Name Student: Sidra: Course: Higher Education

NAME: SIDRA ID: 0000130060
COURSE: HIGHER EDUCATION
COURSE CODE: 828
SEMESTER: SPRING 2022
NAME STUDENT: SIDRA
STUDENT ID: 0000130060
COURSE: MA/M.ED
ASSIGNMENT NO.02
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

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Question No.1: Comparatively discuss the systems of Higher Education

in India and Malaysia.
Answer:
Introduction:
As per my knowledge, the higher education sector is responsible for the

operation of higher education institutions (HEIs) in Malaysia and is under the
jurisdiction of the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). The education sector has
always enjoyed the highest national development budget which symbolises the
commitment of the Malaysian government towards education.
Systems Of Higher Education In Malaysia
Malaysia's HEIs (i.e. public universities, private higher educational institutions,

polytechnics and community colleges) housed more than a million students in 2011,
of which about 93,000 were international students from more than 100 countries. In
contrast, there were about 89,686 Malaysian students (27,003 receiving sponsorship
and 62,683 self-funded) who were studying overseas in 2011.
With a multi-ethnic population of about 28.3 million, Malaysia had 20 public

universities, 50 private universities and six foreign university branch campuses; 403
active private colleges, 30 polytechnics and 73 public community colleges in 2011.
These HEIs offer a wide range of tertiary qualifications at affordable prices.
There are also various HEIs from the UK, the US, Australia, Canada, France, and
New Zealand which offer twinning and '3+0' degree programmes through partnerships
with Malaysian private higher education institutions. At present, some world-class
universities such as RMIT University, Johns Hopkins
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University School of Medicine and the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland have
established their collaboration with the local PHEIs.
Five of the 20 public universities in Malaysia have been assigned research university
status with additional funding for R&D and commercialisation of research. The
remaining 15 public universities have been categorised as either comprehensive or
focus universities. In the 2012 new year's speech, the Minister of Higher Education
announced that five public universities have been given autonomy in administration,
human resources, financial and academic management and student intake. They are
Universiti Malaya, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Universiti Putra Malaysia and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. This move is aimed at
encouraging excellence among local institutions of higher learning.
The quality of higher education is assured through the Malaysian Qualifications

Agency (MQA) which undertakes the implementation of the Malaysian Qualifications
Framework. MQA is also responsible for quality assurance and the accreditation of
courses and other related functions, covering both public and private higher
educational institutions.
The provision of higher education is well regulated. Below are some of the legislation
:
1. The Education Act 1996 (Act 550)
2. The Private Higher Educational Institutions Act, 1996 (amended 2009)
3. The National Council of Higher Education Act, 1996
4. Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007 (replacing the previous namely

National Accreditation Board Act 1996 which has been repealed)
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5. The Universities and University Colleges (Amendment) Act, 1996 (amended 2009)
6. The National Higher Education Fund Corporation Act, 1997 (Amendment

2000)
Both the Universities and University Colleges Act and the Private Higher Educational
Institutions Act are currently under review.
The internationalisation of the higher education sector is a high priority for MOHE.
Efforts have been made to improve the world ranking of Malaysian universities; to
have 150,000 international students by 2015; to create more 'Malaysian Chairs' at
universities abroad; and to collaborate and cooperate with world-renowned
universities on research and academic matters.
The government will continue to create a friendly environment and invite more world-
class foreign university branch campuses or faculties to be set up in Malaysia.
Currently, there are six foreign universities with branch campuses in Malaysia. They
are Monash University (Australia), The University of Nottingham (UK), Curtin
University (Australia), Swinburne University of Technology (Australia), Newcastle
University School of Medicine (UK) and University of Southampton (UK).
Other initiatives undertaken by HEIs include the establishment of Malaysian

university branch campuses in other countries and increasing transnational education
collaboration with overseas institutions. Malaysian higher education is also
aggressively promoted in many parts of the world through road-shows.
MOHE also aims to have 20 Research Excellent Centres which are of international
standard by 2020. The nation has also targeted to achieve 100 researchers, scientists
and engineers (RSE) per 100,000 workforce by the
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year 2020. The 10MP (2011-2015) sets to improve the quality of academic staff by
increasing the number of academics with PhDs in public universities, with a target of
75 per cent in research universities and 60 per cent in other public universities. To
achieve this target, the implementation of the MyBrain15 programme will be
intensified to finance doctoral studies for the purpose of increasing the number of PhD
holders to 18,000 by 2015.
Malaysia's first rating system, SETARA (Rating System for Higher Education
Institutions in Malaysia) was implemented in 2009 to measure the performance of
undergraduate teaching and learning in universities and university colleges in
Malaysia. The SETARA result was measured using a six-tier category with Tier 6
identified as Outstanding and Tier 1 as Weak.
Subsequently, another rating system was introduced in 2011. My QUEST (Malaysian

Quality Evaluation System for Private Colleges) was used to evaluate private colleges
in Malaysia in terms of the quality of students, programmes, graduates, resources and
governance. The My QUEST rating categorised an institution as either excellent,
good, or weak. The institutions would also receive a rating based on their level of
achievement which ranged from 1 star (poor) to 6 stars (excellent).
These two rating systems serve as a reliable reference for students and parents in their
selection of institutions and programmes of study offered by various HEIs.
Governing Authority for Higher Education - MOHE
The higher education sector is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Higher
Education (MOHE). The establishment of this ministry on 27 March 2004 was a
result of the re-structuring of the Ministry of Education and marked an
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important part of history in Malaysia, particularly in the development and expansion

of the higher education sector. The establishment of MOHE is in line with the vision
of the government in making Malaysia a centre of educational excellence and
internationalising Malaysian education.
MOHE is the governing authority for the Malaysian higher education sector. It
oversees HEIs (both public universities and private higher educational institutions),
community colleges, polytechnics and other government agencies involved in higher
education activities such as the Malaysian Qualifications Agency, the National Higher
Education Fund Corporation (Perbadanan Tabung Pendidikan Tinggi Nasional –
PTPTN), the Tunku Abdul Rahman Foundation (Yayasan Tunku Abdul Rahman) and
others.
Mohe's Vision
To make Malaysia a centre of higher education excellence by the year 2020
Mohe's Mission
To build and create a higher education environment that is conducive for the
development of academic and institutional excellence and to generate individuals who
are competent, innovative and of noble character to serve the needs of the nation and
the world.
Functions of MOHE
Some of MOHE's key functions include :
 Determining policies and the direction of the higher education sector in order to
build an excellent and outstanding nation that is rich in knowledge, culture and
civilisation
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 Acting as a catalyst to develop the sector that enables the nation to compete in the
era of globalisation
 Dealing with the challenges of the present global economic scene, in line with the
government's aspiration to produce adequate human resource with knowledge and
high moral values (National Higher Education Strategic Plan and Vision 2020).
Five Core Thrusts
MOHE has its focus on five core thrusts :
 To create a strategic and systematic plan for higher education
 To reinforce the management system of higher education
 To increase the level of capacity, accessibility and participation in higher

education
 To enhance the quality of higher education at par with international

standards
 To internationalise Malaysian higher education
Structure of MOHE
MOHE comprises four departments / sectors :
 The Department of Higher Education
 The Department of Polytechnic Education
 The Department Community College Education
 The Management Sector
 The Development Sector
The Department of Higher Education

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The Department of Higher Education or popularly known as Jabatan Pengajian

Tinggi was restructured and established on 27 March 2004 in line with the creation of
the Ministry of Higher Education. The first restructuring exercise of this department
was under the Ministry of Education on 1 October 1995.
The Department of Higher Education is supported by several sectors, divisions and

an administrative unit that is responsible for the development of both public and
private higher education in Malaysia. It also ensures that the universities and colleges
are of international standing. This Department is also involved in the marketing of
Malaysian higher education internationally as well as being in charge of international
students' welfare.
The sector designated with the jurisdiction over public higher education is known as
the 'Sector of Public Higher Education anagement' while the sector designated with
the jurisdiction over private higher education is known as the 'Sector of Private Higher
Education Management'.
Department of Polytechnic Education
The formation of the Department of Polytechnic Education was a result of a

restructuring exercise by the Department of Polytechnic and Community College
Education (DPCCE) on 16 September 2009.
The Department of Polytechnic Education has been entrusted to produce a generation

of well-educated, skilled, creative, innovative, progressive and critical thinking youths
who are highly employable.
Apart from public universities, polytechnic education offers an alternative route for
school leavers with SPM qualifications to further their education at diploma and
advanced diploma levels.
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Polytechnic education is currently under major transformation with the aim of

producing highly skilled graduates in line with the National Higher Education
Strategic Plan (PSPTN) and the National Key Result Areas (NKRA). Polytechnics
provide an alternative route that sufficiently produces highly skilled and qualified
human capital which will ensure the success of a new economy based on innovation
and creativity.
Department of Community College Education
The re-organisation of the Department of Polytechnic and Community College of the

Ministry of Higher Education in 2009 has given rise to the birth of the Department of
Community College Education (or better known as JPKK). Its mission is to increase
the socio-economic status of all levels of Malaysians through better access to
education. This will be carried out through training programmes and the use of a life-
long learning approach.
JPKK is tasked with providing vocational-based training (programmes such as Sijil

Modular Kebangssan) leading to a certificate qualification for those who do not opt
for the academic pathway. JPKK has taken aggressive measures to increase the
student enrolment at TEVT and enhance the overall training quality of up-skilling and
re-skilling programmes for the workforce involved in vocational fields.
Management Sector
This is the corporate and management services sector. It consists of the Information
Technology Division, Human Resource Management Division, Human Development
and Training Division as well as the Finance Division. Overall, this sector handles the
administration, corporate image and other management functions of the ministry.
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Development Sector
The Development Sector consists of the International Division, Planning and Research
Division and Scholarship Division. Its many functions include preparing physical
development plans that cover the five-year Malaysia Plan, facilities of public higher
educational institutions as well as polytechnics and community colleges. It also
handles the finances for managing and developing public higher educational
institutions besides making monthly or quarterly and half-yearly reports.
Higher Education Legislation
The legal regulatory frameworks that govern the provision of higher education in
Malaysia are :
 The Education Act 1996
 The Private Higher Educational Institutions Act 1996
 The National Council of Higher Education Act 1996
 Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007 (replacing the previous

namely National Accreditation Board Act 1996 which has been repealed)
 The Universities and University Colleges (Amendment) Act 1996
 The National Higher Education Fund Corporation Act 1997
 The National Higher Education Fund Corporation (amendment) Act 2000
 Private Higher Educational Institutions (Amendment) Act 2009
 Akta Universiti dan Kolej Universiti Pindaan 2009
The Education Act 1996 (Act 550)
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The Education Act 1996 covers pre-tertiary levels of education under the national
education system which comprises preschool, primary, and secondary education as
well as post-secondary education.
This Act contains some provisions that apply to the Ministry of Higher Education in
the establishment of polytechnics and community colleges. The Private Higher
Educational Institutions Act, 1996 & Act 2009 (amendment) This Act governs the
establishment and operations of private higher educational institutions. It also makes
provision for the establishment of private universities, university colleges, branch
campuses of foreign universities as well as the upgrading of existing private
colleges to universities.
In addition, the Act enables the liberalisation of higher education in the country to
meet the increasing demand for tertiary education and a highly-educated and skilled
workforce.
The National Council on Higher Education Act, 1996
Under this Act, a national body was set up to determine policies and co- ordinate the
development and rapid expansion of tertiary education in the country.
Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act, 2007
(replacing the National Accreditation Board Act 1996 which has been repealed)
The Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act, 2007 paves the way for the establishment
of the Malaysian Qualifications Agency as a national quality assurance agency to
implement the Malaysian Qualifications Framework (MQF), accrediting higher
education programmes and regulating the quality
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and standard of higher education providers of both public and private higher
educational institutions in the country.
The Universities and University Colleges (Amendment) Act, 1996 & Act
2009 (amendment)
This Act seeks to corporatise the management and administration of public

universities. With corporatisation, these universities are given more administrative
and financial autonomy to chart programmes necessary for academic excellence.
The National Higher Education Fund Corporation Act, 1997
The purpose of this Act is to establish a fund that provides financial assistance through
study loans to students at higher educational institutions in Malaysia. It also
provides for the establishment of a savings scheme with the objective of instilling
saving habits in children, from as early as Year 1 in primary school, with the intention
of enabling them to finance their own higher education in future.
All higher educational institutions operating in Malaysia are subjected to one or

more of the above legislation, depending on whether the education provider is
publicly or privately-owned.
The legislation has made possible the following major enhancements in the Malaysian
higher education system :
 the provision for the establishment of privately-run universities and systematic

expansion of private education at tertiary level
 the provision for fines and jail term on operators who have flouted the
provisions of the laws
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 the provision for setting up of a quality assurance agency by the government to

implement the Malaysian Qualification Framework as a basis for quality assurance in
higher education and also as a reference standard for national qualifications
 the allowance for greater administrative and financial autonomy of public

universities
 the establishment of student loans for greater access to higher education
The above Acts are reviewed from time to time to ensure that Malaysia achieves its
aim of becoming a centre of educational excellence.
Medium of Instruction
English is used as the primary medium of instruction at most of the private higher
educational institutions in the country. It is however, only used for postgraduate
studies at public universities as the bachelor degree courses conducted at these
universities are taught primarily in the national language, Bahasa Melayu.
Providers of Higher Education
Introduction
Both public and private education providers play equally important roles in the
provision of higher education. Together, the public and private sectors provide
abundant study options. HEIs offer programmes leading to the award of certificates,
diplomas as well as postgraduate qualifications.
Higher education providers in Malaysia can be grouped into two major categories :
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 Public higher educational institutions (government funded), which

consist of :
- Public universities
- Polytechnics
- Community colleges
 Private higher educational institutions, which consist of :
- Private universities
- Private university-colleges
- Foreign university branch campuses
- Private colleges
Public Higher Educational Institutions
The government-funded (public) higher educational institutions under the Ministry of

Higher Education consist of :
 public universities which offer bachelor degrees and postgraduate programmes,

with some offering programmes at diploma level and university foundation
programmes
 polytechnics and community colleges which offer certificate and diploma level
programmes
 public colleges which offer certificate and diploma level programmes
Systems Of Higher Education In India
Universities in India have evolved in divergent streams with each stream

monitored by an apex body, indirectly controlled by the Ministry of Education and
funded jointly by the state governments. Most universities are administered by the
States, however, there are 18 important universities called Central Universities,
which are maintained by the Union Government.
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The increased funding of the central universities give them an advantage over their
state competitors.
The University Grants Commission estimated that in 2013–14, 22,849 PhDs and
20,425 MPhil degrees were awarded. Over half of these were in the fields of Science,
Engineering/Technology, Medicine and Agriculture. As of 2014– 15, over 178,000
students were enrolled in research programs.
Apart from the several hundred state universities, there is a network of research
institutions that provide opportunities for advanced learning and research leading up
to a PhD in branches of science, technology and agriculture. Several have won
international recognition.
25 of these institutions come under the umbrella of the CSIR – Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research and over 60 fall under the ICAR – Indian Council of
Agricultural Research. In addition, the DAE – Department of Atomic Energy, and
other ministries support various research laboratories.
The National Institute of Technology (NITs) and Indian Institutes of Technology

(IITs) are among the most prestigious institutions within the technology sciences.
Indian Institute of Science (IISc) and Indian Institute of Science Education and
Research[34](IISERs) are the premier research institutes in the field of science
education and research. There are several thousand colleges (affiliated to different
universities) that provide undergraduate science, agriculture, commerce and
humanities courses in India. Amongst these, the best also offer post graduate courses
while some also offer facilities for research and PhD studies.
Technical education has grown rapidly in recent years. Of 27.3 million students
enrolled in undergraduate studies, about 4.5 million are in
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engineering fields. With recent capacity additions, it now appears that the nation has
the capability to graduate over 500,000 engineers (with 4-yr undergraduate degrees)
annually, and there is also a corresponding increase in the graduation of computer
scientists (roughly 50,000 with post-graduate degree). In addition, the nation
graduates over 1.2 million scientists. Furthermore, each year, the nation is enrolling at
least 350,000 in its engineering diploma programs (with plans to increase this by
about 50,000). Thus, India's annual enrollment of scientists, engineers and technicians
now exceeds 2 million.
Across the country, tertiary enrollment rates have increased at a compound annual
growth rate of 3.5% in the 5 years preceding 2016. Current enrollment stands at 34.58
million, over 15% more than the 29.2 million enrolled in 2011.
International league tables produced in 2006 by the London-based Times Higher

Education Supplement(THES) confirmed Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU)'s
place among the world's top 200
universities. Likewise, THES 2006 ranked JNU's School of Social Sciences at the
57th position among the world's top 100 institutes for social sciences. In 2017, THES
ranked the Indian Institute of Science as the eighth best "small university" in the
world. A small university was defined as one with less than 5000 students. In 2015,
the institute also became the first Indian institute to make it to the top hundred in the
THES list of engineering institutes. It was ranked 99.
The University of Calcutta was the first multi-disciplinary university of modern India.
According to The Times Higher Education Supplement's survey of the world's top arts
and humanities universities, dated 10 November 2005, this university, ranked 39, was
the only Indian university to make it to the top 50
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list in that year. Other research institutes are the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, the
Asiatic Society, and the Indian Statistical Institute.
The National Law School of India University is highly regarded, with some of its
students being awarded Rhodes Scholarships to Oxford University, and the All India
Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi is consistently rated the top medical school
in the country. Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) are the top management
institutes in India.
The private sector is strong in Indian higher education. This has been partly as a result
of the decision by the Government to divert spending to the goal of universalisation of
elementary education. Within a decade different state assemblies have passed bills for
private universities, including Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Institute of
Finance and International Management, Xavier Labour Relations Institute, ICFAI
University, Dehradun, O. P. Jindal Global University and many more.
India is also the leading source of international students around the world. More than
200,000 Indian students are studying abroad. They are likely to be enrolled in
master's programs with engineering focus which provide them opportunities to
enhance career potential.
In recent times several international institutes have also reached out to India offering
their courses to Indian students. A US based institute in 2015 announced its
accounting courses for Indian students.
Stages
The new National Education Policy 2020(NEP 2020)introduced by the central

government is expected to bring profound changes to education in India. The policy
approved by the Union Cabinet of India on 29 July 2020, outlines the
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vision of India's new education system. The new policy replaces the 1986
National Policy on Education. The policy is a comprehensive framework for
elementary education to higher education as well as vocational training in both rural
and urban India. The policy aims to transform India's education system by 2021.
Shortly after the release of the policy, the government clarified that no one will be
forced to study any particular language and that the medium of instruction will not be
shifted from English to any regional language. The language policy in NEP is a broad
guideline and advisory in nature; and it is up to the states, institutions, and schools to
decide on the implementation. Education in India is a Concurrent List subject.
NEP's higher education policy proposes a 4-year multi-disciplinary bachelor's degree

in an undergraduate programme with multiple exit options. These will include
professional and vocational areas and will be implemented
 A certificate after completing 1 year of study (vocational)
 A diploma after completing 2 years of study (vocational)
 A Bachelor's degree after completion of a 3-year program (professional)
 A 4-year multidisciplinary Bachelor's degree (the preferred option)
Conclusion:
The first and foremost difference I find in India and Malaysia Education Systems is
the inclusion of foreign universities culture. Several American and British Universities
have already come up with their campuses in Malaysia for not only Malaysian but also
international students while at the other hand, the Indian education system is still
dominated by the major government giants like
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IITs, NITs, Central/State Universities and after that many prominent private
institutions i.e. BITS, Jaypee etc.
Question No.2: Explain the concept and reasons of wastage in Higher

Education. Give suggestions to minimize wastage in higher education in
Pakistan.
Answer:
Introduction:
Educational wastage exists in the following forms: (a) failure of the system to provide
a universal education; (b) failure to recruit children into the system; (c) failure to hold
children within the system; (d) failure of the system to set appropriate objectives; and
(e) inefficiency in the achievement of such objectives.
The most frequently suggested reason why children and adolescents in developing
countries do not go to school or leave school early is that there are no schools to go
to, or that there are not enough places in them. In addition the cost of attending
school during periods of manpower shortage may be a determining factor, particularly
in agricultural areas. Marriage customs may encourage early marriage and childbirth.
Grave illness is also an important factor. Many children leave school early because
they, or their parents, do not find what is taught at school relevant to their needs in
future employment. Others leave because they are needed as helpers at home or on the
farm. Finally, many parents feel that it is more important for their children to receive
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traditional education and training on the job rather than spend their time in classroom.
A major aspect of educational wastage occurs when students leave the educational
system prior to the termination of an educational cycle. Dropping- out in this sense is
not related to the existence or duration of compulsory schooling and therefore leaving
school before the minimum age is not regarded as dropping out. However, those who
leave before the end of a cycle, but who have satisfied the compulsory education laws
by staying at school until they have reached the minimum age, would be regarded as
dropouts; and in countries which do not have compulsory education, a child who left
school before completion of the stage in which he had registered would be regarded as
a dropout.
This definition conflicts to some extent with more general notions of premature
leaving, interpreted as leaving before the minimum age. The term may also be applied
to students leaving at the end of the compulsory period when a further period is
considered desirable even though not required.
A major aspect of educational wastage is the repetition by a student of a year of work

in the same class or grade and doing the same work as in the previous year. This may
occur at any level, from elementary to university.
Some countries throughout the first and second levels systematically operate repetition
in all grades, using end-of-year examinations and other information on which to base a
decision on promotion, with a limited number of years in a grade permitted. A second
group of countries resembles the first, except that the number of years in a single
grade is not limited. A third group of countries promotes without regard to
examination performance, and rarely permits repetition of grades. A UNESCO
statistical study of school wastage, in
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selected countries, suggests that first and last elementary school grades were the focal
points for repetition in Africa, and first grade in Latin America. In both these regions,
first grade repetition was noticeably higher than in second through fifth. In selected
countries in Asia and Europe, surveys show that a high first grade repetition rate was
also indicated. The first year of high school, in these statistics, also shows a higher
rate, as do the terminal grades of the two cycles of the 'general second level'. Clearly
there are unaddressed psychological, social and economic factors in this wastage. The
problems are only partly pedagogical.
Educational wastage is a deeply moral issue. It is one of the highly sinister policies of
nations, and includes exploitation of women; racial and class prejudice; abuse of
labour; and inadequate health and social services. Educational wastage exists by intent
of the privileged classes. If there is one, there is the other. The corollary is that if the
one is done-away with, the other will be as well.
What can be the suggestion for reducing the extent of wastage and stagnation? In fact
the reasons for failure and drop out will vary from school to school, place to place and
individual to individual. As such, one cannot suggest a single programme for all the
schools to reduce educational wastage. However, some of the following action
programmes may help for reducing educational wastage.
1. Increasing holding and attracting power of the school;
(a) Attractive teaching i.e. adoption of improved method of teaching and techniques;
(b) Attractive school building with well equipped furniture’s;
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(c) Improvement of school campus i.e. neat, tidy and beautiful;
(d) Provision of medical facility;
(e) Parental indifference to education;
(f) Use of audio-visual aids;
(g) Reorganization of the curriculum;
(h) Appointment of efficient and trained teachers;
(i) Appointment of women teachers;
(j) Provision for effective supervision;
(k) Effective multiple class teaching.
2. Seeking co-operation of the public, parents and guardians by organizing

P.T.A. (Parent Teacher Association);
3. Fixing fixed age limit for admission in the school;
4. Regularity of admission in the school;
5. Regularity in attendance;
6. Introduction of a year of pre-school education.
Question No.3: Highlight the significance of assessment at higher

education level. What is the role of teacher in assessment? Explain.
Answer:
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Introduction:
As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable and clear student learning

outcomes for learning, provisioning a sufficient amount of learning opportunities to
achieve these outcomes, implementing a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and
interpreting evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations,
and using the collected information to inform improvement in student learning.
Assessment:
Assessment in higher education can focus on the individual learner, a course, an

academic program, or the institution.
Internal Assessment:
Internal assessment is the process in which the teachers and schools judge the
students’ performance on the basis of his performance. Also, this process does not
involve any outside person for assessment.
The Need for Internal Assessment:
The internal assessment helps to give credit in the final assessment. Also, it reduces
the burden and tension related to the final examination. In addition, it acts as a link
which provides data related to student’s performance. This gives teachers an
opportunity to evaluate the students. Moreover, it helps students in continuous
learning.
Principles of Internal Assessment:
The subject teacher prepares these assessments. Furthermore, it is continuous and

does not replace exams. It is a suitable evaluation technique and tool. Also, they
carry a fixed portion of marks for the assessment. Most
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noteworthy, it gives feedback to teachers so that they can improve their teaching.
On the other hand, it gives students a chance to improve their external assessment
grade by seeing internal assessment results. So, that student can improve their
learning.
Advantages of Internal Assessment:
It reduces the weight age of external assessment. Moreover, students engage

themselves in study throughout the year. The students will be more attentive to
studying in class. In addition, it reduces the chances of anxiety and nervous
breakdown in students.
Disadvantages of internal assessment:
There are chances that teacher may misuse it for their own benefit. Also, in the
hand of the inexperienced and insincere teacher, it can cause harm to students. Most
noteworthy, it will lose its importance due to unfairness, favoring a student, and bias-
ness.
External Assessment:
Outside persons prepare these assessment methods and they are responsible and
involved in it. Besides, it is done to give students the required certificate or degree or
diploma for which the student has applied.
Classification of External Assessment:
The result of the external assessment is classified into various categories.
o The students who score 33% numbers just pass.
o Also, the score between 36 to 45% is third division passed.
o The score of 46 to 59% is second division passed.

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o In addition, the score between 60 to 74% is first division passed.
o And a score of 75% and above is the distinction. Besides in the case of degree
the collective marks are considered.
Advantages of External Assessment:
The first advantage of external assessment is that it helps students to know their
performance. It also helps them to know their knowledge level. In addition, it
encourages them to learn and improve their knowledge and grades. Also, it creates a
competitive spirit in students. This spirit pushes them to do their level best. For
development, building personality and confidence it is very important.
Disadvantages of External Assessment:
There are various disadvantages which can cause harm to student life and her/his
career. These include the use of unfair means like talking and cheating in the
examination hall. Some students just give a paper to only pass the exam to get
average marks. In addition, external assessment only covers a part or partial course of
study. Most noteworthy, the result is not accurate as it gives an unreliable result.
Course-level assessment:
Assessment embedded at the course level (sometimes referred to as

embedded assessment or Authentic_assessment) typically involves the use of
assignments. Students receive feedback on their performance on assignments and
faculty gain knowledge of student learning to use for grading. The work assessed
within courses best relates to specific program- level student learning outcomes.
Angelo and Cross believe assessment in the classroom is an important part of the
faculty feedback loop which can provide
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meaningful information about their effectiveness as teachers while also giving

students a measure of their progress as learners.
Student perception of feedback:
Studies show feedback is valued by students. Feedback that is timely, specific and
delivered individually helps to reinforces this perception. This type of feedback,
usually referred to as Just In Time, helps to create a feedback loop between student
and teacher. Students generally find more utility from formative feedback when they
are also presented with strategies of how to use the feedback. These strategies help
with perception because they tackle lack of understanding of academic discourse
which hinders students' ability to use the feedback effectively.
Quality of feedback:
Timing is crucial in the delivery of feedback to students. Kift and Moody claim that
the complexity of the assignment should dictate how soon feedback should provided.
For simpler tasks, feedback should be provided within 24 hours. However, if the task
is more complicated, giving students time for reflection before providing feedback is
more beneficial. "Effective feedback should be task related and focus on student
performance rather than personal attributes of the student." Studies have shown that
the way feedback is delivered can have either positive or negative effects on
the student. Corrective feedback helps to move student learning forward and improves
future assessments.
Principles of good feedback:
1. Facilitates the development of self-assessment (reflection) in learning.
1. Students might request the kinds of feedback they want.
26
2. Students can identify the strengths and weaknesses in their own work, based on a
rubric, before giving it to the teacher for feedback.
3. Students reflect on their achievements.
4. Teacher and student set milestones So they can reflect back and on progress, and
forward on what to do next
5. Students give peer feedback to one another.
2. Encourages teacher and peer dialogue around learning.
1. The use of one-minute-papers
2. Read feedback given by teacher, and discuss with other students.
3. Discussing feedback that students found useful and why.
4. Group projects.
3. Helps clarify what good performance is (goals, criteria, standards

expected).
1. Provide students with good examples along with feedback.
2. Discussion about criteria in the classroom.
3. Include student participation during feedback process.
4. Collaborate with students on creating grading/feedback rubric.
4. Provides opportunities to close the gap between current and desired performance.
1. Increase the number of opportunities for resubmitting

assignments.
2. Teacher models how to close the learning gap.
27
3. Include “Action Points” for students along with feedback.
1. Alternatively, have the students figure out their own action points.
5. Delivers high quality information to students about their learning.
1. Being cognizant of the number of criteria used in feedback to

ensure it remains effective, by limiting the amount of feedback.
2. Providing feedback soon after the activity.
3. Provide corrective advice.
4. Prioritizing areas of improvement.
6. Encourages positive motivational beliefs and advocates for self-efficacy.
1. Giving students a grade only after they've responded to feedback.
2. Allowing students time to rewrite certain parts of their work based on feedback.
3. Automated testing.
7. Provides information to teachers that can be used to help shape the teaching.
1. Exit-ticket/One-minute papers.
2. Students request feedback they want.
3. Having students identify where they are having trouble.
4. Students work in groups to choose one idea they are unclear about and share that
idea.
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Program-level assessment:
Program assessment is a best practice in higher education. The process involves a

framework for placing priority and attention on the process of student learning and
most specifically, the program objectives, organization of curriculum, pedagogy and
student development. Like course assessment, program assessment requires defining a
statement of mission/goals, establishment of program-specific student learning
outcomes and the identification of where learning takes place or “learning
opportunities”. The next part in program assessment involves the development of a
research question or intended goal for assessment. What questions does the program
seek to answer? And what direct or indirect evidence needs to be collected to identify
answers? The collected data is evaluated, analyzed and interpreted resulting in the
implementation of an action plan resulting in improvement in the program and student
learning.
Mission alignment:
Each course a student takes occurs within the context of a program, which occurs
within the context of overarching university outcomes. With the assumption that
coursework should support the program and programs should support the overall
mission of the university, alignment of mission (and learning outcomes) should
occur. Assessment at the course level typically takes the form of tests, quizzes, and
assignments. When courses are mapped to program outcomes, this permits the
aggregation of data from several courses covering the same outcome which can be
used for program assessment. Additional program assessment can take the form of
embedded assignments, field experiences, capstone experiences, portfolios, or tests of
majors.
29
Scoring guides:
Rubrics are often used to assess student work. Essentially, a rubric is a scoring guide
grid consisting of a scale of some sort (i.e., levels of performance), the dimensions or
important components of an assignment, and descriptions of what constitutes each
level of performance for each assignment dimension. Rubrics can be particularly
effective for assessment due to how closely they are tied with the teaching and
learning process - they can be used for grading, as well as giving students feedback on
their performance.
Assessment points:
Assessment is most effective when it occurs at multiple points in time along the
student's path. Multiple measures over time provide a way to triangulate data and
increase confidence in the results.
Effective assignments:
In order to assess student learning, students must given assignment where they can
demonstrate what they know and can do.
Indirect and direct measures:
A distinction is made between direct and indirect measures of learning. Direct

measures, as their name implies, involve directly examining student work products to
assess the achievement of learning outcomes. These work products occur in a variety
of formats including objective tests, and rubric- scored projects, performances, and
written work. A recent survey of provosts indicates that classroom based assessment
and rubrics are most frequently used. Large scale commercial tests such as the
Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA) are used by fewer than 50% use
standardized tests
30
according to the survey. Indirect measures focus on data from which one can make
inferences about learning. Indirect measures can include surveys on student and
faculty perceptions about learning, focus groups, and exit interviews. National surveys
such as the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) have become increasing
popular indirect measures, with roughly 85% of institutions using these measures
according to a recent survey.
Conclusion:
Assessment functions as part of a continuous process whereby the parts of the

cycle are revised and monitored. The term “assessment” is defined broadly in that
any outcome or goal in any activity or discipline can be a part of this process.
Question No.4: Suggest the measures to improve quality and access in

higher education.
Answer:
Introduction:
Increasing graduation rates and levels of educational attainment will accomplish little
if students do not learn something of lasting value. Yet federal efforts over the last
several years have focused much more on increasing the number of Americans who
go to college than on improving the education they receive once they get there.
31
Main Discussion:
By concentrating so heavily on graduation rates and attainment levels, policy makers

are ignoring danger signs that the amount that students learn in college may have
declined over the past few decades and could well continue to do so in the years to
come. The reasons for concern include:
 College students today seem to be spending much less time on their course
work than their predecessors did 50 years ago, and evidence of their abilities suggests
that they are probably learning less than students once did and quite possibly less than
their counterparts in many other advanced industrial countries.
 Employers complain that many graduates they hire are deficient in basic skills
such as writing, problem solving and critical thinking that college leaders and their
faculties consistently rank among the most important goals of an undergraduate
education.
 Most of the millions of additional students needed to increase educational

attainment levels will come to campus poorly prepared for college work, creating a
danger that higher graduation rates will be achievable only by lowering academic
standards.
 More than two-thirds of college instructors today are not on the tenure track but
are lecturers serving on year-to-year contracts. Many of them are hired without
undergoing the vetting commonly used in appointing tenure-track professors. Studies
indicate that extensive use of such instructors may contribute to higher dropout rates
and to grade inflation.
 States have made substantial cuts in support per student over the past 30 years
for public colleges and community colleges. Research suggests that
32
failing to increase appropriations to keep pace with enrollment growth tends to reduce
learning and even lower graduation rates.
While some college leaders are making serious efforts to improve the quality of
teaching, many others seem content with their existing programs. Although they
recognize the existence of problems affecting higher education as a whole, such as
grade inflation or a decline in the rigor of academic standards, few seem to believe
that these difficulties exist on their own campus, or they tend to attribute most of the
difficulty to the poor preparation of students before they enroll.
Some Immediate Improvements
Many colleges provide a formidable array of courses, majors and extracurricular

opportunities, but firsthand accounts indicate that many undergraduates do not feel
that the material conveyed in their readings and lectures has much relevance to their
lives. Such sentiments suggest either that the courses do not in fact contribute much
to the ultimate goals that colleges claim to value or that instructors are not taking
sufficient care to explain the larger aims of their courses and why they should matter.
Other studies suggest that many instructors do not teach their courses in ways best
calculated to achieve the ends that faculties themselves consider important. For
example, one investigator studied samples of the examinations given at elite liberal
arts colleges and research universities. Although 99 percent of professors
consider critical thinking an “essential” or “very important” goal of a college
education, fewer than 20 percent of the exam questions actually tested for this skill.
33
Now that most faculties have defined the learning objectives of their college and its
various departments and programs, it should be possible to review recent
examinations to determine whether individual professors, programs and
departments are actually designing their courses to achieve those goals. College
administrators could also modify their student evaluation forms to ask students
whether they believe the stated goals were emphasized in the courses they took.
In addition, the average time students devote to studying varies widely among
different colleges, and many campuses could require more of their students. Those
lacking evidence about the study habits of their undergraduates could inform
themselves through confidential surveys that faculties could review and consider steps
to encourage greater student effort and improve learning.
The vast difference between how well seniors think they can perform and their actual
proficiencies (according to tests of basic skills and employer evaluations) suggests
that many colleges are failing to give students an adequate account of their progress.
Grade inflation may also contribute to excessive confidence, suggesting a need to
work to restore appropriate standards, although that alone is unlikely to solve the
problem. Better feedback on student papers and exams will be even more important
in order to give undergraduates a more accurate sense of how much progress they’ve
made and what more they need to accomplish before they graduate.
Conclusion:
Learning does not stop outside the classroom. Your university must involve itself in
various programs and activities that would encourage students to learn beyond the
classroom. Giving your students opportunities to learn other things allows them to
grow as a person and also apply some of the things they
34
learned in the classes into something practical. Aside from that, you can organize
clubs, seminars, and internships, where the students can join to expand their learning
experience. You can also partner up with various organizations to help you in
facilitating this learning experience. Providing these opportunities to learn gives
students a chance to make connections with other people who can help them in their
careers later in life. A university that encourages learning in and out of the classroom
is certainly a place of high- quality education.
Question No.5: Explain the role of technology in higher education of

Pakistan with examples.
Answer:
Introduction:
Colleges and universities have generally been quick to adopt new technologies, often
even before their educational value has been proven. Throughout its history,
higher education has experimented with technological advances as diverse as the
blackboard and the personal computer. Some technologies have become permanent
parts of the higher education enterprise. Others, such as the slide rule and the 16-
millimeter movie projector, have been replaced as more sophisticated or more cost-
effective technologies have emerged to take their place.
At the dawn of the twenty-first century, new and rapidly improving technologies are
in the process of transforming higher education. Each year since 1994, the Campus
Computing Survey has shown increased use in
35
college classrooms of technology-dependent resources such as e-mail, the Internet,

course web pages, and computer simulations. Technology has the potential to
revolutionize the traditional teaching and learning process. It can eliminate the barriers
to education imposed by space and time and dramatically expand access to lifelong
learning. Students no longer have to meet in the same place at the same time to learn
together from an instructor. Fundamentally, modern technologies have the ability to
change the conception of a higher education institution. No longer is a higher
education institution necessarily a physical place with classrooms and residence halls
where students come to pursue an advanced education. Thanks to recent developments
in technology, the standard American image of a college or university as a collection
of ivycovered buildings may need to be revised for the first time since the founding of
Harvard in 1636.
Computers and telecommunications are the principal technologies reshaping higher

education. Due to advances in each of these domains, electronic mail, fax machines,
the World Wide Web, CDROMs, and commercially developed simulations and
courseware are altering the daily operations and expanding the missions of colleges
and universities.
Powerful forces are promoting higher education's adoption of new technologies. The
rapid advance of globalization that is lowering international barriers and transforming
the business world is also expanding the potential reach of colleges and universities.
With sophisticated communication technologies, institutions of higher education are
no longer limited to student markets or educational resources in their geographic
regions. Likewise, the growing need for lifelong learning opportunities to keep pace
with social, economic, and technological changes fuels demand for accessible
36
alternatives to traditional real-time, campus-based instruction. In addition, competition

among higher education institutions contributes to technology's advance within
colleges and universities. Not wishing to be outpaced by competitors, many
institutions are active participants in a technology "arms race" that requires the rapid
adoption of new technological innovations as soon as they become available. The
alternative is to fall behind other schools that are attempting to recruit the same
students, faculty, and donors.
In spite of technology's promise, its integration throughout higher education has not
been rapid or painless. Many barriers to technology-based innovations exist within
colleges and universities. Academic traditions, such as the faculty- centered lecture,
make many professors reluctant to adopt alternative instructional strategies using the
computer or telecommunication devices. The cost of many technological applications
also prohibits their easy adoption at many resource-limited institutions. Before
technology became such a central part of institutional operations, many colleges paid
for new or improved technologies from funds left over at the end of their annual
budget cycle. Now that technology has become an essential and recurring investment,
most schools must locate additional funds to meet their increasing needs for
technology resources.
Limited support to help faculty and staff members learn how to take full advantage of
technology is another factor inhibiting more widespread use of technology in colleges
and universities. According to the 2000 Campus Computing Survey, the single most
important educational technology challenge facing colleges and universities is helping
faculty integrate information technology into their teaching. The second most
important challenge is providing adequate user support. According to Kenneth
Green,
37
director of the Campus Computing Project, higher education's investment in

technology hardware is, by itself, not sufficient to reap the full benefits of new
technology advances. Green concludes that "the real challenge is people, not
products". Technology will neither reap its full potential nor revolutionize higher
education if these barriers to its adoption are not resolved satisfactorily by individual
institutions or the educational system as a whole.
Impact on Teaching and Learning:
No aspect of higher education remains untouched by the technological developments

of the 1980s and 1990s. Academic administration, as well as the instructional process,
has been dramatically altered by new technologies. When compared to other college
and university operations such as student services, housing, and administration,
however, the teaching and learning process probably is being changed most
dramatically by technology.
Traditionally, professors have used much of their class time with students to
disseminate information through lectures and follow-up discussion. This was
especially the case in introductory-level courses, where students lack a foundation in
the basic concepts and principles of a field. In an era of advanced technology, this
approach to instruction seems archaic and inefficient. Computers, especially web-
based resources, can disseminate basic information more efficiently and more cost
effectively than human beings can. For example, Gregory Farrington recommends that
instructors use the web to do what it can do well. This includes presenting information
to students in a variety of formats, twenty-four hours per day. Students can access
course material when it is most convenient for them and return to it as often as they
need to achieve basic comprehension, competence, or mastery.
38
This approach to information dissemination can save precious class time "for the
intellectual interactions that only humans can provide". Following this revised method
of facilitating learning, traditional lectures can be replaced or pared down. In their
place, classes can be more informal, seminar-like sessions with more free flowing
discussion structured by students' interests, questions, and concerns. In other words,
appropriate use of technology applications can help instructors to structure more
active learning opportunities. Research shows that active engagement in the learning
process helps to motivate students and enhance their learning outcomes. New
technologies can facilitate active engagement in learning by reducing the amount of
class time where students sit passively listening to lectures.
Technology can also help to make education a much more interactive and
collaborative process. Email, course-based websites, and computer-based chat rooms
are some of the technology-enabled resources that facilitate communication and
teamwork among students. Research by education scholars has shown that
collaborative learning opportunities enhance recall, understanding, and problem
solving. Technology can greatly ease the work of collaborative design teams, peer
writing groups, and other types of collaborative learning groups, even among students
who do not live in the same geographic area and who cannot meet face to face.
39

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NAME: SIDRA ID: 0000130060

COURSE: HIGHER EDUCATION

COURSE CODE: 828

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NAME STUDENT: SIDRA

STUDENT ID: 0000130060

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

Question No.1: Comparatively discuss the systems of Higher Education

As per my knowledge, the higher education sector is responsible for the

Systems Of Higher Education In Malaysia

Malaysia's HEIs (i.e. public universities, private higher educational institutions,

With a multi-ethnic population of about 28.3 million, Malaysia had 20 public

The quality of higher education is assured through the Malaysian Qualifications

1. The Education Act 1996 (Act 550)

2. The Private Higher Educational Institutions Act, 1996 (amended 2009)

3. The National Council of Higher Education Act, 1996

4. Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007 (replacing the previous namely

6. The National Higher Education Fund Corporation Act, 1997 (Amendment

Other initiatives undertaken by HEIs include the establishment of Malaysian

Subsequently, another rating system was introduced in 2011. My QUEST (Malaysian

Governing Authority for Higher Education - MOHE

important part of history in Malaysia, particularly in the development and expansion

To make Malaysia a centre of higher education excellence by the year 2020

Some of MOHE's key functions include :

Five Core Thrusts

MOHE has its focus on five core thrusts :

 To create a strategic and systematic plan for higher education

 To reinforce the management system of higher education

 To increase the level of capacity, accessibility and participation in higher

 To enhance the quality of higher education at par with international

 To internationalise Malaysian higher education

MOHE comprises four departments / sectors :

 The Department of Higher Education

 The Department of Polytechnic Education

 The Department Community College Education

 The Management Sector

 The Development Sector

The Department of Higher Education

The Department of Higher Education or popularly known as Jabatan Pengajian

The Department of Higher Education is supported by several sectors, divisions and

Department of Polytechnic Education

The formation of the Department of Polytechnic Education was a result of a

The Department of Polytechnic Education has been entrusted to produce a generation

Polytechnic education is currently under major transformation with the aim of

Department of Community College Education

The re-organisation of the Department of Polytechnic and Community College of the

JPKK is tasked with providing vocational-based training (programmes such as Sijil

Higher Education Legislation

 The Education Act 1996

 The Private Higher Educational Institutions Act 1996

 The National Council of Higher Education Act 1996

 Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007 (replacing the previous

 The Universities and University Colleges (Amendment) Act 1996

 The National Higher Education Fund Corporation Act 1997

 The National Higher Education Fund Corporation (amendment) Act 2000

 Private Higher Educational Institutions (Amendment) Act 2009

 Akta Universiti dan Kolej Universiti Pindaan 2009

The Education Act 1996 (Act 550)

The National Council on Higher Education Act, 1996