Infancy Physical Development

Piaget called infancy as "Sensorimotor" stage because he recognized that infants learn about
their world by interacting with it through their senses. They don't understand their
environment very well at first, but are born exquisitely prepared to explore and learn. They
learn how to make purposeful movements, how to make sense of things, how to speak, and
how to perform other skills. All of these developments require babies to use all their senses:
touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight. As babies begin to mature, between ages 1 and 6
months, they are able to locate where sounds come from in their environment and to compile
sounds into more complex chunks, such as musical phrases. By age 6 months, babies begin
sorting out speech sounds from their own language and ignoring speech sounds that they
recognize as not from their own language. Unlike their abilities to smell or hear, babies are
not able to see as well as adults do.

Babies' eyes develop quickly, and by age 2 or 3 months they have the ability to see a full
spectrum, or range, of colors and can focus on objects just like adults.

When babies are born, they are equipped with a set of reflexes, or automatic actions

, for the first two months, babies will "step" with their legs if they are held vertically with
their feet touching a surface.

By around age 2 months, infants' backs continue to strengthen, and they are able to raise their
head and chest up off the ground and rest their body on their elbows when they're lying on
their stomachs. . Around age 4 months, they can maintain control of their head and hold it
steady while they're sitting up with help or lying on their belly

. Also around age 5 months, babies will wiggle all their limbs while they lie on their belly;
this strengthens their crawling muscles

. Around age 6 months, most infants can sit up by themselves for brief periods and can begin
to put some weight on their legs as they're held upright with some support.

. Babies may begin to crawl around age 7 months. At around 8 months, babies can sit up by
themselves for extended periods and can pull themselves to their feet while they hold onto
something for leverage and support, such as a table or the edge of a couch. By the next
month, age 9 months, babies can not only sit independently for a long time, but also reach
and play with toys while maintaining their balance. At this time, babies can pull themselves
up into a stand without support. Babies continue to build on their physical abilities, and
around age 10 months, they can stand on their own for extended periods. They are making
progress toward walking, picking up and putting down their feet while they stand. They may
make their first hesitant steps as they walk while holding onto something such as a crib rail.
The ability to walk improves as infants walk while holding onto caregivers' hands around age
11 months, and begin making their own first toddling steps around age 12 months.

. In the first 2 years, babies grow to almost half their adult height and can quadruple their
birth weight.
. When infants are born, most of their body mass is in their head. As they grow older, the rest
of their bodies catch up.

. Babies grow first in their chest and trunk and then in their arms and legs. Over the first year
of life, babies' bones and skeletons ossify, or harden. When babies are born, their bones are
softer and more like

cartilage. This allows them to be flexible, fit inside the mother's womb, and pass through the
birth canal. However, as their bones harden in the first year, the skeleton is better able to
support their weight during activities such as crawling and walking. Babies also have "soft
spots" in their skull because some parts of the skull haven't fused together yet. By age 2
years, babies' skulls are as hard as adult skulls,

Children's growth slows considerably after age 2 years.

Childhood Physical Development

. Arms and legs stretch to catch up and balance out the head and trunk. Children also begin to
lose their "baby fat" as they develop sleeker, straighter bodies with the strong muscles
necessary for work and play.

On average, young children can expect to grow 2 to 3 inches in height per year

Throughout this stage, girls tend to develop slightly faster than boys.

Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing both feet
together on each step before proceeding to the next step

By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i

During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine earlier skills. They're running even

. In addition, 5 to 6 year olds often like to participate in physical extracurricular activities

such as karate, gymnastics, or dance. Children continue to refine and improve their gross
motor skills through age 7 and beyond.

Their artistic skills improve, and they can draw simple stick figures and copy shapes such as
circles, squares, and large letters. Drawing more complex shapes, however, may take longer.

Adolescent development

During adolescence, young people go through many changes as they move into physical
maturity. Early, prepubescent changes occur when the secondary sexual characteristics
appear.
Girls:

• Girls may begin to develop breast buds as early as 8 years old. Breasts develop fully
between ages 12 and 18.
• Pubic hair, armpit and leg hair usually begin to grow at about age 9 or 10, and reach
adult patterns at about 13 to 14 years.
• Menarche (the beginning of menstrual periods) typically occurs about 2 years after
early breast and pubic hair appear. It may occur as early as age 9, or as late as age 16.
The average age of menstruation in the United States is about 12 years.
• Girls growth spurt peaks around age 11.5 and slows around age 16.

Boys:

• Boys may begin to notice that their testicles and scrotum grow as early as age 9. Soon,
the penis begins to lengthen. By age 17 or 18, their genitals are usually at their adult
size and shape.
• Pubic hair growth, as well as armpit, leg, chest, and facial hair, begins in boys at
about age 12, and reaches adult patterns at about 17 to 18 years.
• Boys do not start puberty with a sudden incident, like the beginning of menstrual
periods in girls. Having regular nocturnal emissions (wet dreams) marks the
beginning of puberty in boys. Wet dreams typically start between ages 13 and 17. The
average age is about 14 and a half years.

Boys' voices change at the same time as the penis grows. Nocturnal emissions occur with the
peak of the height spurt.

Infancy Cognitive Development

•
• According to Piaget, newborns interact with their environment entirely through
reflexive behaviors.

. Piaget believed that as babies begin to grow and learn about their environment through their
senses, they begin to engage in intentional, goal-directed behaviors. Piaget separated infancy
into six sub-stages, of Erickson's observation that young infants learn to either trust or
mistrust their environment. by about age 5 months, babies will track an object with their eyes,
even after it leaves their direct line of vision. They will turn their head or even their whole
body to continue watching something that grabs their attention. While they're taking in
information and practicing cause and effect experiments, their memory continues to grow
stronger.

• , by about age 5 months, babies will track an object with their eyes, even after it
leaves their direct line of vision.
• Another major development during this period is that of object permanence, the
understanding that something still exists even if it can't be seen.
• , between the ages of 12 to 18 months
• toddlers continue to explore their environment and create experiments to see how
things work.
 • , between the ages of 18 and 24 months,
• babies begin to be symbol-oriented, which means that they create a general image of
things in their minds and retain them as examples of some objects.
• . Around age 21 months, babies grasp the idea of past, present, and future.
• Around age 24 months, they develop the capacity to pretend and imagine things that
aren't there in front of them.
•

• Childhood Cognitive Development

• Children of this age continue to advance their skills in observing and interacting with
the world around them. They also make tremendous leaps in how they process, store,
and use information
• According to Piaget
• During this stage, young children's play becomes
• increasingly imaginary and filled with fantasies
• . As children develop cognitively, their play will move from simple make-believe to
plots involving more characters and scenarios, games with sophisticated rules, etc.
According to Piaget, playing isn't just fun; it is an important part of brain
development.

ADOLESCENCE Cognitive development

Adolescence is also a time for rapid cognitive development.[64] Piaget describes adolescence
as the stage of life in which the individual's thoughts start taking more of an abstract form and
the egocentric thoughts decrease. This allows the individual to think and reason in a wider
perspective.[65] A combination of behavioural and fMRI studies have demonstrated
development of executive functions, that is, cognitive skills that enable the control and
coordination of thoughts and behaviour, which are generally associated with the prefrontal
cortex.[66] The thoughts, ideas and concepts developed at this period of life greatly influence
one's future life, playing a major role in character and personality formation.[67]

Biological changes in brain structure and connectivity within the brain interact with increased
experience, knowledge, and changing social demands to produce rapid cognitive growth (see
Changes in the brain above). The age at which particular changes take place varies between
individuals, but the changes discussed below begin at puberty or shortly after that and some
skills continue to develop as the adolescent ages.

Infancy Emotional
This section will discuss how babies learn not only to express their feelings and emotions, but
also how they learn to understand other people's feelings

as suggested by Bronfenbrenner's theory, the environmental experiences babies have as they

grow and develop are also important influences in their emotional and social development.
Babies can feel interest, distress, disgust, and happiness from birth, and can communicate
these through facial expressions and body posture. Infants begin showing a spontaneous
"social smile" around age 2 to 3 months, and begin to laugh spontaneously around age 4
months. In addition, between ages 2 and 6 months, infants express other feelings such as
anger, sadness, surprise, and fear. Between ages 5 and 6 months, babies begin to exhibit
stranger anxiety. They do not like it when other people hold or play with them, and they will
show this discomfort visibly. Previously, they would smile at anyone and allow them to hold
them. However, during this time babies are learning not only how to show their own feelings,
but also how to notice others' feelings. Around age 4 months, infants can begin distinguishing
the different emotional expressions of others. Later, around age 6 months, babies begin to
mimic the emotions and expressions they see in others.

They're beginning to make the connection that expressions match an inside feeling. It's
interesting to note some babies begin to exhibit jealousy at the end of this first year, around
age 12 months.

. In fact, by this age, toddlers can even fake some emotions in order to get what they want.

Childhood Emotional
As with emotional development, both internal and external variables can affect young
children's self-concept. For example, a child's temperament can affect how they view
themselves and their ability to successfully complete tasks. Children with easy temperaments
are typically willing to try things repeatedly and are better able to handle frustrations and
challenges. In contrast, children with more difficult temperaments may become more easily
frustrated and discouraged by challenges or changes in the situation.

Children who can better cope with frustrations and challenges are more likely to think of
themselves as successful, valuable, and good, which will lead to a higher self-esteem. In
contrast, children who become easily frustrated and discouraged, often quit or need extra
assistance to complete a task. These children may have lower self-esteem if they start to
believe that they can't be successful and aren't valuable.

Peers also have an impact on young children's self-concept. Young children who have
playmates and classmates that are usually nice and apt to include the child in activities will
develop a positive self-image. However, a young child who is regularly left out, teased, or
bullied by same-age or older peers can develop low self-esteem.

During early childhood, children typically start to develop self-conscious emotions as they
start evaluating themselves, instead of purely reacting to caregivers' or other adults'
evaluations.

According to Erickson's developmental theory, children who start to evaluate themselves

have entered the stage of "autonomy versus shame and doubt." At the end of this stage, young
children's self-evaluations are either autonomous and positive, or negative and ashamed.
Young children who feel autonomous see themselves as good, valuable people who are able
to do what is expected of them in a positive way. In contrast, young children who feel
ashamed also feel worthless and incapable of doing what is expected of them

.ADOLESCENCE EMOTIONAL

You might notice that your child:

• shows strong feelings and intense emotions at different times. Moods might seem
unpredictable. These emotional ups and downs can lead to increased conflict. Your child’s
brain is still learning how to control and express emotions in a grown-up way
• is more sensitive to your emotions: young people get better at reading and processing other
people’s emotions as they get older. While they’re developing these skills, they can
sometimes misread facial expressions or body language
• is more self-conscious, especially about physical appearance and changes. Teenage self-
esteem is often affected by appearance – or by how teenagers think they look. As they
develop, children might compare their bodies with those of friends and peers
• goes through a ‘bulletproof’ stage of thinking and acting as if nothing bad could happen to
him. Your child’s decision-making skills are still developing, and your child is still learning
about the consequences of actions.

Many people think that adolescence is always a difficult time, and that all teenagers have bad moods
and behave in challenging ways. In fact, some studies show that only 5-15% of teenagers go through
extreme emotional turmoil, become rebellious or have major conflicts with their parents. Social and
emotional changes are part of your child’s journey to adulthood. You have a big role to play in
helping your child develop grown-up emotions and social skills.

Changes in relationships
You might notice that your child:

• wants to spend less time with family and more time with friends and peers
• has more arguments with you: some conflict between parents and children during the
teenage years is normal, as children seek more independence. It actually shows that your
child is maturing. Conflict tends to peak in early adolescence. If you feel like you’re arguing
with your child all the time, it might help to know that this isn’t likely to affect your
relationship with your child in the longer term
• sees things differently from you: this isn’t because your child wants to upset you. It’s
because your child is beginning to think more abstractly and to question different points of
view. At the same time, some teenagers find it hard to understand the effects of their
behaviour and comments on other people. These skills will develop with time.

• INFANCY Social Development

• . During infancy, healthy social growth is mostly about creating attachments with
caregivers. Babies in Erickson's trust versus mistrust stage (usually occurring between
ages 0 to 12 months) will develop trust and love for their caregivers because they are
given adequate love and nurturing from their environment or will develop mistrust
and indifference for people and the world because they aren't given those resources.
 • Children who are deprived of consistent love and affection, from consistent
caregivers, may not develop the ability to bond properly, both socially and
emotionally. Children who grow up in orphanages or who spend their early years in
different foster homes probably will not have the opportunity to bond to a caregiver
who will meet their emotional needs. Even if these children are adopted into a loving
family in middle childhood, they may have difficulties learning to trust, bond, and
show affection and empathy toward that family. Nevertheless, children with the most
bleak and traumatic early years are sometimes able to heal and slowly develop those
emotional regulation and attachment abilities when provided with long-term,
consistent, and intense nurturing.
• about age 6 to 8 months to age 18 to 24 months,
• babies are also beginning to develop social skills and interactions beyond just
attachment. Babies can start playing simple social games like "Pat-a-Cake" around 9
to 11 months. They also like to participate in social rituals like saying hello and
goodbye, and chiming in at social functions such as family dinnertime. Babies will
also begin social referencing, looking for social cues from other peoples' emotional
and physical reactions to new stimuli in order to know how they should respond. For
example, they will watch how their caregivers react to hugs from friends or a knock
on the door
• .CHILDHOOD SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
• Externally, role models and the environment will also influence how children react to
the world emotionally. Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory discusses micro, meso, and
macro-level influences. During early childhood, the immediate, or micro, level of a
child's environment consists of family and direct caregivers such as teachers and
babysitters. Children with caregivers who show warmth, compassion, understanding,
as well as genuine concern and help toward others will also learn to show empathy
and pro-social behavior during later childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Children
who witness caregivers modeling mostly angry, punitive, and cold emotional
responses will struggle more to develop empathy and prosocial behavior.
• According to Bronfenbrenner, on a larger level or meso-level, the culture of the local
community will also have an effect on children's emotional development. The meso-
level includes the characteristics of a child's neighborhood or school system, such as
safety, traditions, and culture. For example, if children grow up feeling unsafe or
focused primarily on meeting basic survival needs, the fear of violence or sense of
insecurity will flavor children's emotional reactions and beliefs. On the contrary, if
children live in a safe, supportive community, a young child will have a more positive
view and emotional response to that environment.

In terms of a macro-level influence, the child's nation of residence can also affect his or her
emotional development. A child growing up in a peacetime country may develop more
positive emotional responses and skills than a child growing up in a war-torn country
governed by martial law.

ADOLECENSE Social changes

You might notice that your child is:
 • searching for identity: young people are busy working out who they are and where they fit
in the world. This search can be influenced by gender, peer group, cultural background and
family expectations
• seeking more independence: this is likely to influence the decisions your child makes and the
relationships your child has with family and friends
• seeking more responsibility, both at home and at school
• looking for new experiences: the nature of teenage brain development means that
teenagers are likely to seek out new experiences and engage in more risk-taking behaviour.
But they’re still developing control over their impulses
• thinking more about ‘right’ and ‘wrong’: your child will start developing a stronger individual
set of values and morals. Teenagers also learn that they’re responsible for their own actions,
decisions and consequences. They question more things. Your words and actions shape your
child’s sense of ‘right’ and ‘wrong’
• influenced more by friends, especially when it comes to behaviour, sense of self and self-
esteem
• starting to develop and explore a sexual identity: your child might start to have romantic
relationships or go on ‘dates’. These are not necessarily intimate relationships, though. For
some young people, intimate or sexual relationships don’t occur until later on in life
• communicating in different ways: the internet, mobile phones and social media can
significantly influence how your child communicates with friends and learns about the
world.

Moral development INFANCY

. Lawrence Kohlberg proposed that moral development occurs in three levels, with two
stages at each level.

• The preconventional level:

• At stage 1, punishment orientation, judgments are guided by the prospect of

punishment.
• At stage 2, pleasure‐‐seeking orientation, activities are undertaken primarily to
satisfy one's own needs; needs of others are important only as they relate to
one's own needs.

• The conventional level:

• At stage 3, good girl/good boy orientation, behavior is engaged in that brings

approval or pleases others in a child's immediate group.
• At stage 4, authority orientation, behavior is influenced by respect for
authority, performing one's duty, and doing what is right.

• The postconventional level:

• At stage 5, contract and legal orientation, behavior is based on support of

rules and regulations because society's right to exact such support is accepted.
• At stage 6, ethical and moral principles orientation, behavior is directed by
self‐chosen ethical and moral principles.
• Childhood Moral Development
• Between the ages of 2 and 5, many children start to show morally-based behaviors
and beliefs.
• According to Piaget, children between the ages of 5 and 10
• think that authority figures such as parents and teachers have rules that young people
must follow absolutely
• Much like Piaget, Kohlberg believed that young children behave morally because they
fear authority and try to avoid punishment
• During early childhood, children also grow in their ability to tell the difference
between moral rules, social norms, and personal choices. By around age 5, children
see that moral rules are intended to prevent "really wrong" behavior that could
potentially hurt or take away from others. In contrast, social norms are rules about
socially-defined behaviors that are wrong or right; however, violating these rules will
not hurt other people. For example, Kayla
• Some moral behaviors are passed on by way of verbal stories or structured lessons,
such as religious parables or classroom teaching activities. However, more
commonly, moral
• behavior is learned through direct observation and imitation. Children carefully watch
the behavior of their caretakers, other adults, and older children. If they see Uncle
Dan being helpful to strangers, they'll be more likely to be helpful to others as well.

• moral development stage of adolescence

• This progression was formally codified by Lawrence Kohlberg, a 20th-century developmental
theorist who identified six stages of moral development. According to Kohlberg, early
adolescents have usually reached the third stage of moral development: the Conventional
Level of interpersonal cooperation. The Conventional Level means they understand morality
as determined by social convention and wish to conform to be a "good person." Stage four is
the social-order-maintaining phase of the Conventional Level. This means that teens begin to
assess morality by what is best for the most people. As teens get older, they enter the
Principled Level of morality, which includes the fifth stage of moral development -- the
social-contract orientation. During this stage, teens start looking outside their needs to
assess morality. They also start to think more abstractly about morals: not just accepting
rules because they are social norms, but assessing a moral principle through the lens of their
values. Lastly, the sixth stage of moral development, also part of the Principled Level, is
when teens begin contemplating high-level abstract concepts like respect