia (19.5°S)

Article in Tectonics · June 2008

Jason B. Barnes Todd A. Ehlers

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Nadine McQuarrie Paul B. O'Sullivan

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Deep-time Thermochronology and Craton Evolution View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

plateau surface uplift occurred 6 – 10 Ma by lithospheric

Table 1. Apatite Fission Track Dataa

Table 2. Zircon Fission Track Dataa

WC to EC 200 – 250a 45 – 70 8 – 10a – –

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plateau surface uplift occurred 6 – 10 Ma by lithospheric