Diagnose and repair exhaust systems

Student Learner Resource Material

For the following units:

AURTTZ102 – Diagnose and repair exhaust systems

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CONTENTS

LESSON ONE ................................................................................ 5

VEHICLE EXHAUST SYSTEM COMPONENTS ............................ 5

Scavenging ............................................................................................... 6
COMPONENTS ........................................................................................ 6
EXHAUST MANIFOLD ............................................................................. 7
Headers / Extractors ................................................................................. 7
HEAT RISER ............................................................................................ 9
Exhaust Gaskets ....................................................................................... 9
EXHAUST PIPE ...................................................................................... 10
CATALYTIC CONVERTER ..................................................................... 10
MUFFLER ............................................................................................... 11
RESONATOR ......................................................................................... 12
TAIL PIPE ............................................................................................... 12
EXHAUST NOISE ................................................................................... 12
Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) ................................................................. 12

LESSON TWO ............................................................................. 15

VEHICLE EXHAUST SYSTEM COMPONENTS OPERATION .... 15

Catalytic Converter's Construction .......................................................... 16
Placement of catalytic converters ........................................................... 17
Variants of DPFs ..................................................................................... 20

LESSON THREE ......................................................................... 23

SYSTEM TESTING AND REPAIR ............................................... 23

Personal Safety ....................................................................................... 24
EXHAUST RESTRICTION ...................................................................... 25
CHECKING FOR LEAKS ........................................................................ 26
FINDING THE RATTLE .......................................................................... 27
TESTING FOR RESTRICTIONS ............................................................ 28
TESTING THE HEAT RISER .................................................................. 30
SERVICING THE HEAT RISER .............................................................. 32

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Catalytic Converter Faults ....................................................................... 32

Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) Maintenance ........................................... 34
DPF Regeneration .................................................................................. 35
Catalytic Converter Removal .................................................................. 36
Muffler removal ....................................................................................... 37
Final checks ............................................................................................ 38

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LESSON ONE

Vehicle Exhaust System Components

UNDERPINNING KNOWLEDGE
• Organisation and planning processes
• The identification of application, purpose
• The identification of component parts

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Though a relatively simple part of your car, the exhaust system is very
important when it comes to preventive maintenance. Leaks must be discovered
and promptly repaired, because carbon monoxide can be fatal if allowed to
enter the passenger compartment. This booklet contains testing and repair
procedures you can do yourself to keep your car’s exhaust system in good
condition.

Scavenging
Scavenging is a type of gas exchange process in which combustion product of
fuel removed by blowing fresh air into the cylinder. The scavenging takes place
during overlapping of valves or ports (when both inlet valve and exhaust valve
or both transfer port and exhaust port open at the same time). This process is
necessary for smooth running of the both four-stroke and two-stroke engine.

Engine back pressure

Engine exhaust backpressure is defined as the exhaust gas pressure that is
produced by the engine to overcome the hydraulic resistance of the exhaust
system in order to discharge the gases into the atmosphere

Exhaust Features
Features an exhaust system should have

• The system must be sealed to prevent the escape of exhaust gasses

• The pipes must be heat resistant to a high degree
• The pipes cannot be routed close to anything flammable
• The system must be tuned (performance engines only)

All modern fuel injected vehicles utilize an oxygen sensor to measure how
much oxygen is present in the exhaust. From this the computer can add or
subtract fuel to obtain the correct mixture for maximum fuel economy. The
oxygen sensor is mounted in the exhaust manifold or close to it in the exhaust
pipe.

COMPONENTS
The exhaust system begins with manifolds on the engine and ends with the tail
pipe. Basically, it includes an exhaust manifold, heat riser, exhaust pipe,
catalytic converter, muffler, resonator (optional), and tail pipe. Following is a
closer look at each component.

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EXHAUST MANIFOLD
The exhaust manifold collects the burned gases as they are expelled from the
engine cylinders and directs them to the exhaust pipe.

Headers / Extractors
Exhaust extractors are used to boost horsepower, torque, and improve fuel
efficiency. It allows the exhaust to flow out of the engine with less restriction,
and pull used gases away from the combustion system through a scavenging
process.
During an exhaust stroke, the power of the escaping gases creates a pulse of
energy that helps to pull any remaining exhaust away from the combustion
chamber. The engine can then get the fuel and air it needs to function at peak
efficiency because there are no gases obstructing the flow.

4-2-1 Headers
As the name implies, the headers start from 4 pipes that merge into 2 pipes and
those merge into 1 pipe. You can see from the headers below how this design
plays out. For most cars, this design produces more mid range power with the
sacrifice of top end power. Mid range power is great for the street since when
you drive you usually do not rev your motor close to redline. Instead, you keep
the revs somewhere in the middle, usually shifting at 3-6K, and this is where
the headers shine. Do note that not all 4-2-1 headers produce more mid range
power at the expense of top end. Some high quality headers are able to

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improve top end as much as they improve the mid range. This is more the
exception than the rule as most headers that are 4-2-1 do produce more power
in the mid range, so the “seat of the pants” and “butt dyno” make these headers
feel stronger since the power band isn’t as high in the RPM range. This goes
the same for both 4 cylinder and 8 cylinder applications. Since on a V8 the
headers are 4 cylinder per side, you would simply have two 4-2-1 headers, one
on each side.

4-1 Headers
4-1 headers are designed so that all 4 exhaust pipes merge into one. In most
dyno tests, this produces the most top end power since it usually offers the best
flow characteristics for the engine at high engine speeds. 4-1 headers usually
move the power band up, which makes the bottom of the RPM band feel a bit
weak and the “seat of the pants” feel might not be as strong as a 4-2-1 header.
However, dyno tests have show that at low RPM there is very little difference in
power. The 4-1 headers usually have less back-pressure than the 4-2-1 header
and customers have stated their cars seem louder at high RPM with the 4-1
headers. Most headers that are street legal or CARB legal are usually of the 4-
2-1 design but there are exceptions. You can see the design of the 4-1 headers
in the picture on the right.

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HEAT RISER
A heat riser is a valve for carburetted systems, often located between the
exhaust manifold and exhaust pipe that routes a small amount of the exhaust
gases to the heat stove located in the intake manifold. These exhaust gases
provide the heat source for the stove, which is responsible for helping to
vaporize the air/fuel mixture passing through the intake manifold.

Exhaust Gaskets
There are gaskets throughout the exhaust system to help ensure that these
processes go smoothly. It is important that all of the exhaust gaskets provide a
firm, secure seal; otherwise, the gases will leak into other areas. Exhaust leaks
make the vehicle produce abnormal noises and can also be extremely
dangerous if gases like carbon monoxide leak into the inside of the vehicle.

There are three main types of gaskets in this system: the exhaust manifold
gasket, the exhaust flange gasket and header gaskets. The exhaust manifold
gasket is located between the engine head and the exhaust manifold. This
gasket is designed to withstand the extreme pressures from the cylinders and
high temperatures from the gases traveling through it.

It is made of metal, typically steel, on the manifold side and often has a fiber
material on the engine head side so that the manifold has a bit of moving room
against the metal part of the gasket. The exhaust flange gasket, also known as
a donut gasket, is located between the catalytic converter and the header pipe.
It is made to further improve the flow of the gases through the exhaust system
and is similar to the manifold gasket in that it is also typically made of steel and
can withstand high temperatures.

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EXHAUST PIPE
Besides safely transferring the exhaust gases between the exhaust manifold
and catalytic converter (or muffler, in earlier model vehicles), the exhaust pipe
reduces noise as well.
CATALYTIC CONVERTER
A catalytic converter is a device that uses a catalyst to convert three harmful
compounds such as hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides in car
exhaust into harmless compounds.
In a catalytic converter, the catalyst (in the form of platinum and palladium) is
coated onto a ceramic honeycomb or ceramic beads that are housed in a
muffler-like package attached to the exhaust pipe. The catalyst helps to convert
carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. It converts the hydrocarbons into carbon
dioxide and water. It also converts the nitrogen oxides back into nitrogen and
oxygen
The first widespread introduction of catalytic converters was in the United
States automobile market. To comply with the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency's stricter regulation of exhaust emissions, most petrol-powered vehicles
starting with the 1975 model year are equipped with catalytic converters. These
"two-way" converters combine oxygen with carbon monoxide (CO)
and unburned hydrocarbons (CₙHₙ) to produce carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water (H2O). In 1981, two-way catalytic converters were rendered obsolete
by "three-way" converters that also reduce oxides of nitrogen (NOx); however,
two-way converters are still used for lean-burn engines. This is because three-
way-converters require either rich or stoichiometric combustion to successfully
reduce NOx.
Although catalytic converters are most commonly applied to exhaust systems in
automobiles, they are also used on electrical generators, forklifts, mining
equipment, trucks, buses, locomotives, motorcycles, and on ships. They are
even used on some wood stoves to control emissions. This is usually in
response to government regulation, either through direct environmental
regulation or through health and safety regulations.

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MUFFLER
Mufflers are installed within the exhaust system of most internal combustion
engines. The muffler is engineered as an acoustic device to reduce
the loudness of the sound pressure created by the engine by acoustic quieting.
The noise of the burning-hot exhaust gas exiting the engine at high speed is
abated by a series of passages and chambers lined with
roving fiberglass insulation and/or resonating chambers harmonically tuned to
cause destructive interference, wherein opposite sound waves cancel each
other out.

An unavoidable side effect of this noise reduction is restriction of the exhaust

gas flow, which creates back pressure, which can decrease engine efficiency.
This is because the engine exhaust must share the same complex exit pathway
built inside the muffler as the sound pressure that the muffler is designed to
mitigate.

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Front or reverse mufflers reduce the noise level of the engine to a more
acceptable level, while still maintaining gas flow

The tri flow muffler also known as an interference muffler, has 3 internal baffles
that are perforated to channel the sound to bounce up and down, this reduces
the volume of the sound before the sound continues towards the rear of the
vehicle.

RESONATOR
A resonator is nothing more than a secondary muffler designed to reduce noise
level even further. It is usually found on a vehicle having a long wheelbase and
powered by a high-performance engine. It can be located in front of or behind
the muffler.

TAIL PIPE
The tail pipe transfers the exhaust gases from the muffler to the back of the
vehicle, where they exit.

EXHAUST NOISE
The most common sign of failure of an exhaust system component is a leak
that increases the noise level of the escaping gases. While the noise is
distracting, the escaping gas itself is much more dangerous to human beings.
Carbon monoxide leaks can cause headache, drowsiness, nausea,
unconsciousness, and finally death.

Noise / Sound is pressure and is measured in Decibels. Road vehicles are

required by law to meet set standards. Excessive noise is a form of
environmental pollution.

Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)

The purpose of the diesel particulate filter of exhaust after-treatment is to
reduce the emission of soot particles, which are released into the atmosphere
at full load and during transitory operation of a diesel engine.

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Wall-flow diesel particulate filters usually remove 85% or more of the soot, and
under certain conditions can attain soot removal efficiencies approaching
100%. Some filters are single-use, intended for disposal and replacement once
full of accumulated ash. Others are designed to burn off the accumulated
particulate either passively through the use of a catalyst or by active means
such as a fuel burner which heats the filter to soot combustion temperatures.
This is accomplished by engine programming to run (when the filter is full) in a
manner that elevates exhaust temperature, in conjunction with an extra fuel
injector in the exhaust stream that injects fuel to react with a catalyst element to
burn off accumulated soot in the DPF filter, or through other methods.

This is known as filter regeneration. Cleaning is also required as part of periodic

maintenance, and it must be done carefully to avoid damaging the filter. Failure
of fuel injectors or turbochargers resulting in contamination of the filter with raw
diesel or engine oil can also necessitate cleaning. The regeneration process
occurs at road speeds higher than can generally be attained on city streets;
vehicles driven exclusively at low speeds in urban traffic can require periodic
trips at higher speeds to clean out the DPF.
If the driver ignores the warning light and waits too long to operate the vehicle
above 60 km/h, the DPF may not regenerate properly, and continued operation
past that point may spoil the DPF completely so it must be replaced. Some
newer diesel engines, namely those installed in combination vehicles, can also
perform what is called a Parked Regeneration, where the engine increases
RPM to around 1400 while parked, to increase the temperature of the exhaust.

Diesel engines produce a variety of particles during combustion of the fuel/air

mix due to incomplete combustion. The composition of the particles varies
widely dependent upon engine type, age, and the emissions specification that
the engine was designed to meet. Two-stroke diesel engines produce more
particulate per unit of power than do four-stroke diesel engines, as they burn
the fuel-air mix less completely.

Diesel particulate matter resulting from the incomplete combustion of diesel

fuel produces soot (black carbon) particles. These particles include
tiny nanoparticles—smaller than one micrometre (one micron). Soot and other
particles from diesel engines worsen the particulate matter pollution in the air
and are harmful to health.

New particulate filters can capture from 30% to greater than 95% of the harmful
soot. With an optimal diesel particulate filter (DPF), soot emissions may be
decreased to 0.001 g/km or less.

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The quality of the fuel also influences the formation of these particles. For
example, a high sulphur content diesel produces more particles. Lower sulphur
fuel produces fewer particles, and allows use of particulate filters. The injection
pressure of diesel also influences the formation of fine particles.

The key points of a Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)

• They filter diesel soot particles

• The DPF needs to be cleaned regularly
• Soot is burned off at high temperatures (around 600°c)
• DPF clean is carried out during normal driving

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LESSON TWO

Vehicle Exhaust System Components Operation

UNDERPINNING KNOWLEDGE
• Organisation and planning processes
• The identification of application, purpose and operation
• The identification of component parts
• The function of components

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Catalytic Converter's Construction

The catalyst support or substrate. For automotive catalytic converters, the core
is usually a ceramic monolith that has a honeycomb structure (commonly
square, not hexagonal). (Prior to the mid 1980s, the catalyst material was
deposited on a packed bed of alumina pellets in early GM applications.)
Metallic foil monoliths made of Kanthal (FeCrAl) are used in applications where
particularly high heat resistance is required. The substrate is structured to
produce a large surface area.

The washcoat. A washcoat is a carrier for the catalytic materials and is used to
disperse the materials over a large surface area. Aluminum oxide, titanium
dioxide, silicon dioxide, or a mixture of silica and alumina can be used. The
catalytic materials are suspended in the washcoat prior to applying to the core.
Washcoat materials are selected to form a rough, irregular surface, which
greatly increases the surface area compared to the smooth surface of the bare
substrate. This in turn maximizes the catalytically active surface available to
react with the engine exhaust. The coat must retain its surface area and
prevent sintering of the catalytic metal particles even at high temperatures
(1000 °C).

Ceria or ceria-zirconia. These oxides are mainly added as oxygen storage

promoters.
The catalyst itself is most often a mix of precious metals, mostly from
the platinum group. Platinum is the most active catalyst and is widely used, but
is not suitable for all applications because of unwanted additional reactions and
high cost. Palladium and rhodium are two other precious metals used. Rhodium
is used as a reduction catalyst, palladium is used as an oxidation catalyst, and
platinum is used both for reduction and oxidation. Cerium, iron, manganese,
and nickel are also used, although each has limitations.

Upon failure, a catalytic converter can be recycled into scrap. The precious
metals inside the converter, including platinum, palladium, and rhodium, are
extracted.

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Placement of catalytic converters

Catalytic converters require a temperature of 800 degrees Fahrenheit (426 °C)
to operate effectively. Therefore, they are placed as close to the engine as
possible, or one or more smaller catalytic converters (known as "pre-cats") are
placed immediately after the exhaust manifold.

Two-way catalytic converters

A 2-way (or "oxidation", sometimes called an "oxi-cat") catalytic converter has
two simultaneous tasks:

1. Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2

2. Oxidation of hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially burned fuel) to carbon
dioxide and water: CxH2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2] O2 → x CO2 + (x+1) H2O (a
combustion reaction)
This type of catalytic converter is widely used on diesel engines to reduce
hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on petrol
engines in American- and Canadian-market automobiles until 1981. Because of
their inability to control oxides of nitrogen, they were superseded by three-way
converters.

Three-way catalytic converters

Three-way catalytic converters have the additional advantage of controlling the
emission of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (both together
abbreviated with NOx and not to be confused with nitrous oxide (N2O)), which
are precursors to acid rain and smog.
Since 1981, "three-way" (oxidation-reduction) catalytic converters have been
used in vehicle emission control systems in the United States and Canada;
many other countries have also adopted stringent vehicle emission
regulations that in effect require three-way converters on petrol-powered
vehicles. The reduction and oxidation catalysts are typically contained in a
common housing; however, in some instances, they may be housed separately.
A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks:

Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen (N2)

Oxidation of carbon, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide

These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter
receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above the stoichiometric point.
For petrol combustion, this ratio is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to one part

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fuel, by weight. The ratio for autogas (or liquefied petroleum gas LPG), natural
gas, and ethanol fuels can be significantly different for each, notably so
with oxygenated or alcohol based fuels, with e85 requiring approximately 34%
more fuel, requiring modified fuel system tuning and components when using
those fuels. In general, engines fitted with 3-way catalytic converters are
equipped with a computerized closed-loop feedback fuel injection system using
one or more oxygen sensors, though early in the deployment of three-way
converters, carburettors equipped with feedback mixture control were used.

Three-way converters are effective when the engine is operated within a narrow
band of air-fuel ratios near the stoichiometric point, such that the exhaust gas
composition oscillates between rich (excess fuel) and lean (excess oxygen).
Conversion efficiency falls very rapidly when the engine is operated outside of
this band. Under lean engine operation, the exhaust contains excess oxygen,
and the reduction of NOx is not favored. Under rich conditions, the excess fuel
consumes all of the available oxygen prior to the catalyst, leaving only oxygen
stored in the catalyst available for the oxidation function.
Closed-loop engine control systems are necessary for effective operation of
three-way catalytic converters because of the continuous balancing required for
effective NOx reduction and HC oxidation. The control system must prevent
the NOx reduction catalyst from becoming fully oxidized, yet replenish the
oxygen storage material so that its function as an oxidation catalyst is
maintained.
Three-way catalytic converters can store oxygen from the exhaust gas stream,
usually when the air–fuel ratio goes lean. When sufficient oxygen is not
available from the exhaust stream, the stored oxygen is released and
consumed (see cerium(IV) oxide). A lack of sufficient oxygen occurs either
when oxygen derived from NOx reduction is unavailable or when certain
manoeuvres such as hard acceleration enrich the mixture beyond the ability of
the converter to supply oxygen.

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Unwanted reactions
Unwanted reactions can occur in the three-way catalyst, such as the formation
of odoriferous hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. Formation of each can be limited
by modifications to the washcoat and precious metals used. It is difficult to
eliminate these byproducts entirely. Sulfur-free or low-sulfur fuels eliminate or
reduce hydrogen sulfide.

For example, when control of hydrogen-sulfide emissions is

desired, nickel or manganese is added to the washcoat. Both substances act to
block the absorption of sulfur by the washcoat. Hydrogen sulfide forms when
the washcoat has absorbed sulfur during a low-temperature part of the
operating cycle, which is then released during the high-temperature part of the
cycle and the sulfur combines with HC.

Diesel engine catalytic converters

For compression-ignition (i.e., diesel) engines, the most commonly used
catalytic converter is the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC). DOCs
contain palladium, platinum, and aluminium oxide, all of which
catalytically oxidize the particulate matter (PM), hydrocarbons, and carbon
monoxide with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

These converters often operate at 90 percent efficiency, virtually eliminating

diesel odor and helping reduce visible particulates. These catalysts do not
reduce NOx because any reductant present would react first with the high
concentration of O2 in diesel exhaust gas.
Reduction in NOx emissions from compression-ignition engines has previously
been addressed by the addition of exhaust gas to incoming air charge, known
as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).
In 2010, most light-duty diesel manufacturers in the U.S. added catalytic
systems to their vehicles to meet new federal emissions requirements. There
are two techniques that have been developed for the catalytic reduction of NO
x emissions under lean exhaust conditions, selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
and the NOx adsorber.
Instead of precious metal-containing NOx absorbers, most manufacturers
selected base-metal SCR systems that use a reagent such as ammonia to
reduce the NOx into nitrogen. Ammonia is supplied to the catalyst system by
the injection of urea into the exhaust, which then undergoes thermal
decomposition and hydrolysis into ammonia. The urea solution is also referred
to as Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF).
Diesel exhaust contains relatively high levels of PM. Catalytic converters
remove only 20–40% of PM so particulates are cleaned up by a soot trap

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or diesel particulate filter (DPF). In the U.S., all on-road light, medium and
heavy-duty vehicles powered by diesel and built after January 1, 2007, must
meet diesel particulate emission limits, meaning that they effectively have to be
equipped with a 2-way catalytic converter and a diesel particulate filter. As long
as the engine was manufactured before January 1, 2007, the vehicle is not
required to have the DPF system. This led to an inventory runup by engine
manufacturers in late 2006 so they could continue selling pre-DPF vehicles well
into 2007.

Lean-burn spark-ignition engines

For lean-burn spark-ignition engines, an oxidation catalyst is used in the same
manner as in a diesel engine. Emissions from lean burn spark ignition engines
are very similar to emissions from a diesel compression ignition engine.

Variants of DPFs

Unlike a catalytic converter which is a flow-through device, a DPF retains

bigger exhaust gas particles by forcing the gas to flow through the
filter; however, the DPF does not retain small particles and maintenance-free
DPFs break larger particles into smaller ones. There are a variety of diesel
particulate filter technologies on the market. Each is designed around similar
requirements:

1. Fine filtration
2. Minimum pressure drop
3. Low cost
4. Mass production suitability
5. Product durability

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Cordierite wall flow filters

The most common filter is made of cordierite (a ceramic material that is also
used as catalytic converter supports (cores)). Cordierite filters provide excellent
filtration efficiency, are relatively inexpensive, and have thermal properties that
make packaging them for installation in the vehicle simple. The major drawback
is that cordierite has a relatively low melting point (about 1200 °C) and
cordierite substrates have been known to melt during filter regeneration. This is
mostly an issue if the filter has become loaded more heavily than usual, and is
more of an issue with passive systems than with active systems, unless there is
a system breakdown.

Cordierite filter cores look like catalytic converter cores that have had alternate
channels plugged - the plugs force the exhaust gas flow through the wall and
the particulate collects on the inlet face.

Silicon carbide wall flow filter

The second most popular filter material is silicon carbide, or SiC. It has a higher
(2700 °C) melting point than cordierite, however, it is not as stable thermally,
making packaging an issue. Small SiC cores are made of single pieces, while
larger cores are made in segments, which are separated by a special cement
so that heat expansion of the core will be taken up by the cement, and not the
package. SiC cores are usually more expensive than cordierite cores, however
they are manufactured in similar sizes, and one can often be used to replace
the other. Silicon carbide filter cores also look like catalytic converter cores that
have had alternate channels plugged - again the plugs force the exhaust gas
flow through the wall and the particulate collects on the inlet face.

The characteristics of the wall flow diesel particulate filter substrate are:
• broad band filtration (the diameters of the filtered particles are 0.2–150
μm)
• high filtration efficiency (can be up to 95%)
• high refractory
• high mechanical properties
• high boiling point.

Ceramic fiber filters

Fibrous ceramic filters are made from several different types of ceramic fibers
that are mixed together to form a porous medium. This medium can be formed
into almost any shape and can be customized to suit various applications. The
porosity can be controlled in order to produce high flow, lower efficiency or high
efficiency lower volume filtration. Fibrous filters have an advantage over wall
flow design of producing lower back pressure.

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Fibrous ceramic filters remove carbon particulates almost completely, including

fine particulates less than 100 nanometres (nm) diameter with an efficiency of
greater than 95% in mass and greater than 99% in number of particles over a
wide range of engine operating conditions. Since the continuous flow of soot
into the filter would eventually block it, it is necessary to 'regenerate' the
filtration properties of the filter by burning off the collected particulate on a
regular basis. Soot particulate burn-off forms water and CO2 in small quantities
amounting to less than 0.05% of the CO2 emitted by the engine.

Metal fiber flow-through filter

Some cores are made from metal fibers – generally the fibers are "woven" into
a monolith. Such cores have the advantage that an electrical current can be
passed through the monolith to heat the core for regeneration purposes,
allowing the filter to regenerate at low exhaust temperatures and/or low exhaust
flow rates. Metal fiber cores tend to be more expensive than cordierite or silicon
carbide cores, and are generally not interchangeable with them because of the
electrical requirement.

Paper
Disposable paper cores are used in certain specialty applications, without a
regeneration strategy. Coal mines are common users – the exhaust gas is
usually first passed through a water trap to cool it, and then through the
filter. Paper filters are also used when a diesel machine must be used indoors
for short periods of time, such as on a forklift being used to install equipment
inside a store.

Partial filters
There are a variety of devices that produce over 50% particulate matter
filtration, but less than 85%. Partial filters come in a variety of materials. The
only commonality between them is that they produce more back pressure than
a catalytic converter, and less than a diesel particulate filter. Partial filter
technology is popular for retrofit.

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LESSON THREE

System Testing and repair

UNDERPINNING KNOWLEDGE
• WH&S and environmental regulations/requirements, equipment,
material and personal safety requirements
• repair procedures
• procedures to avoid damage to electronic systems/ components
• enterprise quality procedures
• work organisation and planning processes

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Personal Safety

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is an effective and necessary part of

Accident Prevention Programs. Protective equipment will prevent or decrease
the severity of many potential injuries and illnesses.

We all have our own ‘DUTY of CARE’ and are required to use the PPE
that is provided for us.
If the necessary equipment is not available to safely proceed with your task
DON’T TAKE THE RISK, take the time and make the effort to obtain what is
required to complete the job.

Other items of PPE you may be required to use include:

✓ Safety Glasses or Face Shield

✓ Hearing Protection (Ear Muffs or Plugs)
✓ Gloves (Not to be worn when using rotating
equipment e.g.
Pedestal drills or Bench grinders)

✓ Hair Protection (Tie long hair back or wear a

cap when operating rotating equipment)

✓ Dust Masks or Respirators

CAUTION: An additional hazard to be aware of in

the automotive trade is the wearing of RINGS,
BRACELETS or WATCHES with a metal body or wrist strap. If you touch a
voltage source, your body’s resistance can be very low if you have a ring on
your finger. In that state, even a lower voltage jolt could do you serious
damage.

Another good reason to avoid jewellry is that it can snag on things. For e.g. you
could damage a component or wiring.

Basic protection:
• Work clothing – such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear
• Eye protection – such as safety glasses and face masks
• Ear protection – such as earmuffs and earplugs
• Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream
• Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

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Ensure that you inspect all tools and equipment prior to you
For example: If your lead light has a faulty lead or connection
• Tag it as damaged

It is not safe to use equipment with any frayed leads.

Develop Safety Awareness

Awareness is an essential part of your skill and training. As long as you are
learning anything about your job, you should be learning how to do it safely. It
is a lifetime business

Store sealants in original containers in a cool dry place away from naked
flames.
Avoid contact with skin and eyes, and avoid breathing vapour.
If split absorb with clay, sand or earth. Wear protective gloves and eye
protection when mixing or using.
Use only in well ventilated area away from heat, sparks and naked flames. Be
aware of hot engine components.

You should be careful when working with exhaust pipes and components
because:
• Are very hot when engine has been running
• Keep clearance between wiring, fuel lines and body
• Ensure system is rubber mounted

Carbon monoxide is a poison for any air-breathing animal. Nitrogen oxides lead
to smog and acid rain, and hydrocarbons produce smog.

Some safety solutions when you work on a running engine in a workshop?

• Use exhaust extraction system

• Ensure workshop roller door is open
• Fans are used to move exhaust gases away from people

EXHAUST RESTRICTION
Exhaust restriction is caused when an excessive amount of pressure develops
in the system. A certain amount of backpressure is necessary to increase
engine performance and service life. However, too much of it can cause
mechanical engine failure, such as a burned valve. It can also overheat and
contaminate the incoming air/fuel mixture, thus reducing engine power
(especially at higher speeds) and increasing fuel consumption.

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Causes of exhaust restriction include:

• External damage, such as dents
• Catalytic converter contaminated with leaded fuel
• Muffler or resonator that is corroded or rusted on the inside
• Muffler or resonator with a loose or broken baffle

CHECKING FOR LEAKS

Leaks in the system can be located by exhaust noise, or by grey and white
deposits on the surfaces of the pipes or muffler. Use adjustable pliers to test
the integrity of the pipes by moderately squeezing the pipes. Leaking joints that
are otherwise in good condition can be refitted after being coated with muffler
putty or sealer. If corrosion has occur, the muffler or pipe must be replaced.

Vibrations of the exhaust system can be caused by loose mountings or

connections.

Noise from the tailpipe could be due to a muffler or resonator in which the
baffles have corroded so that they are longer effective.

1. Raise the rear of the car after it has been blocked up safely.
2. Use a creeper to get under the car. Jab at all rusted areas in the system
with an old screwdriver. If the blade penetrates the metal at any point,
that part needs replacing.
NOTE: Whenever you are working under a vehicle, protect your eyes by
wearing safety glasses or goggles.
3. Tap on the components with the handle of the screwdriver. A ringing
sound indicates that the metal is good. A badly corroded part will give
out a dull thud.
4. To check further, start the engine. Stuff a rag in the tail pipe, and feel
around all joints for leaks.

CAUTION: Never run the engine in a closed garage.

5. If any leaks are found, check all connections and clamps for correct size
and positioning, as well as any other problems, such as looseness.
6. The manifold itself rarely causes problems. However, the asbestos
gasket that seals the manifold to the engine block and the gasket that

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seals the exhaust pipe to the manifold can fail. A leak in these areas
causes a ticking sound when the engine is running. Inspect the gaskets
for signs of leakage; check the surrounding areas for a grayish-white
deposit blown out of the leak.

FINDING THE RATTLE

1. When the system is cool, grasp the tail pipe and try to move it up and
down and side to side. There should be only slight movement.
2. If the pipe seems wobbly, block the car and raise the rear. Don’t forget to
use jack stands whenever a vehicle is raised.
3. Roll under on a creeper and check the clamps and hangers that fasten
the exhaust system to the underbody. Check for proper alignment.
4. If no problems can be visibly detected, turn on the engine and listen to
determine if the noise is generated at the heat riser or at the muffler.
5. If the rattle is coming from the shaft on the heat riser, the entire heat
riser must be replaced. If caused by the spring, replace the spring alone.

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Leaks can occur

• Between the engine and the exhaust manifold

• Between the exhaust manifold flange and the exhaust pipe
• Between other pipe connections
• In individual components Exhaust noise can also result from a burned-
out or blown-out muffler, a burned-out or rusted-out pipe, a cracked
manifold, or a damaged catalytic converter. A vibrating or rattling noise
can result from:
• Loose spring or shaft at the heat riser valve
• System components striking the body or chassis
• Broken or loose clamps or brackets
• Loose internal baffle in the muffler or resonator
• Loose heat shield

TESTING FOR RESTRICTIONS

The order for how to conduct a back pressure.

1. Remove the oxygen sensor using a special oxygen sensor socket or

spanner
2. Thread the adapter into the oxygen sensor hole and connect a low
pressure gauge
3. Start the engine and observe any exhaust back pressure. Exhaust back
pressure should be more that 10kpa at idle, as a rule of thumb and no
more than 20kpa at 200rpm
4. Increase the engine rpm to 2000 rpm and observe the pressure.
Determine any necessary actions.
5. Inspect the oxygen sensor gasket, put anti-seize on the sensor threads
and torque to the proper specifications.

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Using a Vacuum Gauge

To perform this test using a vacuum gauge and tachometer, proceed as

follows:
1. Connect the vacuum gauge to an unrestricted port on the intake
manifold.
2. Connect the tachometer to the engine, following the manufacturer’s
recommendations.
3. Start the engine and permit it to reach its normal operating temperature.
4. Slowly accelerate the engine to 2,000 rpm.
5. The vacuum gauge needle should drop slightly, then rise quickly to 3" to
5" of mercury higher than the normal idle vacuum.

6. Quickly close the throttle. The gauge needle should return to idle as
rapidly as it rose.
7. If the needle first reaches a normal reading at idle and at 2,000 rpm, but
begins to drop toward zero and then rise slowly to a below normal
reading at
1. 2,000 rpm, some restriction exists. Inspect the system for a seized heat
riser, a clogged or damaged muffler or catalytic converter, or a damaged
or restricted exhaust or tail pipe.

NOTE: Inspect multiple-layer pipes closely. The inner layer can collapse,
causing a restriction. In the case of some large displacement engines, it might
be necessary to perform this test while actually driving the vehicle until it
reaches the speed where the engine loses power.

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1. Connect the vacuum gauge to the intake manifold with a long hose so
that the gauge itself can be positioned inside the vehicle.
2. Connect the tachometer. Route its wires so that this gauge is also inside
the vehicle.
3. Drive the vehicle through the speed where engine performance begins to
drop and observe the readings on both gauges.
4. If a restriction is present, the tachometer reading should be about the
same each time a loss of power occurs. The vacuum gauge needle will
react normally at first; as the engine begins to lose power, it will begin to
drop off toward zero. The amount of needle movement toward zero
depends on the amount of restriction. In some cases, the needle never
reaches zero but remains very low until the engine load is reduced.

TESTING THE HEAT RISER

To test a thermostatically controlled heat riser, proceed, as follows:
1. When the engine is cool, push the counterweight down as far as it will
go, then release it. The counterweight, shaft, and valve should spring
back to the closed position. Protect your eyes with safety glasses or
goggles while doing this.
2. Start the engine and allow it to warm up as you observe the action of the
heat riser. With the engine operating at idle, the counterweight should
move slowly downward as the engine warms up.

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3. Accelerate the engine occasionally during this period. The counterweight

should move down somewhat during acceleration and return to its initial
position as you release the throttle.
4. If the heat riser does not function as described, service or replace the valve.

Test a vacuum-controlled heat riser as follows:

1. When the engine is cool, check the position of the heat riser valve. It should
be wide open, with the diaphragm plunger extended. If it is not, the valve and
shaft are stuck in their casting bore, or the spring behind the diaphragm is
broken.
2. Start the engine. The diaphragm plunger should retract, closing the valve.
3. If the valve does not close, either the valve and shaft are stuck open, the
vacuum diaphragm in the motor is defective, or the motor is not receiving a
signal from the intake manifold.
4. To check for vacuum at the motor, insert the vacuum gauge in the
disconnected line at the motor. Before the engine warms up, the gauge should
read normal manifold vacuum. If it does not, the oil temperature switch or
coolant valve is defective and requires replacement.

5. Continue to observe the valve and the vacuum motor until the engine
reaches its normal operating temperature. At this point, the spring be hind the
diaphragm must push the valve open as the vacuum is cut off to the motor.
6. If the valve does not open at normal operating temperature, check the
vacuum at the motor with a vacuum gauge. If the gauge indicates normal
vacuum, either the oil temperature switch or coolant valve is defective and
requires replacement.

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SERVICING THE HEAT RISER

If the heat riser valve shaft sticks in its base in the riser casting, proceed as
follows:
1. If the valve uses a vacuum motor, disconnect the diaphragm link from the
riser shaft lever.
2. Apply carburetor choke or heat riser cleaner to the ends of the exposed
shaft. After a few minutes, this should free the shaft and riser valve.
3. With the counterweight or shaft lever, open and close the heat riser until it is
free.

Catalytic Converter Faults

Catalyst poisoning occurs when the catalytic converter is exposed to exhaust
containing substances that coat the working surfaces, so that they cannot
contact and react with the exhaust. The most notable contaminant is lead, so
vehicles equipped with catalytic converters can run only on unleaded fuel.
Other common catalyst poisons include sulfur, manganese (originating primarily
from the petrol additive MMT), and silicon, which can enter the exhaust stream
if the engine has a leak that allows coolant into the combustion
chamber. Phosphorus is another catalyst contaminant. Although phosphorus is
no longer used in petrol, it (and zinc, another low-level catalyst contaminant)
was until recently widely used in engine oil antiwear additives such as zinc
dithiophosphate (ZDDP). Beginning in 2004, a limit of phosphorus
concentration in engine oils was adopted in the API SM and ILSAC GF-4
specifications.

Depending on the contaminant, catalyst poisoning can sometimes be reversed

by running the engine under a very heavy load for an extended period of time.
The increased exhaust temperature can sometimes vaporize or sublime the
contaminant, removing it from the catalytic surface. However, removal of lead
deposits in this manner is usually not possible because of lead's high boiling
point.

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Any condition that causes abnormally high levels of unburned hydrocarbons—

raw or partially burnt fuel—to reach the converter will tend to significantly
elevate its temperature, bringing the risk of a meltdown of the substrate and
resultant catalytic deactivation and severe exhaust restriction. Usually the
upstream components of the exhaust system (manifold/header assembly and
associated clamps susceptible to rust/corrosion and/or fatigue e.g. the exhaust
manifold splintering after repeated heat cycling), ignition system e.g. coil packs
and/or primary ignition components (e.g. distributor cap, wires, ignition coil and
spark plugs) and/or damaged fuel system components (fuel injectors, fuel
pressure regulator, and associated sensors).

Since 2006 ethanol has been used frequently with fuel blends where fuel
system components which are not ethanol compatible can damage a catalytic
converter - this also includes using a thicker oil viscosity not recommended by
the manufacturer (especially with ZDDP content - this includes "high mileage"
blends regardless if its conventional or synthetic oil), oil and/or coolant leaks
(e.g. blown head gasket inclusive of engine overheating). Vehicles equipped
with OBD-II diagnostic systems are designed to alert the driver to a misfire
condition by means of illuminating the "check engine" light on the dashboard, or
flashing it if the current misfire conditions are severe enough to potentially
damage the catalytic converter.

Diagnostics
Various jurisdictions now require on-board diagnostics to monitor the function
and condition of the emissions-control system, including the catalytic converter.
On-board diagnostic systems take several forms.

Temperature sensors are used for two purposes. The first is as a warning
system, typically on two-way catalytic converters such as are still sometimes
used on LPG forklifts. The function of the sensor is to warn of catalytic
converter temperature above the safe limit of 750 °C. More-recent catalytic-
converter designs are not as susceptible to temperature damage and can
withstand sustained temperatures of 900 °C (1,650 °F). Temperature sensors
are also used to monitor catalyst functioning: usually two sensors will be fitted,
with one before the catalyst and one after to monitor the temperature rise over
the catalytic-converter core.

The oxygen sensor is the basis of the closed-loop control system on a spark-
ignited rich-burn engine; however, it is also used for diagnostics. In vehicles
with OBD II, a second oxygen sensor is fitted after the catalytic converter to
monitor the O2 levels. The O2 levels are monitored to see the efficiency of the
burn process. The on-board computer makes comparisons between the
readings of the two sensors. The readings are taken by voltage measurements.
If both sensors show the same output or the rear O 2 is "switching", the
computer recognizes that the catalytic converter either is not functioning or has
been removed, and will operate a malfunction indicator lamp and affect engine
performance.

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Simple "oxygen sensor simulators" have been developed to circumvent this

problem by simulating the change across the catalytic converter with plans and
pre-assembled devices available on the Internet. Although these are not legal
for on-road use, they have been used with mixed results. Similar devices apply
an offset to the sensor signals, allowing the engine to run a more fuel-
economical lean burn that may, however, damage the engine or the catalytic
converter.

NOx sensors are extremely expensive and are in general used only when a
compression-ignition engine is fitted with a selective catalytic-reduction (SCR)
converter, or a NOx absorber in a feedback system. When fitted to an SCR
system, there may be one or two sensors. When one sensor is fitted it will be
pre-catalyst; when two are fitted, the second one will be post-catalyst. They are
used for the same reasons and in the same manner as an oxygen sensor; the
only difference is the substance being monitored.

Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) Maintenance

Filters require more maintenance than catalytic converters. Ash, a by-product of
oil consumption from normal engine operation, builds up in the filter as it cannot
be converted into a gas and pass through the walls of the filter. This increases
the pressure before the filter. Warnings are given to the driver before filter
restriction causes an issue with driveability or damage to the engine or filter
develop. Regular filter maintenance is a necessity.

DPF filters go through a regeneration process which removes this soot and
lowers the filter pressure. There are three types of regeneration: passive,
active, and forced. Passive regeneration takes place normally while driving,
when engine load and vehicle drive-cycle create temperatures that are high
enough to regenerate the soot buildup on the DPF walls. Active regeneration
happens while the vehicle is in use, when low engine load and lower exhaust
gas temperatures inhibit the naturally occurring passive regeneration. Sensors
upstream and downstream of the DPF (or a differential pressure sensor)
provide readings that initiate a metered addition of fuel into the exhaust stream.
There are two methods to inject fuel, either downstream injection directly into
the exhaust stream, downstream of the turbo, or fuel injection into the engine
cylinders on the exhaust stroke.

This fuel and exhaust gas mixture passes through the Diesel Oxidation Catalyst
(DOC) creating temperatures high enough to burn off the accumulated soot.
Once the pressure drop across the DPF lowers to a calculated value, the
process ends, until the soot accumulation builds up again. This works well for
vehicles that drive longer distances with few stops compared to those that
perform short trips with many starts and stops. If the filter develops too much
pressure then the last type of regeneration must be used - a forced
regeneration. This can be accomplished in two ways. The vehicle operator can
initiate the regeneration via a dashboard mounted switch.

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Various signal interlocks, such as park brake applied, transmission in neutral,

engine coolant temperature, and an absence of engine related fault codes are
required (vary by OEM and application) for this process to initiate. When the
soot accumulation reaches a level that is potentially damaging to the engine or
the exhaust system, the solution involves a garage using a computer program
to run a regeneration of the DPF manually.

DPF Safety
In 2011, Ford recalled 37,400 F-Series trucks with diesel engines after fuel and
oil leaks caused fires in the diesel particulate filters of the trucks. No injuries
occurred before the recall, though one grass fire was started. A similar recall
was issued for 2005-2007 Jaguar S-Type and XJ diesels, where large amounts
of soot became trapped in the DPF In affected vehicles, smoke and fire
emanated from the vehicle underside, accompanied by flames from the rear of
the exhaust. The heat from the fire could cause heating through the
transmission tunnel to the interior, melting interior components and potentially
causing interior fires.

DPF Regeneration
Regeneration is the process of burning off (oxidizing) the accumulated soot
from the filter. This is done either passively (from the engine's exhaust heat in
normal operation or by adding a catalyst to the filter) or actively introducing very
high heat into the exhaust system. On-board active filter management can use
a variety of strategies.

1. Engine management to increase exhaust temperature through late fuel

injection or injection during the exhaust stroke
2. Use of a fuel-borne catalyst to reduce soot burn-out temperature
3. A fuel burner after the turbo to increase the exhaust temperature
4. A catalytic oxidizer to increase the exhaust temperature, with after
injection (HC-Doser)
5. Resistive heating coils to increase the exhaust temperature
6. Microwave energy to increase the particulate temperature
All on-board active systems use extra fuel, whether through burning to heat the
DPF, or providing extra power to the DPF's electrical system, although the use
of a fuel borne catalyst reduces the energy required very significantly. Typically
a computer monitors one or more sensors that measure back pressure and/or
temperature, and based on pre-programmed set points the computer makes
decisions on when to activate the regeneration cycle. The additional fuel can be
supplied by a metering pump.

Running the cycle too often while keeping the back pressure in the exhaust
system low will result in high fuel consumption. Not running the regeneration
cycle soon enough increases the risk of engine damage and/or uncontrolled
regeneration (thermal runaway) and possible DPF failure.

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Diesel particulate matter burns when temperatures above 600 °C are attained.
This temperature can be reduced to somewhere in the range of 350 to 450 °C
by use of a fuel-borne catalyst. The actual temperature of soot burn-out will
depend on the chemistry employed. The start of combustion causes a further
increase in temperature. In some cases, in the absence of a fuel-borne catalyst,
the combustion of the particulate matter can raise temperatures above the
structural integrity threshold of the filter material, which can cause catastrophic
failure of the substrate. Various strategies have been developed to limit this
possibility. Note that unlike a spark-ignited engine, which typically has less than
0.5% oxygen in the exhaust gas stream before the emission control device(s),
diesel engines have a very high ratio of oxygen available. While the amount of
available oxygen makes fast regeneration of a filter possible, it also contributes
to runaway regeneration problems.

Some applications use off-board regeneration. Off-board regeneration requires

operator intervention (i.e. the machine is either plugged into a wall/floor
mounted regeneration station, or the filter is removed from the machine and
placed in the regeneration station). Off-board regeneration is not suitable for
on-road vehicles, except in situations where the vehicles are parked in a central
depot when not in use. Off-board regeneration is mainly used in industrial and
mining applications. Coal mines (with the attendant explosion risk from coal
damp) use off-board regeneration if non-disposable filters are installed, with the
regeneration stations sited in an area where non-permissible machinery is
allowed.

Catalytic Converter Removal

The order for the procedure to remove and replace Catalytic Converter.

1. Take off the O2 sensor with O2 wrench

2. Unbolt the catalytic converter from the engine pipe
3. Unbolt the catalytic converter from the intermediate exhaust pipe
4. Clean the catalytic converter, engine pipe and intermediate pipe
mating surfaces.
5. Select the appropriate gaskets and apply sealant where
recommended
6. Locate the catalytic converter to engine pipe gasket on to the
catalytic mating surface via the catalytic converter securing studs.
7. Align the catalytic converter with the engine pipe flange and loosely
secure.
8. Locate the catalytic converter to intermediate gasket onto the
catalytic converter mating surface via the catalytic converter securing
studs.
9. Align the catalytic converter with the intermediate pipe flange and
loosely secure.
10. Reinstall the exhaust system rubber mounts.
11. Secure the catalytic converter to the engine pipe flange and then the
intermediate pipe to the manufacturer’s recommended torque setting.
12. Start the engine to test for leaks.

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Muffler removal
The order for the procedure to remove and replace the rear muffler.

1. Remove the exhaust system rubber mounts

2. Determine the type of joint used to align the rear muffler within the
system,
3. In the case of a flange join remove the flange bolts and remove the rear
muffler.
4. In the case of the slip joint remove both u-bolts and slide the rear muffler
out of the slip joint.
5. Clean the rear muffler and intermediate pipe mating surfaces
6. Select the appropriate gaskets and apply sealant where recommended.
7. Locate the rear muffler to intermediate pipe onto the rear muffler-mating
surface via the rear muffler-securing studs.
8. Align the rear muffler with the intermediate pipe flange and loosely
secure.
9. Reinstall the exhaust system rubber mounts.
10. Secure the rear muffler to the intermediate pipe flange to the
manufacturer’s recommended torque setting.
11. Start the engine and test for leaks. If evident reseal the joints.

When removing exhaust brackets what must you do first to enable to mount to
slide out of the rubber.
• Apply lubricant

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Final checks
During a road test it is important to carry out the following checks:
Check for rattles, resonation, boom and noise from the exhaust system
throughout the speed range
If any of the above is evident carry out repair as necessary

You should conduct a final inspection after working on the suspension system?

To ensure the system works as intended

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