Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
When it is seen from the view points of the above stated design decisions, one may split the
overall research design into the following major parts:
(a) The sampling design: Which deals with the method of selecting items to be
(b) The observational design: Which relates the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
(c) The statistical design : Which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed, and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed; and
(d) The operational design: Which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out (
Kothari, 1990, P.40).
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To sum up, from what has been state so far, we can describe the research design as:
1. A plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem;
2. A Strategy specifying which method will be used for gathering and analyzing data;
3. A point where the time and cost budgets of the research project are specified critically.
4.
In short, any research design must, at least, contain the following:
1. Because it helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible
for him to look for flaws and inadequacies;
2. Because it facilitates the smooth running of various research operations;
3. Because it makes research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money;
4. Because it serves as a framework for the process of reliable and valid data collection, and
data analysis;
5. Because it saves the researcher from offering hesty generalizations or misleading
conclusions; and
6. Because it serves as a basis for others to provide their genuine comments and
comprehensive review of the proposed study.
Emphasizing the importance of a research design for any research activity, Kothari (1990:40)
describes in such a way that just as we need a blueprint ( or the map of the house ) well
thought out and prepared by an expert architect, so do we need a research design or plan in
advance of data collection and analysis for our research project.
In general, research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for
collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be employed in their analysis. Therefore,
preparation of the research design should be done with great care as any error in it may upset
the entire project. In other words, thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result
in rendering the research exercise futile.
For instance, a researcher could examine the impact of heavy drinking of alcohol on liver. In
this analysis, heavy drinking of alcohol would be an independent variable and the effect like
liver disease could considered as dependent variable. Similarly, ready-made films and lectures
are example of independent variables, whereas behavioral changes occurring as a result of the
environmental manipulations, are examples of dependent variables. In some instances,
variables can be used as either independent or dependent in any given analysis. For example,
one researcher could examine the influences of gender on ESLCE score. In this analysis, gender
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would be the independent variable and ESLCE performance is the dependent variable.
However, in another analysis, the influences of ESLCE and gender on college or University
choice could explored. In this analysis, both gender and ESLCE result are independent variables
and higher education institution choice would be the dependent variable.
2. Extraneous variable.
A variable which interferes the effect of the relationship between the dependent and an
independent variable is called extraneous or intervening variable. It is an independent variable
that is not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable in some
way. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between
children's gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concepts
is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence
may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of
the study undertaken by the researcher , it will be termed as an extraneous variable. Similarly,
in the study of the effect of socio-economic background of a student's family on learning, the
variables such as IQ, age, school and other facilities may act as intervening variables.
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For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability
for a group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their
intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two
sets of scores. This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because
herein the independent variable, intelligence, is not manipulated. But now suppose that our
researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to take a course ins
statistics and then devides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the
usual studies program, and 25 to Group B, the special studies program. At the end of the
course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training
program on the student's performance level. This is an experimental hypothesis-testing
research because in this case the independent variable, viz., the type training program, is
manipulated.
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research design in case of experimental (hypothesis-testing) research studies. Each of
them is described below.
main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point view.
The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such
the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. In view of
Kothari (1990:45), exploratory research design uses the following three methods: the
survey of concerning literature; the experience survey; and the analysis of 'insight-
stimulating' examples.
(b) Experience survey. It means the survey of people who had practical experience with
the problem to be studied. The main purpose of this survey is to obtain insight into
the relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem.
For such a survey people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be
carefully selected as respondents to ensure representation of different types of
experience. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic
questioning of informants who are carefully selected. But the interview must ensure
flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed to raise issues and
question which the investigator has not previously considered. In this way, it is
often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be discussed to the
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respondents well in advance. This gives an opportunity to the respondents for
doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that, at the time of
interview, they may be able to contribute effectively. Thus, an experience survey
may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the
formulation of the research hypothesis. This survey may as well provide
information about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research.
(c) Analysis of ' insight- stimulating ' examples. This method consists of the intensive
study of selected instance of the phenomenon in areas in which one is interested
but has little exposure or experience in relation to it. For this purpose the available
records, if any, may be examined, the unstructured interview may take place, or
some other approach may be adopted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of
the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse information
into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this method an
appropriate procedure for evoking insights.
Issues or cases related to the reactions of strangers, the reactions of marginal
individuals, the study of individuals who are in transition from one stage to another,
the reactions of individuals from different social strata and the like could be treated
by this method. In general, cases that provide sharp contrasts or have striking
features are considered relatively more useful while adopting this method of
hypotheses formulation.
The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of
diagnostic research studies. On the other hand, studies concerned with specific
predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group
or situations are all examples of descriptive research studies. Most of the social
research falls under this category. As far as the preparation of the research design is
concerned the descriptive and diagnostic studies share common requirements and
as such we may group together these two types of research studies. In both types of
studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure
and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of
' population' he wants to study. To achieve the aim of gathering complete and
accurate information through these studies, the procedure to be used needs to be
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carefully planned. The research design must make enough provision for protection
against bias and must maximize reliability, with due concern for the economical
completion of the research study. According Kothari (1990:47) the design in such
studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being
made?)
(b) Design the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much materials will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time
period should the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analyzing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings in an efficient and effective manner.
Thus, the research design in case of descriptive/diagnostic studies is a comparative
design throwing light on the above points step-by- step and must be prepared based on
the objective(s) of the study as well as the resources available. However, it must ensure
the minimization of bias and maximization of reliability of the evidence collected. The
said design can be appropriately referred to as a survey design since it takes into
account all the steps involved in a survey concerning a phenomenon to be studied.
The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of research
studies can be discerned in the following table.
Research Design Type of study
Overall design Flexible design(design must provide Regid design ( design must make
opportunity for considering enough, provision for protection
different aspects of the problem) against bias and must maximize
reliability
(iii) Observational design Unstructured instruments for Structured or well thought out
collection of data instruments for collection of data
(iv) Operational design No fixed decisions about the Advanced decisions about
operational procedures operational procedures.
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Source: C.R. Kothari, Research Methodology, Methods & Techniques, 1990, p 49.
1. The principle of Replication. This principle refers to the repetition of the experiment
more than once. Therefore, each treatment is applied in many experimental units
instead of one. This, in turn, helps to increase the statistical accuracy of the
experiments. The following example that has been extracted from kothari (1990:50)
intends to illustrate the principle of Replication in detail.
Suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we
may divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other
variety in the other part. We can then compare the yield of the two parts and draw
conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this
experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half
of these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can then collect the
data of yield the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The
result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw
without applying the principle of replication. The entire experiment can even be
repeated several times for better results.
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other words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in
such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined
under the general heading of "Chance." For example, if we grow one variety of rice,
say, in the first half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in the other
half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first half
comparison to the other half. This makes our results unrealistic. In such a situation,
we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the
basis of some random sampling technique, i.e, we may apply randomization principle
and protect ourselves against the effect of the extraneous factors (soil fertility
differences in the given case.) As such, through the application of the principle of
randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental error.
3. The principle of Local Control. Under this principle, the extraneous factor, the
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peppers before the construction of building starts. More specifically, the research
proposal has the following importance:
Preparation of a full fleged proposal is not a one-time endeavor. But is the result
of continuous modification and amendment through discussions with experts in
the field.
1. The Title The title of the research should be worded in such a way that it gives
sufficient information about the nature of study. In selecting a tile for
investigation, the researcher should consider the following:
(a) The title should not be too lengthy or too involved. It should be specific to
the area of study. It should be noted that the proposed study cannot
completely be presented in the title.
(b) The title should not be too brief or too short. For instance, the following
titles appear to be too vague to convey the required meaning.
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- Marketing in Japan
- Leadership in Sudan
- Unemployment in Ethiopia
(c) The title should not be burdened by pompous words and should not
include terms of unscientific; rhetorical, argumentative, emotional, or
biased nature. The language in the title should be professional in nature
but not pedantic.
While preparing the research proposal, the researcher has to incorporate the
justification for the need of the research. He/she should justify the importance
and urgency of the study; as to how the results of his/her study will be useful
to the beneficiaries. The following are some of the points in which the
justification stresses:
a) A wide time gap between the earlier study and the present one. The need
for new knowledge, techniques or conditions will necessitate for replicating
the study.
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b) Existence of knowledge gaps that were uncovered by the previous studies.
Former studies might have investigated only some aspects of the issue, or
was treated in breadth than depth. Therefore, the need for the current
study could be to help address those areas that remain untouched or
inadequately treated.
c) Lack /Shortage of information about a problem. In some instances
information in the area may be missing or scant. Therefore, the present
study may be useful in shading new light on the problem or in filling the
gap in the knowledge pertaining to the given area.
5. Definition of Terms or Concepts The technical terms or words and phrases
having special meanings need to be defined operationally by the help of
special dictionaries.
6. Delimitations of the Study
(a) the scope of the study by specifying the areas to which the conclusions will
be confined, and
(b) The procedural treatment including the sampling procedures, the
techniques of data collection and analysis, the development of measuring
tools and their use in the study.
7. Limitations of the study
Although a researcher tries his best to design his research as properly as possible, there
are externals (uncontrollable) variables that confront his investigation and affect his
conclusion. In his proposal, the researcher has to specify such mitigating factors that
hinder the attainment his objectives fully. Such anticipated restrictions are referred as
limitations of the study. The possible sources of the limitations of the study include:
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8. Procedures for collecting Data
In this section, the details about sampling procedure and the data collecting tools are
described.
(a) Sampling
In the research process, the researcher often comes across unmanageable size of
population in which case he/she may be compelled to draw representative sample by
using different sampling techniques. A research proposal should clearly indicate the
population from which the researcher will draw his/her sample, and describe the
procedure he/she will use to select the sample.
(b) Tools
In order to gather evidence or data for the study, the researcher has developed
appropriate and reliable instrument(s). The researcher must be well versed in the use
of these tools or instruments and fully aware of their merits and demerits.
The research proposal should explain the reasons for selecting a particular tool (s) for
collecting data.
In this section, the researcher describes how to organize, analyze, and interpret data.
The details of the statistical techniques and the rationales for using such techniques
should be described in the research proposal.
10. Bibliography
This is a section where a list of books, journals and other documents is offered. The
researcher should list all reference materials that he has used in selecting the problem
and which he may use during the conduct of study.
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12. Budget Schedule
The research proposals which are submitted to governmental or non-governmental
organizations for financial assistance should also include a budget schedule. This is a
financial breakdown that helps to estimate the cost of the study.
This section attempts to answer the research question in the most rigorous ways. It is
best to organize the methodology to explain how each specific objective will be
achieved.
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