Practical Algorithms

Third Edition

© 2000, 2001, 2002, 2014

by George Richard Yool

ISBN-13: 978-1500173456
ISBN-10: 1500173452
 Contents
Unit 1―Analyzing Requirements
Objectives Communication Failures
Attitude Adjustments (Yours) Overcoming Fear
Steps to Successful Selling Analyzing Bus. Requirements
Customer & Manager (MCSD)
Perceptions Worksheet 1
Unit 2—Hardware & Software
Lesson 1—COMPUTERS Lesson 3—SOFTWARE
Objectives Objectives
Computers in General Operating Systems
Computer Types Major Software Types
System Unit Components Lesson 4 PURCHASING…
Motherboard Components Objectives
Lesson 2—HARDWARE System Source
Objectives Expandability
CPU (Central Processing Peripherals
Unit) Software
Other Major Computer Chips Worksheet 2
Secondary Storage
Input and Output
Expansion and Peripheral
Components
Unit 3—System Architectures
Objectives: Distributing Solutions (MCSD)
Tier Systems Architecture Operating Systems (MCSE &
Model (MCSD) A+)
Networking (A+, MCSD & old Worksheet 3
MCSE)
Unit 4—Logic
Objectives: Flowcharting Examples
Logic Basics Solving a Heuristic
Logic of Reality Refining the Heuristic
Solving a Median
 Logical Syllogism Worksheet 4
(Presentation Approach)
Flowcharting
Unit 5—Programming & Coding
Objectives: Programming Process
Terminology Data Structures
System Development Life Control Structures
Cycle Worksheet 5
Purpose of Systems Logic
Unit 6—Problem Solving
Objectives: Applying the Paradigm
RAM Model Graph Problems
Problem Solving With Worksheet 6
Reasoning
Unit 7―Database Design

Objectives Data Type, Field Size and

General Terms Input Masks
Advantages of Using a Normalizing (MCSD)
Database Relationships (MCSD)
Database Qualities Data Flow Diagrams (MCSD)
Database Types Integrity and Validation
Database Objects (MCSD)
Planning a Database Integrating Business Rules
Field Design (MCSD)
Math on The Computer
Worksheet 7
 Foreword
No two logicians can agree on a definition for logic.
—Bertrand Russell

At a minimum, algorithms is an upper division subject. Ideally it

is a graduate-level course for computer engineers and project
managers. Gaming theory is an entirely separate subject that could
be taken simultaneously with this course, but does not belong in this
course. Both belong in the computer science division of a math
department, not the information technology division of a business
department. The materials provided here were designed for an upper
division course requiring only the introductory computer class, but
were also used inappropriately and prematurely in a community
college that thought it should also contain gaming theory (a thought I
ignored).
The choice of materials here is unique for several reasons. First,
algorithms is about solving classes of problems. While pseudocode
is included for the sake of literacy, it does nothing to solve real
problems. As a consultant it was my job to actually solve problems,
and the first one was establishing the problem in a meeting with
those who used pseudocode, and the pseudocode played no role in
that process. Second, marketable skill create academic integrity, not
difficulty. As an academic dean, I taught virtually every subject and
was responsible for the curriculum of literally every class. Algorithms
was the most difficult class for both students and instructors, and no
college or university seemed to know what the course really meant
or how difficult it was. It needed simplifying into practical marketable
skills.
Tasked with making the course work at one university, I poured
over the available textbooks with grave disappointment. I had a
mountain of classroom-tested materials available, so I put them
together into this book. My choice in materials was partly guided by
MCSE, MCSD, and A+ requirements, and partly guided by
experience both in the field and the classroom. I decided the best
thing I could do was teach the students how to think, how to interface
with both subjective business requirements and objective resources,
and be practical problem solvers who provided scalable solutions. It
was not my job to teach a programming language or math skills in
this course. This gave administration at every college the
misconception that these were not needed prior to taking the class.
Having seen universities put trigonometry before algebra and
nuclear decay before periodic table basics, this was no surprise. It
was my job to produce marketable graduates, not drive them out of
classes with unreasonable expectations. Unlike most classes,
students taking algorithms or gaming theory have a significant and
specific career goal requiring the subject. This class is not for
general audiences, and if the school cannot fit it correctly into its
curriculum, they shouldn’t offer it. It does not belong in any two-year
school.
I made many important innovations for this book. The most
significant was expanding the subjective elements of Microsoft’s
programs by teaching sales, analysis, and proposal skills. As a
consultant I regularly had to clean up the messes of previous
consultants. The most common mess was failure to lock in the
expectations and requirements of the project. The next most
common mess was solving the “unsolvable” which is code for
“unsolved.” The point of algorithms is to find such object-oriented
solutions, not to rely on some rapid aided design technology. If RAD
is all you need, then you really don’t need the algorithms class.
Solving the unsolved meant teaching the tools used for such tasks
like flowcharting and symbolic logic. Since pseudocode and
flowcharting are virtually incompatible and C++ is intuitively simple, I
primarily used C++. Years earlier I tackled Russell’s issue of logic
(above), having distilled and established a mathematically consistent
system of practical symbolic logic. This had proven helpful over the
years in a variety of applications, from the classroom to solving
cutting edge cosmology problems.
It may seem strange to some for a programmer to take on
cosmology problems. Computers were an awkward tool when I
began working with them. You had to program to accomplish
anything. Even printers came without drivers, so you had to work out
the machine language without instructions. As soon as I could walk
away from programming, I did. It followed me and put food on the
table, so I welcomed a host of certifications I had no personal
interest in and priced myself out of the market before I could enjoy
the job benefit of taking the MCSE and MCSD exams (which I had
prepared for). As an antiquarian predating these things and not really
needing them, I saw no point getting them. They are certainly
relevant to newcomers and those who depend on a paycheck, and I
integrated many of their concepts and even details in this book.
This book serves a double purpose. On one hand it has the
practical value for computer programming. On the other it outlines
problem solving tools that will help readers understand and apply my
later works, some of which are at least as difficult and for which this
material is a meaningful prerequisite. I am gravely concerned with
technological dependence, the first victims of which are memory,
attention (delayed closure), and problem solving. My goal is not to
make things difficult, but rather to encourage critical thinking skills
that are clearly at risk of extinction. It is my hope that we can tackle
the “difficulties” today so future generations are raised with this
thinking as second nature. These things are not truly that difficult.
Our culture has made them difficult. This has led to a lot of
erroneous if not destructive thinking. Science is not about blindly
accepting results, yet it is clear that mathematicians and other
scientists have no idea how problems are actually solved. If they did,
they would question much of what they think they know. This book is
as much for them as it is for programmers and project managers.
This edition does not contain the unit-by-unit class project of
previous editions, since this publication does not support
simultaneous multimedia publication. If you are self-taught, you will
do fine if not better creating your own projects. If you are an
instructor the projects and data would be useful. Contact me
(dobit1969 at yahoo) for electronic copies of classroom materials. I
am not generally available for other requests. I no longer take clients
and do not guarantee response even to specific questions,
especially computer related questions.
 Unit 1—Analyzing
Requirements
Objectives
Dealing with computers only seems difficult. In reality computer
problems can always be solved logically. Humans, on the other
hand, account for the vast majority of errors and are ultimately the
source of problems. Considering the nature of physics, and
discounting normal wear and tear, humans are ultimately responsible
for all computer problems. Students will understand:
1. Attitude Adjustments 4. Communication Failures
(Yours) 5. Overcoming Fear
2. Steps to Successful 6. Analyzing Business
Selling Requirements (MCSD)
3. Customer & Manager
Perceptions

Attitude Adjustments (Yours)

Failure is...
A learning experience
The game played in order to win
Practice for perfection
Feedback guiding in new directions
Opportunity to develop a sense of humor
Null if you approach all choices with a win-win objective
And finally...The more I fail, the more likely I am to succeed.
Reasons to do good (what is right)...
The following seem demotivating. On the contrary they must be
motivators or you will burn out and wallow in self-pity with false ideas
of omnipotence. After the list I have a little story to help you
understand these as motivators.
People are unreasonable, self-centered, illogical, and
ignorant (if not completely stupid).
Love them anyway.
 Although the underdog is favored, people will chum up to
the top dog to look good.
Fight for the underdog
Honesty and frankness make a person vulnerable.
Be honest and frank.
Give your best and you will likely suffer.
Give your best anyway
The good done today will be forgotten tomorrow and you
will be accused of selfishness.
Do good anyway.
What takes years to build can be destroyed in an instant.
Build anyway.
A thief was staying in a monastery. The monks grew tired of his
steeling and went to the master. "If he doesn't go, then we will," they
pleaded. "I understand," empathized the master. "It is our duty here
to help those whom the rest of society rejects and to guide them
toward righteousness. Clearly he needs to remain because he
needs guidance. You should go because you do not. The choice is
yours." The thief overheard the exchange and never stole again.
The reasons listed above assure your work as a professional. When
you take them as motivations then they do not become obstacles.
With the obstacle removed you can look on others and find their real
value, what they have to offer humanity, and respect them. Even if
all they have to offer are good intentions. You cannot be
disappointed with this view.

Steps to Successful Selling

Fact: All jobs are sales jobs. You must be able to sell the values and
benefits of yourself and the products you have to offer. The following
sequential steps are proven effective:
1. Opening (Meet and Greet)―The first 54 seconds of contact
establish the entire atmosphere of your communication. You
absolutely must make a good first impression with your
appearance and verbiage. When you meet someone,
welcome them, introduce yourself and get their name. For
example, approach the person, shake their hand and say:
"Welcome to ______, my name is _____. Your name is...?"
 The trick is to keep shaking until they give you their name. If
it is a group of people, offer your hand to the middle of the
group and take the first offering. Do not neglect a single
member of the group either. You must greet each one and
learn their names. If you are not good with names, get good
at talking to people without making it obvious you forgot their
name. A handshake should be firm and consistent. If you
are answering a phone always identify yourself and your
company first, then ask whom you are speaking with. If you
are calling them, ask for them by name then identify yourself
and your company.
2. Fact-Find―Ask questions leading to discovering the purpose
of the visit, what they expect and what they have to offer. For
example, "What brings you to _____?" and "How did you
learn about us?" This is a continuing process in which you
identify their interests and motivations. You can talk about
what is of interest to them to pass time during slow moments
of the process, which will help build rapport. Remember: The
person asking questions is in control of the
communication.
3. Buy What They Offer―Even if you aren't really buying from
them, learn what it is they do, what they have to offer, let
them sell themselves and their products and services. This
gives them hope for gain, which will encourage them to stick
with you.
4. Sell From Stock―Sell what you have, because you do not
want to run the risk of selling something else then not being
able to provide it. At this stage you guide them through
observing your products. Never start with exactly what they
are asking. At the least, always step sell them. This means
to take them to a lesser product, which you know they will
reject. Let them see what it is, how much it is, and what it has
to offer knowing they will reject it. When they do then you
have prepared them to spend more because it is obvious that
their expectations are higher so the price will be also.
Through this and the demonstration process pay close
attention to body language. Poor negotiators will often let you
 know blatantly how much they like what you have to offer. A
good negotiator will not be obvious.
5. Demo―Demonstrate what you have to offer. This is a very
sensitive subject because you can't just go "Here's the
product." You must be able to show them the elements of
your product in terms they can sense (e.g. the sight, smell,
touch and tastes) and how these can be of value or benefit to
them. Think of the adage: "Don't sell me bacon, sell me the
sizzle and the smell." It can be difficult to get a customer past
the demo stage. Many will try to escape even if they really
want what is being offered. The most common reason is
money. Another common reason is the product is not what
they really want. You must smoke out any objections
(reasons for not purchasing). What do they like and what do
they not like in the product? If necessary show them
something else. You would be surprised how many
customers come looking for one thing and leave with
something completely different. If money is the problem, do
not make any promises you cannot keep, but you can say
something like "You would purchase this for ___ wouldn't
you? Then let's see what we can do." You would also be
surprised at how many customers will spend much more than
they say they will.
6. Relax―Sit down with them, get them a drink and discuss just
about anything other than the product. When you give the
customer something then they feel like they owe you
something. This allows you to build a little more rapport also
before beginning the negotiation process.
7. Write-Up―Begin preparing for the sale by doing any
necessary paperwork. This does not mean to stop talking to
them. Hand them insensitive documentation to fill out for
themselves that only requires listing their personal
information. If you deal with credit applications then
remember that you must never hand them a credit application
to fill out. The credit application does not get filled out at this
stage anyway.
8. Call Management―The salesperson's advantage is they are
not personally involved with the selling decision. The
customer's disadvantage is they are personally involved with
the purchase decision. The reason is simple: emotions.
Management knows the pricing and what can be done to
"make a deal." If you know, then you must put the knowledge
aside to ensure you can get the most from the customer.
Never rush a sale. When you call management tell them who
the customer is and what they wish to purchase.
Management must then determine if the product is available.
While management is doing this you explain to the customer
that availability is being checked, which gives them fear of
loss. Management will then tell you if the item is available,
and if it is what it will take to make a deal. Write down the
details management gives you about the deal. Note: The
phone call is important because you do not want to leave the
customer alone. While the manager is checking availability
they should be asking you questions, which you relay to your
customer, or answer back so the customer understands the
questions such as "Did they try what we have to offer?" "Did
they like it enough to buy it?" If you are trying to sell yourself
and there is no management involved, then this step is
replaced with an intermission in which you excuse yourself to
consider the offer. Remember that being in demand will help
make the sale. Never rush into the decision, but don't make
them wait long either.
9. Negotiate Offer―When you hang up the phone turn the paper
around which you were writing on. Start with what they have
to offer if they are giving you something. Next identify what it
is they are purchasing, including its features. Finally tell them
the conditions of purchase. Draw an X under the initial sale
offer and say, "Please sign here to accept the offer." Shut
up! Remember: The first person who speaks is at a
negotiating disadvantage. If they reject the initial sale offer
then ask them what it would take to make the deal. Write
down exactly the conditions of their offer. In some industries
you will make a second call to management, provide their
 offer, get a counter offer, show it and explain why then write
down their next offer. Have them sign the offer accepted by
the customer with a statement to the effect of "I will buy and
accept (what they are purchasing) today." Have them write a
check or provide some other form of payment or assurance
that they are purchasing. They may likely resist. Explain that
you will use the surety to convince management their offer is
serious, and that without it you will have no negotiating power
against management. This keeps you on their side as their
advocate in the sale. You must feel like you are their
advocate to take this responsibility. If a credit application is
required, this is when you fill it out. You must get these three
things if you want to make a deal: Cash, Credit Application (if
necessary), and Commitment. They are called the 3 Cs. If
you cannot get these then I recommend showing them the
product again and explaining the values and benefits.
Remember: Some industries, particularly with large
purchases, require a credit application even if a loan is not
involved. The minimum reason is for identification purposes.
Before you proceed on to the next step, if they have signed a
counter offer then explain that management does not have to
accept their offer but that you will do your best. Ask them to
wish you luck.
10. Speak to Management―This is when you must leave the
customer and meet with management in person. It is purely
psychological as is the rest of this process. If you have not
succeeded in getting the 3 Cs, then a closer must go in. If a
closer comes in, you go with, but you say absolutely nothing
unless the closer asks you a direct question. Closing is a fine
art discussed below. If a deal is not established, then
management must always have the opportunity to talk to the
customer before contact is broken. If all goes well, at this
stage you finalize the sale.
11. Log Efforts―You must keep track of all sale efforts. Keep
detailed records whether they purchased or not. This leads to
step 12.
 12. Follow-Up―Follow the customer until they die (or ask you to
quit following). If the customer is serious about making a
purchase, 72% will buy within 48 hours & 92% will buy within
14 days. If you do not follow, then you can rest assured that
somebody else makes the sale. If they do purchase, then
continue the relationship to be sure of their satisfaction, that
they remember you for the next purchase, and they
recommend you to others.
Closing Deals
Closing is essentially reselling, but taking to extremes. The closer
will meet and greet and ask the customer about the product they are
purchasing and their terms. Where you asked the customer if they
liked the product well enough to own it, the closer will treat this
differently. Here is an example of a typical close:
Closer Customer
"Did you try our product?" "Yes."
"Did you like it well enough to "Yes." If the customer seems at
own it?" all hesitant, then the closer will
go through the Demo step again.
"Sorry, I can't sell it to you if you The customer often changes
only like it. If you don't love it their tone here and becomes an
you will hate whatever I offer instant buyer. If they don't, the
within the next 6 months." (This closer must recommend they
is true!) The closer gets up to find something else, even if that
leave. means starting over from
scratch.
The closer now has all the advantages. You have spent time
wearing the customer down (attrition). The closer has entered, quite
often, with absolutely no reference point, so they can start
completely fresh. Since the closer is fresh, they do not need to deal
with their own emotions. Often by this time the salesperson is also
exhausted and having to deal with their own emotions. When you
start having to deal with your own emotions you cannot expect to
guide someone else's. Without you actually having the sales
experience, developing closing skills is nearly impossible.
Customer & Manager Perceptions
Remember, the customer and your manager are always right until
you convince them otherwise. Attacking or putting down their
perspective immediately creates barriers and conflict. You never
want a conflict with a manager or customer. You will always lose.
This does not mean to say Yes when you mean No (see below).
Here our concern is gathering information adequately before moving
into saying "no" without saying no. That means you must ask
questions and effectively listen to what they are telling you. To be
certain, rephrase what they have told you and repeat back for
clarification. You may need to take notes, and clarification may be
best accomplished in writing rather than verbally so you can be sure
not to inadvertently sound negative. It is also highly advisable to
take this information and put it into practice as you examine other
possibilities. Here are some perceptions that can automatically be
assumed as incorrect, meaning they must be handled carefully.
Never put down a perception. The best approach is to repeat the
perception for clarity, than empathize with a statement like "I
understand why you would like to have your office automatically
perform all its duties when you click one button."
Perception Reality
I want it all Problem is that you must tell the computer exactly
to happen what you want and provide all the necessary
with a single information. Whenever possible it is preferred the
click. developer provides the simplest procedures
possible, but not for this reason. The simplest
procedures reduce human error, which is the real
problem. Correct, high-quality work is more
important than saving time because poor quality
always costs more in the long run.
I need a If it were simple they would do it themselves. This is
simple potential warning for disaster. Rarely is it as simple
change... as "Bold the title." More likely the simple change
involves something like modifying an argument
statement to change the output, which could affect
more than the desired output. Listen very carefully
 because you do not want to make a "simple" global
change when it should be limited.
Why should If it is not broke, don't fix it! Foreseen breakage is
I upgrade? just as good as the real thing. Personally I'd rather
foresee breakage and fix it before it affects my data
or output. Drastically antiquated systems are bound
to break at unexpected times for numerous reasons,
and may run dreadfully slow. These reasons alone
should justify upgrading, but not necessarily jumping
to the top of the market either. Ideally systems
should be prepared to be upgraded to help manage
the upgrade costs.
New/More is More is often less, and new is often filled with bugs.
better. To borrow from Gary Gygax (AD&D), these people
can be labeled power users. Power users also like
customizing their toolbars and making their system
so unique that they are lost going to another. Power
using runs up the bills and cuts into productivity. If
you do not know what it does, then learn about it
before deciding to upgrade into it. Remember also
that the box and software have a physical capacity,
and that productivity is always slowed to the slowest
component.
I only have There will always be more. If there was no
X number of opportunity for growth, then borrow somebody else's
items... equipment, print masters and photocopy them.
Virtually all data is dated and subject to inflation.
When data stagnates it loses its usefulness.
Instant Always run parallel systems through the training and
upgrading troubleshooting process. Downtime means money.
Change must be proven effective before it totally
replaces the old. Surprises in IS can be
devastating.
Limit testing Nothing seems much worse than testing the
upgrade on a few of the top users for a couple
days. Upgrades must be tested with all
 denominations of employees in all possible
scenarios. You cannot be certain of anything on
such a limited sampling
All these issues must be treated tactfully. Listen, question, repeat,
empathize then educate without putting down what exists or is
desired. In the end they make the final decision and if they choose
incorrectly that is their problem. If you try deciding for them without
their permission, then they are likely to go elsewhere to someone
who will. They cannot blame you if you follow the steps below.
Saying "NO" Without Saying No
Nobody likes a "Yes-man" and nobody likes confrontation. Outright
saying "no" or putting down someone's ideas or what they have is
going to lead to confrontation. The steps in conflict resolution are
identified under communication failures. No matter how careful you
are there will be times when a conflict emerges, not to mention you
are human yourself and it is remarkably easy to slip and
inadvertently cause a confrontation. As the provider of a product or
service to a customer or manager, you will always lose the
confrontation. To avoid confrontations follow these steps (also listed
above) in communication:
1. Listen―This means shutting your mouth, maintaining eye
contact, hearing and understanding what is being said.
2. Question―If you are to ever interrupt, be sure it is a question
to clarify what was just said. If possible listen to everything
they have to say then ask your questions and listen
attentively to each of their answers before moving to the next
question.
3. Repeat―This may be integrated with your questions. It
further shows your listening and understanding. I prefer
repeating directly, but at times it may be wise to put the
repetition into writing. Put it in writing if there can be any
doubt as to expectations, priorities, and time frames.
4. Empathize―Show that you understand how they feel, as if
you feel it yourself, or have been there before. This is
typically not difficult to do as you probably have, unless you
have no experience with the product. If you have no
 experience with the product, then you must be creative and
sound like you understand and sympathize.
5. Educate―Remember that you are the expert or they would
not need you. You do this every day, or at least much more
frequently than they do. Educating someone does not mean
you must think of them as stupid. On the contrary they most
definitely have experience and skills you do not. They are
merely ignorant and it is your responsibility to lift the veil of
ignorance by informing them concisely and expertly. You
cannot in a brief time tell them everything, nor should you.
Educate them enough so they understand the values and
benefits of what you are trying to sell.
6. You perform their final decision―This step has some levity
depending on the understanding level of the recipient. This
levity is based on functionality not on your personal benefit.
There are times when you are told to use something that is
not appropriate, and the recipient is so clueless that you must
disobey to provide the requested results. This falls under
Captain Kirk's rules of command, which is seen reflected
throughout society. Even our legal system acknowledges that
at times laws must be violated to enforce laws. As an
example, the Constitution may be violated if and only if there
is a compelling interest. The compelling interest test is
extremely vague but may be summarized by the utilitarian
perspective of "serving the greatest good for the greatest
number." In Star Trek, Captain Kirk regularly finds himself in
a situation where he must violate the Prime Directive of non-
interference with less advanced societies in order to either
rescue the society from a natural disaster or to fill the Prime
Directive itself. The stories also mention a test which all
commanding officers must take before leaving Starfleet
Academy called the Kobeyashi Maru. Kirk was noted as
being the only cadet to win, but his solution was to reprogram
the computer so a solution could arise. Basically this boils
down to an attitude: "There is always a way, always
alternatives."
The somewhat knowledgeable recipient needs more than
 flagrant disregard for orders. The reason is they may be able
to look at the work and see that you rewrote the rules. If such
is the case, the best approach is to provide them with what
they ask and alternatives which can then be "sold" as better.
If their demand is completely impossible, then it is necessary
to show them personally how impossible it is and to show in
your references that it is not just a matter of you don't know
how.
The fully knowledgeable can be a great resource because
they can tell you how to make it work and they have good
reasons for doing things the way they do.
The worst scenario to deal with is an indirect order. It is
always better to interface with the person who made the
decision than a subordinate. Subordinates have no authority
to change the decision and cannot be expected to effectively
sell a change. Do your best to interface directly with the
decision maker. This may mean providing alternatives in a
very brief meeting because it was delegated for a reason. If
such is not possible you must assume the worst: they know
what they are talking about and have their reasons. Reality is
they most likely do not know, but it is better to assume the
worst than pay the consequences later.

Communication Failures
Distractions Remove all potential distractions. This can
perhaps be most difficult in an adult classroom
where the students have to attend because their
boss said so. Many take this as the opportunity
to catch up on gossip. Decrease the distance
between you and your audience, turn off fans
and other noise sources if necessary, say
something condescending toward yourself that is
funny, and if necessary recommend people
separate and work with others without scolding.
For example, "I think you three would do much
better closer to the podium so I could help you
more." Another technique is to keep talking
 about the topic (not the distraction) as you
approach them, and be sure that you direct
everything you say at them. Ask them questions
about the topic on hand. Inevitably they will
notice they are being singled out.
Concision Get to the point. If somebody wants to go into
detailed story telling, let it be the customer. If
you are doing extensive story telling, then the
customer perceives you wasted their time. If,
however, you are the audience to their stories,
you are their best friend. That is where you want
to be.
Motivating Motivating is a matter of identifying the needs
and desires of the individual or group then
exploiting those needs and desires. Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs from most important to least
are: Physical, Safety, Belongingness, Esteem,
Self-Actualization. If you can help fill a need
inexpensively you can easily purchase your
customer's wallet.
Controlling the Some individuals are control freaks. They will
Conversation dominate the communication by talking too much
or asking nonsensical questions. Remember the
person asking questions is in control, so guide
the conversation with questions and repeating
back the needs and desires you identify. Those
who talk too much need an audience. For such
individuals take control by asking closed
questions (they require single word answers like
yes or no). For those who speak too little, ask
more open ended questions then ask even more
questions regarding their responses to get the
necessary depth. If the customer is paying you
by the hour and talks to you the whole time, it is
their money, so pay attention and be sure to
accomplish something during the conversation.
No doubt, they are used to accomplishing
 dreadfully little in a lot of time, so if you
accomplish something they will fill accomplished.
General Tech talk and the ability to follow directions are
Comprehension major barriers. With most physical product
sales, language is seldom a major issue as the
customer has an idea what they are interested in
and you can follow their body language.
Services, on the other hand, require at least
some ability to communicate in a common
language. Some individuals are completely
incapable of following sequential directions.
These individuals need to be provided controlled
physical experiences to learn from and the
assurance that they cannot do anything any
harm. Technical jargon must be avoided unless
the customer exhibits a clear understanding.
Even then, each time you use a technical term,
immediately supply a definition that any human
can physically understand. If you can't, then
don't use the term.
Strong All strong emotions are barriers except
Emotions enthusiasm for what you are talking about. They
may have other concerns you must smoke out
with questions. If the concerns may be personal
you may pull them aside, tell them what you
perceive and ask if there is anything you can do.
If they are angry do not take it personally. They
have probably had the run-around and are mad
at the situation in general. Empathize by
listening to their woes and avoiding the pitfalls
they encountered previously. If all else fails,
assure them you will get to the bottom of the
matter, even if that means taking the problem
personally and tracking down the one person on
the planet who can solve the problem. People
do not want to get bounced around, and will be
 immensely happy if you can be the ultimate
person to resolve their problem.
Negativity Use action verbiage like: Right!! Great!! Please
(yours) follow me... Why would you say that? Wouldn't
you agree? Look at this... Sound good to you?
Let me show you... What I would like to do... I
understand, however...
Overcoming Objections
Objections are the obstacles between purchasing and not
purchasing. A customer will always buy what they need, so do not
count on being able to fill wants too. The five sequential steps to
overcoming objections are:
1. Smoke out the objection (by asking questions about what is
the obstacle and why?)
2. Identify the objection (listen to their answers)
3. Repeat the objection exactly as stated (or at least concisely)
4. Isolate the object (dissect it into its parts to find the absolute
root of the problem and identify the quality you must meet)
5. Answer the objection (overcome it by meeting the necessary
quality or minimizing it)
Useful Tips
Always assume the sale Start transferring mental
Smoke out intentions ownership
Start building value in Create desire for
your product ownership
Create a sense of urgency
In dealing with objections:
Never Always
Give one objection too much Test the validity of the objection
power
Take an objection personally Remind yourself it is not about
you personally
Make verbal proposal or Write down proposed solutions
solution without writing and summarize your efforts in
particulars down terms of values and benefits
 Abandon negotiations because Use the objection as a focal
of an objection point for reaching an agreement
Confuse the person with the Address the objection without
objection making it about the buyer (e.g.
without blame)
Let yourself be convinced the Test the objection for its
objection will prevent the sale influence and validity in the
process
Put the buyer in a non- Leave it open for the buyer to
reversible position (corner make a decision ("If you aren't
them) happy then I don't expect you to
do business here.")
Let objections get your spirit Keep your attitude and
down appearance up (e.g. smile) no
matter what
Totally ignore an objection Show empathy and
understanding
Give in to an objection right Check the validity by asking for
away elaboration
Interrupt while they state their Listen and allow them to explain
objection themselves
Money Issues
Customers are more resistant to making a decision than parting with
money, so eliminate all other objections first. All costs are justified if:
The customer understands the costs of lesser products
The customer understands the values and benefits of the
product
The customer perceives good service
The customer perceives timely professionalism
Time Issues
Scotty's Law says you should multiply all time estimates by four, then
provide the results in half the time. The factor of four guarantees the
task is accomplished and is functional without obvious errors. Take
twice as long to provide the results as your personal estimate just to
be sure it is correct. This also gives you time to run drafts past the
customer for approval. Scotty's Law must sometimes be expanded,
and most notably with applications development, such as web
design, database design, graphics design, etc. Those who have
worked in these fields know that most projects can be completed
over night.
It is hard to justify charging $30,000 for a database design you did in
six hours if the customer knows you took six hours. These projects
may be quick for a developer, but you should sit on the project and
run test data through it over a period of months before you ask for
such a large dollar amount. If they need a quick patch to get by,
charge a lot by all means, then take your time delivering the rest.
This may seem like a big lie, but in reality there are good reasons for
taking your time with development. Often, in primary research, I find
it wise to walk away for months or even years, then double back to
see if the logic still works and provides the expected results. During
the waiting period you must be creative and think about anything that
could possibly break the system you devised. You should also think
of ways it can be made more concise, or provide extra useful
features. DO NOT SHOW A COMPLETE WORKING MODEL
UNTIL CLOSE TO THE END OF THE DELIVERY PERIOD! Even
then, try to only show parts. It is too easy for the customer to try and
rush something that really should be taken slowly and carefully. The
more time you have with the development, the less likely it is to
break and the more satisfied your customer will be. Instant delivery
usually results in thoughts like, "If you could do it that fast, it must be
real easy so maybe I should get a book and do it myself." That is
not good for business. If they try this, they will be going to someone
else to fix what they messed up, and I can almost guarantee they
will.

Overcoming Fear
The largest obstacle between the user and understanding is fear.
Fear results from our sense of boundaries, and is useful to our sense
of safety. We learn to build boundaries by borrowing those of our
elders as we grow up. Boundaries get stronger with age because
what could take years to build can be destroyed in seconds, so we
get "gun shy." I like to use the following discussion with new users to
help destroy their boundaries. Consider the discussion and stories
carefully as they may prove helpful. Fear and boundaries are a
direct function of age and an inverse function of knowledge. The
greater the age, the greater the fear and boundaries. The greater
the understanding, the lower the fear and boundaries.
Elements of Human Nature
The elements of human nature describe not only our purpose here,
but the entire nature of Primo Levi's book: The Periodic Table
(translated from Il Sistema Periodico). We cannot explore all the
elements of human nature, but will place particular emphasis on our
sense of boundaries, their source, the ways they create fear in us,
and how this affects both learning and interfacing with technology.
To accomplish this we will examine two brief stories: Blade Runner
(based on the movie by Ridley Scott and the book entitled Do
Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? by Phillip K. Dick) and Titanium
(from Primo Levi's book The Periodic Table). It is easy to think these
stories balance the past with the future, but both have timeless
messages regarding human nature that concern us here.
Blade Runner is science fiction that comes close to home not only in
dates but also in the current advances and capabilities of
technology. Some readers mistakenly are drawn literally into the
images based on beliefs and religion without realizing the underlying
meanings. The images themselves are easily applied to any religion
or conception of human symbolism. Deckard is an anti-hero whose
transformation is overcome by what he fears the most: the
technology he is intended to destroy. Not only does he find the
technology is not to be feared, he discovers himself and inner
happiness. There are some factors of the original story omitted from
our reading. For example, Rachel is a replicant whom Deckard has
innocently fallen in love with before being ordered to destroy her.
The movie and book are both overflowing with rich imagery which
could not possibly be fit in this short space.
Titanium is an adorable little story until you realize the context in
which it is told. Primo Levi survived the Nazi prison camps….
Usually that line is enough to send anyone back to the story because
all of a sudden it isn't just a story about a cute, curious little girl and a
painter. Suddenly it is a story about the deaths of millions of Jews,
Gypsies and homosexuals. Not only is it a story about this, but also
of hundreds of millions slaughtered throughout this century in other
mass-executions (Mao Tse Tung, Stalin, etc.). This story briefly
describes a small area of human nature in which we allow others to
construct and destroy our personal boundaries (e.g. values and
fears). In the background are countless images alluding to
totalitarianism, the number one source of unnecessary mass death:
controlling the way other people think. Some of these images
include: white (washing: and all from one can everything is painted!
e.g. propaganda), paper boat hat (ships were and remain the
primary instruments of military power). In spite of all the strange
things, Maria trusts the power of the circle. We all do. We all trust
the circles constructed for us by those we looked up to as children.
That is, until we realize them and our own power to escape and
explore on our own.
Why both stories? I have used these stories for several years to
teach these same concepts to students in a wide range of fields.
Sometimes one story works better than another. Other times both
are needed. What determines this is the audience. For this reason
the last part of the Windows project is to respond and describe which
story best achieves the objectives (overcoming personal fears and
boundaries) for you and why. Everyone has fear to one degree or
another. Most people have an initial fear of technology because they
do not understand. They fear hurting something because their
parents always told them "Don't force it! You'll break it!" The most
breakable items on a computer are either replaced cheaply or, in the
case of software, easily reinstalled. If you lose information, figure
out why, go back and make sure it doesn't happen again. When we
realize technology is a tool and we are the masters, then we have
the courage to make our servant technology work for us.
Blade Runner
In 1492 a dream began-a dream of prosperity in a far away land,
a land we now call America. For many, prosperity meant material
wealth and power. It is 2017. Millions scramble and work for the so-
called American dream, in the city of the angels: Los Angeles.
Monolithic buildings rise above the street markets, a testament to the
success of a few overlooking the many, the struggling. Billboards
remind the masses that there is a better place, a place off world-and
this is a hell to be risen up from. So desperate and wanton of
material, of rising up in success, these so-called humans have
perfected their art: the creation of cybernetic slaves called
replicants. Their motto: to build replicants "more human than
human." In their zeal they succeeded.
Realizing their success, they give replicants a shortened life-four
years-and a death sentence for acclimating with the "humans" of
Earth: issued by bounty hunters called "blade runners." Deckard is a
blade runner. He "retires" replicants seeking the ultimate American
dream: humanity. Deckard does not like his job-he feels like he is
killing "people" not mindless androids. Little does Deckard realize,
but his emotion-sense is very accurate. The replicants, in their
abbreviated lives, are forced to live, forced to love and appreciate
life, where humans take their long lives for granted. The replicants
have become more human than the humans.
Today pilgrimages are made to churches, temples and other holy
places. The hope: to someday meet the maker-God. Why? To
receive eternal life and the answers to the questions: where do I
come from? why am I here? where am I going? when? Roy Batty is
a religious pilgrim, and his "God," Tyrell, is in Los Angeles. Roy's
crime: he is a replicant. Roy is Tyrell's "prodigal son," the
embodiment of being "more human than human."
Deckard becomes an unwitting student of Roy's humanity.
Deckard has no aspirations and no faith. Deckard lives one day at a
time, from one bottle of alcohol to the next-knowing no love for
himself or anyone else; without compassion. He drowns the moral
dilemma of killing a replicant with liquor, a coward running from his
own humanity. Goff, an omniscient-insightful blade runner, makes a
paper chicken (origami) while Deckard searches Leon's apartment.
The chicken represents Deckard's cowardliness. Later, Goff makes
a matchstick man, as with the manikins this symbolizes Deckard's
falsity, an empty man, a man without a life nor a soul.
Deckard is asleep at the wheel of life-his eyes do not see. Roy
does see. He says, "If you could see through your eyes what I can
see through mine. . . . " Roy is a prophet, leading his people to the
land of salvation, the promise land, a Messiah of the replicants. To
this end he sacrifices himself and repents: this is Roy's "great moral
idea," cementing replicants into a "solid union" of humanity. He
aspires "to eternal aims:" "absolute gladness" in being human. Roy
sees humanity, and repents his birth-sin, being born a replicant, in
the image of Christ-driving a nail through his palm.
As the story reaches its climax it is easy to believe that the final
conflict is between Deckard and Roy. Deckard is really confronting
himself. He runs-not from Roy but himself. Deckard is still a
coward, still blind to the reality confronting him, still blind to being
human. Deckard leads an unexamined life-guilty of a wasted life.
Roy, the prophet replicant, is a mirror to Deckard's soul. Roy does
not intend to kill Deckard. Roy is ultimately human-compassionate
enough to give life to the man who has opposed him, killed his
friends, killed his lover, who would kill him as well. Roy seeks
forgiveness, with room enough in his heart to forgive Deckard.
As Deckard runs frantically from Roy, he makes a giant leap-a
leap for life. As before, Deckard does not have the strength to
complete the leap--Roy does. As Deckard hangs, clinging to the life
he does not have, Roy gives his prophetic hand, raising Deckard
from lifelessness. Roy says, "Quite an experience to live in fear.
That is what it is like to be a slave." Roy's words are filled with
meaning, very deep. Deckard has been a coward, living in fear of
himself. His fear is like a child's fear of "closet monsters"-absent of
realism. Deckard is a slave to his fear. Where children fear sleep,
fearing the "monsters" will come and devour them, Deckard fears
life-being consumed in his own reality.
Roy sets a confused Deckard on the rooftop sanctuary. Deckard
is powerless against Roy's humanity. Roy knows the value of life-
giving it to Deckard. Roy's final achievement is absolute gladness in
death-appreciating his own significance when he says, "All those
moments will be lost in time like tears in rain. Time to die." Roy got
what he came for: a soul. Roy releases a white dove-a symbol of
peace and serenity in the hell where the angels have fallen. His last
moments are harmonious: a poet in words and kind, baring his soul
before God and Deckard. Roy's arms, forming a cross, continue his
Christian theme, his messianic character.
Deckard watches with awe as the most human Roy dies.
Deckard has undergone a profound transformation from the
esthetical to the ethical. Only now can Deckard appreciate Goff's
words: "It's too bad she won't live . . . but then again, who does?"
Life is precious-not to be wasted in the bottom of a bottle. He loves
life. He loves himself. He loves Rachel. He is no longer a coward-
as Goff says, "You've done a man's job sir." An origami unicorn-the
fabled immortal horse who loved nymphs-presents an image of
purity, immortality and love. Everything has been dark, dismal, a hell
on Earth. Now, Deckard is ready for the pure northern lands-a
heaven to live and love in.
Primo Levi's Titanium
To Felico Fantino
In the kitchen was a very tall man dressed in a way Maria had
never seen. On his head he wore a boat made out of a newspaper.
As he smoked a pipe, he was painting the pantry white.
It was incomprehensible how all that white could be contained in
so small a can. Maria had a great desire to go over and look inside
it. Every so often the man rested his pipe on the pantry shelf and
whistled. Then he stopped whistling and began singing. Every so
often he took two steps back and closed one eye, or he would go
spit in the garbage can and rub his mouth with the back of his hand.
In short, he did so many strange and new things. It was very
interesting to stay and watch him. When the pantry was white, he
picked up the pot and the newspapers up from the floor and carried
everything to the cupboard and began to paint that too.
The pantry was so shiny, clean, and white that it was almost
irresistible to touch it. Maria went up to the pantry, but the man
noticed and said, "Don't touch. You mustn't touch." Maria stopped in
amazement and asked, "Why?" "Because you shouldn't," he
replied. Maria thought about that, and then asked again, "Why is it
so white?" The man also thought for a while, as if the question
seemed difficult to him, and then said in a deep voice, "Because it is
titanium." The pipe in his mouth made his answer sound like "tee
tahl-ee-oh," which Maria interpreted as "ti taglio" meaning "I cut
you". Maria felt a delicious shiver of fear run through her, as when in
the fairy tale you get to the ogre; so she looked carefully and saw
that the man did not have knives either in his hand or near him: but
he could have one hidden. Then she asked, "Cut what on me?"--
and at this point he should have replied, "Cut your tongue." Instead,
he only said, "I'm not cutting anything: this is titanium."
Maria concluded that he must be a very powerful man. He did
not seem to get angry, but was rather good-natured and friendly.
Maria asked him, "Mister, what's your name?" He replied, "Felice."
He had not taken the pipe from his mouth, so Maria thought he said
alice (the i sounds like a long e) meaning small anchoves. And
when he spoke his pipe danced up and down but did not fall. Maria
stood for a while in silence, looking alternately at the man and the
pantry. She was not at all satisfied by his answer and wanted to ask
him why he had such a strange name, but then she did not dare
because she remembered that children must never ask why. Her
friend, a child, was called Alice and it was really strange that a big
man should have the same name. But little by little it began to seem
natural that he should be called Alice, and in fact she thought he
could not have been called anything else.
The painted pantry was so white that comparatively the rest of
the kitchen looked yellow and dirty. Maria decided there was nothing
wrong in going to look at it up close. Only look, without touching. As
she approached on tiptoe an unexpected and terrible thing
happened: the man turned and in two steps was beside her. He took
a piece of white chalk from his pocket and drew a circle on the floor
around Maria. Then he said, "You must stay in there." He struck a
match, lit his pipe, making many strange grimaces with his mouth,
and then continued painting the cupboard.
Maria sat on her heels and attentively considered the circle for a
long time. She became convinced that there was no way out. She
tried to rub it at one spot with her finger and saw that the chalk line
actually disappeared. She understood very well that the man would
not have regarded that system as valid. The circle was evidently
magical. Maria sat on the floor quietly, every so often she tried to
reach far enough to touch the circle with the tips of her feet and
leaned forward so far that she almost lost her balance. She soon
realized that there was still a good hand's breadth before she could
reach the pantry or wall with her fingers. So she just sat there and
watched as gradually the cupboard, chairs, and table also became
white and beautiful.
After a very long time the man put down his brush and paint pot
and took the newspaper boat off his head. Maria could see he had
hair like all other men. Then he went out by the balcony and Maria
heard him rummaging around and tramping up and down in the next
room. Maria began to call, "Mister!" ―first in a low voice, then
louder, but not too loud because at the bottom she was afraid that
the man might hear.
Finally the man returned to the kitchen. Maria asked, "Mister,
can I come out now?" The man looked down at Maria in the circle,
laughed loudly, and said many things that were incomprehensible,
but he didn't seem angry. At last he said, "Yes, of course, now you
can come out." Maria looked at him perplexed and did not move.
Then the man picked up a rag and wiped away the circle very
carefully, to undo the enchantment. When the circle had
disappeared, Maria got up and left, skipping and feeling very happy
and satisfied.

Analyzing Business Requirements (MCSD)

TCO and ROI
Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) is the overall short and long-term
costs of implementing a solution. This not only includes
development costs but also the costs of other hardware
requirements, corporate infrastructure requirements (the software
and everything outside the computer including the office, furniture,
cords, hubs, personnel, management and services, etc.) and
training. Various models will give or take priority (even eliminating)
these items. The objective is not to minimize but to optimize costs.
Microsoft's Solutions Framework TCO model views TCO as a
continual process with three phases: planning (benchmarks based
on industry averages; baselines of actual costs of acquiring,
managing and retiring assets; validation and ROI), building
(simulated impact on ROI) and managing (validation of TCO
optimization strategy against objectives and projections). Short-term
savings seldom, if ever, means lower TCO.
The lifecycle approach to TCO optimizes by element: development
of code and content, downtime/other for planned and unplanned
downtime of development and testing, end-user costs of training and
support, hardware and software costs, support of maintenance
(disaster recovery, help desk, administration and user training),
telecommunications fees for distribution and sharing of information,
management of data, networks and systems. Most costs are
incurred from the labor of developing, supporting and maintenance.
To reduce costs take advantage of existing structures like system
policies, logon scripts, and user profiles that require education to
overcome. Also, define clearly asset management procedures,
standard operating environments, and training. A major objective in
TCO planning is to network operations, network and data
management, administration and help-desk as self-sufficient as
possible to lower user dependence on the IT processes (e.g. users
do not have to regularly call the developers to accomplish their
tasks).
Return on Investment is a projection estimating how much the client
gets financially for the TCO. This might include accounting for
increased production, decreased overhead costs, increased
reliability of results (e.g. reducing quality control and shrink losses),
etc.
Project Scope
The number and complexity of tasks the project components will
perform is the scope. The business process expected to be
emulated is the project domain. This must be divided into what will
be implemented by humans and what processes will be implemented
by your solution, which is your responsibility. The tasks are then
divided into modular units. The modularity of your design is then
directly affected by the geography of the implementation, the number
of expected user, the cost and time limitations of developing. Often
the project is bigger than the cost and time limitations permit. The
best approach is to present the problem to the client and adjust the
scope to meet the restrictions in the meantime. Explain what is
being done to accommodate the limitations and what changes are
needed to meet the expectations.
Extent of Requirements
Business requirements are the elements of the project that are
required by the client's needs, and are separate from the needs of
system requirements (e.g. data access and communications) which
are also important to your design. A business requirement is a
specific task in the client's workflow. Parts of the task are called
business rules, which are written in English then coded to function.
Managing inventory is a business requirement, while stating to
reorder when the quantity on hand drops below the minimum, is a
business rule. Do not confuse business rules with the internal logic
of a system, like requiring a keep-alive message be sent to the
server when inactivity occurs for a given period of time. Also do not
confuse business rules with operating procedures that apply to
humans or formatting rules applied to documents. Rules often work
together. For example, another rule may specify how an item is
reordered.
The extent of requirements is directly affected by the type of problem
(communication, messaging, computation, logic, data access, etc.),
the required qualities (number of users, maintenance scheduling,
unscheduled downtime, etc.), and the quality of the solution. While
quality is preferred, no system is perfect (bug-free). As such you
must carefully gauge what imperfections are acceptable based on
time and cost limitations, and how they are handled. When it comes
to cost-effectiveness, businesses do not always chose what is best
for them, and more is not always better. The benefits of the system
must justify the costs.
Security
In the following considerations and their descriptions I am showing
preference for using Active Directory of Windows 2000 as it appears
to be the most efficient in defining security systems. The questions
of security involve who has access to what information, from where,
when and how.
Consideration Description
Roles Administrator, Group, Guest, and Client have
 different degrees of security access. Often
administrators have the most and guests have
the least, but this is not necessarily correct. It is
better to look at roles in terms of groups (e.g.
administrators, guests and clients), their roles in
the network, and their need for access to parts of
the network.
Fault This should be approached from a data safety
Tolerance perspective rather than as fault tolerance.
Because passwords are fallible (and often
shared), different degrees of data safety should
be established, then security measures and rules
are established based on those levels.
Maintainability Going along with fault tolerance this could include
expiration of passwords, validation of passwords
as not belonging to a particular language and
containing both numbers and text. This category
also includes reviewing additions and changes to
the system, procedures, physical security of the
system, and auditing.
Security Stores logon information including logon name,
Database password, and access rights to network
resources. It appears the easiest system to
manage is Active Directory in Windows 2000,
however, for full effect all computers on the
network need to have Windows 2000, which may
not be cost efficient. Note: Windows 95 and 98
have limited compatibility with Active Directory
and NT is completely incompatible.
Auditing This has nothing to do with money. Security
audits mean reviewing security procedures,
preventing lapses in security, and tracking
unauthorized access.
Security Levels Those with the least have access to the least.
Start with absolute deprivation of resources then
allow access as needed according to grouping of
 users (see roles). Typically no single individual
has total autonomy in all security levels.
Existing What security levels exist and why? Based on
Methods and the why you can determine what should be in
Policies place, compare that to what exists and
recommend additions or changes.
Workgroup The workgroup model stores logon and access
information on the individual computers. This is
fine for a very small network where there are
occasional shared files and folders and network
devices (like printers). On a large scale you are
better off with a domain architecture using
something like Active Directory to manage
system resources and centralize the logon and
access databases.
Performance
Consideration Description
Interoperability The solution must meet or exceed existing data
standards.
Response-time This should be minimized as much as possible,
and definitely compared to the existing system, as
the client may be justifiably displeased if the new
system is slower than the old (unless there was
poor quality resulting from the previous system or
less features that justify the time loss).
Transactions Number per time slice, bandwidth consumption,
and capacity of transactions conducted
simultaneously and through time.
Barriers This includes users, infrastructure, computers and
other components that may cause bottlenecking
resulting in slow or failed performance.
Peak vs. It is best to design for functionality during peak
Average usage rather than average. If forced to do
average be aware that the system may fail during
peak usage.
Maintenance
The following considerations should be considered in order
Consideration Description
Support Staff You must know the knowledge level and
accessibility of support staff (in-house, third
party, etc.) for the recipients to determine the
necessary resources and training they will need.
Distribution To whom is the solution distributed and where?
Breadth Is support staff available?
Recipient While recipient knowledge is important to
Knowledge determine the training requirements, it is not a
function of any other part of solution
development. Solution developments must
follow organization standards, not be aimed at
the lowest common denominator of user.
Expectations What maintenance is expected and who will
provide it?
Life Cycle This is a major issue potentially affecting
everything. You need to project into the future.
Assume first there will be no upgrade, and
predict how much data will accumulate and the
ability of solutions to accommodate. Then
assume that upgrades will occur and determine
methods so they can occur.
Distribution How will the solution be best distributed?
Method
Redistribution How will you manage reinstallation of
applications because files have been corrupted?
Scalability and Extensibility
Scalability is the ability of services in the system to run concurrently.
This requires independence of services capable of simultaneous
operation on multiple machines. Extensibility is a function of
modularity, allowing services to be individually (asymmetrically)
updated (think Component Object Model), meaning the entire
system does not need to be rebuilt to make a change.
Consideration Description
Data Growth This is a serious issue in database design. It can
be approached in many ways. You must ask:
What data is significant? For how long? Does
old data get destroyed or archived or a
combination of both? Can it be compressed?
How?
Organization What is the client's projected growth? This
Growth directly impacts audience and data growth.
Audience Will the number of users increase? Who might
Growth they be?
Cycle of Use How long will the solution be used?
Availability
Consideration Description
Operation In systems where there is no time for
Times maintenance, the best solution is to run parallel
systems where the clients may be automatically
rerouted, then pull one system off-line at a time to
perform maintenance.
Levels The number of users who need simultaneous
access is calculated based on peak usage.
Geography Distributed applications must provide for
networking constraint issues to prevent
unnecessary bottlenecking. This may require
replication of components and data. For
example, a quality control system that sends large
amounts of data to a network data where housing
server could reduce the network bottlenecking
(and labor of the data server) by condensing the
information and formatting it on the client
computer.
Downtime Prepare plans for both scheduled and
unscheduled downtimes.
Targeting the Audience
While it is important to define solutions that are technically feasible,
and financially practical and profitable, the solution must be sold to
the client (see the first half of this lesson). Individual proposals must
each be addressed and diplomatically resolved, politics must be
balanced, and communications must be metered based on the
client's technical know-how and solution explanations must be
thorough in explaining and justifying choices. Other audience
targeting concerns follow.
Consideration Description
Environment Account for the physical environment needs of the
computer.
Accessibility Account for the proximity of the user to the
computer versus the amount and method of use.
Special Needs Account for the physical limitations of the user
based on handicaps, context of use, and other
special input methods.
Users Account for the capabilities of the users, including
linguistic, cultural, experience level, training
requirements and working conditions. Account for
outside access to or portability of resources if
necessary to accommodate roaming users.
Support/Help Account for technical support for the users and
administrators, including any necessary training
and documentation.
Integrating with Existing Systems
Issue Description
Legacy Do not attempt to completely redefine
application everything and deprive the client of existing
compatibility structures they are familiar with (their comfort
zone). It is wise to initially maintain legacy
software until the new software is comfortable
with the users. As such the new system must
be compatible with the old (e.g. get data from it
and send data to it). This does not mean you
cannot give new features, because those are
 likely the whole reason you developed a new
solution, and will eventually mean all users
convert to the new.
Connectivity to Be cautious of replacing other existing systems
existing just to make the new one work. For example,
applications you introduce a new database system with
Access, with procedures that require users to
use Excel instead of the existing Lotus 1-2-3
unless you can really justify the change. You
want the new system to integrate with old
systems as much as possible.
Format and Prepare for data transfers by identifying its
location of format, how it will be transported, from where to
existing data where.
Data conversion To optimize connectivity to legacy and existing
applications you need to account for conversion
methods, either in code as an utility or less
preferably through procedure. You cannot
expect perfect convertibility with all other
applications, so I recommend at least providing
conversion to the most common and simplest
formats.
Data This may include new formatting methods, data
enhancement compression, or simply new data. Each of
these will pose problems with compatibility. A
certain obstacle to compatibility is changing
data types and shapes.
Business Methods and Limitations
Consideration Description
EDI Electronic Data Interchange is used for batch
transferring of information between banks and
between businesses. On the Internet, ASP and
CGI are used as a form of EDI available to
individuals also. According to the Electronic
Commerce Innovation Centre: "The transfer of
structured data, by agreed message standards,
 from one computer to another, by electronic
means." Communicating systems are
synchronized by sequencing and formatting data
at the presentation level of the OSI.
Business Ideally meet current practices, and only if
Practices absolutely necessary propose modifying those
practices.
Needs Sometimes the most difficult thing to identify, as
often the client believes the problem is in one
place and the solution is several places
removed. You must be able to smoke out the
needs by examining the whole process to find
faults, bottlenecks, points that can or must be
changed, etc.
Organization This includes both business politics and
Structure workflow.
Budget If the solution exceeds the budget constraints
seek a lesser solution and present the issue to
the client.
Deployment Distributing, implementing and training may be
affected by existing systems. The schedule
must accommodate for full functionality of the
new system, or full functionality of incremental
parts.
Quality Control Aim for optimum in your solution and work with
the client's QC department to ensure you meet
or exceed their requirements and documentation
therefore.
Process Attempt to follow or at least understand their
Engineering methods for developing solutions.
Legal Issues While these should be left ideally to the client's
lawyers, you need to be aware of legal issues
surrounding your solutions, not limited to liability,
copyright, privacy and libel conflicts.
Acceptance There is always resistance to change, and the
more extreme the change the greater the
 resistance. Always account for the degree of
technical complexity the client is willing to
accept. The simplest solution that also meets
requirements is always the best. Reluctance
comes from: fear of extensive additional work,
fear of inability to interface with the new system,
fear of unfamiliarity/dissatisfaction of abandoning
the familiar, fear jobs are being challenged, and
fear of obsolescence/downsizing.
Computer Hardware and software (operating system)
Environment platforms, and the abilities of the client's
technical staff are serious issues of your
solution. Try to retain and utilize as much of the
existing system as possible, and thoroughly
justify any alteration or addition.
Migration Migrating to the new system requires careful
planning and consideration of: impact on
production, testing, post migration interruptions,
and contingency planning for possible conflicts
and failures.
Infrastructure The total set of resources necessary to
implement and support an enterprise's
computing environment. This includes
technologies and standards, operational
processes (policies, procedures, services),
people/staff and organizational skills (e.g.
knowledge and management). The military uses
Logistics in a similar manner.
Worksheet 1—Analyzing
Requirements
 Unit 2—Hardware & Software
Contents
Lesson 1—Computers
1. Computers in General 3. System Unit Components
2. Computer Types 4. Motherboard Components
Lesson 2—Hardware
1. CPU (Central Processing 4. Input and Output
Unit) 5. Expansion and Peripheral
2. Other Major Computer System Components
Chips
3. Secondary Storage
Lesson 3—Software
1. Operating Systems 2. Major Software Types
Lesson 4—Purchasing a Computer
1. System Source 3. Expandability
2. CPU 4. Peripherals
5. Software
 Lesson 1—COMPUTERS
Objectives
1. Computers in General 3. System Unit Components
2. Computer Types 4. Motherboard Components

Computers in General
Data Types
Data types are typically divided into text, graphics, audio and video,
but would include other forms of output when robotics is involved or
other physical operations like printing. Data is stored using binary
codes (on/off or 1/0 switches) called bits in bundles called bytes.
The smallest byte consists of eight bits. All bytes and storage
capacities are divisible by eight. Windows 95 uses a 16-bit bundle
per byte, while Windows 98 uses a 32-bit bundle per byte. The
advantage of large byte bundles is the ability to store a wider variety
of information in greater detail in less space (e.g. graphics). The
computer only understands binary bundles, so all information given
to the computer is converted into binary, and all output must be
interpreted from binary to provide useful information to the user.
Storage
Primary (internal) storage (memory) temporarily holds information
(input, software, and output), while secondary (external) storage
stores the information for later sessions of use. Secondary storage
is typically built into systems (e.g. the disk drives). The primary
storage in a computer is the RAM. When the computer does not
have enough RAM to store all the information being processes,
Windows 95 and above will create swap files, which are temporary
files, on the hard drive to make up for the deficiency.
As we discussed previously, data is stored in binary. Both primary
and secondary storage are measured in the number of bytes they
can contain. A kilobyte (Kb) is one thousand bytes (more accurately
1,024 bytes) of information. A megabyte (Mb) is a million bytes
(more accurately, 1,024,000) bytes of information. A gigabyte (Gb)
is a billion bytes of information. As you may have noted, the actual
quantities are slightly higher. The reason is these are also divisible
by eight.
Conventional RAM ranges from 32 Mb (minimum) to 258 Mb and
beyond. Although 32 Mb is adequate, 64 Mb is practical for most
general use. Typically more RAM is not necessary unless the
computer is used for heavy graphics or otherwise is expected to
process extremely large amounts of information. AltaVista’s on-line
computers, for example, run several Gb of RAM to support their
enormous database. Computer purchasers should also be attentive
to Shared RAM. Some computers will designate some of the RAM
to video and audio, hence sharing the RAM. Others will use
accelerator cards with their own built-in memory, which should be
preferred but is not necessary unless you expect to do a lot of
graphics, video games or otherwise process large amounts of data.
There are a variety of RAM types, most popular of which at present
is PC100. The type specifies the type of BUS (see Motherboard
Components below) necessary to attach the RAM board to the
motherboard. In the case of PC100, the 100 refers to the speed of
the memory in megahertz (100 MHz).
Secondary storage devices have a wide range of storage sizes. 3.5”
floppies store from 720 Kb (for DD) to 1.44 (for HD). CD ROMs
store 640 Mb (CD-RWs store up to 720 Mb). Hard (fixed) disk drives
currently range from 3.2 Gb to over 80 Gb. The typical user will not
currently need more than 6.4 Gb on a hard drive.
Hardware versus Software
Hardware is the physical equipment, while software consists of the
commands that makes the equipment perform actions. Hardware
consists of two major categories: the system unit and peripherals.
The system unit is the computer case and everything inside the
computer case. The actual computer is the CPU (discussed later),
while everything not in the CPU (including the motherboard) is
considered external to the computer, even if it is inside (internal to)
the system unit. Peripherals are everything that is plugged into and
is external to the system unit (e.g. mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor,
scanner, etc.)
A program is a set of instructions that tells the computer what actions
to perform and how to perform them. Applications software perform
tasks involving user input and outputting information in a useful
format for the user. System software enables applications software
to run on the system's hardware devices, also called the Operating
System.

Computer Types
General Use Microcomputers
Devices using microprocessor technology that perform computations
built into other devices such as calculators, clocks, stereos,
microwave ovens, cars, etc.
Microcomputers (PCs)
Computers constructed using microprocessor technology small
enough for common availability and use. Sizes range from palmtop
(handheld) to desktop. PC and Mac are hardware platforms whose
components are typically incompatible and require different
programs to operate.
Midrange Computers
Also called minicomputers, are often used as servers for networks
with too many users to fit the capabilities of a PC. These systems
may range from the size of a desktop to the size of a desk or large
filing cabinet.
Mainframes
A large computer, typically filling a room, used in large organizations
with large amounts of data and many network users. These handle
high volume jobs, such as billing for a large company.
Super Computers
Typically not as large as mainframes, but considerably more
powerful as they are capable of performing extensive computations
with extreme accuracy. These are often used in scientific
applications and computer animation for movies.

System Unit Components

Casing/Housing The box that contains the computer's internal
components. Not any box will do, as boxes
are designed for specific boards, power
supplies, etc.
Controller Cards These are also called expansion cards. This
(Add-In Boards) will include cards for controlling external
devices, accelerator cards, drive controller
cards, most modems and network cards, etc.
Drives Although drives are technically external
storage devices, typically at least one floppy
drive, a fixed drive and CD ROM drive are
built into the box.
Peripheral/External This includes all the input and output devices:
Devices monitors, keyboards, pointing devices,
printers, etc. These are not part of the CPU
but are attached to it.
Motherboard A large printed circuit board (PC board)
intimately connected with all the computer
components. The components of the
Motherboard are listed below.
Power Supply Regulates and distributes electricity to the
components of the computer. On
examination you will note that one set of
cables goes to the Motherboard. Other
cables also go to the drives as a minor
indication that they are separate from (and
external to) the primary computer unit (the
Motherboard and the controller cards).
System Fan Attached to the hottest part of the computer
(the Power Supply). The fan pulls air through
little vents around the computer (usually
opposite of the power supply so air passes
over the Motherboard), and blows the air out
the back of the Power Supply. In old systems
this was the only item to control the
temperature in the computer.
Motherboard Components
The motherboard is a printed circuit board holding most, if not all of
the major computer chips, but always the Processor (CPU). Other
components of the motherboard include:
Battery The system battery maintains the system clock while
there is no external power to the system. Old
batteries were long thin rectangles. Newer models
use a large round battery.
BIOS See CMOS below. Basic Input/Output System: The
BIOS designates your boot sequence (the order in
which the computer checks the drives for the system
files to start the computer) and other primary settings
of your computer. It may be modified by booting the
computer and pressing the [Delete] button on your
keyboard when prompted to do so (about the same
time the computer is checking its memory). In later
Pentiums you can boot off of the CD-ROM, which is
useful for Windows 98 and Linux installations. Note:
some BIOS features include a virus protection
feature that will halt the system if anything attempts
to write to the boot sector or partition table of the
hard disk during the boot sequence.
BUS Slots into which expansion boards may be inserted,
to include AGP for video cards, ISA and PCI for
most expansion boards, and DIMM for RAM (e.g.
EDO and SDRAM (includes PC100)). BUS speed,
measured in megahertz (MHz) affects the rate at
which information is transferred from one board to
another. The current standard is 100 MHz, though
some are slower and current technology makes 200
MHz possible.
CMOS Set of instructions providing the basic interface
between hardware devices and the operating system
stored on an EPROM (erasable/programmable read-
only memory) chip. Sets the current date and time,
the type of hard and floppy disk drives installed, and
 the display type. The BIOS typically auto-detects
the memory size. From the CMOS you can access
the BIOS features setup where you can enable and
disable components, set the boot sequence, set a
system password, etc.
Co- Other processor chips apart from but contributory
Processors toward the function of the CPU, such as a math co-
processor.
CPU See next lesson.
Jumpers Jumpers and switches are physical components that
and must be manually set before the motherboard is
Switches used. Jumpers, unless otherwise specified here, are
used to: identify the processor, set the processor
voltage (switches), use a number 2 key on the
keyboard to turn the system power on, select the
DIMM clock, temporarily clear the CMOS, set the
Network Interface Card (NIC) to wake the system
(Wake On LAN or WOL), and to set a Sound Blaster
(SB) LINK.
Ports Many motherboards have connectors built into them
for the mouse, keyboard and monitor. Any socket a
peripheral device may be plugged into is called a
port. Ports come in two types: LPT (for printers,
scanners and other stand alone (e.g. also plug into
the wall) devices ), COM (for communications
devices, mice, keyboards and other dependent
peripherals) and USB (optional in later Pentiums) for
high speed connections to components that would
otherwise plug into either LPT or COM (MACs alone
support USB mice).
Processor A powerful fan mounted directly on top of the
Fan processor. This fan forces air very rapidly over the
processor, keeping the processor the coldest part of
the computer.
Slots (IDE & These slots specifically connect to the drives using a
ESDI) wide ribbon to reduce cross-talk (information
jumping from one line to another) and increase
communications speed (up to 10 million bits per
second or Mbps).
 Lesson 2—HARDWARE
Objectives
1. CPU (Central Processing 4. Input and Output
Unit) 5. Expansion and Peripheral
2. Other Major Computer System Components
Chips
3. Secondary Storage

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

Processors in General
The CPU is the central processing unit, which performs arithmetic
operations and controls the flow of information among the hardware
components. The CPU is composed of an arithmetic/logic unit
(ALU), control unit (which directs the flow of electronic traffic),
registers (storage area for processing ALU and control unit
operations), and buses (the parts connecting the CPU to the
motherboard and its components). CPU is also often used as a
general term for the main computer unit (the box with motherboard,
memory, etc.). The CPU speed is measured in megahertz (MHz),
which indicates the chip's rate of performing calculations in
processing commands.
The processor contains one or more control units depending on the
type of processor. Here we will use the Intel names generically to
apply to all equivalent chips. As we progress from lesser to greater
processors we should note that later processors contain the control
units of the lesser processors. Typically these are improved upon as
more is added to the chip. The original PC processors (8086
through 80386) contained only a logic unit. Each had a different
footprint (the layout of pins attaching the chip to the motherboard)
and different speeds. The 8086 and 8088 (processor on laptops)
contained the logic unit to process commands and the BIOS
supported 5¼ floppies. The 80286 BIOS supported low density 3½
and high density 5¼ floppies. The 80386 BIOS was capable of
supporting the high density 3½ floppies and an arithmetic expansion
card. The 486 added internal modems to the list of capabilities and
put the arithmetic unit onto the processor. The cache was an
innovation of Pentium II chips. The advantage of the cache is that
the processor is not waiting on BUS speeds (60MHz on Celeron and
under, 100MHz on PII and higher, 200MHz on AMD K7) to retrieve
commands to process. Cache is memory directly connected to the
processor itself and not the motherboard (most Celerons 128k, PII
and some Celerons 256k, PIII 512k, AMD K7 Athelon 8,192k). The
illustration shows the basic makeup of processors in the range of
Celeron through AMD K7 (simply remove components from the
diagram for the lesser processors as indicated above).
Pentium Processors
All computers with Pentium or equivalent processors are multimedia
machines. This is a product of the system board and not the
processor chips themselves. These system boards automatically
support CD ROM's, speakers and microphones. You can configure
the BIOS to place the CD ROM in the boot sequence (Linux and
Windows 98 provide bootable CD ROM's and you can make
bootable CD ROM's with a CD ROM burner). The only significant
differences between the 486 and original 586 processors is the
footprint, speed, and multimedia capabilities of the system (mother)
board. Celeron and greater computers also provide USB high-speed
connections (for some cameras, printers and scanners) and MIDI
ports (for joysticks, music keyboards, and some cameras).

Cache
Later Pentium quality chips contain potentially two levels of cache.
Level 1 cache is integrated circuit in the CPU. Level 2 cache is on a
printed circuit board attached directly onto the CPU. Information
travels fastest within an integrated circuit (IC), then second fastest
over a printed circuit (PC board), third by ribbon cable to the IDE on
the motherboard, fourth by BUS (which connects two printed circuit
boards), and slowest by cable. The advantage of cache is a
reduction of processing time by reducing the necessity to go through
the motherboard, memory BUS, and memory board to the memory
(RAM) chip to get the next command. The less frequently this has to
occur, the faster the processor can work. A misleading point of
processors is their clock speed. While they may clock at a very high
speed they may actually run slow because they are waiting to
retrieve the next commands. Hence the cache and BUS speeds are
extremely important in accelerating operations. The AMD K3 and
Athelon chips both have Level 1 cache (128k and 512k
respectively). Naturally their processors are the fastest on the
current market. Both however are slowed to the lesser components,
and at the time of this writing, nothing is actually built to support the
200 MHz BUS speed capabilities of the Athelon, which is
disappointing.

Other Major Computer Chips

Internal memory comes in two forms: RAM (Random Access
Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory). RAM is used for the
temporary storage of information, such as commands and data, and
may be considered the working memory. RAM is written to and read
from throughout the processes of the computer, starting as empty
when the computer is started. ROM is used for permanent storage
of information that cannot be written to by the user. Typically
hardware components contain one form of ROM or another that
contains information that allows the hardware to be operated by the
rest of the system (makes it compatible). These forms may include a
ROM chip, hardwiring, switches, or other parts that a physically
manipulable. In General Use Microcomputers the ROM often stores
the programming necessary to perform the functions. In old
computers, such as Commodore computers, the ROM contains an
interpreter to convert program instructions telling the computer what
to do into useful commands telling the computer how to perform the
action.
RAM Random Access Memory. This is the working memory
of your computer, where your work and the programs
you are running are stored while you are using them.
ROM Read Only Memory means what it sounds. Though
information be retrieved and used, it cannot be altered.
Old computers used ROM as a place to store the
operating system. You would write a program in the
OS language (BASIC for example), and the ROM
would be used to convert your program into something
recognizable and usable by the bios.
Virtual This is a section of your hard disk set aside by
RAM Windows to be used as RAM. Virtual RAM is regulated
by the operating system (a.k.a. Paging File in Windows
2000).
Video RAM set aside specifically for the purpose of speeding
RAM up your video interface. There is also audio RAM on
some accelerators specifically for speeding up sounds.

Secondary Storage
This refers to components that provide permanent or semi-
permanent storage of information, such as the full variety of drives
(tape, CD, floppy, hard or fixed, zip, etc.). A drive is a piece of
equipment classified as a storage device that reads from and usually
writes to a storage unit.
Storage units are classifiable in many ways, many of which overlap.
Storage units may come in the form of tapes or disks; fixed or
removable; read-only, writable, or rewritable; magnetic, optical (CD)
or paper (e.g. teletype tape).
Magnetic disks are rewritable and may be either removable or fixed.
Most require formatting before use, which defines the way
information is stored onto the disk in what are called clusters (large
bundles of bytes). Clusters are bundled into a larger group called a
sector. The information is actually stored on tracks in binary form,
just as a phonograph record stores sound. A "hard disk" or "fixed
disk" is a high-density physical disk or group of disks within a hard
disk drive. These are typically the largest of the class of magnetic
disks, and typically central to the operations of the computer. The
computer uses this disk to store the operating system, program files,
and user-generated files. The only way to remove this disk is to
remove the drive itself. Floppy disks come in a variety of sizes and
two fundamental shapes. They are removable by the user with the
simple push of a button or the turning of a knob on the front of the
computer. Both floppy and fixed disks require formatting, and may
be formatted with a boot sector in which an operating system is
placed. The boot sector always occupies the same portion of a
disk. This portion of the disk also provides the formatting information
about the disk and is a common place for viruses to be stored.
Drives Fixed/Hard Other 5¼” Floppy Drive
Always Floppy (3½") Drives SuperDisk (3½" 120 MB)
Present CD ROM Available Readable/Writable CD ROM
(read-only in (common) (CD-R)
all multimedia Readable/Rewritable CD
computers) ROM (CD-RW)
Zip Drive
Tape Drive

Input and Output

Input is the information provided by the user, provided electronically
through the input devices, or taken from previous input or output in
secondary storage. All data on the computer was, at one time, either
manually inputted or generated by computer processes of manually
inputted data. Both qualify as input.
Output is the useful information generated by the computer in one of
the data forms. To receive output, the user must perform an action,
which is perceived by the computer and then processed. This action
may be as subtle as turning on the computer (e.g. the boot
sequence) or as obvious as keying information into a file that is
processed by a program.

Expansion and Peripheral Components

Communications Input Devices Pointing Devices
Devices
Modem (Analog) Keyboard Joy Stick
ISDN Modem (Digital) Mouse Light Pen
Satellite Receiver Trackball Mouse
Networking Card Touch Pad Track Balls
Laser/Light Other Reverse Reverse
Communications Pointers Mice/Pointers:
Light Pen Thumbelina
Output Devices Scanners Touchpad
Monitor (CRT) Digital Camera Thumb
knob/pointer
Printer Microphone
Other Monitors
Speaker
 Lesson 3—SOFTWARE
Objectives
Students will understand:
1. Operating Systems 2. Major Software Types

Operating Systems
Each hardware component uses different machine language
instructions to operate. Drivers are used to tell the operating system
how to communicate with the components. The operating system
balances the communications between the user and the software
(the user interface) and between the software and available
hardware components. The operating system defines how
information is stored, where it is stored and how it is processed. The
operating system also provides common routines that are used by all
programs (e.g. the Open and Save As dialog boxes, all title bar and
most dialog box components, etc.)
Windows 95 is the first Windows version to be an operating system
for IBM's. Before Windows 95, PCs used DOS (Disk Operating
System) which is a textual user interface. Windows was run as an
application on top of DOS, which significantly slowed the system.
The first popular Windows version was 3.1. By the time Windows 95
arrived as a combined graphical user interface (GUI pronounced
goo-ee) and operating system, the MAC OS (also a GUI) had been
used nearly a decade. As a consequence, MAC cornered the
market in publishing and graphics design in the mid-80s, where it is
now losing ground to less expensive, and significantly more popular
PCs. By integrating windows and the operating system, programs
can run faster. Versions A and B of Windows 95 used a 16 bit
system to accommodate their use of graphics. Version C of
Windows 95 introduced the 32-bit system to accommodate more
colors. With 32 bits, a larger amount of data can be compressed
more meaningfully in a smaller space. Windows 98 introduced a 32-
bit File Allocation Table (FAT 32). Previously information was stored
in 32 bit clusters (two bytes per cluster). The FAT 32 uses 4 bit
clusters so files can be compressed much smaller (black and white
line art only needs four bits). FAT 32 also reduces the need for
partitioning larger drives. Equipment is already available to handle
64 bit processing, which will significantly improve 3-D graphics.

Major Software Types

Word Processing These are programs that you may enter
text and graphics into, lay out pages and generally create
most documents.
Desktop Publishing Specialized programming that
produces professional documents, such as card layouts,
labels, etc. Desktop Publishing is generally surpassed by the
superior quality of the program more commonly viewed as a
word processor known as Microsoft Word.
Spreadsheets Create documents divided into rows and
columns, in which formulas may be used to link data,
calculate, analyze and graph within the same worksheet.
Databases Create electronic filing cabinets of information,
which can be cross-referenced, searched, analyzed, reported
from, etc.
Presentation Provide a means for integrating a computer-
based presentation using slides of text and graphics.
Communications and Browsers This would include dialup
networking (Windows 3.11 and better). These programs
allow computers to communicate with each other remotely.
Browsers recognize only certain program types allowing
unlike machines to communicate over a wide area. We will
discuss browsers in greater detail in our next unit.
LAN vs. WAN Local Area Networks connect computers
within immediate proximity, such as within an office. A
network between computers in separate buildings may be a
LAN if they are connected by an internal means (e.g. not by
telephone but by cable, microwave, etc.). Wide Area
Networks are broader and may include LANs. These are
remote networks where computers communicate with each
other by telephone, such as the Internet. Some LANs are
considered WANs by their administrators simply because the
computers are not directly hard-wired to each other (such as
using Satellite or Microwave communications equipment).
Often WANs are set up to limit the impact of individual users
on the server. Users may request information but may not be
able to add or change information. LANs come in multiple
forms, but the primary distinction lay in dumb-terminal and
peer networks. Peer networks are composed of separate
computers that do not require the server to function, but will
share information with the server and other peer
workstations. Dumb terminals run programs, retrieve and
store information directly with a server.
E-mail Software Manages incoming and outgoing electronic
mail. Typically these allow you to read, write, respond to, and
archive messages, and to save attached files to a specified
drive.
Personal Information Management Software Similar to
project management except that typically this will include
address books, personal scheduling, etc. without in-depth
analysis. Many of these allow multiple users.
Personal Finance Software helps track income, expenses,
pay bills, conduct transactions and evaluate personal financial
plans. This would not be a program you could run payroll
through as it would not provide the programming for
deductions, calculating earnings from hours and pay rate, etc.
as an accounting program would. It also lacks in the
reporting capabilities of a complete accounting program.
Project Management Provides scheduling, tracking and
analysis of resources, events, costs, etc. associated with a
project. Typically this means you can maintain multiple
projects under different names, and retain a record of them,
which is helpful if you are forced to make detailed reports of
your projects and/or must work or supervise multiple projects
simultaneously.
Accounting Goes beyond personal finance to include
accounts receivable and payable, invoicing, inventory, etc.
One of the benefits of these programs is they update to match
current tax requirements, including creating essential tax
reports. Of course these updates must either be purchased
or subscribed to, and typically a subscription comes with the
program so the user is current. A good example of this is
PeachTree.
Groupware A collaborative program that allows multiple
users to access and alter information in a network
environment, or as multiple users of the same computer. MS
Office has this feature as well, allowing documents to be
secured by password and user name, and thereby to allow
embedding of the author name, date and time of modification,
etc.
CAD Computer Aided Design typically enables three-
dimensional design in-scale, including the ability to rotate,
zoom, templates, etc. Some only work in two dimensions,
which can also be accomplished with many graphics
programs like PhotoPaint.
Multimedia Authoring Software allows you to create
presentations that include text, graphics, sound, animation
and video.
Integrated and Software Suites Common examples include
packages containing a word processor, database and
spreadsheet (MS Office, Works, Claris Works). Corel also
provides one that comes with Object Character Recognition
(OCR), PhotoPaint, Ventura Publishing.
Object Linking and Embedding Linking relates data
between documents or compounded between documents of
separate programs, requiring both to be open simultaneously,
so changes affect both together. Embedding allows you to
make changes in destination documents without altering the
source document.
 Lesson 4—PURCHASING A
COMPUTER
Objectives
Students will understand the basic principles involved with making a
purchase decision to include:
1. System Source 3. Peripherals
2. Expandability 4. Software

System Source
The source of your system is extremely important. It is wise to stick
to major name brands and to talk to a technician about which brands
are most reliable. Prices of personal computers make building your
own not cost effective unless you are building a high-end server and
really know what you are doing. Be skeptical of purchasing from any
manufacturer who uses substandard components.
MAC or PC?
Although Macintosh provided the first graphic user interface, their
systems are waning in flexibility, expandability and costs. As a rule
of thumb, be sure whatever you buy (software and hardware) is
compatible with your work and school needs (what they have).
Macintosh is a likely candidate when working with the publishing,
graphics design or music industries. Some schools still use
Macintosh. In any of these cases, verify the need before making
your purchase. Otherwise, PCs are a fraction the cost and provide
all the flexibility and expandability at low costs. Never purchase a
computer for its looks. Always base your decision on its capabilities
and expandability. Likewise, never get involved with uncommon
drives (Zip, Jazz, Superdisk, etc.) unless you have other computers
with the same drives. Backup drives are virtually pointless now
considering how inexpensive CD ROM RWs are (not to mention the
disks have a capacity of 720 MB, are also very inexpensive, and if
written properly can be read by any computer with a CD ROM which
means all Pentium class or better computers).
Advantages/Disadvantages of Manufactured
Advantages Disadvantages
1. All components and software 1. Limitations of
engineered together expandability
2. Usually good components 2. Proprietary
(reduces warranty repair costs) components
3. Restore disk returns computer to 3. Proprietary driver
factory settings difficulties
4. Warranty (one year) covers defects 4. Most restore
in components and workmanship disks format the
5. Technical support (limited) hard drive
6. Retail Technical Support 5. Technicians must
7. Major Software titles may be do all expansions
provided to not void
warranty
Note: many servers do not require major equipment and merely act
as share devices or firewalls (for modem sharing with a proxy server,
printer or database sharing). Often a lesser manufactured machine
is ideal for this use, so long as it has the capacity to hold the
necessary components (e.g. Ethernet, specialized modem, the data
and the system). It is also wise in an environment with many
computers to retain cohesion among the computers (all made by the
same manufacturer). It is particularly important in networks to be
consistent with all the components.
Advantages/Disadvantages of Custom Built
Advantages Disadvantages
1. You decide what 1. Lack of support
goes in the box 2. Lack of warranty
2. Great for building 3. Driver and IRQ
high-end servers difficulties
3. Great for building 4. No factory software
a throw-away 5. Costs more to build
system (e.g. dumb (never use cheap parts
terminal) cheaply as they will break)
On the note of cheap parts: this is particularly a problem with
motherboards, CPU fans and power supplies (AMD requires a better
fan and power supply). Never go cheap on any of these three
things. They will all result in unexplainable and not reproducible
errors, and even total system failure.

Expandability
The case the components are in and the motherboard will determine
the expandability of your machine. Beware of half bays (where
drives are docked) and multi-purpose cards. Many newer machines
now provide the speaker, modem and microphone components on
the motherboard. These are easy to disable independently. Multi-
purpose cards often require complete disabling, which causes the
card to be virtually useless. This would not be such a problem
except that most of these cards must be left in the machine for the
motherboard to continue functioning even after they are disabled.
Most component expansions you probably want to keep internal. At
present, DVD is perhaps better to leave external so you can plug the
drive into your television or any computer.

Peripherals
Be cautious about cheap peripherals. As a general rule, mid-priced
monitors, printers and scanners often have great quality and
reliability. Never aim low because you will be dissatisfied. The price
difference is minute, so spend the extra money. The most expensive
is not always best either. Nor are the best numbers. Numbers are
quite misleading. When purchasing a monitor, compare its visible
quality to others. Do not concern yourself with refresh rates (only
Sony seems kind enough to state theirs) or dot-pitch (often large dot-
pitch looks much better). Of printers, inkjets are great, but be sure
they are dual cartridge with Photo Ret (do not focus on dpi), that the
print heads are built into the cartridge, and compare cartridge costs.
Also examine how tolerant the printer is of a variety of paper types
and weights. If you plan to print greeting cards and envelopes you
may want a more expensive machine with a better carriage.
Printers
Printers come in a variety of forms with a variety of features. The
table below outlines printer types and printer features to look for
when making a purchase decision. Always be sure to check the
printer specifications and to purchase the correct cable for the
printer. Most printers do not come with a cable to connect to the
computer. If the printer does come with a cable the box will be
clearly marked.
Bubble Jet Bubble jets are small, top-feeding printers, the most
common of which are manufactured by Cannon.
These are typically fast with good quality, and
convenient when paired with a laptop because you
can fit both the laptop and a small bubble jet in a
brief case with your paper.
Bursting For printers that feed a continuous perforated sheet,
pages must be separated at the perforations and
edges with holes used to feed the paper must be
torn off (burst) at their perforations.
Character Character printers are like most typewriters,
Printers physically striking a ribbon to imprint on the page.
Both character and dot matrix printers are impact
printers.
Dot Matrix An impact printer that uses pins to form the shapes,
which are then physically impacted against the
ribbon onto the page.
dpi A generalized term used with scanners, printers and
 monitors to describe the resolution in number of
dots per inch. As with a monitor, dpi refers to the
number of dots used to present the output. With the
exception of laser and character printers, all printers
rely on applying tiny dots on the page to draw what
is being printed. With the exception of Photo RET,
the higher the dpi the better. Be aware also that
other factors affect print quality.
IEEE Cable Also called twisted pair, but not to be confused with
computer connectivity whose cables have both
parallel and serial plugs on both ends. This cable
plugs in through the parallel port on your system
unit then to your printer. It is used for high speed
printers like Laser printers. On the surface it is
thicker than normal parallel cable. The reason is
that each wire in the cable is wrapped in aluminum
foil on top of the usual insulation. The foil prevents
cross talk, which is when wires in close proximity to
each other share information they shouldn’t,
causing information loss and garbled
communications.
Ink Ink cartridges come in a wide variety to include
Cartridges solids, powders, liquids, solids with liquid reservoirs,
wax-based, water-based, etc. Some come with
built-in print heads, while others attach directly to a
permanent print head and yet others attach to a
print head changed with alternating cartridges. If at
all possible, show preference for cartridges with
built-in print heads. This typically prevents most
print head problems. When these cartridges are
installed, they often require aligning, which is an
utility provided with your printer’s software.
Ink Jet Ink Jets, through one means or another, squirt ink
onto the page. Some ink jets are splotchy, no
matter how eloquent their claims about their dots. If
necessary you might take a magnifying glass with
you to examine print qualities closely. Hewlett
 Packard manufactures the most consistent and
highest quality ink jets. Many graphics artists also
use Epson ink jets for their wide carriage prints
because they are cost efficient for that kind of work.
A major difference between the manufacturers is
how they feed paper. If you plan to do a lot of
heavy bond paper, wide carriage paper, or
envelopes you are better off with a top feeding
Epson or a high-end (800 series or above) Hewlett
Packard. The lesser Hewlett Packard’s can do the
job but have weaker carriages making them prone
to breakage with heavy use.
Laser or For high-speed letter quality printing, laser printers
Thermal are ideal. While they are more costly up-front than
Printers an ink jet, and their cartridges seem to cost more,
the toner cartridges last longer and you can easily
use copy paper. Laser printers are good for heavy
bond papers and envelopes. Color laser printers
are rare and extremely expensive, as are laser
printers with multiple trays (typically used for
different paper sizes. As a rule, laser printers are
limited for printing on large paper sizes (above 8.5
X 14). Both Hewlett Packard and Brother currently
provide excellent laser printers.
Line Printers Line printers are typically dot matrix, feeding
through a continuous sheet of paper which requires
bursting. These are popular in industry, especially
for billing and receipts because the are inexpensive
to operate and maintain, and are fairly fast. These
printers do not, however, produce letter quality
printing so lack application elsewhere. Epson is
notable for its line printers.
Multi- A number of ink jet printers can also scan
Function documents, fax and make copies. Look closely at
Printers the design of the machine to make sure it fits your
needs. Look to see if the scanner is flat, especially
if you might scan items that are not normal paper
 sizes or may rough from age or storage. The sheet-
feeding scanners are nice (and more expensive),
but it is easy to forget you are using a printer for
making copies and run your cartridge bill up. If
these are not concerns, you may go cheaper with a
top-feeding scanner. Some printer-fax machines
also have a keypad for manually dialing. This is
nice because then you do not need to turn on the
computer to send and receive faxes.
Paper We think we know about paper until we interface
with the printing industry. The most forgiving
printers are Hewlett Packards, which will put out
amazing quality on the worst paper (e.g. copy
paper). For high-quality print jobs with any printer
be mindful of your paper choices. If you are printing
on a glossy surface with an ink jet it is also wise to
adjust the printer properties before conducting the
print, and identify the type of paper you are using.
Some print jobs may require extra time for drying to
prevent them from smearing as the page continues
to be fed through the printer.
Paper Trays As we noted earlier, ink jets either feed through the
back on top or through the front on the bottom. In
either case the finished product appears face up in
the tray in front. Be sure to examine how wide the
tray is, how adjustable it is, and whether it is
removable. The more adjustable and wider the
better, especially if you do print jobs larger than 8.5
X 11. Most Hewlett Packards provide 8.5” wide,
adjustable for envelopes and for long banners. To
get a wider carriage you can either divide the print
job across several pages (HP provides software for
this), get a more expensive HP, or save money and
buy an Epson.
Photo-RET A color printer with Photo-RET should always be
preferred over a printer that brags only dpi. Printers
without Photo-RET place dots next to each to give
 the illusion of colors. Photo-RET layers transparent
colors on top of each other sixteen deep to get true
color per dot.
Printer Printer cables are almost never provided with the
Cable printer. Most printers use either Parallel or USB
cables. Some take both, and some only take IEEE.
Be sure when purchasing a printer to check the box
to see what kind of cable to purchase, and also on
the off-chance that a cable is provided (which only
seems to occur with very expensive printers.
Resolution Resolution has many factors. For color graphics
the greatest concern is the quality of the color per
dot (e.g. Photo-RET), while non-color graphics (line
art) are dependent on dpi. Publishers want “letter
quality” which is dark and looks solid (as opposed to
the grainy look of a dot matrix) and is easily
achieved by setting ink jet or laser printer qualities
to high (as opposed to economy, draft, or medium).
Scanners
Scanners come in a wider variety of forms than might be expected.
Prices of flat bed scanners have plummeted making them as
accessible as keyboards, though certainly more space consuming.
The table below outlines the types of scanners available and
scanner features to look for.
dpi For flat bed scanners, 1200 dpi is ideal. The file
size is manageable and the quality is ideal. In
reality, most scan jobs will not be able to use more
than 1200 dpi because the image being scanned
doesn’t have a better resolution. If you scan at a
resolution higher than the original, then the scanner
programming is adding dots that were not there. If
you are scanning slides or film, then 9600 dpi is
more appropriate for that particular job.
Film This is a rare but useful item. Do not be misled,
however, as the film must first be processed.
These scanners are small and specialized (not to
 mention expensive), capable of taking a processed
roll of 35 mm film and scanning in the pictures.
Flat Bed Most scanners are flat bed, capable of scanning
Scanners text, graphics and pictures. Flat bed scanners are
the easiest to work with because they allow the
user to manage what is being scanned. A limited
number of flat bed scanners are available with
sheet-feeders. Many now come with buttons to
initiate a scan job and send that job to a particular
function of your computer, like to e-mail.
OCR Object Character Recognition is now popular
software provided with most scanners. OCR
distinguishes between characters and graphics on
a scanned image and will send that information to
another program (like Word) for editing. This is
extremely convenient, keeps file sizes much
smaller and gives the user control over the
scanned images. The technology has improved,
but it is still difficult to get accurate readings on
copies of copies.
Resolution See dpi this section.
Single Pass Some scanners still make three passes, one for
each primary color. If at all possible avoid this
attribute and get a single pass scanner. Not only
does the quality seem better, you save an
enormous amount of scanning time.
Slides Some flat bed scanners are or can be adapted to
(35mm) take 35 mm slides. The slide scanner produced by
HP also scans negatives and small pictures.
Again, this is a specialized and expensive
commodity.
Monitors
Although monitors are fairly simple, there are still many things to
watch out for when making your purchase decision. Monitor size is
not always indicative of display size. It appears the present market
has two types of good monitors: extremely expensive like the
Mitsubishi or almost cheap like the Acer. The Mitsubishi has
stunning (write letters to everyone you know) quality while the Acer
(notably the 17”( has excellent quality at a fraction the price.
Active Matrix For flat screens, the active matrix is unbeatable
because it refreshes only the parts of the screen
that have changed. This makes tracking motion
(like movement of the mouse) easy. These are also
better in a wider range of lighting situations than
other flat screens.
CRT Cathode Ray Tube: the standard monitor we are all
used to seeing attached to a PC. These consist of
a tube just like a television, but do not have the
same resolution and refresh rates as a television.
You can use a television as a monitor, but you will
be disappointed and even more so about the cost of
the adapter. CRTs may also be plugged into
laptops as an auxiliary display device.
Flat Color On laptops these are adequate, though they are a
little limited in bright light situations and are harder
to see at angles. For regular PCs these are
extremely costly and disappointing if you expect
high resolution. If all you need is to save desk
space and can afford to pay four times as much
then a flat screen may work for you and your PC.
LCD The old liquid crystal displays worked well in
medium lighting and a text-driven environment with
little power consumption. Today they are limited to
palm-tops and calculators.
Refresh The speed at which the information on the screen is
replaced. For all but active matrix this means the
entire screen. The only manufacturer I have seen
who openly reveals their refresh rates is Sony. The
refresh rate is not everything though.
Restore This is typically not a monitor term but deserves
particular attention here. When you change the
resolutions settings of windows you will see the
 picture flash and show the new resolution. Most
monitors will make a popping sound, as if a relay is
switching physically within the monitor. Very few do
not make the popping sound. Having observed this
on a number of occasions, it appears a wise test of
any monitor to change its resolution a few times and
see how it reacts. The ones that make the popping
sound are prone to failure. Some will even fail after
just a few resolution changes. It appears these
monitors use old-fashioned relays, while the
survivors (those that do not pop) use an integrated
circuit, which is more durable and less drastic.
Resolution Resolution is measured in the distance between the
dots on your screen, called dot-pitch. As with so
many of the factors regarding monitors, the
numbers can be misleading.

Software
If you have all your own software in full version, then software is not
an issue. Otherwise it is important to see what software titles are
available on the computer you purchase. Even if the software is not
major, it may be up-gradable into something that is. For example,
basic Works is expandable to Works 99 with Word 97. You can then
use an Office upgrade rather than a full-version and save hundreds
of dollars. Other than the productivity software, encyclopedias,
games, etc. are fairly cheap, so do not place too much emphasis on
them in making your purchase decision. If you plan to play fancy 3-
D games, expect to spend money putting a 3-D Accelerator Card in
your computer. Nothing less will do.
Worksheet 2—Hardware & Software
 Unit 3—System Architectures
Objectives:
Students will understand:
1. Tier Systems Architecture 4. Operating System Functions
Model (MCSD) (MCSE & A+)
2. Networking (A+, MCSD & 5. Client/Server Architecture
old MCSE) (MCSD)
3. Distributing Solutions 6. Use Case Solutions (MCSD)
(MCSD)

Tier Systems Architecture Model (MCSD)

The Tier Model is used to describe the functional architecture of an
information system. It is the classic question of: "Who does what?" The
confusion about the Tier model is differentiating between which tier
describes an architecture and which tier describes a component of that
architecture. Most references only identify single, two and n-tiered
architectures. Here I will identify four and let you fill in the blank for n-
tiered system architectures.
Architecture Tiers Description & Examples
Single Tiered 1. Desktop Applications open entire files
computer directly (whether locally or from a
network computer) without any
data management conducted by a
server. This is not a scalable
system as the entire application, its
interface and data file are
transferred (over the network if one
is involved). Examples would
include "dumb" terminals attached
to a mainframe, or a database
query run on a local machine
drawing the data directly from the
server or other computer to
function. This requires strong user
knowledge and is not scalable.
Two Tiered 1. Server Client-side applications access
 2. Client files indirectly through a server
program (even if on the same
machine) that directly accesses the
file and regulates the data provided
to the client application. This is
more scalable as the server can
allow multiple applications to
access the same data source
simultaneously and the processor
on the server does not also have to
manage the client-end application
or interface. Examples would
include a template or other
document stored on a server
accessed by an application on the
client (even if both are on the same
computer).
Three Tiered 1. Data Handling of data, applications and
Services presentation are handled
2. Business separately. This is extremely
Services scalable. For example, a system
3. Presentatio where a SQL server storing the
n (Client) data and regulating through COM
Services objects what is being transmitted,
sends information to another
server that reformats the
information to be transmitted
through another medium, which is
then presented on the client
machine. This example shows a
data server level, where the raw
data is directly accessed and
manipulated; the raw data
requested is transferred to another
application like a COM object
creating active server pages, which
formats the information to be
recognized by the user's interface
application (browser)
Four Tiered 1. Data Like the three-tiered architecture,
Services this divides functions across
2. Business multiple devices. Consider a high-
Services end system where the client inputs
3. Presentatio data (interface) and another
n Services application performs manipulation
(e.g. Web on the data (3) to present it to a
Server) business server, which then
4. Presentatio applies necessary manipulations to
n (Client) send the data to the appropriate
Services data server. For example, a
search utility allowing users access
over the Internet to query multiple
sources simultaneously. The
user's browser presents the
interface (4). The search utility
must be able to transmit the
formatted input and results pages
(3). The input is received by a
script (2) that reformats the query
appropriate to the available search
engines, submits to those engines
and reformats the results into an
uniform manner recognizable by
the Business server. Finally, each
search engine provides its own
querying application managing its
data warehouse to access, filter
out and return the requested
information.
Note the order in which these tiers always appear: Data Services (e.g.
data warehousing), Business Services (e.g. handlers, filters, web
servers, etc.), and User Services (client-side applications used to
present interface for input and output). At the lowest architectural tier all
are on the same machine with no server involved, with a single
application managing all three. At the next tier Business Services may
be divided mindfully between the server and client devices (even if they
are on the same machine). At Three Tiered they become more
distinctly separated. At the fourth and beyond (e.g. n-Tiered) the
subsets of services begin to be divided.

Networking (A+, MCSD & old MCSE)

OSI (Operating System Interconnection) Model Layers
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) Model describes the processes
and architectures of networks. While we are not due to discuss
networking until Lesson 8, the model is also useful in understanding
software and operating systems on individual computers. From a
development management perspective this helps divide large projects
into meaningful parts (modules), which can be addressed separately
and mapped together (e.g. data flow diagramming). From a
troubleshooting and problem solving perspective this can help isolate
problems.
Layer Description
Software providing general access to network
Application resources, flow control and error recovery for user
application processes.
Handles data formatting and conversion into generic
format for sharing. This translates the requests from
Presentation the Application layer into a transmittable format, then
translates information received from the Session layer
to be used by the Application layer.
Allows applications to exchange information between
computers by synchronizing the software. This layer
Session handles name recognition, security, and transmission
traffic, separating and marking distinct tasks to insure
each task is received in order.
Packets information to reduce errors, error correction,
flow control, etc. Tasks marked at the Session layer
are divided or combined as necessary into packets to
limit the amount of data transferred before it is checked
Transport for errors at this level on the receiving end. The
packets are formed at this layer and passed to the
Network layer, and when received this layer unpacks
the information and checks for errors before passing
complete tasks to the Session layer.
Network Addresses messages for delivery and determines the
transmission route based on delivery priorities.
Handles packet switching/congestion control (hardware
multitasking). This layer may divide packets further to
compensate for physical limitations of the hardware.
This layer is not responsible for any error handling.
 Data Link This layer frames information by providing the
identifications of the destination and source, control (the
frame type, routing and segmentation information), the
actual data, and finally the Cyclical Redundancy Check
(CRC to insure the frame is received properly). When the
information is passed into the Physical layer, this layer
waits for acknowledgment from the other computer's Data
Link layer. IEEE 802 divides Data Link into Logical Link
Control (LLC to direct information to the appropriate OSI
layer) and Media Access Control (MAC to directly address
hardware)
This is the layer in which transmission actually occurs,
Physical involving all the physical components and how bits are
translated to and from electrical or optical impulses.
Each layer acts like it is communicating directly with the same layer on
the other computer. Both the OSI and Systems Architecture models
provide a means to dissect and study any system and may be used to
help project development.
Hardware & Terms
Device acting at the Data Link layer of the OSI model,
used to filter information traffic according to the
Bridge packet’s hardware destination address. Filters traffic
between network segments. Uses MAC (hardware)
addressing.
Device capable of supporting both bridge and router
Brouter
devices and protocols.
Buffer Reserved portion of memory for storing information
 waiting to be transmitted or received.
System where one cable connects multiple nodes.
This requires a terminating resistor to prevent the
Bus signal from bouncing back and forth and preventing
Topology other transmissions. A bus allows several
independent lines to carry information simultaneously
one bit at a time.
Electomagnetic interference between adjacent
Crosstalk communications cables resulting in mixed messages
on the involved lines.
Duplex Transmitting and receiving simultaneously.
Ethernet A bus network topology technology.
Firmware Device control software stored on the device in ROM.
Refers to where an application is being run. Front end
refers to the client computer where back end refers to
the server. Back end applications tend to run faster for
Front/Back
locating and directing data, while front end applications
End
should be focused on the interface and output of the
data. Violating either of these may lead to
bottlenecking the network.
Device used to connect networks who use different
Gateway
protocols.
Information exchanged between sending and receiving
Handshake devices to ensure the communication is open. Most
typically used with modems.
A device where nodes are connected directly for a
"Star" topology. An active hub regenerates the signals
Hub and must be powered separately. Passive hubs are
less common, and acts only as a central connecting
point.
A device connected to the network that is also capable
Node of communicating with other network devices (e.g. a
server, client, or repeater).
Device operating at the Network layer of the OSI
model, allowing connection of different physical media,
Router
translating between different network architectures,
such as token ring and Ethernet.
Rule, 5-4-3 Coaxial ethernets can have a maximum of 5 cable
segments, 4 repeaters, and 3 populated segments.
Method of determining the shortest route between two
Spanning
network computers, eliminating redundant routes
Tree
which are reactivated if the primary route becomes
Algorithm
unavailable.
Method of transmitting information using time as a
factor rather than start and stop bits. It is faster, more
Synchronous efficient and more expensive than asynchronous
Transmission transmission (which sends one character at a time
over variable time frames and with fixed frame sizes
and start and stop bits).
TCP/IP in Extreme Brief

1 2

4
3
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7 8

9 10
 11 12

13 14

15 16
17 18

19 20

21 22
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25 26

27 28

29 30
In Windows 2000, with Active Directory’s NAT (Network Address
Translation) system, local (unregistered) IP addresses can be arranged
as follows: 10.{0-255}.{0-255}.{1-255} or 172.16.{0-255}.{1-255} or
192.168. {0-255}.{1-255}. Note NAT runs as either a DHCP or DNS
server (for name resolution) or both, but cannot be used for Internet
addressing. A registered IP address is necessary for the NAT Windows
server to have shared connection with the Internet.

Distributing Solutions (MCSD)

Distribution Alternatives
Method Description
Floppy There is seldom much use for floppy disks anymore,
Disk particularly in application distribution for multiple
reasons. The main reasons are: high-speed network
connections (even through the Internet), application size
and technical know-how. Even simple data files are often
too large to distribute using floppy disks. Floppy disks
should be limited to small-size distribution where network
connections are unreliable or bandwidth is already
overwhelmed. Users need some degree of technical
know-how, or an installation program with printed
instructions to insure proper use.
CD-ROM A more likely distribution, where network connections are
unreliable or bandwidth use is high is by CD-ROM. This
can be done with even less technical know-how because
an installation program can be executed using an
autorun.inf. CDs can store up to 650 megabytes.
Typically this really means 599 megabytes because the
table of contents for the CD consumes the rest of the
available disk. I would discourage the use of rewritable
CDs for multiple reasons. First, you must be certain any
CD-ROM drive that will use a CD-RW is a multiread (and
this is uncommon). Second, CD-RWs lose space with
every rewrite and can only be reused 99 times. As such
it would be more advisable to use JAZZ or Zip disks
(which of course requires the recipients have the drives
too.
Web A pull method requiring the user to access an Active
Server Page (ASP) where the page can do some
analysis and the user can identify their system
configuration to insure the application is installed
 correctly. Failure to use an ASP may result in users
installing the wrong application.
Pull The client requests installation of an application or file
stored on a server computer. Typically you would only
use this method if you do not expect the clients to use the
file or application.
Push The server forces installation of an application or file on a
client computer. Use this when you expect the clients to
have the file or application.
Systems Management Server (SMS)
Features Select which clients receive an application
and when (forced)
Spread the workload across the network to
other files servers
Schedule and push installations on
Track installation progress
Monitor what applications are installed on
clients listed in the SMS Inventory database
Requirements SMS Package Command Manager installed
on clients
SMS installed on a primary domain controller
on an NTFS partition with at least 500
megabytes of available space (1 gigabyte
recommended)
Windows NT or 2000 server
SQL Server 6.0 or later (with login and
permission to create and maintain a SQL
database) to store the SMS Inventory
Additional space on file servers for three
copies of the software to be distributed
Recommended SMS Installer (get separately from
www.microsoft.com) to package, automate
and modify installation tasks (even proposed
registry entries).
Run SMSIMAIN.exe to install the installer files
then run SMSINSTL.exe to install
How it Deploys You check the SMS Inventory to verify
 software and operating systems on clients.
You determine what they need and create a
package definition specifying what is executed
to begin installation, set installation options
and store the package on one or more
(preferably 3) distribution servers.
You create a Job specifying which package to
send and to which clients, the options to
select and the locations of the distribution
servers where the application is stored.
The job is sent to the client and appears in the
Package Manager, where it is executed and
the status of the installation is reported back
to the SMS server.
When the job is executed the client computer
retrieves the package from the distribution
server, and upon arrival initiates the
installation.
Finally the status is reported back to the SMS
server

Operating Systems (MCSE & A+)

Function
On the architecture model the operating system always resides at the
application services layer, even if that layer is integrated with other
services. All operating systems have the given qualities:
A File Allocation Table (FAT) to define how data is stored and
retrieved from storage media
Chipset (memory and CPU) management
User Interface (textual or graphical)
File management utilities (e.g. deleting, moving, renaming
files and folders/directories, and creating folders/directories)
Software to interface with hardware
A software platform (kernel) in which other software can be
run
Computer communications/networking capabilities
On IBM compatible systems, Windows 95 introduced pre-emptive
multitasking. With DOS the operating system had no control over the
CPU, so a frozen application meant rebooting the system. Since
Windows 95 the CPU has retained control so a misbehaving program
can be disconnected from the CPU without a complete shutdown.
Another feature of pre-emptive multitasking was the ability of the
operating system to offer the same services to multiple applications
even if those services did not come with the operating system. These
are commonly seen in the form of DLLs (Dynamic Link Libraries), COM
(not .com) and DCOM objects. In previous operating systems this
meant that library functions were embedded and compiled in the
program. With this system the operating system calls the function into
memory when it is needed and can then release it when it is no longer
in use. Besides providing portability in RAM, secondary storage space
is also conserved. Each service contains a unique identification (UUID
or GUID), which is stored in the system registry. When a program
needs the service it makes the request for the ID through the operating
system.
Other intimate and useful features of modern operating systems are
also stored in the system registry. For example, association of file
extensions with the application required to view and/or edit the file. The
personalized layout of the Graphical User Interface is also stored in the
registry, as is the hardware profile both past and present. Note:
updates to the registry occur when Windows shuts down and recognize
when the system reboots.
While modern operating systems provide at least some degree of
networking capability, earlier systems often required more software.
Since the introduction of multimedia processors (Pentium class CPUs)
operating systems have provided at minimum dial-up-networking
capabilities with TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, and NetBEUI protocols to enable
network communications, file and hardware sharing. The more current
the system, the more refined this networking capability (TCP/IP had to
be installed through the Network Neighborhood in 98, while it is installed
by default in ME and 2000). Modern computers are assumed to
become members of a network, the least of which is the Internet.
Operating systems since Windows 95 have included "plug-and-play"
hardware recognition. This has proven problematic as three conditions
are required for plug-and-play to work: plug-and-play BIOS, plug-and-
play operating system, and plug-and-play device. In spite of this, plug-
and-play devices can still experience conflicts with other devices.
Fortunately one of the wonderful features of plug-and-play includes the
ability to modify the resource requirements (IRQ and I/O Addressing) of
a device without having to pull the device out and change physical
jumpers or dipswitches. Only PCMCIA are guaranteed to have 100%
plug-and-play capabilities, so much that you can "hot-dock" them (plug
them in while the system is on) and they will recognize.
The system BIOS has also advanced to automatically recognize and
use more devices (e.g. the CD ROM). This does not, however, remove
the need for the operating system to regulate these devices and provide
separate drivers for them. Drivers give the devices greater versatility so
the user can customize how applications communicate and use the
devices.
OSI Approach to Architecture
Win32 Native application for Windows 95-2000.
Native to Windows 3.x. All run in same
Virtual DOS Machine (VDM) and share
Win16
same memory allocation in 95 and later.
As such, if one fails all fail.
8-bit applications run in separate VDMs.
VDMs are awckward because
applications originally in DOS were
DOS
designed to directly address hardware.
Windows 95 and above forbid this (see
Application preemptive multitasking above)
Version 1.x, 16 bit character based, real-
mode applications only. These run in
OS/2
their own space or can be run in the VDM
by using Forcedos.exe.
Portable Operating System Interface for
Computer Environments (specifically
POSIX
UNIX) standard Version 1.x compliant
applications only; run in own space.
Integral element of Windows security,
Logon
and as such runs in its own space.
Presentation Subsystems OS/2, Win32, POSIX, and Security.
Responsible for establishing memory
allocation, running their respective
applications and establishing the
 Session. Note: Security/Integral is
specific to Active Directory Services.
Provides user interface and screen
functions for all applications. OS/2,
POSIX, and Security subsystems
otherwise address the Kernel. For VDM
Session Win32
and Win32, Win32 Session spans the
Presentation layer to provide Subsystem
services including interfacing with the
Kernel.
▲User Mode▲ ▼Kernel Mode▼
Executive Services―manages information and
Transport instruction transfers between user mode and kernel and
between kernel components (see diagram below).
Procedural managers regulating operating system
Network
functions.
I/O and Window managers span from the Network. I/O
manages the memory, file system and device drivers.
Window manager handles graphics and the video
adapter. All other Network layer managers rely on the
Microkernel to manage IRQs, multi-task management
Data Link and threading (running only the necessary parts of a
program). The Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL)
allows the Microkernel to see all hardware platforms as
the same. The diagram below associates the
Microkernel to the Logical Link Control and the HAL to
the Media Access Layer (MAC).
Physical All hardware in the system.
Windows 2000 Architecture

User mode is the area where most end-user applications reside. This
helps maintain system stability as the kernel protects the main body
of the operating system and insures the operating system retains
control of the hardware. This is why application failure is not normally
terminal in Windows, but when a hardware device driver fails the
system becomes unstable and should be rebooted (cold is always
best to insure complete reallocation of resources). The easiest
source of these failures is through the I/O and Window managers
because they span the Network and Data Link layers and have a lot
to do for user mode applications. Kernel mode is considered "highly
privileged" and you must be mindful of its weaknesses.
Worksheet 3—System Architectures
 Unit 4—Logic
Objectives:
Students will understand:
1. Logic Basics 3. Flowcharting
2. Logic of Reality 4. Logical Syllogism

Logic Basics
Set Theory

Aggregate Symbols
Symbols are used to contain, always indicating the contents should be treated as a unit.
Parentheses Most common symbol for algebraic grouping. For example 2*3+4=10
while 2*(3+4)=14. In mapping/graphing parentheses commonly indicate open (not on
()
minima or maxima) coordinates like (x, y). Parentheses are also commonly used in
the declaration of a class in programming, like SortClass().
Brackets typically used in mathematics to better show a coordinate as closed (on
[]
maxima or minima).
Braces often used to illustrate a set. In programming these often surround groups
{}
of code, like the body of an IF statement, or the code within a class.

More Necessary Symbols

Programming Symbols
== Logical argument testing for equality between two values or calculations.
!= Logical argument testing for inequality ( ) between two values or calculations.
Ternary Operator a linear function that tests an instance then provides true and false
?: results. The function must be contained in a line of code and nesting is not possible.
e.g. [logical test]?[true result]:[false result]
Logical argument testing two values to determine if the value on the left is less than or
<=
equal to the value on the right.
Logical argument testing two values to determine if the value on the left is greater than or
>=
equal to the value on the right.

Graphing
Edge A line connecting two vertices (a vertex pair); denoted with an E. On a
polyhedron the number of edges enclosing a single face is denoted with an
S.
Face An area outlined by edges; denoted with an F. Graphs illustrating the
shortest route traveled among points without intersecting the same point
twice do not have enclosed faces unless the traveler returns to the point of
origin or a “hub” is used.
Graph An illustration of a group of related vertices or “points.”
Line An infinite series of adjoined points defining a length or arc.
Point A location in space typically defined by coordinates, e.g. (x, y), (x, y, z), or
( , ). When applied to a polygon or polyhedron, points are typically given
for vertices. In mathematics a point has no dimension in itself.
Polygon The geometric, two-dimensional shape resulting from connecting vertices.
Polyhedron The topological, three-dimensional shape resulting from connecting vertices.
Vertice A point in space that may be connected to other points by two or more lines;
denoted with a V.

Validity and Reliability

Domain The minimum and maximum X values of a function.
Range The minimum and maximum Y values of a function.
Reliable State of providing the correct results. Although a function may be valid
(performing the correct action), the results may not always be correct. Most
mathematical operations on computers follow valid algorithms for their solutions.
However, computers have limited data capacities, causing larger numeric
operations to fail. e.g. finding the exact value for pi ( ).
Valid State of performing the expected task correctly.
Logic of Reality
An axiom is a self-evident truth, such as: all sets belong to an universal set of sets, and the
universal set of sets belongs to itself. Axioms cannot be proved nor disproved. A paradox
(a.k.a. tautology) is an axiom that appears in contradiction, such as Axiom 11 below. Axioms
fall into three categories: holistic (applies to everything always), particular (applies conditionally
to only specific things at specific times, such as: Do unto others as they would have you do
unto them), and definitive (applies to concepts and descriptive terms). Axioms rely strongly on
the logic of predicates (the object of a claim) and propositions (the subject/claim asserted about
the object). Statements with one predicate are monadic (Axioms 1 & 2), two or more are
polyadic (note after Axiom 1). The combination of these must be carefully considered in the
creation of axioms to prevent semantic skewing of meaning. Axioms are inductive, meaning
they assert a generalized formula about many things based on a single thing. The following
selected axioms are taken from the Unified Field Theory:
Axiom 1. An axiom is a self-evident truth. (note: the underlined is the predicate,
the rest is the proposition)
Axiom 2. All objects of mind and physical reality are processes.
Axiom 3. All objects have an antithesis of what they are not.
Axiom 4. All objects are related to each other.
Axiom 5. All processes have the measurable (paralogical) component processes
of affective, effective and effectual Axis (axiological).
Axiom 8. Though the parts constitute the whole, only the whole completely
represents itself (note previous verbiage: The whole is greater than its parts.)
Axiom 9. The whole is a function of its parts. (note previous verbiage: The whole
is the sum of its parts.)
Axiom 10. Each part or group of parts may be studied as a whole in themselves.
Axiom 11. An infinite quantity of finite values exists, while a finite quantity of
infinite values exists.
Axiom 12. Though a definable set contains infinite dimension, the set remains
singular and necessarily finite.
Axiom 13. All values are inferred through projection relative to paralog measures
of axiologs.
Axiom 16. The conservation of values within dimensions is a function of the
processes relating them. (note previous law of conservation: The sum quantity of all
energy (mass) remains constant while values are converted between forms of the
same (e.g. energy or mass).)
Axiom 18. All processes exist in a state of entropic change.
Axiom 19. The antithesis of zero is one; the antithesis of one is infinity; the
antithesis of infinite is zero. (Thus the Holistic is its own antithesis. A non-
mathematical version would be: The antithesis of nothing is something; the antithesis
of something is everything; the antithesis of everything is nothing; thus the absolute
totality is its own antithesis.)
Axiom 20. A complete Paradigm contains parallel properties that unfold and enfold.
Axioms are not typically seen as debatable, provable, or capable of being disproved.
The semantic may wish to argue with some verbiage (e.g. Axiom 4--not being related is also a
relationship). Many of the axioms stated here are not easily apprehended on a concrete level,
but nowhere does it say that self-evident requires any particular level of knowledge or abstract
capabilities. These are self-evident from my observations, studies and experiences. These
axioms, though often not easily apprehended, contain an expressed or implied “all” and
“always,” meaning independent of situation and time. When a statement has a particular
application alone, then I classify it as a proposition (e.g. specific mathematical operations),
which is an arguable and particular axiom. The reader will note these axioms clearly define a
transcendent metaphysics. Notice also that occasionally I identify previous axioms which these
supplant. The verbiage differences may be slight, but are quite significant.
Advocates of infinite may wish to object to these axioms, but may have some difficulty
pinpointing where to aim their objection. These axioms neither condemn nor advocate the
theory of infinite. Axiom 11 is double barreled, shooting both extremities with equal prejudice.
The processes advocated here are continuous (infinite) and “closed” (finite) in atomistic quanta,
which are indefinitely divisible into other objects of different quanta. While point has
advantages in mathematics, quantum members are finite, manageable and relative to
identifiable definitions. Atomistic quanta are wholes in themselves, whose constituent
processes present other quanta and are infinite in the cycles of their quantum processes.
Axiom 19 presents a tautology through a three-step system: (0) = ; ( ) =
1; (1) = 0. The Holistic takes on the form arguments ( (0), ( ), (1)) =
( ( ), (1), (0)) = (1, 0, ) (0, , 1) ( , 1, 0), etc. because of relativity (Axiom 13)
and conservation (Axiom 16). Hence, Axiom 20 does not contradict Axiom 3. We have three
values in this argument because of Axioms 5 and 13. The more pressing questions this raises
is: “How do we mathematically define the function ?” and, “What would the value of (x)
equal?” We note that the derivative - = / = 1, and 1- = 1/ 0. Would it then be
true that 0- = 0/ ? If this so, then x - = x/ 0( x 0), but is not itself
reciprocal. The statement 0- = 0/ has interesting side effects also. At zero the
quanta ceases to exist, and therein lay another holistic, hence the approach to infinite. This
leads to Axiom 20. Finally, the last statement on the Holistic (it is its own antithesis) is logical
because Transcendental Metaphysical Reality constitutes all three measurable conditions
(Axiom 5).

Logical Syllogism (Presentation Approach)

Our main purpose here is to examine the systematic way in which people effectively exchange
information. This is critical because the process helps to solve problems. In this section we
will examine presentations in general (and the rules apply in writing also), the structure of
presentations (logical syllogism, a.k.a. the five paragraph theme), the elements of argument,
and provide an example presentation that covers almost exactly the same materials using a
syllogistic/thematic approach.
Presentation Issues
Scripts While a script may be very helpful, never be a script drone. Use a script to
formulate and practice. Unless you are acting, do not memorize the script. Never read your
script to the audience.
Naturalness Effective speaking and acting are natural. The speaker must feel memorized
script so its presentation will contain those feelings as inflections of tone, gestures and other
body language. Without these, the representation sounds rehearsed.
Succinctness Deliver the information necessary to make your point. Presentation aids
must be simple and not distract from the content. Busy charts and diagrams are difficult to
follow. Long bodies of text are also. Divide up the information and slowly break the
audience in on the big picture rather than inflict it all at once in one diagram or statement.
Colors, pictures and sounds should accentuate information and not distract.
Timeliness Timing is more than just fitting into a speaking schedule. The length of a
presentation depends on many factors, including the content and the method of
presentation. You may be able to captivate an audience for hours on a subject you fill with
energy and enthusiasm. Likewise you may be forced to provide a few raw facts and cut the
presentation to a few boring minutes. Keep in mind the attention span of the audience,
regardless of the time limitations given to your presentation. Children have very short
attention spans for speeches (sometimes less than a few minutes) while adults may last for
 hours. In reverse, adults will bore more quickly of repetitive physical interactions, while a
child will repeat the same action continuously and tirelessly for hours. A normal lecture, for
example, has an ideal time of 50 minutes for an adult audience. Consider who the audience
is, their interest in the topic, your interest in the topic, your ability to enliven the topic with
enthusiasm, then fit what you can into the time given to deliver the presentation.
Structure The structure of your speech may be more important than the content. The
structure will help define the content in a manner the audience can easily comprehend. The
less interaction/feedback you have from your audience, the more important the structure. In
a completely interactive environment you can literally get away with setting some objectives,
practice argument scenarios, set a beginning point and proceed without further structure.
This method is much more difficult and is appropriate for smaller audiences. It requires a
firm mastery of structured debate/presentation as the speaker must be able to think quickly,
formulate and structure arguments in response to any scenario that arises in the
presentation. To make matters worse, the unstructured presentation requires that to meet
the objectives the speaker must retain them clearly no matter what deviations arise.

Thematic Presentation Structure

Introduction
The following breakdown goes sentence by sentence through a simple five-paragraph theme.
The outline is intended for simplicity. In other words students just learning the five paragraph
theme should focus on simple sentences and ideas rather than long and ambiguous
sentences. Long and ambiguous sentences in thesis statements and the introduction require
greater amounts of information to support them. They also cause the writer to put details in
where they do not belong. Concision is highly recommended for beginners. As the student
becomes more fluent in the methodology, then this can be expanded to a larger format.

We note that each of the following five

paragraphs has five sentences. These sentences may be broken down into the following three
categories:
1. Thesis (topic) statement—This is a position statement, a claim of being. Generally it
contains two major parts: the topic and an adjective (e.g. The sky is blue). The
adjective is the claim, which the rest of the paragraph (or paper if it is the general thesis
statement) develops and establishes as fact. It is wise to keep the thesis statement to a
singular adjective; otherwise each adjective must be proved. An easy question to
answer to establish a thesis statement is: “What word or phrase best describes your
feelings about the topic?”
 2. Subtopic (descriptive) statement—Each paragraph contains a minimum of three
subtopical sentences, which briefly describe specific qualities of the paragraph’s thesis
statement. Here the question being answered is: “What are the major groups of
characteristics of the topic?” or "What specific evidence proves the claim?"
3. Transition statement—Each paragraph ends with a sentence that relates the qualities
described in the subtopic statements to the adjective of the thesis statement. Each
transition basically answers one question: “What is the relationship between the
subtopics (description) and the position (adjective) of the topic?”
First Paragraph—Introduction
The introductory paragraph establishes what will be argued (the topic and position) and the
qualities that will be used to establish the argument. The greater the simplicity the better for
beginners. Absolutely no specific details go into this paragraph. In other words don’t be
descriptive, merely identify the topic and it’s adjective in one sentence, the subtopics in
separate sentences, and the relationship between these subtopics and the claim (adjective).
Sentence 1—Thesis—This is the general thesis of the paper, stating the topic and an
adjective that summarizes a position or feeling about the topic.
Sentences 2-4—Subtopics—One sentence for each of three (minimum) qualities, which
comprise the general topic of the paper. Each sentence topic here (the active noun of the
sentence) becomes the subject of a paragraph in the body of the paper.
Sentence 5—Transition—One sentence relating the subtopics of sentences 2-4 with the
claim (adjective) of sentence 1.
Second through Fourth Paragraphs—Body
Each of these paragraphs is identical in structure and description, though each will contain
separate topics and details describing the topics. These are the only paragraphs in the paper
where specific details are provided.
Sentence 1—Topic Statement—Take the subtopics of sentences 2-4 of the first
paragraphs and write position statements about them in order. Each of these position
statements will contain a subtopic from the introductory paragraph and an adjective
summarizing a position or feeling about that subtopic. These three statements will be the
thesis statements of paragraph 2-4 respectively.
Sentences 2-4—Description—Break down the thesis statement of the paragraph into
three parts (minimum) and describe each separately in at least one sentence (beginners
should stick to a single sentence).
Sentence 5—Transition—One sentence relating the descriptive sentences 2-4 with the
claim (adjective) of sentence 1.
Fifth Paragraph—Conclusion
The purpose of this paragraph is to finalize and summarize the paper. Each of the first four
sentences is derived from the transitions of the first four paragraphs in order. This does not
mean repeating the transitions from those paragraphs. Instead we look at each transition and
ask the question: “What does this mean to the topic?” The answer to this will provide a
meaningful adjective. The adjective does not have to agree with the claims of the respective
paragraphs, but must agree with the evidence and transition provided.
Sentence 1—Final Claim—The adjective will be the final claim of the paper, and may in
fact be the same as the thesis statement. The adjective has now been thought through
more thoroughly because of the evidence and descriptions provided in paragraphs 2-4,
and may become more specific, even contradicting the thesis.
Sentences 2-4—The adjective will become a topic in the conclusive transition. Again,
these adjectives may be very similar to those in their respective paragraphs. They may
also have changed because of the evidence, and may be better refined.
 Sentence 5—Conclusive Transition—Tie the adjective topics of sentences 2-4 with the
adjective of the first sentence to either support or condemn the thesis. If the thesis is
condemned, this may affect the verbiage of the first sentence of this paragraph (hence
altering the adjective of this paragraph’s thesis statement).
Common Errors
Do not begin a five-paragraph theme with a question. While this may work in an eclectic writing
style, it fails in the five-paragraph theme. Instead of writing a question for the thesis, answer
the question. The answer is your position and what you will find evidence to support or
condemn. Transitions are not mini-conclusions. Looking on transitions as mini-conclusions is
misleading. The associated mistake with this is having the transitions repeated verbatim in the
conclusion. While the transition does conclude the paragraph, it merely summarizes it so the
audience has a feeling of wholeness. It acts like the last line in a haiku poem by tying the first
statement with the distinctly separate statements that follow. As such the writer should be
cautioned to avoid using the adjective of the thesis (claim) in the body of the paragraph. The
adjective is included with the subtopics (and often the general topic) in the transition.

The Creating Process

Introduction―Formulating a presentation is exactly like writing a paper. The writing process
remains fundamentally the same, with the exception being that visuals (textual, graphical
and animated) audio materials, handouts, and props, not to mention interactive discussions,
question and answer periods, etc. may all be included in the product. The writing process
consists of the following elements:
Discovering/Impulse―Hodges' makes no reference to this most fundamental (and perhaps
obvious) stage. This is perhaps the most creative part of the entire process because here
you identify what it is you will present. Borrowing in part from John Dewey's philosophy of
creativity and art, we can say that this creative impulse arises from an experience in which
one becomes inspired to relate unlike things, and hence to create and express. In some
instances this may be very unglamorous (e.g. your boss gives you a project and tells you to
present given information at a meeting). No matter where it comes from, the initial idea of
the presentation must arise before anything else can occur. This is not to say, however, that
you immediately know your thesis. You at least know the major topic of which you wish to
express.
Planning―In the creative process, this is where you decide on how you will present the
materials. At this point you must identify your audience, the setting, your available
resources, your purpose, the time available, etc. This information will outline specifically
what dimensions of your topic to address.
Drafting―Again an under-rated step in the process, because it also includes the gathering of
information resources, compiling raw data, making claims about the data, extracting
evidence, substantiating with warrants (sources of the evidence), summarizing the
relationship between the evidence and claims, and organizing everything in a meaningful
and sequential manner.
Proofreading―Hodges' places this step last in the list, when it is an on-going process
beginning with the first draft. Proofreading may coincide with editing, but is fundamentally
different. Proofreading involves reading through the entire draft from beginning to end to
check for coherence, clarity, and that the materials follow a logical sequence that fills the
objectives of the expression. In other words the fundamental objective of proofreading is in
the questions "Does it make sense?" and "Does it say what was intended to be said?" It is
often wise to have a third party proofread your document who knows nothing about the
subject. The reason is that the third party will hold the author accountable for anything that
is less than perfectly clear, and force the author into the "beginner's mind." When creating
an expression it is easy to forget that our first purpose is to inform our audience about the
 experience of our perspective, and that they have not shared the experience until now. Our
expression becomes an artificial experience. If the audience shared in the same experience
previously, then what is the point in boring them with doing it again? If not, then we must be
mindful that our terminology and references are such that every member in the audience can
relate. Otherwise the author becomes the sole audience to appreciate the expression and it
fails.
Editing―This is a professional stage of the writing process in which the document is
reviewed for its style, grammar, syntax, spelling, punctuation, form, etc. Any common
person can easily distinguish between a professional and amateur expression, even if they
do not know what exactly the distinctions are. The professional has a firm grasp of the
distinction from research, education, and personal experience. The professional editor
easily identifies the tiniest details that make the expression less than professional. As a
consequence you must make yourself a professional editor by experiencing the field, reading
and referencing appropriate and current resources, and practicing your methods of
expressing. Ask yourself what methods have worked best for what methods. Why? How
can you use these same methods or modify them to fit your needs?
Revising―This is an on-going process that occurs following every cycle of proofreading and
editing until the document has reached a final and effective form. Note that the easiest way
to enter editing and proofreading corrections is to begin at the end of the document and work
your way to the beginning. This way you can easily find the location of corrections. If you
begin at the start, then the corrections will shift the rest of the materials and make it difficult
to find where future corrections go.
Hodges' Harbrace College Handbook (11th ed, 1990, p 576) incorrectly states there is no fixed
order to these. The above order is correct. The authors perhaps are confused between Writing
Process and Writing Order. Writing Order depends largely on the skills of the writer and the
knowledge of the subject. The five paragraph theme presented in the previous section negates
the need for skill and enables the writer to experience an unknown topic, explore its elements,
and derive a conclusion. If the author knows a lot about the subject, then writing the
introductory paragraph is fairly simple. If not, then the introductory paragraph is put last. An
experienced orator who is familiar with the topic being discussed can instantly use the above
system to formulate an impromptu argument. We see this very commonly in political debates.

Elements of Argument
Introduction

The structure of argument has evolved from

Aristotle's logos (logic or structure), pathos (feeling), ethos (value) to Hegel's thesis (claim),
antithesis (what is not the claim), synthesis (outcome or conclusion resulting from combining
the thesis and antithesis) to the current form of claim (position), support (evidence), warrant
(source). The thematic approach combines the elements of argument with the scientific
methodology of Sir Francis Bacon as applied to writing: Problem, Theoretical Framework,
Methods, Observations, Conclusion; or in short: Introduction, Body, Conclusion. Though the
short definitions for quick reference provided in this text are helpful for quick reference, in-depth
definitions are more expository and concrete.
Aristotle
Logos―A style of writing, in which the elements of a subject are put into a specific
viewpoint. The elements are then given order, purpose, and understanding. This is done to
 explain fundamental relationships within a set of facts. Logos has distinct functions in all
documents. This is an inherent feature of logical syllogism, the five paragraph theme.
Information is gathered, given order, and presented to support a specific thesis. It is
important that you, as a writer, not neglect ethos and pathos, and adhere entirely to logos.
Be mindful of which is dominant in each writing case. Certainly logos is fundamental to
holding any argument together.
Pathos―A writing style in which the writer is trying to arouse a deep emotion. This emotion
is usually tender, such as passion, compassion, etc. It can also be a negative appeal, which
is a less effective style. Pathos is part of the persuasive element of every argument. The
process of arguing is going to be logos. Ethos is most likely what is addressed in the
argument. The voice you will use to address the ethos will be pathos.
Ethos―A style of writing in which values are identified. Ethos gives an argument value,
especially moral or ethical value. Because of the attachment with values, especially those
that can be defined as fitting a specific and definable population (which is definitive of moral
and ethical, where moral is a limited population, and ethical is an universal population),
ethos is perhaps strongest motivator as the second persuasive element of every argument.
Hegel
Thesis―Hegel's thesis is slightly different from the one we use here, but the concept is
important. Essentially his thesis is a statement of "is-ness" identifying an object and what
constitutes or defines that object. In research this thesis is often called hypothetical, which is
based upon the known components of an object.
Antithesis―The antithesis is the opposite of the thesis. Here you take the components
defining the thesis object and restate them as negatives (e.g. what we know a thing is not).
In research we typically use the term null hypothesis, which defines the testable components
of the research. You test the null hypothesis because it will validate the conditions outlined
in the hypothesis.
Synthesis―The combination of observations in the thesis and antithesis to illustrate an even
bigger (more holistic) picture. In other words, the process of showing how the object being
investigated/argued interacts with other objects of unlike definition. If our thesis is on bread,
then our antithesis would necessarily be non-bread items, such as meat, preserves, butter,
etc. Our resulting synthesis combines these unlike objects to illustrate that we can interact
these unlike things and consequently get sandwiches, toast, etc.
Contemporary
Claim―Represents what you are trying to prove or say. It is a small conclusion in a sense,
but it may be more like a leading hypothesis. It tells your audience what issue you are going
to address (it is sometimes referred to as a hook, because the audience identifies
themselves as interested or not interested by what it says, and how it is written). Every
paper should start with a general claim. This claim is commonly called a thesis statement. I
will not limit the scope of this to a thesis sentence because that is misleading. Depending on
the scope of the document, the thesis statement can be as small as a sentence, or as large
as an introduction. Whatever you assert in your thesis statement, you must substantiate in
the body of your paper-preferably in the order they are presented in the introduction.
Support―The evidence you provide. It should appeal to the needs, expectations and values
of your audience in order to substantiate your claim. A good format to follow is to make your
claim first, maintaining a logical hierarchy of order as illustrated above, and then follow with
supporting evidence. Evidence is facts, not opinions or what you think are facts (though
some expert opinions are considered factual enough for use in argument--these are either
quoted or paraphrased and cited). If you cannot find your evidence documented by a valid
source, then avoid using it. This is not to say that you have to find documentation on items
of extreme common knowledge. For example, you can say the sky is blue. Though some
small sample of the population may disagree, it is widely accepted and documented.
 However, you cannot say tat Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492 without
being subject to scrutiny for fallacy. Many historians will argue to the death on this. They
will argue that the American Indians (Amerands) came first, then the Norwegians, Dutch,
and finally Columbus. Some even claim that an Irishman came before Columbus, and that
the Portuguese came close. As a matter of fact, Columbus never reached the continent, and
could not even navigate well enough to return to the same island he discovered in the first
place. So you have to be careful about what is common knowledge and what is common
myth.
Warrant―Gives authenticity to the support. There are two forms of warrants, the expressed
and unexpressed warrants. In the expressed warrant a particular authority or group of
authorities is mentioned as having made a conclusion. This conclusion is the evidence you
provide. An unexpressed warrant is better used with items of common knowledge. In these
you don't need to say who the authority is that made the conclusion. Most of us would be
able to say that most wheels are round. If we were to discuss triangular wheels, which do
exist, we would have to cite an authority on that type of wheel. If you don't do this, the
reader is put in a situation where they can be doubtful of your assertions. If a conclusion or
opinion seems to be widely shared in your research, then unless you quote someone an
expressed warrant (citation) is not necessary. It may be helpful though, for researchers, if
you made a footnote or parenthetical remark listing some of the people you could have
cited. When writing fiction, and especially science fiction and fantasy, we tend not to
express our warrants. It is unwise for an author to be too outrageous in claims and supports,
even in fiction. If they are, the audience will have a hard time relating to the story.
Scientific
The scientific method has undergone many changes since Sir Francis Bacon, using syllogism
to report the exploration of a topic. The format described here is used for technical research
including theses and dissertations. Sections may migrate occasionally or even be forgotten,
while others may be added to further map the process. The key to the scientific model is to
create a report such that another researcher can follow the same process and achieve the
same results. On the whole the following outline is fairly consistent, and must be to insure
findings are easily validated, replicated and expressed.
Chapter Section Description
Introduction/ Statement of the Identifies the issue being researched.
Problem Problem
Purpose States the motive for conducting the research.
Significance States why the research is important.
Limitations Gives a scope to the research (e.g. what it can be
applied to externally).
Delimitations States internal factors that could influence the
research.
Theoretical Literature Review Examines what other researchers have found, and
Framework their methods of achieving results.
Hypothesis An educated guess as to the outcome of the
research; a statement of what a thing may be.
Null-Hypothesis A statement of what is not present, and by the
absence of that quality the existence of the
hypothesis is proven (Cicero's "Exception proves the
rule").
Methodology Nature Statement defining the type of research being
conducted: quantitative, qualitative, exploratory,
 descriptive, primary, secondary, historical,
triangulated, etc.
Method What method is employed: experimental, quasi-
experimental, survey, obtrusive or non-obtrusive
observation, etc.? Define the method being
employed. If the subjects are obtrusively observed,
what is done to return normalcy (e.g. post-test
counseling)?
Population What defines the whole population to whom your
study applies?
Sampling Method How will you determine who will be studied of the
population.
Statistical Methods What numeric methods (if any) will you use to insure
that your findings are meaningful and representative
of the entire population?
Observations Appropriate Headings break down aspects of the observations to
Headings help guide the reader. This chapter is exclusively raw
data but may also contain "gut feelings" clearly
identified by the researcher while the observations
occurred.
Conclusion Meaning What do all the observations mean? How do they
apply to what?
New Issues What new questions are asked as a consequence? If
there was a problem with the design, how would you
do it better next time?
Conclusion Was the hypothesis supported or discarded? What is
left? What is now known that was not before? What
is next?

Thematic Presentation Example

The following is a PowerPoint presentation using syllogism to discuss syllogism.

1 2
3 4

5 6

7 8

9 10
11 12

13 14

15 16

17 18
19 20

21 22

23 24

25 26
27 28

29 30

31 32

33 34
 35 36

Flowcharting
Symbols
Flowcharts are graphical representations of step-by-step processes describing how to perform
a specific function. This table illustrates the symbols and their meanings.
A brief note to
Another process
help the reader
that provides the
Alternate understand a
same results as Annotation
Process chart item or
the primary
series of
process.
symbols better.
Typically used
Keeping a series together in
to make one
multiple copies (e.g. printing
process wait
the entire document for each
Collate Delay while another
copy rather than printing all
occurs (e.g.
copies of each page at the
waiting for water
same time).
to boil).
Decisions typically provide true and false choices which can be
Decision chained together for more complex decisions, which are shown by
having more than two extruding arrows.
Indicates data
Direct Any data stored on a fixed
being shown on
Access media such as RAM, Display
the CRT
Storage ROM, and Hard Disk.
(monitor).
Indicates a file (or
Magnetic
less typically but Data stored on
Document Disk
equally useful with floppy disk.
Storage
databases, a record).
To take a
sample (less
Indicates the
than the
direction the process
Directional population) of
is flowing. Note that Extract
Arrow information or
a double arrow is
separate
almost never used.
information into
multiple items.
Input and More typically used Internal Typically
Output for input than output Connector contains a letter
(due to other and appears at
available output least twice. The
symbols). Typically internal
this symbol contains connector
an input question. connects to or
more points
within a chart
(only one of
which will have
an arrow
pointing away
from it).
Data stored and used within the As the label
process. When used, always suggests, this
indicates the process is an is any
Internal Manual
object. Note: if the data is not operator/human
Storage Input
internal, then it should be executed event
identified as public with such as typing
indication as to the source. information.
As with the manual input, a
To combine
manual operation is
Manual multiple sources
performed by the operator Merge
Operation of information
and not by the program
into one item.
itself.
Off-chart
A group of related connections
files (or less contain a name,
Multiple Off-Chart
commonly a group typically the
Documents Connector
of related records in name of another
a data base). process
(object).
Used to
signify
Uses a stored (e.g. public)
parallel
process (such as from the
solutions
Main( ) object), perhaps
Or that may Predefined Process
indicating an off-chart
depend on
connection to a part of
the
another object.
information
provided.
Data stored on
Sequential tape or in a
Collecting input data
Preparation Data definable
in a useable format.
Storage sequence
(order).
Process Any operation Sort Puts data into a
where input is sequential order.
converted to Be sure to indicate if
 output, such the sort is in reverse
as a order and, if
mathematical applicable, the
formula. criteria of the sort.
Raw data The point at which
Stored stored in the Summing the data from
Data specified Junction multiple sources is
manner. brought together.
All charts begin with a terminator. Charts that do not
Terminator
end in a terminator form endless loops.

Flowchart Creation
This illustration provides a simple example of how a flowchart provides the step-by-step how-to
process. To create a flowchart, follow the one below. Note: this chart requires that you have
some knowledge of the input, output, or manipulation method. If you have information about
the input or output, you must determine the method.
Flowcharting Examples
Boiling Water
Putting a Cap on a Pen

Solving a Heuristic
A heuristic is slightly different from an algorithm. Algorithms are
expected to provide exacting results. Heuristics are only expected to
give calculated guesses. Fundamentally they are identical on the
surface. Where they differ is the exactitude. When might you need
a heuristic? Consider the famous traveling salesman problem.
Basically the story goes this way: the salesman has N points to visit.
He wants to travel as little distance as possible, and preferably not
have to backtrack. What is his best route? If the salesman is a
machine, and the points don’t care either, you don’t have to worry
about how he feels about the points, or when they would like to see
him. In such a case you use an algorithm. Since the salesman and
the customers do care, you must devise a heuristic, which will not
necessarily work for other salesmen, nor will it work if someone new
moves into the neighborhood.
Polyhedron Problem
Polyhedrons are three-dimensional figures, such as cubes,
pyramids, spheres, etc. We will focus on polyhedrons constructed of
straight lines, particularly those known as the regular polyhedrons.
Our purpose is to learn a little more about both the regular
polyhedrons and others that are similar. Euler recognized that
polyhedrons have relationships between their faces, edges and
vertices (E=F+V-2) and identified five shapes as regular. There is
only one problem with Euler's model: it alone cannot be used to
prove or disprove the existence of other regular polyhedrons
because we must have two variables to calculate the third.
Polyhedron Solution
The solution must allow for the calculation of the other variables
based on only one of these, namely the number of faces. We must
add two variables: the number of sides on one face (S) and the
number of edges joining at each vertice (J). After further observation
we are able to expand our table as follows:
Name Faces Edges Vertices Sides Joints
(F) (E) (V) (S) (J)
Tetrahedron 4 6 4 3 3
Hexahedron 6 12 8 4 3
Octahedron 8 12 6 3 4
Dodecahedron 12 30 20 5 3
Icosahedron 20 30 12 3 5
We observe that E = .5FS and J=FS/V, and. These are important
because we can consider a polyhedron problem a graph problem.
As a graph problem we need to know what relationships the
significant points have. The significant points for a graph problem
are the number of vertices, not the number of faces. We humans
are most interested in the faces and finding all instances where our
attributes (F, E, V, S, J, etc.) are "legal." All instances of these
particular attributes must be positive, real integers.
Pseudocode to Find SIDES
Problem
Private Float variable = 360 /
Our problem comes in
Faces
two heuristic parts: a
single variable solution Private Integer i=0
Private Array a[3,2]
and a test to be sure our
IF variable ≠ integer and variable =
primary attributes remain
continuous decimal
positive, real integers.
The first heuristic is to NotPossible ( )
solve for S given only F IF variable ≠ integer
remove decimal from variable
(see pseudocode on
FOR i = 1 TO 3
right). In short the
Public Integer a[i,1] = (i + 2)
algorithm divides 360 by
the number of faces, Public Integer a[i,2] = 0
WHILE modulus of variable/(i
then finds all divisors of
+ 2) ≠ 0
3, 4, and 5 of the result.
a[i,2]++
Then the number of
instances are arranged variable /= (i+2)
IF variable ≠ 1 or 2
and the middle value (or
NotPossible ( )
one on the right) is the
Return RoundUp (Median ( ))
number of sides on one
face (S).
The second is to test all our variables to be sure they are valid. We
will expand the pseudocode for the Side problem to explain how you
might test for a continuous decimal and add a module to round
values up (not down!). We will develop a logical process ensuring
our system is not bogged down doing unnecessary calculations by
testing the attributes most likely to break first.
A Solution:
ComputeS (F)
*/ This counts the number of times 3, 4, & 5 may be
divided into N to generate a, b, & c./*

{
private double a=0;
private double b=0;
private double c=0;
private double d=360;

if d%F!=0
{
d=360000000;
if d%F!=0
{
return 0;
end;
}
}
else
{
N=d/F;
do
{
a=a++;
N=N/3;
}
while N%3==0;
do
{
b=b++;
N=N/4;
{
while N%4==0;
do
{
c=c++;
N=N/5;
{
while N%5==0;
}
if a+b+c==0 then return 0;
else if c>=a+b then S=5;
else a<=b+c?S=4:S=3;
endif;
return S;
}
}
Decimal (test)
{
private integer result2 = test;
return result2 == test ? 0 : 1;
}
DetermineE (F,S)
{
Private float E=.5FS
 Decimal(test=E)==1?E=0:E=E;
return E;
}
DetermineV (F,S,E)
{
Private float V=E-F+2
Decimal(test=V)==1?V=0:V=V;
return V;
}
DetermineJ (F,S,V)
{
Private float J=FS/V
Decimal(test=J)==1?J=0:J=J;
return J;
}
MainTest (F)
Private Integer S=ComputeS(F);
If S!=0 then
{
E=DetermineE (F,S);
If!=0 then
Private Integer V=DetermineE (F,S);
If V!=0 then
If DetermineJ (F,S,V)!=0 then cout << “This one works: F = ” << F

Refining the Heuristic

In our previous examination of the sides per face problem, we used
basic variable declarations. In this example I use a two-dimensional
array—one dimension for the number of sides, and the other to store
the number of occurrences. The advantage of using an array like
this, is that we can easily adjust the code to allow for more variables
without having to rewrite the entire program, as the previous
example would require. This example also gives us insight on how
we can solve for a statistical median (the center value of an ordered
set).
Solving a Median
A median is a statistical measure of central tendency. In simple
terms, when you look at a list of values in order, the median is the
value appearing in the middle. Does this sound too easy? Look at
the diagram on the right and tell me. This is only the first half of the
solution though. Allow me to outline the details of the problem:
1. The user must identify how many items are in the set. This is
because the program must know how many variables it must
declare.
2. We cannot assume the user will enter the values in order, so
we must sort the values.
3. We must verify that replicated values are intentional and not
accidental.
4. We want to give the user as many options as possible.
MedMain ( )
// Declarations
{
Private int items = 0;
Private int j = 0;
Private int s = 0;
Private int sum = 0;
Private int ans1 = 0;
Private int ans2 = 0;
Private int exist = 0;
// Input Loop: Number of Sets
While items > = 0
{
cout << “Input number of sets > 0: “;
cin >> items;
cout << endl;
}
// Input Loop: Set Data
Private a [ items, 2 ];
While j < items
 {
j++;
cout << ”Value attributed to set/quality? ”;
cin >> a [ j, 1 ];
cout << “\nQuantity in set? “;
cin >> a [ j, 2 ];
cout << endl;
// Sum Quantities of Sets
s + = a [ j, 2 ];
// Sort Set Attributes Ascending
Private int k = j;
While (k-1) > 0 && a [ k, 1 ] < a [ (k-1), 1 ]
{
Private int t1 = a [ (k-1), 1 ];
Private int t2 = a [ (k-1), 2 ];
a [ (k-1), 1 ] = a [ k, 1 ];
a [ (k-1), 2 ] = a [ k, 2 ];
a [ k, 1 ] = t1;
a [ k, 2 ] = t2;
k--;
}
// Duplicate Set Handling
if (k-1) > 0 && a [ k, 1 ] = = a [ (k-1), 1 ]
{
j--;
cout << “This set already exists. Please choose
from the following:\n”
<< “ Add to original set and:\n”
<< “ 1. Reduce number of sets
computed.\n”
<< “ 2. Continue without
changing number of sets.\n”
<< “ Replace original set and:\n”
<< “ 3. Reduce number of sets
computed.\n”
 << “ 4. Continue without
changing number of sets.\n”
<< “ Forget this entry and:\n”
<< “ 5. Reduce number of sets
computed.\n”
<< “ 6. Continue without
changing number of sets.\n”;
cin >> exists;
cout << cls;
// Duplicate Exists Event Action
if exists%2 ! = 0
{
items--;
}
if exists < = 2
{
a [ (k-1), 2 ] + = a [ k, 2 ];
}
if exists = = 3 || exists = = 4
{
a [ (k-1), 2 ] = a [ k, 2 ];
}
}
}
// Median Handling and Results
if s%2 = = 0
{
sum = (s/2);
return median(sum);
}
else
{
sum = ((s+1)/2);
ans1 = median(sum);
sum = ((s-1)/2);
ans2 = median(sum);
 return ((ans1+ans2)/2);
}
break;
Median ( sum )
// Declarations
Private int i = 0;
Private int MedAns = 0;
// Computational Loop
{
Do
{
i++;
MedAns + = a [ i, 2 ];
}
While (MedAns – sum) > 0
return a [ i, 1 ];
}
Worksheet 4—Logic
Unit 5—Programming & Coding
Objectives:
Students will understand:
1. Terminology 4. Programming Process
2. Systems Development 5. Data Structures
Life Cycle 6. Control Structures
3. Purpose of Systems Logic

Terminology
Term Definition
Applet Java scripts used in web documents that run in
the browser window.
Application Programs stored permanently on the computer
Software and used to tell the computer how to produce
information.
ASCII American Standard Code for Information
Interchange: the most widely used data coding
system primarily for mini-computers and PCs.
Assembly The first symbolic programming language. Is
Language hardware specific but much easier to write than
Machine Language. Must be converted into
machine language in order to work though, using
an Assembler.
The systematic way of exploring every possible
route, configuration or ordering of an arrangement
Backtracking
without repeating a path that was already
explored.
BASIC Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code:
Developed in the 60s to be a simple, interactive,
problem-solving language that uses elementary
English words combined with some symbology.
Requires an interpreter to work (either built into
the system ROM as with old PCs or in a program).
C Programming language designed to create system
 software, including applications and operating
systems. Most frequently used with UNIX.
C++ Object Oriented version of C used to develop
applications.
Class A large category of objects, wherein the category
helps define a characteristic shared by all the
members (objects) of the group (class).
COBOL Common Business Oriented Language: Widely
used programming language for business that
uses English-like commands.
Code Set by the American National Standards Institute
Standards to ensure programs are compatible with many
different computers.
Coding The process of translating and entering a process
into a programming language (code) on a
computer.
Compiler The program that converts the code of a program
into Machine Language.
Context Top-level diagram of data flow that only shows
Diagram major components of a process.
Control The instructions that control the order in which
Structure program instructions are executed.
Cooperative Method of managing multiple processes to insure
Multitasking they receive the information they need when they
need it, and deliver their output when it is needed
by other processes by switching between
processes until logical stopping points are reach.
Data The raw facts, including numbers, words, images,
and sounds given as input to be processed. Data
may be entered manually, embedded in the
program, or from other sources.
Decoding Translates instructions into processable
commands.
Divide and Process of breaking a large problem into smaller
Conquer problems, solving the smaller problems then
 recombining the results to yield a solution to the
large problem.
Entity An object for which data is stored to define it.
Event The pressing of a key, clicking of the mouse
button, or other input impulse that provides data
prompting action or providing data for action in an
Object Oriented Program.
Executing Control unit operation that processes commands.
Flowchart A graphic representation of the logical flow of
information through specific processes resulting in
the desired output.
Fourth- A non-procedural language using English-like
Generation statements, that does not require being told how
Language to perform an action, only what actions to
perform. These programs are run within other
programs, such as HTML, and Macros.
Graphic User (GUI) User interface using visual clues to aid in
Interface inputting data.
Greedy A method which attempts to capture the first
Heuristic possible greatest thing.
A trial and error approach to problem resolution
Heuristic that may give a kind of solution with no guarantee
of success or accuracy.
Hierarchy A logical ordering of information into classes and
lesser subclasses inheriting the qualities of the
higher ranking classes directly above the item.
Hierarchy A top-down design tool graphically representing
Chart program modules.
If-then-else Structure that evaluates conditions to determine if
Control they are or are not true, and to take action
Structure accordingly.
Infinite Loop Instructions that repeat themselves indefinitely.
Information Data processed into meaningful and useful form.
Information The operations of input, process, output, storage.
Processing
Cycle
Inheritance The condition in which objects, including
subclasses, keep the methods and attributes of
objects and classes at higher levels of the
program's hierarchy.
Interpreter A process of converting command lines one at a
time into machine language and executing them.
Java Object-Oriented language very similar to C++, but
more compact and offering greater user security.
JavaScript Simpler form of Java that is not compiled and runs
directly in a web browser.
Language A program that converts programming instructions
Translator one at a time into binary code and immediately
executes them.
Machine The binary codes which a computer or device acts
Language upon. This is a hardware-specific language.
Module Section of a program dedicated to performing a
single function.
Object Any piece of information created with a Windows
program, which is linked or embedded in another
application. In OOP a unit in which both data and
procedure are packaged together. Objects are
like elevators: you get on as data, push a button
and are fed out as information on the desired
floor. The elevator contains the information
necessary to regulate its own processes initiated
by you, the event.
Object Code The machine language result of compiling a third-
generation program.
Object- Approach in which data and process are
Oriented packaged together.
Object- The event-driven programming language used to
Oriented implement the object model design.
Programming
(OOP)
Language
Operand Specifies the data or location of the data to be
used.
Output Data processed in a form useful to the user or the
computer (see also information).
Process The transformation and output of data into a
meaningful and useful form.
Program Detailed set of instructions telling the computer
exactly where to get data and how to process it.
Model used for estimating the processing time of
an algorithm. Each individual access of memory,
RAM and simple operation (e.g. +, -, *, =, if, call) takes
Computation one step. Loop structures must be computed by
Model adding each individual element, as stated above.
This model is not exact due to differences in
machines, but does give a rough estimate.
Rapid (RAD) A means of developing programs using
Application prototypes (e.g. templates) that are easily
Development modified to meet the program's needs.
Selection Tells the computer the action to take under the
Control specified (e.g. event) condition.
Structure
Sequence The order in which actions occur.
Sequence Shows one action or an action followed by another
Control sequential action.
Structure
Solution Graphic or written step-by-step description of
Algorithm procedures within a module.
Source Where information or an object originates from.
Also the uncompiled code of a program.
Structured Method of creating the program's logic using a
Design combination of the sequence, selection, and
repetition control structures.
Subclass A class within a class, e.g. a subset.
Superclass A class in which the current class belongs as a
subset.
Symbolic Storage location noted by a symbolic name in
Address Assembly Language.
Symbolic (Mnemonics) Meaningful abbreviations for
Instruction instructions used in Assembly Language.
Codes
Symbolic Instructions are written using codes and symbols
Language rather than zeros and ones.
Syntax The set of grammatical rules of a programming
language applied to instructions in a program.
Syntax Error Any programming syntax mistake made in coding
which results in the inability to complete the
command.
System Graphic representation illustrating a major
Flowchart process, its timing, the output, data sources
required, and necessary input devices.
Third- (Procedural Language) A high-level programming
Generation language using English-like words and
Language mathematical notations to create processes.
These must be compiled into Machine Language
and often rely on environmental (e.g. operating
system) components to perform many tasks.
Unstructured Problems with unclear methods leading toward
Problems their solutions, often requiring intuition and
personal judgment (e.g. guessing and educated
guessing).
Variable An element of data in an object-oriented program.
Technically any data element subject to variation
depending on the source of the data (as opposed
to internal constants). Variables are subject to
change, and hence the root of the word: vary.
System Development Life Cycle
The flowchart to the right illustrates the Systems Development Life
Cycle (SDLC). This cycle is remarkably comprehensive. It easily fits
into any project development (business, education, law, any area of
research), not to mention its applications with computer hardware,
software and applications.
We observe that the cycle begins where it ends. This is not typical
for flowcharts, but in this case the flow is a perfect cycle. The SDLC
is continuous because needs are always changing as is the
technology. Let us quickly examine each of these stages.
Begin SDLC
Everything has a beginning. In the case of the SDLC the beginning
of one cycle coincides with the ending of another (or others
combined).
Preliminary Investigation

What exists? At this stage you are

merely asking what you have to work with (hardware, software,
human resources, and any other necessary resource) and what it
actually produces.
Analysis
What is needed? If something is lacking or can be improved upon,
then it is needed. The next part of this question is in what form must
it be in? To answer this you must also know how the results will be
applied to other things (e.g. in the preliminary investigation.
Design
Create a plan. How will you fill the need? Can you buy something
already developed cheaper, more easily and in the time it is needed,
or must you personally create it? If you must create it, then how?
This is the stage where flowcharting occurs to help visually define
the plan, its sequence and methods.
Development
Manually create/execute the plan. If it is a purchase, then execute
the necessary process to make the purchase, install, train and utilize
it. If it is something you must create from scratch, then do so. In
programming this is the point when the plan is coded (put into a
programing language).
Implementation
Show/put to use the completed plan. All innovation and technology
are on-going tests. It seems we test them, debug them, and test
them again at this stage, but really we are going through the whole
SDLC process. Implementation includes testing in the lab and actual
application by "end-users."
Audit & Maintenance
The SDLC process itself is a process of auditing processes, updating
and maintaining them to meet current needs. In information
technology the process runs very quickly because there are so many
demands and so many individuals and copanies racing to meet
those demands.

Purpose of Systems Logic

The fundamental logic of computer operations is systematic: step-by-
step procedures. A text may tell you what to do to manipulate a file
a certain way. A reference may break down each function of a
program and even give examples. Neither the text nor the reference
tell you how to manipulate every file. Each file poses an unique
problem requiring the computer operator to determine a procedure
for filling the file requirements. This text attempts to combine all
three of these by providing step-by-step procedures in a reference
format, followed by activities that utilize those procedures. To use
this text effectively, you must be able to understand the elementary
logic of computing. The elementary logic of computing is the System
Development Life Cycle (SDLC) in which components are described
using flowcharts.

Programming Process
4. Identify Specific
1. Identify Program Function
Processes and Data
2. Identify the Platform
5. Create Flowcharts for
3. Identify Non-Programming
Objects
Alternatives
6. Create Objects and Test
 Identify
Program Function
What do you need the program to do?
Common functions: graphics, word processing, file
management, calculating, etc. These are almost always removed
(running in something else).
Technical functions: utilities, operating system, hardware
configuration, etc. If the program is not removed, then it directly
communicates with the computer system in machine language.
That means the binary code must be compatible with the
hardware involved.
 Removed functions: must be run within another program
(e.g. within Windows or other operating system, a Browser, etc.).
Most programs are in some way removed (e.g. are running in
another program). The question here is really: “Removed to
what?”
Special functions: works within a unique environment (not a
typical computer environment, like automobiles, cellular phones,
calculators, robots). These are typically in machine language and
designed specifically to meet the needs of input and output
components as well as any computational and memory features (if
any).
Identify the Platform
What will be running/executing the program? The program is
removed by what?
1. Nothing: directly addresses computer components in machine
language without requiring other programs. What are the
code requirements for the hardware?
2. Requires an Operating System: relies on features filled in by
the operating system to perform its functions. These are
Third Generation Programs. Note: BASIC was and remains
Third Generation. Old computers used to keep their
operating systems in ROM (Read-Only Memory) along with
translating features to convert the code into actions.
Question is: In what operating system/platform.
3. Requires a Program within an Operating System: relies on
features of a third generation program to Translate/Interpret
its functions. These are Fourth and Fifth (Natural) Generation
Languages. These include SQL and other query languages,
macros, and Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). Question
is: In what Third Generation program?
Identify Non-Programming Alternatives
1. Does a non-programming alternative exist that is more
practical?
2. Is there a non-computer method that can provide the
necessary results?
 3. Would the non-computer method be more practical (e.g. time
wise, financially, labor and other resources wise)?
4. Can one or more programs provide the necessary results?
5. Can they be integrated for a complete end product as
needed?
6. How can they be integrated?
Identify Specific Processes and Data
1. Divide the program into distinct functions that may be
sequenced separately.
2. Divide each function into data and actions necessary to
perform the function.
3. Simplify data into the least number of necessary variables. If
a variable may change from one action to another, create a
separate variable for each. If each of these unique variables
has an identical default, then create a simple default
statement in the appropriate class.
4. Associate actions with the data variables and determine
which variables are shared, universal, or "private" to that
action.
5. Put universal values in a class within the hierarchy above the
actions that call on them and label them as shared.
6. Put shared variables with their specific actions (sequences)
and label them as shared.
7. Put the private variables with their specific actions
(sequences) and label them as private.
Create Objects and Test
1. Routine Flowcharts: The flowchart provides a logical
sequence of events including gathering, manipulating and
outputting information. Each function must have a logical
sequence to provide step-by-step exact actions needed to
complete the function. Be sure to think of every possible
thing that could cause a process to fail (e.g. bad or missing
data) and to provide alternative means of inputting the data
manually before the process tries to use it.
2. Create Primary Object: The primary object is also called the
Source. It must contain means of contacting, either directly or
 indirectly, all the function sequences. It is itself a sequence
and the primary interface between the computer, software,
data and user.
3. Identify Appropriate Language: The language must fit the
environment the program will run in and the function needs of
the program. Not all environments support the same
functions. As such sometimes it is necessary to change the
environment to meet the needs of the programming language
needed to execute the functions.
4. Translate into Appropriate Language: Convert the sequences
you have written into the codes necessary to do them.
5. Organize and Compile as Needed: Put all the objects of the
program in a logical sequence with distinct boundaries (e.g.
separate files, grouped by class distinction, line numbered,
etc. as appropriate to the language and application).
Compiling translates the programming language you used to
write the program into Machine Language.
6. Test and Debug: Every program, regardless of its simplicity or
language, has potential for failure. Failures may be syntax,
incorrect sequencing, mislabeled connections or data, etc.
Errors are remarkably easy to make and immeasurably
difficult at times to find in the code (certainly easy when
executing the program to see the error in the output though!).
To debug you must find the error in the program and correct
it. Then test again to be sure the problem has not persisted
and that other problems did not surface.

Data Structures
Data Types
A value applied to a name within the code of a
program. For example you might define
Constant Pi=3.14159265358979 so you do not need to retype the
number repeatedly, and to conserve the size of your
program.
Textual data type. See also String under Data Storage
String
& Retrieval.
Variable A name applied to a number whose source is either
user input or the result of a formula. These often have
initial values. They are called variables because the
value is subject to change.
Denotes a value (textual or quantitative) may be used
by any subclass within a class. A common use for this
Public is with constants which may be used by any routine with
a superclass, or any variable which must be accessed
by another class.
Denotes a value (textual or quantitative) may be used
only within the class where it resides. Commonly use
Private
counting functions, because the counter typically
resides within the local function only.
Variable Containers
Type Value Range Purpose Memory
Size
Char Plain text Plain text 8 bits
Small integers
Short int 255 (whole 8 bits
numbers)
Integers (whole
Int -32,768 to 32,767 16 bits
numbers)
Large integers
Long -2,147,483,648 to
(whole 32 bits
Integer 2,147,483,647
numbers)
Real numbers
3.402823E38
Float (with decimal 32 bits
to 1.401298E-45
values)
1.79769313486232E308
Extremely
to
Double large real 64 bits
4.94065645841247E-
numbers.
324
Data Storage
Array A collection of data items with a single name
 distinguished by numbers. In BASIC you can define
an array with five elements by using DIM X(5), then
later define the values for those elements {X(1),
X(2), X(3), X(4), X(5)} separately. An array may be
multidimensional such that information is accessed
as if in a table by row and column numbers (e.g. DIM
Y(5,5) allows 25 elements).
Geometric representation of the relationships
between two or more objects (illustrates coordinates,
Graph
distance and angle). Most likely of issue when
dealing with a network, circuit, web, or relationship.
List A set of data items to be accessed in order.
An arrangement or ordering of items, e.g. {1, 2, 3, 4}
and {4, 3, 2, 1} are two permutations of the same
Permutation
set. Often synonymous with arrangement, tour,
ordering, and sequence.
A sequence of characters or patterns. Strings are
String typically of issue when dealing with text, characters,
patterns, or labels.
A hierarchical representation of relationships
between items. An example would be the hierarchy
of folders on your computer, or a family tree. Trees
Tree
are typically of issue when dealing with a hierarchy,
dominance relationship, ancestor/descendent
relationship, or taxonomy.
Data Retrieval
A data retrieval structure independent of the actual
Container data. These are typically used with data sets and not
with variables with only a single value.
Queue The retrieval of information according to First-In-First-
Out (FIFO) priority. Queues may be prioritized
according to significance, or placed in a specific
sequence if the objects must be attained in a specific
order. Print jobs are typically set to queue in the order
they are created in. Typically when printing from a
 laser printer you want the pages to come out first to
last so they appear (queue) in order.
The retrieval of information according to Last-In-First-
Out priority. When retrieval order does not matter, (e.g.
batch processing) then a stack may be appropriate.
Stack
When printing to a DeskJet or other printer that feeds
the output face-up, you want the job stacked so the last
page prints first, and the first page prints last.
Retrieves information according to position. This is the
Table method you use when retrieving information from an
array.

Control Structures
Switch
A function that swaps one value or set for another. Microsoft Excel
has a set of functions called lookups (lookup, hlookup, and vlookup).
As an example of a switch examine the following method for the
MOUS exam and example of vlookup.
Method:
1. If the range name is given in the question, start at step 4.
2. Click the second sheet tab
3. Click the down arrow on the name box and select the
named range (remember the name!)
4. Click the first sheet tab
5. Select the cell where you will enter the function in column B
6. Type: =vlookup(
7. Type the name of the range you looked up in step 2 then
type: ,
8. Select the range of cells being used for the lookup (both
columns and all rows) then type: ,2)
9. Click and drag the fill handle down through the desired
cells.
Example:

Loops
Loops serve a variety of functions including counting, making
decisions, and any function that requires repetition of the same
sequence (typically in association with a counting function). Loops
can easily become indefinite with the result of system lock-up and
program failure, so it is highly advised to provide means of escaping
your loops before system or data resources are exhausted. The
loops we will examine here include the post-test Do-While, the pre-
test While, the decisive If-Else, the swapping Switch, and counting
For statements. I associate the terms decisive, swapping and
counting to the latter functions because that is most descriptive of
their common functions. Swapping may also be done in a more
cumbersome way with the If-Else, decisions will to occur in all these
types of loops, and counting commonly occurs in all but the Switch.
Nested Function
A function within a like function. For example, ƒ(X)=ƒ(Y) + ƒ(Z).
Word 2000 supports nested tables. This means you can insert a
table into a table cell. The most common function to nest is the If-
Else (see table):
Lengthy: Short:
If X=1
{ If X=1
Y=A; {
} Y=A;
Else if X=2 }
{ if X=2
Y=B; {
} Y=B;
Else }
{ Y=C;
Y=C;
}
Recursion
Any process that references itself to perform its function. For
example, X=X+1 is recursive.
Worksheet 5—Programming & Coding
 Unit 6—Problem Solving
Objectives:
Students will understand:
1. RAM Model 3. Graph Problems
2. Problem Solving With
Reasoning

RAM Model
The Random Access Machine (RAM) Model is used to determine the
processing speed of an algorithm. To assist understanding how this
model works we will examine a RAM model applied to web pages
then examine the same concept applied to algorithms and
programming.
Web Design RAM Model
Fundamental Principles:
All computations are 1 unit =
relative 1000 bytes of
Assume browser information
processing is >= Relative call for data
connection Invocation of styles
3 units = server script or scripts
execution or absolute Style execution,
reference module call, class
execution
ASP results
processing
The following table outlines the relative time it takes to acquire and
view information for a web page in a browser. The reader could use
the same table layout to make design decisions for any site. Notice
that all objects are given integer values regardless of size due to the
fact that each piece is individually packaged during transmission.
Below the table is a brief description of each attribute.
Size For HTML and other documents, this is determined by
the file size rounded up to the nearest kilobyte (1024 bits of
information). For scripts the number of classes, not the number
of commands, determines size. For particularly long classes,
say over 20 command lines, I would recommend adjusting this
value following the standard RAM model applied to programs,
as the browser must interpret each individual line of code.
Calls Referencing an object on the server. If you are
referencing a CGI script, then add 3. This chart assumes
relative references (valued at 1 unit), where absolute
references (citing the entire URL) should be counted as 3
instead.
Function Functions are only applied to Styles and Scripts
because these are not the primary native format of a browser,
so the browser needs to invoke other subroutines to interpret
the code. Each time the code is invoked requires the addition
of 1 unit, no matter how many lines of code are involved.
QTY How many instances of the Web object occur. For
Styles, every individual style is counted as a unit because the
browser must interpret then apply the individual item
throughout the document. For Scripts, each class is treated
separately as a unit.
 Time The sum of Size, Calls, Function multiplied by the
quantity. The sum total of these times gives you an idea of how
long it takes to load the page.
I seriously discourage the use of both styles and scripts. Styles are
not supported the same among browsers. If you use them, I
recommend keeping them very simple because Internet Explorer
and Netscape produce very different results. Personally I
recommend using HTML instead. VB script and ActiveX are only
recognized by Internet Explorer. All browsers encounter problems
interpreting Java Script, resulting in browser failure during page
loading or other attempts to access the code.
A major error of web designers is the use of multiple graphic objects
when one will suffice, such as with buttons. I encourage integrating
your images and using image-mapping techniques with HTML.
Always create the image the size you want it to be on the page then
you do not need to worry about defining the size in the HTML, nor do
you need to worry about the resolution of the image nor file size.
Although I recommend embedding special fonts in graphics, I would
also encourage you to refrain from too large of graphics and
encourage you to provide enough text to occupy the viewer until
graphics appear.
RAM in Algorithms
Fundamental principles of RAM cycles in algorithms:
All basic functions = 1 unit/ cycle (+, -, *, =, memory access)
Loops are composites of their parts
 Division
is a function of the solving algorithm
RAM applied to algorithms provides nothing more than a concision
meter. In other words, by counting the number of cycles required to
process information at the algorithm stage you can compare
algorithms for time efficiency. The key, of course, is not to sacrifice
quality but to conserve processing time. The above figure illustrates
a basic sort that is remarkably efficient and fast. With two items to
sort the best run time is 17 cycles, and the worst is 30 (brute force
sort in the median algorithm requires 3 cycles in best case and 8 in
worst). Some redundancy occurs in the 30 cycles, but it is assumed
you have more than two items to sort. A random selection of 9 digits
was completely sorted in only 153 cycles (2 to start, and 16 (7/9)
cycles per item). A brute force sort (the median function) requires
569 cycles (2 to start and 63 cycles per item) for the same set!
While this sort looks much more complex, and certainly takes more
coding, it is more efficient for larger sort jobs. Less is not always
more. 5 items using brute force requires only 76 cycles, and in the
quicker method requires 65. This is insignificant, and if the sort is
conducted during the input of a small set, the sort time of the brute
force method goes unnoticed. You must weigh opportunity costs,
and in the case of a median, this quicker sort is overkill because you
can handle the sequence during data entry, and in fact it helps
resolve input problems.
RAM in Programming
Back to Napoleon's: "The best plan never survived the first shot of
battle." When you code and compile your algorithm you become
subject to the qualities of the language. As a consequence, coding
technique can also save large amounts of time. As we did above,
we can trial run the algorithm manually then deduce from
observation the speed function. The Quicker sort with 5 items yields
65 cycles / 5 items = 13 < 4*5 log 5, and with 9 items yields 153
cycles / 9 items = 16.77778 < 2*9 log 9! Clearly the Quicker sort
grows faster based on the number of items being sorted. Depending
on your coding techniques, this could run faster (n log n or even
faster) or slower. Note: The compiler will estimate the run-time for
you. The brute force sort can easily become n² with poor technique,
e.g. variable miss-management.

Problem Solving With Reasoning

There are two forms of reasoning: inductive (speculative) and
deductive (analytical). Inductive reasoning goes from the part to the
whole, from the abstract to the concrete, from a few observations to
a formula defining the whole. Deductive reasoning goes from the
whole to the part, from the concrete to the abstract, deriving the
specific from a formula.
Elements of Inductive Reasoning
Define (Facilitative)
What does this topic mean (the definition)?
What are the parts of this definition?
F1. Composite initiate What is the general, accepted
definition?
F2. Constructive bonds What fundamental concepts
(components: action, subject, object) are brought together by the
definition?
F3. Correlate bond-action What are the relationships between
the components of the definition?
 F4. Relative action How do these correlations affect the
definition?
F5. Initiate action What do these affects infer about similar
systems?
Operate (Formulative)
What process does the topic represent?
O1. What is the real form of this stimulus?
O2. What concept do we perceive of this stimulus?
O3. How do we present or represent the concept?
O4. How do we relate the concept to other stimuli?
Method (Fundamental)
What can be measured in the defined system?
A1. Affective What is the action?
A2. Effective What is the subject?
A3. Effectual What is the object (result)?
Philosophical Inference (Functional)
How do we measure the component parts of the
definition?
P1. Thesis What must exist for the process to occur?
P2. Antithesis What must exist for the opposite of the process
to occur?
Holistic Axiom (Foundational)
This is the absolute, transcendental real, that which is
perceived, the impulse, but not to be mistaken for the
perception thereof.
What general principle (axiom) always exists given these
values?
H1. Synthesis What exists?
Elements of Deductive Reasoning
Holistic Axiom (Foundational)
This is the absolute, transcendental real, that which is
perceived, the impulse, but not to be mistaken for the
perception thereof.
What general principle (axiom) always exists given these
values?
H1. Synthesis What exists?
Philosophical Inference (Functional)
How do we measure the component parts of the
definition?
P1. Thesis What must exist for the process to occur?
P2. Antithesis What must exist for the opposite of the
process to occur?
Method (Fundamental)
What can be measured in the defined system?
A1. Affective What is the action?
A2. Effective What is the subject?
A3. Effectual What is the object (result)?

Operate (Formulative)
What process does the topic represent?
O1. What is the real form of this stimulus?
O2. What concept do we perceive of this stimulus?
O3. How do we present or represent the concept?
O4. How do we relate the concept to other stimuli?
Define (Facilitative)
What does this topic mean (the definition)?
What are the parts of this definition?
 F1. Composite initiate What is the general,
accepted definition?
F2. Constructive bonds What fundamental
concepts (components: action, subject, object) are brought
together by the definition?
F3. Correlate bond-action What are the
relationships between the components of the definition?
F4. Relative action How do these correlations
affect the definition?
F5. Initiate action What do these affects infer about
similar systems?

Applying the Paradigm

The scientific method is a deductive (analytical) model. While it
provides a lot of raw data and either proves or disproves solutions, it
does not create solutions, e.g. algorithms. Algorithms are developed
inductively, which is contrary to the normal thought process of most
people, who are raised to follow formulas. As such, inductive
thinking is a conscious act when most people do it. When we
become conscious of a process of thinking it is equally easy to lose
track of our normal thought process. To make matters worse, since
most people are not thinking inductively, most have also not
formalized their thinking. The few who have formalized deductive
thinking either learned the formality or are natural inductive thinkers.
Neither system is infallible. It is dreadfully easy to find proof of
virtually any theorem simply by picking the right set of values to test.
Likewise it is dreadfully easy to create a theorem without examining
a representative set of all possible values. As such, both must work
together. To do this you may do a split-half test. The split-half test
takes all known values and splits them into equal groups. For best
results, make the selection randomly. Use the first group to develop
the algorithm and the second to test the algorithm. Then, to further
test your reliability, identify values that should fail the algorithm (the
antithetical values, which are known with certainty to not belong to
the set) and put them through also.
A common need in programming is program testers. Program
testers purposefully check the limitations of programs and try to
make them break. This is like turning your research paper over to an
English professor for credit: better to have as few errors as possible.
So the moral of the story is to be mindful of using both processes
formally as they should be. When you have a lot of information and
no formula for solution, start inductively to develop a formula. When
you have, run test data to be sure it works in as many instances as
possible, and imagine and test any data that could cause the
process to fail. If the algorithm does not behave, then take that
knowledge back to the inductive process and start over.
Now we have dealt with the fundamentals of solving the unsolved in
general, let us examine how the Paradigm apples to information
systems. The Paradigm of Paradigm Development may be applied
to literally any field of knowledge. The Paradigm is a working model,
meaning it may be applied to real problems and provides real
results. The accuracy of these results is entirely dependent on the
information fed into the Paradigm. To understand this information we
should look at the five category sets: Metaphysical, Epistemological,
Axiological, Paradological, Holistic.
The study of metaphysics is the study of that which is real, asking
such questions as "What is the nature of reality?" For our purposes
metaphysics asks questions regarding the interface and the nature
of the data input and output. The stages of metaphysical
examination as applied deductively to programming follow:
Foundational The primary concern at this stage is superficial,
such as the interface versus function of the
program. Here we examine the whole problem at
once, Holistically.
What do you want the program to do?
What already exists that performs actions
similar or equal to the desired actions?
What qualities do similar products provide
and how (e.g. interface)?
How will yours be different, even better?
Functional Here our concern is measuring things, such as how
to measure accuracy, speed, and required
resources. These measurements are always done
as points along a spectrum of extremes: best to
 worst-case scenario. These are typically confused
as belonging to Axiology, but actually belong to
Paradology.
What degree of accuracy is sought? How
will we determine the degree of accuracy?
How fast must the algorithm perform a task?
How will we make this determination?
How much system resources are available to
perform the task?
How soon must the solution be found?
(Typically the faster a solution is needed the
less accurate and fast it will be, and the more
resources it will use)
Fundamental Here we identify the actual measurable parts. This
is the real objective of the field of Axiology in
philosophy.
Affective Values are those dealing with
significance. For example, many algorithms
may adequately suffice to calculate 100
digits of pi, but few can achieve 1000. Is it
truly necessary? According to significance,
no. Some individuals, however, do not know
when enough is enough.
Effective Values are those dealing with
resources, such as how much is available
and how.
Effectual Values are those dealing with
validity and reliability, establishing the degree
of accuracy within the significant range.
Formulative Here we identify the thinking parts, those parts
requiring knowledge and the development thereof.
This is the Epistemological realm of philosophy.
Concrete: To what does our problem apply?
You could even ask, "Who would be
interested in using our program?
Reflect: What is our program expected to
do?
 Abstract: What do we know about the
solution of our problem? e.g. What formulas
exist?
Concept: How do we apply the concepts of
the existing formulas?
Facilitative Finally we apply what we have learned and reverse
the process to check ourselves. Of the
metaphysical components, this belongs most to
Metaphysics. Based on all other observations we
can now consider our end product. This includes
our interface, what our interface will do with input,
what our program will do to manipulate, the
relationship of manipulations to each other, and
what our interface does with the output.
What will our interface look like, and in what
environment?
How is information put into our interface?
Are there menus, tools, buttons, a need for
files and more permanent data retrieval and
storage? Aside from telling the program
what to do, how does the user provide raw
data?
How does this information appear? Is it
formatted in some particular way?
Does the interface perform manipulation
before executing deeper manipulation
commands?
How does the program manipulate the
information?
What information does the interface receive
from the deeper functions? How is this
information displayed?
Is the information stored for later use? If so
how? Or is it sent to yet another application?
Graph Problems
Acyclic Having no directed cycles.
Adjacency An illustration showing the relationships between
Graph vertices. For example, a map or other graphical form
which is most useful and easy for humans to
interpret.
Adjacency Array of pointers used to show connectivity between
List vertices. Recommended for most applications. In
the Adjacency Matrix above, A is connected to P and
S so the list for A would look like A―P―S.
Adjacency An n x n array of
Matrix Boolean values A C M P S T
showing connectivity
between vertices. 0 A 1 0 0 1 1 0
indicates no
connection while 1
indicates connection. C 0 1 1 1 1 1
Some authors prefer
to use a 0 where
M 0 1 1 1 1 0
vertices intersect
themselves (A, A =
0). I am more P 1 1 1 1 1 0
optimistic and believe
vertices should be
their own "friends" S 1 1 1 1 1 0
and use a 1 to
indicate a vertice is T 0 1 0 0 0 1
connected to itself.
Articulation A vertice that, if deleted, would disconnect the other
Vertex vertices from each other. For example, friends who
are exclusively your friends are indirectly connected
to your family. Without you your family members
may well never communicate with these friends
unless they have edges joining them as friends too.
Binary Tree Method of distributing ordered data that insures rapid
access. The entire group is divided into two parts,
wherein the right branch contains all values greater
than the center value and the left branch contains all
values lesser. Each branch is then similarly divided.
Clique Group of vertices bound as a subset by joining
edges.
Connected Vertices share an edge. A Connected Component is
a connected vertice in disconnected sets.
Degree Number of edges intersecting (joining) a vertice.
Dense Most vertices many joints.
Directed Quality of an edge or group of edges indicating a
one-way relationship (one-way road).
Edge A line connecting two vertices (a vertex pair);
denoted with an E. On a polyhedron the number of
edges enclosing a single face is denoted with an S.
Face An area outlined by edges; denoted with an F.
Graphs illustrating the shortest route traveled among
points without intersecting the same point twice do
not have enclosed faces unless the traveler returns
to the point of origin or a “hub” is used.
Forest Undirected paths not connected at an end.
Girth The shortest cycle of connected points.
Graph An illustration of a group of related vertices or
“points.”
Hamiltonian Path of vertices where the ends are connected (e.g.
Cycle 1-2-3-1).
Isolated An unconnected vertice.
Line An infinite series of adjoined points defining a length
or arc.
Multi-edges A vertice with multiple edges connecting to another
vertice.
Path Series of connected vertices.
Point A location in space typically defined by coordinates,
e.g. (x, y), (x, y, z), or ( , ). When applied to a
 polygon or polyhedron, points are typically given for
vertices. In mathematics a point has no dimension in
itself.
Polygon The geometric, two-dimensional shape resulting from
connecting vertices.
Polyhedron The topological, three-dimensional shape resulting
from connecting vertices.
Regular All vertices have same number of joints.
Simple Graph with no loops nor multi-edges.
Simple Simple path passing through each vertice.
Cycle
Sparse Most vertices have few joints.
Strongly Paths are always directed.
Connected
Traveling Also called a TSP or Traveling Salesman Problem.
Salesman Given a series of points to travel among, what is the
shortest route to take without passing through each
vertice more than once? The problem only sounds
easy but becomes increasingly complex based on
the dispersion of points.
Tree Undirected paths connected at the ends.
Undirected Quality of an edge or group of edges where the
relationship is equally bi-directional (they are each
other's "friends")
Vertice A point in space that may be connected to other
points by two or more lines; denoted with a V.
Weighted Quality of a graph whereby the edges have
distinctive values (e.g. lengths).
Sorting
Bubble or A "brute force" method good for small lists and with
Sequential parallel computers that can divide the list. The
technique compares the first two values and puts
them in order, then compares the third and fourth,
etc. After one pass over the numbers, the last value
in the list is the highest. The routine then can be
 repeated without having to check the last value and
recurses on itself until all values have been ordered.
Insertion Method best suited if list is already close to ordered.
The method examines all values in the list except the
first. Instead of simply swapping sequentially, it will
take the added step of comparing the lesser value
with the next value to the left also. For example:
2404, 8653, 1354, 5781 requires two cycles of the
algorithm.
Quicksort Divides the search set into two groups then compares
values on opposite sides of the median to determine
if they are greater or lesser than the median. Those
lesser or switched to the left, those greater are
switched to the right. The two halves are then treated
separately in the same manner and so on until all
values have been sorted. Invented by C.A.R. Hoare
and published in 1962. It is a recursive function that
is faster than any other algorithm, best suited for
large sorts.
Radix Sorts by bucketing the values rather than comparing
them. Buckets may then be further subdivided or
have another algorithm applied to them to complete
the sort process. Good for dividing up a list across
multiple processors that will then do bubble sorts or
other methods.
Selection Searches for then identifies the lowest valued item
and inserts it in the first place, then repeats the
process confining the array to the remainder until all
values are sorted. This is a particularly tedious
process
Shell Variation of the insertion sort invented by D.L. Shell.
It is a series of insertion sorts that compare values at
fixed distances rather than adjacent values. The skip
count is reduced with each pass until it reaches one.
This saves a lot of time lost with the conventional
insertion sort.
Searching
Binary Divides ordered search items in half then determines
whether search value is greater or lesser, then
repeats the process until the item is found. This is
the best method when data can be diagrammed as a
binary.
Insertion Arranges items so last item is the search item.
Sequential Starts at beginning and tests equality of items until
search item is found. Although this algorithm is the
simplest to construct, it is the most time consuming
and should be reserved for small unordered lists.
Sorted Arranges items until location is found then inserts
search item.
Worksheet 6—Problem Solving
RAM Activity:
1-5 identify the sequence of the common factorial
algorithm (g(n)):
Factorial ( )
private integer n =
Input;
if n = = 0 1. return n;
{ A } 2. return n *
if n < 0 || n != Input FactorialRecurseOld (n - 1);
{ 3. return
B } FormulaFailure ("Cannot compute negative
else values
{ C } nor fractions.");
FactorialRecurseOld 4. return
() FactorialRecurseOld (n);
if n = = 1
5. n = 1;
{ D }
else
{ E }

6-12 identify the sequence of the new factorial algorithm

( ƒ (n)):
A. if n = = 0 // Allows calculation of 0, 6.
retains imaginary part (1 - 4 cycles) 7.
{ 8.
n = 1; 9.
ZeroFactorial = (-1); 10.
}
11.
B. n = FactorialRecurse (n); // Assigns 12.
calculation results for n to n (1 cycle)
 C. FactorialRecurse ( ) // Calculates
the series in 4n-2 cycles (note n=1 when input=0)
if n 1
{
return n;
}
else
{
counter + +;
return n * FactorialRecurse (n - 1);
}
D. Factorial ( ) //
Initiation of variables (4 cycles)
Private integer neg = 1;
Private float n = FactorialInput;
Public integer ZeroFactorial = 1;
Private integer counter = 0; 13. Argument
is:
E. return neg * n; // Provides
1. = =
final results in 1 cycle
2. > =
F. if counter % 2 = = 0 // Provides
3. ! =
positive results for even computations (3 - 5 cycles) 4. < =
{
14. -2.2! =
neg * = neg;
___
}
1. .528
G. if n < 0 // Remembers and 2. -.52
removes initial negative (1 - 5 cycles) 8
{ 3. 4.84
neg = (-1); 4. -4.8
n * = neg; 4
}

RAM Graphed:
15. Valid input for the common
factorial (top g(n)) takes
_______ cycles per unit of n
to compute.
16. Valid input for the new
factorial (ƒ(n)) > 0 takes an
average of _______ cycles
per unit of n to compute.
17. This is an example of ____
notation for (ƒ(n))?
A. o B. O C. D.
E.
 Unit 7—Database Design
Objectives
This material was designed for a three contact-hour period in a
junior-senior level Algorithms course. It may prove very useful for
students seriously considering programming. In this supplemental
chapter, students will learn:
1. Database Objects
4. Normalizing (MCSD)
2. Field Design
5. Relationships (MCSD)
3. Data Type, Field Size and
6. Computer Math Concepts
Input Masks
I recommend reading memorizing(!) this entire chapter before you
create any table. This information does not fit into a neat sequence,
but it is all necessary to understanding table design. Most of this is
also critical to the MCSD.

General Terms
Batch: Processing information in groups as opposed to
transaction processing (randomly and singularly). Reports and
queries are typically processed in batches, while the data entry
for records and expressions are processed by the transaction.
Consider a table with a field labeled "Age," with the data type
being number. By using a number you can create an
"expression," which is the same as building a formula. Enter
birth dates in one field and use an expression to calculate the
current age so the age field never needs to be manually
updated. The expression will need to link to a field containing
the current date (available under the Insert menu as Date and
Time).
Data Access (ability to retrieve and use data) Database: A
collection of data related to a particular topic or purpose; a
table comprised of group of records containing fields of
categorized information. A collection of related files stored
together that allow you to define relationships between those
files so multiple files may be simultaneously accessed.
Programs other than databases use a "flat file" meaning each
record is separate and self-contained (e.g. not related to the
other files directly).
Data Acquisition (inputting and importing) Data Accuracy (of
input or import) or data integrity refers to the reliability of the
data and that the data is reported and entered correctly. Timely
data has not lost its usefulness or legitimacy because of the
passage of time.
Data Maintenance (updating, sorting) is the procedures used to
keep data current (see accuracy above), such as updating.
Data maintenance procedures may overlap data security
procedures to also include file management activities and
backups.
Data Management: The procedures used to acquire, access
and maintain data. Ensures that data required for an
application will be available in the correct form and at the
proper time for processing.
Data Security (accessibility of users to specific information)
protects data from being misused or lost. Part of data security
is Backup, where files are copied and stored in the event of
extraneous circumstances (e.g. disasters: manmade, natural,
or with the system).
Data Type: As with a spreadsheet, the database allows you to
define data types such as text, number, date/time, etc. You may
have one or more fields that contain graphics, such as
company logos. The database also allows you to perform
calculations using "expressions."
Expression: An expression uses the field names to perform
calculations within a record. In the table view of the records,
expressions in the database may be constructed similar to
formulas in a spreadsheet.
Query-by-example (QBE): helps you to construct a query by
displaying a list of fields that are available in the files, in which
you enter known information and prompt to provide all records
containing the values you entered in the query fields. Hoover's
Master List uses this query method. Note: typically this format
is previously specified.
 Querying: Creates views and report content and layout. Allows
you to retrieve information from the database based on
specified criteria in a format previously specified or one that
you specify.
Realtime: The computer equivalent of Just-In-Time and FIFO
(First In First Out). The information is processed as it is
presented to the system. Form use is processed in real time
(e.g. changing record information).
Relational Querying: Allows you to query and manipulate data
to create a unique view or subset of the total data. Uses
relational operators to specify search criteria and perform
manipulations, such as select, project and join. Select finds
specific records, project specifies the fields within the records
that appear in the output, and join combines files/tables for an
integrated query which is typically saved in a separate file for
future use.
Report: A layout of information intended to be printed or
viewed. This layout will be standardized like a form, making it
easy to find desired information at a glance. Often, in industry,
forms will already be designed and standardized. This is
convenient because then you do not have to manually layout
the form. If the form does not already exist, then it may be
necessary to examine the information going into the form first,
to be sure that the layout and the "shape" of the output are not
in conflict.
Structured Query Language (SQL pronounced see-qwell): Now
a common language used to write relational queries; typically
available in most database programs. Allows for more
complicated querying and reporting where decisions are
necessary (e.g. where . . . = . . . replaces BASIC operations like
if . . . then, or for . . . and simplifies these with "and" statements
to allow for multiple conditions to be necessary for an action to
occur).

Advantages of Using a Database

Reduced redundancy: data does not need to be duplicated nor
entered more than once. The information is stored once,
 retrieved and used as needed for various applications. The
process of splitting tables or merging tables to make better use
of data space and reduce redundancy is called normalization.
Improved accuracy: reduced redundancy means less chances
of error. If there is an error, it needs correcting only once to be
reflected in all applications of the data.
Easier reporting: retrieves only the information needed by using
a query, so information may be acquired from multiple files
simultaneously.
Improved security: allows for various levels of data
accessibility, such as not allowing access, allowing read-only
access, and "full update" privileges (e.g. edit or read and write
access).
Reduces production time: Not only is less time used for data
entry, developing programs that access the data is easier as is
updating or changing the database program being used. New
files need not be created, when new records may be added or
fields added to existing records.
Note: It is easy to overlook the fact that it is easier to deal with
information consistently entered. It is also easier to reduce the
amount of information than to add to the information. For example, a
series of records storing responses to surveys should contain all
information provided on the surveys even if they are not currently in
use. This prevents having to later add new fields to the data and try
to accurately enter the data at a later time.

Database Qualities
Data Dictionary (definitions of fields such as field shape, name,
description, type of data, default value, validation rules, and the
relationship to other data elements)
Utility Program (creates files and dictionaries, monitors
performance, copies data, and deletes unwanted records)
Security (controls levels of access to data)
Replication (Distributes data to other computers to update
remote computer databases, typically for purposes of having a
central database from which information is updated, while
 distributing only the necessary information to remote
computers)
Recovery (restores information after equipment failure)
Sophisticated databases often keep a log of what the database
had before and after a change was made (before and after
image). "Forward recovery" or "rollforward" automatically
reenters the changes made at the time of the last backup.
"Backward recovery" or "rollback" reverses the changes that
occurred over a specified period of time, which requires all
transactions during that time be reentered.
Query Language (creates views and report content and layout)
Allows you to retrieve information from the database based on
specified criteria in a format you specify.

Database Types
Hierarchical—Organizes data in a series like a tree. The
highest-ranking parent record is called a root record. From the
root record is derived the parent records, which accesses the
child records. Each child record can have only one parent
record (a record that accesses the information within the record
lower in hierarchy)
Hierarchy of Data—The various levels of the data (bit, byte,
field, record, file/table, relational database. The order (from
lowest to highest) is:
Bit—binary digit of 0 for off and 1 for one
Byte—a single character or unit of information stored in a
quantity of bits (8, 16, 32, etc.)
Field—Individual elements of descriptive data consisting of one
or more characters or units (e.g. bytes)
Record—A group of related fields combined to describe a
single person, place, thing, etc.
File/Table—A group of related records that share field attributes
but not necessarily the contents of the fields.
Relational Database—A set of related files/tables grouped to
perform functions interactively between the records of separate
tables and their respective fields.
 Network—Allows multiple sources (parents) to access and
modify members (children) similar to a hierarchy.
Relational Database—A collection of one or more related
tables that can share information. The tables are related to
each other and are thus called "relations." The relations, like
tables, are divided into rows called "tuples," and fields called
"attributes". The range of available field/attribute values is
called the "domain".
Object-Oriented—Contains both data and actions (expressions)
for managing the data, such as instructions on how to display
or print the data, calculation methods, etc.

Database Objects
Databases have a variety of object types, which are listed below.
Each object name should have no spaces, and the first letter of each
word in a name is capitalized, or an underline (_) is used to separate
the words. The naming conventions listed in the table below may be
placed either in front of the object name (TBLMyName) or after
(MyNameTBL). I prefer to put the naming convention after so I can
see related objects together when viewing them all. Note also that I
use additional conventions to help create categories of objects,
which I identify as we discuss the objects.
Object
Convention Description
Type
A layout of raw information in columns
and rows where a row represents a
record and a column represents a field
where information is stored to define a
Table TBL
record. In Access the field "shape"
includes input masks, field sizes,
formatting, and data types, which will
restrict data input.
Query QRY Queries either acquire and manipulate
information from one or more tables
based on criteria (select queries) or
perform a function (action queries), such
as updating records, deleting records,
 creating a table, or appending records
from one table to another. The viewable
results of a select query always look like
a table.
A graphical layout of fields whose source
is either a tale or a query. Forms limit the
user's access to data and provide a
Form FRM means for the programmer to include
meaningful descriptions and create a
path of travel for the user to put data in
correctly.
A printout of information derived from a
Report RPT
table or query.
A sequential set of instructions to perform
specific actions (like closing and opening
things) that can be applied to any object
Macro MCR in a form. In Access these are
remarkably easy to do, and will be
discussed in detail later. See Trigger
below.
Module MOD A Visual Basic for Applications (VBA)
program used to perform special
functions. I recommend using these
sparingly if at all, and have not personally
found a good use for them if you are
capable with query and macro design.
However, when analyzing your database,
the wizard may recommend compiling
forms and macros into modules. If so,
then I recommend following the directions
given after you are certain you will make
no further modifications. This way you
can rest assured that the coding is
absolutely correct. Anyone who has
done manual coding in any language
understands the hardships of even the
 slightest human error and can appreciate
letting the application program itself.
For the MCSD you must understand the
concept of a Trigger. A trigger is an
event (insertion, update, or deletion)
executing a stored procedure. The
stored procedures in Access can be
either macros or modules.

Planning a Database
You will note that the list provided here contains different steps and a
slightly different order from lists in other books. It also appears to be
in reverse order of what one might think to do. This is a practical
application oriented approach, meaning you first determine the end
product then design the means of accomplishing that product.
Furthermore, this list does not neglect the fact that another database
program or system may be more appropriate than Access. For
example, the size of the database may be such that it is not practical
for Access (take AltaVista's database of indexed web pages as an
example).
Design the structure of the reports you want to be able to
generate from the database, including the necessary fields of
information and their shapes, as well as any extraneous
information (e.g. headers and footers or other text or graphics
that will appear on each form). Design the structure of the
records, defining the fields, their data types, and any
"expressions" in which a field will provide an automatically
calculated value.
Determine the purpose of the database (e.g. What will the
database represent (item b)? What will it be used to do (item
a)? How large will the database be?). Note that the size of the
database may also play a factor in hardware requirements,
such as available disk space, RAM, and processor speed.
Determine what type of database or what database program is
most appropriate to fit the desired purpose (e.g. for reporting
and querying). Find the simplest means of importing or
entering the desired information necessary to the database
(e.g. importing from various spreadsheets, word processor
created lists, etc.). If you are importing data, it is essential to be
sure the data is in a manageable format before attempting to
import it to your database.
Gather together all the forms, which will be filled out/generated
from the data in the database. Identify the various fields of
information contained within the forms
Separate the various fields into appropriate groups that should
be stored in separate tables (files).
Using the fields of one group, design the File on paper first (or
use an existing form) containing all the fields necessary to that
group.
Include a unique key field, like a record number or account
number.
Use separate fields for logically distinct items. Typically it is
wise to have separate fields for first, middle and last names,
title, company name, phone number, fax, e-mail, URL, street
address, post office box, city, state/state code, zip code, and
four digit zip code extension. Note: State and state code are
not the same. If you wish the state name to be spelled out and
to have the code, it may be wise to have separate fields for
each.
Do not create fields that can be derived from entries in other
fields.
Allow enough space for the information (the shape of the field).
Foreign addresses, names and phone numbers may require
extra space. Shape: The dimensions of a field required to
show the data. If the data is to be printed on fixed shape forms,
then the shape of each field must clearly defined providing a
limit to the quantity of information (number of characters) that
may be stored in that field. If the data is to be viewed
electronically, then the shape is governed more by cosmetics
(for most practical viewing) and the size limitations of the
database.
Create default values for frequently entered data (e.g. the state
when most records will be in the same state). Note: It is unwise
to require a field have an entry especially if the entry is not
 appropriate. For example, state code will not apply for foreign
addresses, so allow for blank spaces.
Implement your design and input the data.

Field Design
The following guidelines assume that you follow the other rules
defined in this chapter (and there are many!). As such, when I say
something like "Include a unique key..." I mean if that key is
appropriate according to the rules of normalization, lookups, indexing
and key fields. Sound like a handful? That is why database
designers make a lot of money and hackers pay developers a
fortune to rebuild failing databases.
1. Gather together all the forms, which will be filled
out/generated from the data in the database.
2. Identify the various fields of information contained within the
forms
3. "Normalize" or "atomize" these fields so an information field
is only identified once (First Normal Form). It is typically
seen as easier to combine information (denormalize) than to
separate it (normalize). Always reduce first to the lowest
denominator then denormalize for functionality and to
balance system resources. For example, on a gradebook
database, I first atomized assignment entry into two fields,
the first containing a lookup to different types of assignments
and the second to name the type selected. I related these
two to the student grades and everything looked all right until
I tried tracking a class. Then I could only see what the
assignment type was, not the title, so I denormalized
(merged) the fields and eliminated the lookup. Sometimes
less is more. Limit the user only when absolutely necessary
to ensure proper functionality.
4. Separate the various fields into appropriate groups that
should be stored in logically separate tables.
5. Using the fields of one group, design the table on paper first
(or use an existing form) containing all the fields necessary
to that group:
1. Include a unique key field, like a record number or
account number if the table will be a parent table.
2. Use separate fields for logically distinct items.
Typically it is wise to have separate fields for first,
middle and last names, title, company name, phone
number, fax, e-mail, URL, street address, post office
box, city, state/state code, zip code, and four digit zip
code extension. Note: State and state code are not
the same. If you wish the state name to be spelled
out and to have the code, it may be wise to have
separate fields for each.
3. Do not create fields that can be derived from entries
in other fields (e.g. from expressions that can be
created in queries).
4. Allow enough space for the information (the shape of
the field). Foreign addresses, names and phone
numbers may require extra space. Shape: The
dimensions of a field required to show the data. If the
data is to be printed on fixed shape forms, then the
shape of each field must clearly defined providing a
limit to the quantity of information (number of
characters) that may be stored in that field. If the
data is to be viewed electronically, then the shape is
governed more by cosmetics (for most practical
viewing) and the size limitations of the database.
5. Define data types, formatting, input masks and
indexing qualities
6. Create necessary lookups
7. Create default values for frequently entered data
(e.g. the state when most records will be in the same
state). I discourage the use of default data as it can
result in data-entry errors that are extremely difficult
to track which result from oversight and laziness. It
is easier to find and repair data errors if a field is
accidentally left blank than if it is automatically filled.
8. Create validation rules and other data entry rules. It
is unwise to require a field have an entry especially if
 the entry is not appropriate. For example, state code
will not apply for foreign addresses, so allow for
blank spaces.
6. Repeat step 5 until all tables are developed necessary to
accomplish the desired results.
7. Create input and output mediums (these are potentially
interchangeable and may even be worked simultaneously at
times):
1. Create queries to perform desired computations
(expressions) and present the data required for the
forms in step 1.
2. Create reports to print out the desired information.
3. Create a user interface (Form objects, macros and
modules) to insure proper data entry.
8. Develop security measures to limit user access to data and
design.
9. Test all features of the design with sufficient data to
potentially break the system (e.g. normal operating
conditions) on the least capable users with no training
(particularly those known to break things without trying) and
observe the consequences. I know it sounds cruel to those
users, but if they can use it and not break it, then it will likely
do well under real pressure. Often tests are run using the
most competent users. From a management perspective
this means lost production time with their most valued
employees. Personally, as a manager, I would rather risk
losing production time on already unproductive employees
because I stand to gain productivity from them if the system
actually works. Note: Microsoft justifiably recommends
aiming development at company regulation levels and not
the lowest known denominator. I would argue you should fill
both objectives, because failure to do so means your project
is not justified because the existing system clearly did not
work. If the system had worked, your project would never be
considered.
Primary Field Attributes
Field Names
Access will allow you to create long field names with spaces in
them. Do not abuse length, and definitely do not put spaces into
your field names. While these practices are alright with
dysfunctional database designs, they are dysfunctional because
eventually the developer hacks their way into a feature that does not
forgive the spaces (like real programming). It is wise to have a
naming convention that is brief, intuitive and logical. It is also wise to
try avoiding using the same field names in other tables as this could
become confusing for you, and more disastrously, could confuse the
programming code of a SQL statement or module. Field names
must be unique within a table, and should be unique among the field
names of the other tables in the database. If you want the user to
see a name other than the field name, change the Caption attribute
on the General tab at the bottom of the Table design view.
Constraints and Validation (MCSD)
Constraints limit what kind of data can be entered into an field or
table (often called an entity on the MCSD), how the data is entered,
and the order in which the data is entered. One way to control the
order data is entered in is to follow the Navigation Model, which
defines how the user navigates through the interface (for Access this
often means switchboards, action buttons and forms).
Note: this paragraph is crucial for the MCSD. Types of validation
include Point-of-Entry (forces the user to make input), Field Level
(tests validity when field is updated, but before stored data is
updated), Transaction Level (when the record is going to be
updated). Validation occurs at one of the following points: when a
field is updated or modified (the user types or edits field contents),
when a record is deleted, and when a record is updated. Access
automatically validates information based on data types (when field
goes to update), input masks (as you type), key field (these are
automatically required and must be different from each other, occurs
typically when the record is updated), and relationships (when you
try to delete or modify something that is related to something else).
You can go beyond the defaults of Access and otherwise require a
field and/or provide a default value. I do not encourage the use of
default values as they can lead to quality assurance nightmares. It is
much easier to get information than to wade through misinformation
that is default and verify it all.
You can set more validation rules by using the ValidationRule
property. If you set the ValidationRule property but not the
ValidationText property, Microsoft Access displays a standard error
message when the validation rule is violated. If you set the
ValidationText property, the text you enter is displayed as the error
message in a message box. All rules created in the Table design
(including error message boxes, masks, etc.) are also applied in
forms even if the form is indirectly derived through a query. If your
tables are from external sources (e.g. dBASE, Paradox, or a SQL
server) you cannot modify table properties, so you can only apply
rules to controls on your forms (independent of the table).
Control, field, and record validation rules are applied as follows:
Validation rules you set for fields and controls are applied
when you edit the data and the focus leaves the field or
control.
Validation rules for records are applied when you move to
another record.
If you create validation rules for both a field and a control
bound to the field, both validation rules are applied when you
edit data and the focus leaves the control.
The following table contains expression examples for the
ValidationRule and ValidationText properties.
ValidationRule property ValidationText property
Entry must be a nonzero
<> 0
value.
Entry must be blank or
> 1000 Or Is Null
greater than 1000.
Entry must be 5 characters
Like "A????"
and begin with the letter "A".
>= #1/1/96# And <#1/1/97# Entry must be a date in 1996.
DLookup("CustomerID", Entry must be a unique
"Customers", "CustomerID = CustomerID (domain
Forms!Customers!CustomerID") Is aggregate functions are
Null
 allowed only for form-level
validation).
To allow a Null value, add "Is Null" to the validation rule, as in "<> 8
Or Is Null" and make sure the Required property is set to No.
Formatting and Descriptions
Formatting is only a visual constraint and does not directly affect the
data. As a consequence forcing upper case characters with a > in
the Format field on the General card succeeds in generating
programmer headaches because case sensitive searches will fail.
As such, I discourage considering formatting as a constraint, but
rather consider it a visual bonus to help the user correctly recognize
information. Note: to show the date as 01/01/1901 use the format
mm/dd/yyyy, which will prevent numeric conflicts between dates
early in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Another useful
formatting mask is HH:MM:SS AM for times.
Likewise, descriptions and tooltips are only useful if the user notices
them. Descriptions appear in the status bar, giving users and
programmers additional information to help understand the field.
Most likely the person who reads descriptions is already an
advanced user and will not need the extra information. I recommend
using forms with descriptive labels and help files that are easily
found and used. Likewise, new users are likely to move the mouse
too quickly to get tooltips, but when they finally slow down these act
as comments in other documents which can be immensely helpful as
context-sensitive help. You might put a "Quick Help" button on your
form that produces a message box that reads "For quick help on a
specific item, point your mouse pointer at the field and leave it there
until a tooltip appears." Then provide descriptive tooltip information
for each field shown on the form.

Data Type, Field Size and Input Masks

Data type greatly inhibits user mistakes, as data entry is halted by
system errors when the user enters data not supported by the data
type. After choosing the data type (see the table below), be sure the
field size is appropriate. For example, although personal names can
get long, I doubt you will have any problem identifying a first or last
name, or a city name in 20 characters. Likewise you should never
need more than fifty characters to identify the name of a company or
the street address. Finally, field size can be affected by the input
mask., which may or may not specify storing constant characters
with the data (e.g. with phone numbers, social security numbers and
business tax ID numbers, all you really need are the numbers, the
rest is just for looks; however...if you are storing individuals in the
same table as companies you may not want to use an input mask at
all because their numbers are presented differently!). The following
tables will help put all this together more meaningfully.
Data Type
Data Type Description
Supports up to 255 characters. The default when
designing a table from scratch is 50. The default
when you import a table from another application
(e.g. text or Excel) is 255. I personally find no good
Text
reason to exceed 50 as this is a large amount of
space to risk leaving vacant. If you exceed 50 you
are likely to need more than 255, meaning you
should use the Memo type or hyperlink.
This field should be used in reservation as it is
difficult to apply in reports and can take up a lot of
space. Use this type for fields where you expect
more than 255 characters. When information gets
this verbose, it should probably be broken into
Memo
paragraphs and have formatting features applied
meaningfully. As such I recommend using the
hyperlink type to create hyperlinks to other
documents (e.g. Word, Excel, PowerPoint, etc.).
Memo supports up to 64,000 characters.
For all real numbers (see field size table below). If
you need decimal values be sure to select the
appropriate data type (single, double, and decimal)
Number
and specify the number of decimal places you want
(otherwise all numbers are treated as integers,
which are whole numbers).
For all dates and times, which is really a numeric
value applied to a formatting style showing the date
or time. You must use this data type if you wish to
Date/Time
use the field for calculations. See Formatting above
for more information on customizing your date
beyond the selections available.
Currency As the name suggests, this type stores numbers (up
to 15 digits to the left of the decimal and 4 to the
right of the decimal). It consumes 8 bytes, so you
 might consider a different data type with formatting
applied instead (see Number)
Produces an automatically generated, sequential
number. Commonly used for a key field when there
is no other useful number available. Always
defaults to a Long Integer field size, and should be
left that way. A problem with autonumbers is that
once a number is used it is never reused in the
same table. As a consequence when you put in
AutoNumber sample data you will reduce the number of available
records in the table by the number of sample
records you test. For this reason it is preferable to
use a meaningful number like social security
number, part number, etc. as they can be deleted
and later reused. Do not worry too much about
running out of Long Integer values though because
Long Integers go as high as two billion.
This is the smallest data type but should still be
used conservatively as the user may get confused.
Yes/No It appears as a checkbox. When selected (stores a
1) it indicates the value is true, and when deselected
it indicates the value is false (stores a 0).
This allows you to to link or embed another
document (up to 1 gigabyte!) created by another
application. Linked files may be updated by double
clicking them then making the modifications in the
original application (assuming both are installed
properly for both the Windows registry and the
OLE Object location of the file within the system). Embedded
objects must be re-embedded if they are modified
and will inflate your file size enormously. Personally
I would reserve this data type for pictures when you
have few pictures to include (e.g. employee
photographs). Otherwise I would use the hyperlink
type.
Hyperlink Like the memo type, this stores up to 64,000
characters (which I assume includes both the title
 and link information). This does not mean I would
encourage you to use all those characters. Keep it
short and sweet, and be careful where you hyperlink
to, especially if you expect to move the database or
use it across a network.
This type of field provides a combination box for the
user to select from a predefined list or from another
Lookup... table (always the same size as the Primary Key
field referenced from another table (a.k.a. the
Foreign Key).
Field Size
Decimal Storage
Field Size Description
precision size
Number
<number Defines the number of
None Shown in
showing> characters a field can store.
bytes
Stores numbers from 0 to
Byte None 1 byte
255 (no fractions).
Stores numbers from –
Integer 32,768 to 32,767 (no None 2 bytes
fractions).
(Default) Stores numbers
Long from –2,147,483,648 to
None 4 bytes
Integer 2,147,483,647 (no
fractions).
Stores numbers from –
3.402823E38 to –
1.401298E–45 for negative
Single values and from 7 4 bytes
1.401298E–45 to
3.402823E38 for positive
values.
Double Stores numbers from – 15 8 bytes
1.79769313486231E308 to
–4.94065645841247E–324
 for negative values and
from
1.79769313486231E308 to
4.94065645841247E–324
for positive values.
Replication Globally unique identifier
N/A 16 bytes
ID (GUID) (See COM Objects)
Stores numbers from
-10^38 -1 through 10^38 -1
Decimal (.adp) Stores numbers 28 12 bytes
from-10^28 -1 through
10^28 -1 (.mdb)
Input Masks
Input masks have a very specific layout. The following table defines
the qualities of each layout section.
Mask Storage Placeholder
Specifies the To stores the literal Specifies the
input mask itself; display characters use 0 character displayed
for example, for this section. If you for spaces where
(999) 999-9999. leave this blank or use a typing occurs during
For a list of 1, only typed characters data entry. For this
characters you are stored, but not section, you can use
can use to display characters. For any character. To
define the input example: (999) 999- display an empty
mask, see the 9999;;_ stores only ten string, use a space
following table. characters (not the enclosed in quotation
parentheses, space nor marks (" ").
hyphen). Access will
convert this same mask
as: \(999\)\ 999\-9999;;_
To do the same thing in Visual Basic use a string expression to set
this property. For example, the following specifies an input mask for
a text box control used for entering a phone number:
Forms!Customers!Telephone.InputMask = "(###) ###-####"
This next table provides the characters used in the mask.
Character Description
Digit (0 to 9, entry required, plus [+] and minus [–]
0
signs not allowed).
Digit (0 to 9) or space (entry not required, plus and
9
minus signs not allowed).
Digit (0 to 9) or space (entry not required; spaces are
displayed as blanks while in Edit mode, but blanks are
#
removed when data is saved; plus and minus signs
allowed).
L Letter (A to Z, entry required).
? Letter (A to Z, entry optional).
 A Letter or digit (entry required).
a Letter or digit (entry optional).
& Any character or a space (entry required).
C Any character or a space (entry optional).
Decimal placeholder and thousand, date, and time
separators. (The actual character used depends on
.,:;-/
the settings in the Regional Settings Properties
dialog box in Windows Control Panel).
Causes all characters to be converted to lowercase.
<
Use here and not in Format!
Causes all characters to be converted to uppercase.
>
Use here and not in Format!
Causes the input mask to display from right to left,
rather than from left to right. Characters typed into the
mask always fill it from left to right. You can include the
! exclamation point anywhere in the input mask. This is
good if you use a mask with a number where the last
digits will always be in the same decimal areas (e.g.
currency)
Causes the character that follows to be displayed as
\ the literal character (for example, \A is displayed as
just A).
Note Setting the InputMask property to the word "Password"
creates a password-entry control. Any character typed in the control
is stored as the character but is displayed as an asterisk (*). You use
the Password input mask to prevent displaying the typed characters
on the screen.
Lookup Fields
General Lookups (MCSD)
Lookup fields reduce data entry errors. There are two types of
lookup: embedded and linked. An embedded lookup stores the data
source in the table design. Use an embedded lookup for a limited
list of choices to insure data entry is consistent, such as state names
or abbreviations (Note: the Format property > to force upper case is
not always reliable when the data is queried). A linked lookup pulls
information from another table by way of a Foreign Key field.
Whenever linking a lookup be sure to have a key field in the source
table (this will be the Foreign Key) and to include the key field in the
lookup, even if you do not wish to show it. Note: If you are using a
linked lookup and want a default value from the source table, use a
key field value and not the name that would appear. During data
entry you can type the name, but run the risk that other records will
have the same name. For this reason it is typically wise to include
more than one non-key field in your lookup.
Lookups to Queries
You can create a linked lookup whose data source is a query. I like
to use this Navigation tables. Here we will only address the benefits
and limitations, reserving the How-To for much later (because this
requires good Form, Query and Macro development skills).
Benefits (and though there are so few, from the end-user's perspective they mean everything):
1. The choices in the lookup field are limited and potentially
more meaningful as they are based on other data you already
entered.
2. The choices are sorted how you want them rather than strictly
by the key field.
Limitations:
1. There are a lot of points where failure is possible in the
design.
2. Data entry must be done on a form to prevent errors, macros
must be assigned to the appropriate fields, and over all the
form design needs careful handling.
3. When looking at the source table, only names current in the
query are active, otherwise only the key fields show.
4. If the query is done without a navigation table or without a
logical limitation on the results (like active records only), the
query will fail.
5. The lookup relationship is with the query and not the source
table, and as a consequence forms and subforms derived
there from must be based on queries. This itself can also be
a benefit if you are good at developing queries.
 6. Failure to enforce referential integrity with cascade options
selected will be extremely tragic (lost data).
7. The user cannot select something from this field not available
in the query. For example, if I have a parent CourseTBL and
a child SectionTBL I could create a NavigationTBL with a
lookup to the CourseID and another to a query for SectionIDs
matching the CourseID. I set my NavigationFRM to reload
itself when the CourseID is changed so my query is updated
for the SectionIDs. I have no choice but to select a CourseID
first, as all other SectionIDs are currently hidden. To help my
user I provide a message box activated by a help button that
explains, "If the section you are looking for is not listed, be
sure the correct Course is selected. If the correct Course is
selected go to the General Information form and verify the
section exists and add it if necessary."
Indexing and Key Fields (MCSD)
Indexing
Indexing provides a means for Access to quickly find information.
This is particularly important for large databases and databases on
networks. Without an index, Access is forced to look for information
sequentially, which is extremely time consuming. An index provides
ordered numeric values of where information is. Consider a
telephone book, where individuals may have multiple phone
numbers. If you want to find all the telephone numbers of an
individual it is much faster to look them up by name rather than by
the phone numbers.
An indexed field is either sorted or unsorted. Access automatically
sorts the data when the table or form is closed after data entry by the
first field with the index property: Yes (No Duplicates). An unsorted
index has the index property: Yes (Duplicates OK). Access retains a
list that cannot be seen of the values appearing in a field with this
index property along with an unduplicated reference (e.g. record
number, key field, or other sorted index) so it can rapidly locate the
records.
Key Fields
Key fields are always indexed. When there is only one key field then
the Index property will be: Yes (No Duplicates). When there are
multiple keys then the index property for each will be: Yes
(Duplicates OK).
When to have a key field:
To prevent records from being confused with each
other
When the table has a field referenced by a lookup in
another table (always include the key field in the lookup!)
Never have a key field on a Terminal table (see the
schedule.mdb on the Internet) where:
There are no relationships to other table or
One or more fields are lookups to other tables and
The table has no children of its own

Normalizing (MCSD)
Note: the three entities (Associative, Characteristic, and Kernel) are
the terms used in the MCSD Analyzing Requirements and Defining
Solutions Architectures.
Associative A table that derives all of its data from two or
Table more tables, creating a relationship between
(Associative those tables that could not otherwise exist.
Entity) Recommended naming
conventions: TableNameDetailsTBL,
TableNameDTBL, TableNameATBL .
Characteristic A child table providing information about a parent
Table table that has a variable length. Were this data
(Characteristic stored in the parent table, it would result in blank
Entity) fields for many records. For example, in an order
entry system you would have an OrderTBL with a
child OrderDetailsTBL. The OrderTBL contains
general information pertaining to the order, such
as who made the order, the date of the order, who
is receiving the order, who is getting billed, and
where the order is being shipped. The
 OrderDetailsTBL links to the key fields of the
OrderTBL and the ProductsTBL, and lists the
quantity ordered. See the Fourth Normal Form.
Child Table A table that derives data from another table. If a
child table does not have any children itself, it
should not have a key field.
Decomposable Quality of a table indicating that certain fields
contain repetitive data better managed if
separated into another table and related by key
field. Typically decomposable tables have
multiple fields that can be distinguished from
each other. Names can be repetitive, but do not
themselves justify decomposing the table.
Flat Table A table with no key field and no relationships to
other tables.
Hierarchical Quality of a system where the parts are organized
such that lower ranking parts inherit the qualities
of higher ranking parts. Do not confuse the
application of this term in this section with a
hierarchical database. In a relational database,
child tables inherit the qualities of the parent
tables, and child tables provide either variable
length characteristic or historical details about the
parent table.
History Table A child table whose purpose is to store time-
specific data, such as a PriceHTBL or
CostHTBL. The data is only applied if the date of
the history table corresponds with the related
records. See the Tenth NormalForm.
Recommended naming
conventions: TableNameHistoryTBL,
TableNameHTBL
Navigation A special function table for which only one record
Table will ever exist. This type of table will be
discussed in great detail later. Recommended
naming
 conventions: NavTBL or TableNameNTBL . This
is often an associative table, so those naming
conventions may also be applied.
Normalize Process of dividing a table into non-
decomposable tables. See the Fifth Normal
Form.
Parent Table A parent table always contains a key field which
is referenced by its children. A parent table could
also be a child table if and only if it derives data
from another table.
Primary Table A parent table with a key field and with no data
(Kernel Entity) derived from other tables. A record here provides
data describing a singular real-world subject that
is not a subset of but rather a superset of other
entities. Naming convention: TableNameTBL.
Terminal Table A child table that will not have any children.
Terms
Child Table A table that derives data from another table. If a
child table does not have any children itself, it
should not have a key field.
Decomposable Quality of a table indicating that certain fields
contain repetitive data better managed if
separated into another table and related by key
field. Typically decomposable tables have
multiple fields that can be distinguished from each
other. Names can be repetitive, but do not justify
decomposing the table.
Details Table A child table providing information about a parent
table that has a variable length. Were this data
stored in the parent table, it would result in blank
fields for many records. For example, in an order
entry system you would have an OrderTBL with a
child OrderDetailsTBL. The OrderTBL contains
general information pertaining to the order, such
as who made the order, the date of the order, who
 is receiving the order, who is getting billed, and
where the order is being shipped. The
OrderDetailsTBL links to the key fields of the
OrderTBL and the ProductsTBL, and lists the
quantity ordered. See the Fourth Normal Form.
Flat Table A table with no key field and no relationships to
other tables.
Hierarchical Quality of a system where the parts are organized
such that lower ranking parts inherit the qualities
of higher ranking parts. Do not confuse the
application of this term in this section with a
hierarchical database. In a relational database,
child tables inherit the qualities of the parent
tables, and child tables provide either variable
length details or historical details about the parent
table.
History Table A child table whose purpose is to store time-
specific data, such as a PriceTBL or CostTBL.
The data is only applied if the date of the history
table corresponds with the related records. See
the Sixth Normal Form.
Intersection A table that derives all of its data from two or
Table more tables, creating a relationship between
those tables that could not otherwise exist.
Recommended naming
conventions: TableNameITBL .
Navigation A special function table for which only one record
Table will ever exist. This type of table will be discussed
in great detail later. Recommended naming
conventions: NavTBL or TableNameNTBL .
Normalize Process of dividing a table into non-
decomposable tables. See the Fifth Normal
Form.
Parent Table A parent table always contains a key field which is
referenced by its children. A parent table could
 also be a child table if and only if it derives data
from another table.
Primary Table A parent table with a key field and with no data
derived from other tables.
Normal Forms
Microsoft provides five "Normal Forms" (see Analyzing Requirements
and Defining Solution Architectures for the MCSD) which are rules
governing normalizing of relational database design. I faithfully identify
these forms first then add my own to the end.
Form Definition
There cannot be decomposable repetitive data among the
records of a table. A table violates this rule if one or more
fields contain repetitive data that could be stored more
concisely in another table using a lookup to the key field of
the new table's key field. When designing your tables you
should be able to identify repetitive information easily.
When this happens, create a new table to store the data in
First
with a key field (typically as an autonumber) and any
descriptive fields. Save this table and close it. Return to
the original table and create a lookup in a blank available
field to the key field. It is also wise to include the name of
the record and hide the key field so the user is not confused
when they use the lookup during data entry. This can (and
should) be done without any data in the tables.
According to Microsoft, every field in a table must relate to a
primary key field in its entirety (which includes multiple key
fields). This rule is typically viewed as a function of multiple
key fields (composite key), for which I have added the
Second Eighth Normal Form. The reality of this form, however, is its
application to putting the fields in the tables where they
belong. For example, a price field belongs in a PriceHTBL
(see Tenth Normal Form) not an InvoiceTBL because the
price is a function of time and product, not the order.
Third A child table must be related to a parent table through the
primary key field. If a composite key is used, this can be a
serious problem, because you can only relate to one key
field at a time. For this reason I add the Eighth Normal
Form. Here, Microsoft is arguing that relating non-key fields
in two tables will result in potential data conflicts from many-
to-many relationships. Many-to-many relationships occur
when a relationship is made between non-key fields (e.g.
 often without a properly formed lookup). See also the
Twelfth through Fourteenth Normal Forms.
Never create a related field that could be left blank. My
recommendation here is to make the lookup field in the child
table required. Microsoft's point, however, is that many
instances where this might occur are the result of a field that
Fourth
may not always be necessary and should thus be relegated
to a characteristic table. If the field is not related to
another table, then may be a necessary evil. If it is related
to another table the practice is forbidden.
Divide a table into multiple indivisible tables to reduce
repetitive data and prevent blank fields.
Other
Table Key Lookups
Fields
StudentTBL StudentID Name,
Phone,
etc.
CourseTBL CourseID
TextbookTBL TextbookID Author,
Fifth Publisher
SectionHTBL SectionID CourseID, semester
TextbookID,
InstructorID
RosterATBL RosterID SectionID,
StudentID
AssignmentCTBL AssignmentID SectionID, title,
RosterID value
GradesATBL RosterID, Value
AssignmentID
Sixth 1. The fields in a parent table define a key field and do
not require a history
2. The fields of a child table (which either defines a
history, characteristic, or creates an associate), with
no key, are definitive of the key fields of the parent
tables
3. If a child table has a key field (meaning it is also used
as a parent), then the fields must fill both 1 and 2 of
 this form.
Any table with children must have a single key field. Most
Seventh typically this is an autonumber if there is no other logical
alternative (like a social security number).
Never use a composite key. Access allows you to make two
more fields share the function of key field. The combination
of these fields cannot be repeated. I have found that most
instances where composite keys have been established,
there should have been no key field at all. Although
Eighth
Microsoft gives you this option, the typical result is a
violation of the Second Normal Form. The most likely
instigator to inspire multiple key fields is an Associative
table, which is a child table. If such a child must have
children of its own, then follow the Seventh Normal Form.
Never include a key field in a child table that has no children
Ninth
of its own.
Typically a terminal table maintaining dated information is a
History table, which is used to attribute values appropriately
to records based on the date of transaction. For example,
because prices and costs change over time, history tables
Tenth
should be maintained so reports can be run on old
transactions rather than forcing the maintenance of hard
copies which become difficult to analyze. This is useful for
accounting purposes.
Eleventh Typically a terminal table listing variable amounts of
information attributed to a parent table is a Characteristic
table. In an order entry system, each order can have any
number of items associated with the specific order. To
account for this variation create an OrderDetailsTBL
containing a lookup to the OrderID in the OrderTBL, a
lookup to the ProductID (showing the product name) in the
ProductTBL and a field indicating the quantity ordered. This
example is also an associative table as described in the
Twelfth Normal Form. An example that fits only this might
be a CertificationTBL for instructors, who would have
multiple certificates which can be immensely different from
each other, and have specific dates of validity. For such a
design you would create a lookup from the CertificationTBL
 to the InstructorID in the InstructorTBL, then provide fields
for the granting institution, date awarded, title of the
certificate, and the date (if applicable) the certificate expires.
Typically a terminal table with lookups to two or more table
keys to allow otherwise unrelated tables to be related are
Twelfth associative tables. As noted in the Eleventh Normal
Form's order entry example, an associative table can also
contain detail information unique to the association.
Never use a key field derived through relationship from
Thirteen
another table as a key field in the child table.
The combination of lookup fields in an associative table
must never be repeated. This is an extremely difficult rule
because between the Eighth and Thirteenth Normal Forms,
it appears impossible to enforce on the user. A solution
could be to force the user to enter the fields in a specific
Fourteen order (see Navigation Tables below), and after the first
lookup field have each subsequent lookup use a query as
its source. Another would be to add a hidden date field with
default data of =Now(), create the necessary Delete Query
and macros to drive the function to automatically delete the
old data when the user replicates.
A terminal table that is an association where only one
Fifteenth record can exist in a table and the source data for all fields
are lookups to other tables is a Navigation table.
As you can see, my additions provide even greater detail on table
design, which often include solutions from other database objects.
Hierarchy of Normalized Tables
To help put this all in perspective, table types are listed in order of
relationship priority with brief explanations as to why. I put parents at
the top because they provide the most constant, stable data. This is
also the order in which you should create your tables.
1. Flat Tables―not involved in any relationship least affected can
be added any time
2. Parent Tables
1. Kernel (Primary Parent) Tables―share data with other
tables
2. Child tables who are also Parents―both borrow and
share data with other tables
 3. Child Tables
1. Associative Tables―borrow most or all of their data to
regulate complex relationships
2. Other Children―require at least one parent for their
data to be meaningful
Characteristic Tables
History Tables
3. Terminal Tables―potentially descriptive of any child
table
4. Navigation Tables―exclusively borrow data as a
dominant function for forms and queries

Relationships (MCSD)
Access is not just a basic database design tool. The database designer
should know that Access is limited to 2 million records, but can be
attached to a much larger database (e.g. hosted by a SQL server). This
is actually common because with the VBA capabilities of Access
modules you can create a simple interface with all the simplicities of
Access including reports, queries, forms and security without having to
reinvent the application and retain the power of a "real" database.
The Access 2000 example has no relationships established in the
Relationships Window. I recommend relationships in the
Relationships Window be built only with the Lookup Wizard, then
develop other relationships in the queries. For an example of
relationships created with lookups alone see the circular.mdb in the
same location on the Internet. All relationships in the example are
shown in the queries. Note: if relationships are done in the
Relationships Window they will appear in the query when the tables are
inserted. You can, however, modify the relationship or even delete it if
created in the query alone without affecting the entire database. I also
recommend doing as many expressions as possible in the queries
to simplify forms and reports (not to mention reduce headaches as
expressions may work in a report but not in a form and vice-versa).
For fun, redefine the AZcompaniesQRY to prompt for a different state (in
the criteria cell type [Please enter the desired state]), then run the other
queries choosing other states. The other queries use this as their data
source.
Relationship Types (MCSD)
 One-to-One: Both tables have one key field and those key fields
are related to each other. This means that a record in one table
will only have one matching record in the other table. If such a
relationship exists then I recommend merging the tables to simplify
the design and reduce the redundancy of listing the same key field
twice.
One-to-Many: Both tables have at least on key field and a key field
is either related to a non-key field or to a table with multiple keys.
For each record in the table with a single key field related to a non-
key or multiple key, there are potentially many records in the other
table that are related.
Many-to-Many: Both tables are related either with multiple keys or
by non-key fields when key fields exist in both. This means a
record in either table may have multiple related records in the
other. Although Microsoft's Third Normal Form seems to do away
with this, associative tables defined in the Twelfth through
Fourteenth Normal Forms make this possible in a controlled
manner.
Undetermined: Neither table contains a key field.
Join Types (MCSD)
Option 1 (Inner Join)--Shows only matching records of both
tables. This is shown by a line with no arrows connecting the
related fields.
Option 2 (Right Outer Join)--Shows all records of the "One" table
(or if undetermined or many-to-many, the table where you started
clicking and dragging) and only matching of the "Many" table (or if
undetermined or many-to-many, the table where you release the
mouse button). In other words, all the records of the "One" table
will show even if there are no matching records in the "Many"
table. When there are no matching records in the "Many" table
then the requested fields are blank. This is shown by a line
connecting the related fields with an arrow pointing to the field in
the "Many" table.
Option 3 (Left Outer Join)--Shows all records of the "Many" table
(or if undetermined or many-to-many, the table where you release
the mouse button) and only matching of the "One" table (or if
undetermined or many-to-many, the table where you started
clicking and dragging). In other words, all the records of the
 "Many" table will show even if there are no matching records in the
"One" table. When there are no matching records in the "One"
table then the requested fields are blank. This is shown by a line
connecting the related fields with an arrow pointing to the field in
the "One" table. This join type potentially breaks the Third Normal
Form unless it is made to a query of the parent table.
Note: Right and Left Outer Joins are visually semantic terms that may
be confusing because the direction the arrow is pointing may be
reversed simply by moving related tables to the opposite sides of each
other. The assumption in data-flow diagramming is that parents (one)
will be on the left and children (many) will be on the right. As such, a left
outer join would point from the child to the parent. That is why I provide
the option number with description as well as the name. To change a
left outer join to a right outer join you must double click the joining line
and choose the other option. You cannot simply change the location of
a table so the arrow physically points left or right to establish the
required results.
Referential Integrity (MCSD)
The rules of referential integrity (when enforcement is selected) are:
You cannot change a key field referenced from or by another
table. Note: you can never change a key field referenced from
another table because this would damage the records in the child
table being edited.
You cannot change data in a field referenced from another table.
You cannot delete records referenced by another table.
To violate these use the options: Cascade Update Related Fields or
Cascade Delete Related Records with extreme caution!
When referential integrity is established it can be seen in the
Relationship design area of a query or in the Relationships Window by
the ones (1) and infinites ( ) indicating which table is "One" (1) versus
"Many" ( ). You must edit the relationship to see if the cascade delete
or update options are selected.
Cascading Changes and Deletes
Access provides the ability to "Cascade Update Related Fields" and
"Cascade Deleted Records". If your relationships are created properly,
updating will amount to updating the key field references only in related
records of child tables. The cascade delete will cause all related
records in child tables to also be deleted. Note: Parent-child
relationships are always one-to-many (Parent = 1, Child = ). While
referential integrity can be seen in the relationships window, cascade
features are only visible when viewing the properties of a relationship.

Data Flow Diagrams (MCSD)

Data flow diagrams may appear in a variety of simple ways. For
example, a data flow diagram may be a simple procedure by which
information is handled in an office: Secretary 1 receives a fax,
determines who should see it first, then delivers. Let us say it is an
order, so it goes to the next available salesperson. The salesperson
verifies availability with the warehouse, who in turn updates their order.
After verification, management approves the sale and it becomes an
order. The order clerk gathers the materials and delivers them to
shipping, etc.
This is a simple example of a common workplace. Data flow
diagramming is fundamentally the same in computers, in terms of data
workflow. We can draw it up just like a flowchart, or we can be less
glamorous and use plain text with arrows, or plain boxes containing text
with arrows.
In terms of data connectivity, data flow diagrams become high-level
diagrams illustrating how various sources of data are connected. The
easiest way to think of this is in terms of a relational database (see
normalizing and denormalizing). Let us say, for example, we are trying
to create a high-level diagram illustrating the data flow of a school’s
database. The following may be a logical arrangement for our data flow:
This layout allows for one teacher to have many classes, for many
teachers to teach the same class, for many students to have the same
parents, and many students to take the same class, etc. This diagram
is a massive simplification though. As a rule, I put all people into one
table with a field distinguishing who belongs to which category. As a
consequence, if this were a working diagram, Teacher, Student, and
Guardian would be queries and not tables. This diagram gives us a
good idea of the concepts though, and can be extremely useful in
development (e.g. making the denormalization observation I just made).
Diagrams like this can also help solve problems in design. For example,
I went to a friend’s house for dinner one night to help him with a
database problem. We struggled for hours examining the innermost
design of the programming. Finally, as dinner was about to be served, I
printed out the relationships. As I waited to be served, I looked at the
diagram and sipped my soda. Suddenly the problem leaped out at me:
he was trying to use a relational database like a flat table. He had put
calculations into the tables rather than into the queries. I leaped from
my seat, and before my dinner had a chance to cool, the database was
working.
Integrity and Validation (MCSD)
The largest problems with integrity and validation are the users and the
available information. By more fields required in a record, the less user-
friendly it will be. It will result in a shortage of information in many
instances. For example, in a database designed for a private college, I
was tempted to make contact information and social security numbers
required fields. Unfortunately, in the working environment, much of this
information filters into the database months after the student has
already begun. Rather than have no information, only the First and Last
name fields are required. This, of course, deeply affects the integrity of
the database.
Validation can be worked to extremes. Some databases are set so the
user’s input is compared with known information, requiring accuracy and
validity in input. This can make a database enormously cumbersome,
and risks a user being unable to make input of unknown information
impossible. Validation with numeric data is more practical (see Input
Masks, Lookup Fields, Constraints and Validation in this unit).

Integrating Business Rules (MCSD)

Business rules may require additional fields in tables. For example, you
can create a lookup for grades that applies numeric values to the letters,
and numeric values for credit hours or contact hours applied to the
course. The problem with these values comes when you calculate
GPAs. For example: 4 = A, 3 = B, 2 = C, 1 = D, 0 = F, 5 = Z (not
passing), 6 = P (pass), 7 = I (incomplete), 8 = AU (audit). The values 0
thru 4 are useful for computing GPA, but 5 thru 8 are not counted.
These business rules can be either inserted directly into the
programming, or a table must be created using these key values and
two binary (Yes/No) fields: Count Credit Hours, and Count Toward GPA.
0 thru 4 and 6 would be true for Count Credit Hours. Only 0 thru 4
would be true for Count Toward GPA.
Notes:
When the business rules are programmed in, then the user has no
power.
When the business rules are accessible because they are not
programmed in, then security measures must exist to protect the rules
from users who do not have authority over them.
By not programming business rules in, the program is more user friendly
and adaptable, making the client less dependant on the programmer.

Math on The Computer

This lesson assumes minimal knowledge of mathematics and maximum
aversion to mathematics. Mathematics, like technology, is commonly
shrouded by anxieties and fears. Mathematicians are guaranteed
solitude simply by mentioning their field. As we realized in our Windows
unit, these enchanting chalk circles are nothing more than boundaries
we create. Mathematics is remarkably easy if approached positively
and concretely.
It is not the objective here to replace traditional math classes. Nor is it
our objective to delve into manipulations nor calculations. The idea of
this lesson is to show the non-mathematician how to get the computer to
do the math for them. As with reading, writing and computer literacy,
mathematics is a necessity. Fortunately computer literacy can easily
substitute for mathematical literacy when applied to common and most
advanced math needs.
The computer can easily and instantly track many related mathematical
operations consisting of many values each which would baffle even the
math connoisseur. The way software is designed, you basically need to
know:
1. The values you want calculated
2. The manner of calculation (often this does not mean the formula)
3. How you want the results to appear
Mathematics on the computer also includes operations we forget are
math-related. For example, counting occurrences, or making decisions.
In the process of our daily lives we perform enormously complex
mathematical operations constantly. For example, as we drive down the
road we unconsciously calculate distances, speed and velocities, then
make decisions based on values we did not consciously apply numbers
to. What is even more remarkable: we make these calculations in a
fraction of a second. If we don’t, then paramedics may get involved. On
a less drastic level, we shop. Shopping alone is an enormous math
problem. Do I have this? Will I need more? How many? Can I afford
it? In comparison, the math we do on the computer is insignificant and
simple. The difference is that we are trying to formally calculate actual
values. The irony is we can easily describe actual values because we
can physically show and measure them. Most of the values we risk our
lives on are so abstract we cannot give a real value to them. For
example: food likes and dislikes. We might absolutely love some foods
and absolutely hate others. Most get valued in a gray area between
where we couldn’t possibly give a constant value. One day you might
crave vegetables, the next cheese. When given other choices our
craving could instantly change. Try putting numbers to values like these
and you will get a headache. Try counting the apples in a bowl and,
assuming none are added nor removed, the number is the same later.
Formal math is easy.
Numbers
We humans have a few nasty habits. Among these includes applying
abstract numbers to things that have nothing to do with real value. The
computer assumes all numbers are values unless told otherwise. Even
worse, computers assign numeric value to non-numbers (like the
alphabet), which do not always agree with human logic. In our Windows
project we organized folders labeled u007, u01, u02, u03, etc. You
probably wondered why the extra zero. We ignore zeros to the left of
the number we are treating as a value. When it comes to alphabetizing,
the computer considers the value of each character in order.
Punctuation has less value than numbers (0-9 mind you!). Numbers
have less value than letters. We organize numbers by their value rather
than one character at a time, such as: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 20.
The computer, with the same series of numbers will show: 1, 10, 11, 2,
20, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. To get the computer to sort properly (treating
numbers as text), add a zero on the left of the single digits: 01, 02, 03,
04, 05, 06, 07, 08, 09, 10, 11, 20. Conceptions and applications of
numbers as text and values is a problem.
To further complicate numbers, we have numbers that we never
calculate like: area codes, zip codes, bar codes, customer numbers,
vendor and employee numbers. We treat these as text while the
computer easily conceives them as calculable values. Then we throw
characters into numbers that are for human use only but, to the
computer, serve mathematical purposes such as: dashes (-), commas
and slashes (/). While data entry methods resolve this last issue, when
facing a spreadsheet or database you must tell the computer the type of
information it is storing in that place to prevent confusing values with
text. In research, to insure consistency of data entry, numbers are often
assigned to non-calculable characteristics, like sex, religion and
ethnicity. Clearly these values cannot be used to calculate sums,
averages, etc. The values are descriptive so we can count them and
compare the counts. Likewise a file could be active or inactive, present
or not present. These yes/no scenarios are easily counted and
compared, though the numbers assigned to them are nothing more than
qualitative identifiers (numeric labels).
Variables
There are a number of ways too look at variables which all fall into one
of two categories: qualitative or quantitative. Take an eight ounce (half
pint) cup out of your cupboard and consider what you can fill it with.
The size of the cup is actually a factor of its volume, which happens to
be sized to fit eight ounces of water at room temperature. What you put
into the cup must naturally fit, such as grains, powders and liquids, and
the weights of your choices differ per unit of volume. This describes a
qualitative variable because the nature of the filling material can vary.
Just because it is an eight ounce cup does not mean you have to fill the
entire volume, hence the quantity put into the cup also can vary (to the
size limitation of the cup of course). What confuses people the most is
when mathematicians convert this concept into letters or symbols. For
simplicity sake we will use the letter V to denote the volume of the cup,
W for the weight of the filling, Y the volume quantity of the filling and X
the quality of the filling (the type of filling (T) and its weight (W) per unit
of volume (a constant 1) or X=WT/1). If we fill the cup with X then
necessarily Y=V. We note that V is a constant so long as we use the
same container, and that XY gives us the weight of the filling so long as
Y is less than or equal to V. If Y exceeds V, we need a bigger container
(V). This is fundamentally how mathematicians use symbols to
represent reality and all the variations of reality.
Fortunately for the non-mathematician, the layout of a spreadsheet
makes variables a little easier to comprehend. Each cell represents a
variable. Until filled, the cell has a null (or empty) value. A null value is
different from a zero value. Zero is a measure of a thing (namely the
absence of that thing). A null value is the absence of anything. You
note the primary difference is that zero is used for a particular quality,
while null lacks even quality and hence cannot be measured. When the
cell is filled, the nature of the variable within the cell is obvious. It is
either a number or text, then formatted to best represent the quality of
the variable (percent, currency, etc.). The reference to the cell is the
location of the cell, so the user is not just considering loosely defined
letters, but places that they can look at and see actual data. Cell
references (locations) are defined first by the column letter than by the
row number. This is no accident of ordering nor of choice to make
columns letters and rows numbers. Columns represent the X axis of
mathematics which is graduated (numbered) from left to right
horizontally. Rows represent the Y axis of mathematics which is
graduated (numbered) from bottom to top vertically. Because we read
and write from the top of the page down, spreadsheets reverse the row
numbering system. As for using letters and numbers, not only does this
help the user better understand the reference, it simplifies the naming
system. In mathematics coordinates are given as (X,Y) while
coordinates of a cell in a spreadsheet are provide CR (column letter
then row number) which is considerably fewer characters yet equally
descriptive for the application. If there could be fractions of cells, this
reference system would not work. Fortunately this is not the case.
Both numbers and text can be variable or constant. If we select a cell
and input a number or text, then we have put a constant in the variable
space of the cell. If we use a formula using references to other cells,
then what is displayed becomes variable and dependent on the contents
of other cells. Although you can refer to cells containing formulas,
eventually all higher order formulas must refer to constants that dictate
their solutions. If formulas only refer to each other and no constants are
referred to, than a circular relationship (argument) exists and there can
be no solution.
Conditional Operators
States equality between the two sides. Note: all Excel and
Access formulas and logical expressions begin with this
=
symbol! It tells the program to display the solution in the cell
rather than the formula.
<> States that the two sides are not equal.
< States the value on the left is less than the value on the right.
States the value on the left is less than or equal to the value
<=
on the right.
States the value on the left is greater than the value on the
>
right.
>= States the value on the left is greater than or equal to the
value on the right.
Worksheet 7—Database Design