Chapter 3

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Chapter 3: The Research Design

3.1 Definition and Classification of Research Design


Following the selection of the problem in a very specific and concrete terms, you are required
to prepare a research design. According to Selltiz et al (1962:50), a " research design" is
defined as " the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of deta in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure." In
other words, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data
(Kothari, 1990:39). Accordingly, the design incorporates a framework of what the researcher is
going to do from writing the basic questions and their operational implications to the final
analysis of data. More specifically, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:

(i) What is the study about ?

(ii) Why is the study being made ?


(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What types of data are required ?
(v) Where can the required data be found ?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include ?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used ?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed ?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared ?

When it is seen from the view points of the above stated design decisions, one may split the
overall research design into the following major parts:

(a) The sampling design: Which deals with the method of selecting items to be

observed for the given study;

(b) The observational design: Which relates the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;

(c) The statistical design : Which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed, and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed; and

(d) The operational design: Which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out (
Kothari, 1990, P.40).

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To sum up, from what has been state so far, we can describe the research design as:

1. A plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem;
2. A Strategy specifying which method will be used for gathering and analyzing data;
3. A point where the time and cost budgets of the research project are specified critically.
4.
In short, any research design must, at least, contain the following:

- A clear statement of the research problem;


- The population to be studied;
- Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering data;
- Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data; and
- Time and cost breakdowns for the whole project.
Need for Research Design.
In any research endeavor, the preparation of thoroughly thought research design is needed for
the following reasons:

1. Because it helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible
for him to look for flaws and inadequacies;
2. Because it facilitates the smooth running of various research operations;
3. Because it makes research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money;
4. Because it serves as a framework for the process of reliable and valid data collection, and
data analysis;
5. Because it saves the researcher from offering hesty generalizations or misleading
conclusions; and
6. Because it serves as a basis for others to provide their genuine comments and
comprehensive review of the proposed study.

Emphasizing the importance of a research design for any research activity, Kothari (1990:40)
describes in such a way that just as we need a blueprint ( or the map of the house ) well
thought out and prepared by an expert architect, so do we need a research design or plan in
advance of data collection and analysis for our research project.

In general, research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for
collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be employed in their analysis. Therefore,
preparation of the research design should be done with great care as any error in it may upset
the entire project. In other words, thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result
in rendering the research exercise futile.

Characteristics of a Good Design.


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The question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and
also with the nature of the problem to be studied. In light of these points, a research design is
said to be good if it satisfies the following:

1. The design which is characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient,


economical, etc;
2. The design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and
analyzed;
3. The design which gives the smallest experimental error;
4. The design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering
many aspects of a problem; and
5. The design which involves the following:
(a) The means of obtaining information,
(b) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff ( in any),
(c) The objective of the problem to be studied,
(d) The nature of the problem to be studied,
(e) Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organized and the reasoning leading to the selection, and
(f) The availability of time and money for the research work ( Kothari, 1990, p.41)

Important Concepts Relating to Research Design


In view of Kothari (1990:42-44), the preparation of a research design requires an understanding
of various key concepts. These are briefly explained below.

1. Dependent and independent variable


A Variable is an indicator or measure of the construct of interest. A variable can be anything
that has more than one value (e.g., sex, age, weight, income, religion, ESLCE scores). Variables
should have operational definitions clearly stated.

If one variable depends upon or is consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a


dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as
an independent variable. These terms define, in part, how the variables relate to one another.
Some researchers use the terms causal or predictor as synonymous with independent and
resultant or criterion with dependent variables.

For instance, a researcher could examine the impact of heavy drinking of alcohol on liver. In
this analysis, heavy drinking of alcohol would be an independent variable and the effect like
liver disease could considered as dependent variable. Similarly, ready-made films and lectures
are example of independent variables, whereas behavioral changes occurring as a result of the
environmental manipulations, are examples of dependent variables. In some instances,
variables can be used as either independent or dependent in any given analysis. For example,
one researcher could examine the influences of gender on ESLCE score. In this analysis, gender

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would be the independent variable and ESLCE performance is the dependent variable.
However, in another analysis, the influences of ESLCE and gender on college or University
choice could explored. In this analysis, both gender and ESLCE result are independent variables
and higher education institution choice would be the dependent variable.

2. Extraneous variable.
A variable which interferes the effect of the relationship between the dependent and an
independent variable is called extraneous or intervening variable. It is an independent variable
that is not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable in some
way. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between
children's gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concepts
is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence
may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of
the study undertaken by the researcher , it will be termed as an extraneous variable. Similarly,
in the study of the effect of socio-economic background of a student's family on learning, the
variables such as IQ, age, school and other facilities may act as intervening variables.

Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variables) is


technically described as an ' experimental error'. A study must always be so designed that the
effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and
not to some extraneous variable(s).

3. Control. One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the


influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ' control' is used when we
design the study minimizing the effects of extraneous variables. In experimental
researches, the term ' control' is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions.
4. Confounded relationship. When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables
is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
5. Research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an
independent variable to a dependent variable. Often a research hypothesis must contain,
at least, one independent and one dependent variable. Predictive statements, which are
not to be objectively verified or the relationships that are a assumed but not to be tested,
are not termed, as research hypotheses.
6. Experimental and no- experimental hypothesis-testing research . When the purpose of
research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can
be of the experimental design or of the non- experimental design. Research in which the
independent variable is manipulated is termed ' experimental hypothesis-testing research'
and a research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called 'a non
experimental hypothesis-testing research'.

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For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability
for a group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their
intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two
sets of scores. This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because
herein the independent variable, intelligence, is not manipulated. But now suppose that our
researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to take a course ins
statistics and then devides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the
usual studies program, and 25 to Group B, the special studies program. At the end of the
course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training
program on the student's performance level. This is an experimental hypothesis-testing
research because in this case the independent variable, viz., the type training program, is
manipulated.

7. Experimental and control groups. In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a


group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed as ' Control group', but when the group is
exposed to some novel or sepecial condition, it is termed an ' experimental group.' In the
above illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B an
experimental group. If both groups A and B are exposed to special programs, then both
groups would be termed ' experimental groups'. It is possible to design studies, which
include both experimental and control groups.
8. Treatments. The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put
are usually referred to as ' treatments'. In the illustration taken above; the two treatment
are the usual studies program and the special studies program. Similarly, if we want to
determine through an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on
the yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizer will be considered as three
treatments.
9. Experiment. The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment
to examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two
types viz., absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the
impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we
want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other
fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as a comparative experiment. Often we
undertake comparative experiments when we talk of designs of experiments.
10. Experimental unit (s). The predetermined plots or the block, where different treatments
are used, are known as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected
( defined ) very carefully.
Types of Research Design
Research designs can be broadly categorized into three: research design in case of exploratory
research studies; research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies; and

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research design in case of experimental (hypothesis-testing) research studies. Each of
them is described below.

1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies.


Exploratory research studies are also termed as formative research studies. The

main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point view.
The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such
the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. In view of
Kothari (1990:45), exploratory research design uses the following three methods: the
survey of concerning literature; the experience survey; and the analysis of 'insight-
stimulating' examples.

(a) The survey of concerning literature. In this method, hypotheses formulated by


earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for
further research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses
suggest new hypothesis. In this way, the researcher should review and build upon
the work already done by others, but in case where hypotheses have not yet been
formulated, his task is to review the available material for deriving the relevant
hypotheses from it.
Furthermore, the bibliographical survey of studies already made in one's area of
interest may as well be made by the researcher for precisely formulating the
problem. He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories
developed in different research contexts to the area in which he is himself working.
Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for
hypothesis-formulation and as such may be looked into by the researcher.

(b) Experience survey. It means the survey of people who had practical experience with
the problem to be studied. The main purpose of this survey is to obtain insight into
the relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem.
For such a survey people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be
carefully selected as respondents to ensure representation of different types of
experience. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic
questioning of informants who are carefully selected. But the interview must ensure
flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed to raise issues and
question which the investigator has not previously considered. In this way, it is
often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be discussed to the

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respondents well in advance. This gives an opportunity to the respondents for
doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that, at the time of
interview, they may be able to contribute effectively. Thus, an experience survey
may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the
formulation of the research hypothesis. This survey may as well provide
information about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research.
(c) Analysis of ' insight- stimulating ' examples. This method consists of the intensive
study of selected instance of the phenomenon in areas in which one is interested
but has little exposure or experience in relation to it. For this purpose the available
records, if any, may be examined, the unstructured interview may take place, or
some other approach may be adopted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of
the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse information
into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this method an
appropriate procedure for evoking insights.
Issues or cases related to the reactions of strangers, the reactions of marginal
individuals, the study of individuals who are in transition from one stage to another,
the reactions of individuals from different social strata and the like could be treated
by this method. In general, cases that provide sharp contrasts or have striking
features are considered relatively more useful while adopting this method of
hypotheses formulation.

2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies.


Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing
the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic
research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its
association with something else.

The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of
diagnostic research studies. On the other hand, studies concerned with specific
predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group
or situations are all examples of descriptive research studies. Most of the social
research falls under this category. As far as the preparation of the research design is
concerned the descriptive and diagnostic studies share common requirements and
as such we may group together these two types of research studies. In both types of
studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure
and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of
' population' he wants to study. To achieve the aim of gathering complete and
accurate information through these studies, the procedure to be used needs to be

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carefully planned. The research design must make enough provision for protection
against bias and must maximize reliability, with due concern for the economical
completion of the research study. According Kothari (1990:47) the design in such
studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following:

(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being
made?)
(b) Design the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much materials will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time
period should the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analyzing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings in an efficient and effective manner.
Thus, the research design in case of descriptive/diagnostic studies is a comparative
design throwing light on the above points step-by- step and must be prepared based on
the objective(s) of the study as well as the resources available. However, it must ensure
the minimization of bias and maximization of reliability of the evidence collected. The
said design can be appropriately referred to as a survey design since it takes into
account all the steps involved in a survey concerning a phenomenon to be studied.

The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of research
studies can be discerned in the following table.
Research Design Type of study

Exploratory / formulative Descriptive/Diagnostic

Overall design Flexible design(design must provide Regid design ( design must make
opportunity for considering enough, provision for protection
different aspects of the problem) against bias and must maximize
reliability

(i) Sampling Design Non-probability sampling design Probability sampling design


( purposive or judgement sampling) (random sampling).

(iii) Observational design Unstructured instruments for Structured or well thought out
collection of data instruments for collection of data

(iv) Operational design No fixed decisions about the Advanced decisions about
operational procedures operational procedures.

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Source: C.R. Kothari, Research Methodology, Methods & Techniques, 1990, p 49.

3. Research design in case of experimental research studies.


Experimental studies ( or hypothesis -testing research studies) are those where the
researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. Such studies
require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit
drawing inferences about causality. In particular, when we talk of research design in
such studies, we often mean the design of experiments that ensure absence of bias and
increase reliability

Basic Principles of Experimental Designs.


Professor Fisher, who is usually called the father of experimental design, has
enumerated three principles of experimental designs:

(1) the principle of Replication;


(2) the principle of Randomization; and
(3) the principle of Local Control.

1. The principle of Replication. This principle refers to the repetition of the experiment
more than once. Therefore, each treatment is applied in many experimental units
instead of one. This, in turn, helps to increase the statistical accuracy of the
experiments. The following example that has been extracted from kothari (1990:50)
intends to illustrate the principle of Replication in detail.

Suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we
may divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other
variety in the other part. We can then compare the yield of the two parts and draw
conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this
experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half
of these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can then collect the
data of yield the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The
result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw
without applying the principle of replication. The entire experiment can even be
repeated several times for better results.

2. The Principle of Randomization. Conduction of experiment under this principle


provides protection against the effects of extraneous factors by randomization. In

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other words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in
such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined
under the general heading of "Chance." For example, if we grow one variety of rice,
say, in the first half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in the other
half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first half
comparison to the other half. This makes our results unrealistic. In such a situation,
we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the
basis of some random sampling technique, i.e, we may apply randomization principle
and protect ourselves against the effect of the extraneous factors (soil fertility
differences in the given case.) As such, through the application of the principle of
randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental error.

3. The principle of Local Control. Under this principle, the extraneous factor, the

known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as


necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be
measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we
should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of
variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided into three components
attributed to treatments ( varieties of rice in our case), the extraneous factor ( soil
fertility in our case), and experimental error. In other words, according to the principle
of local control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous parts, known as
blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of
treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block.
Blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factor fixed, so that we can
measure its contribution to the total variability of the data by means of a two-way
analysis of variance. In short, through the principle of local control we can eliminate
the variability due to extraneous factor(s) from the experimental error.

3.2 The Research Proposal / synopsis/


After the selection of a research problem and setting proper direction for investigation,
the researcher should write out a proposal, synopsis, or plan for research.

What is the Research proposal?


According to Koul (1988:76), the research proposal is a systematic plan, which
brings to focus the preliminary planning that will be needed to accomplish the
purpose of the proposed study. It is just like a blueprint, which the architect

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peppers before the construction of building starts. More specifically, the research
proposal has the following importance:

 It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the project.


 It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow.
 It gives the research supervisor a basis for guiding the researcher while
conducting the study.
 It reduces the probability of costly mistakes.

Preparation of a full fleged proposal is not a one-time endeavor. But is the result
of continuous modification and amendment through discussions with experts in
the field.

Components of the Research Proposal


There are certain elements that appear as very essential to goo research, which
need to be reflected in the preparation of the research proposal. These include the
following:

1. The Title The title of the research should be worded in such a way that it gives
sufficient information about the nature of study. In selecting a tile for
investigation, the researcher should consider the following:

(a) The title should not be too lengthy or too involved. It should be specific to
the area of study. It should be noted that the proposed study cannot
completely be presented in the title.

For instance, the following topics appear to be too long:

- A study of the Academic Achievement of Children in Pastorals Regions


whose parents had Participated Literacy Classes Against those whose
parents did not.
- Comparison of Academic Achievement Among Grade Eight Children who
have Attended Pre-School Education and Those who did not.

(b) The title should not be too brief or too short. For instance, the following
titles appear to be too vague to convey the required meaning.

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- Marketing in Japan
- Leadership in Sudan
- Unemployment in Ethiopia

(c) The title should not be burdened by pompous words and should not
include terms of unscientific; rhetorical, argumentative, emotional, or
biased nature. The language in the title should be professional in nature
but not pedantic.

2. Statement of the problem Statement of the problem elaborates about the


problem. It attempts to focus on a clear goal. More specifically, staminate of
the problem is targeted towards the following:

- stating the background facts, which justify the study


to be in order:
- developing hypotheses or key research questions, which may show the
direction of the whole exercise
3. Review of Related Literature
The theoretical and empirical framework from which the problem arises must
be briefly described. A brief resume of related studies found in journals,
magazines, abstracts and reports should be made. This provides evidence that
the researcher is familiar with what is already known and also with what is
unknown or unproved. It also helps to avoid the risk of duplication of what has
been done and to serve as a basis for formulating hypotheses.

4. Significance of the study

While preparing the research proposal, the researcher has to incorporate the
justification for the need of the research. He/she should justify the importance
and urgency of the study; as to how the results of his/her study will be useful
to the beneficiaries. The following are some of the points in which the
justification stresses:

a) A wide time gap between the earlier study and the present one. The need
for new knowledge, techniques or conditions will necessitate for replicating
the study.

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b) Existence of knowledge gaps that were uncovered by the previous studies.
Former studies might have investigated only some aspects of the issue, or
was treated in breadth than depth. Therefore, the need for the current
study could be to help address those areas that remain untouched or
inadequately treated.
c) Lack /Shortage of information about a problem. In some instances
information in the area may be missing or scant. Therefore, the present
study may be useful in shading new light on the problem or in filling the
gap in the knowledge pertaining to the given area.
5. Definition of Terms or Concepts The technical terms or words and phrases
having special meanings need to be defined operationally by the help of
special dictionaries.
6. Delimitations of the Study

Boundaries of the study should be made clear with reference to:

(a) the scope of the study by specifying the areas to which the conclusions will
be confined, and
(b) The procedural treatment including the sampling procedures, the
techniques of data collection and analysis, the development of measuring
tools and their use in the study.
7. Limitations of the study
Although a researcher tries his best to design his research as properly as possible, there
are externals (uncontrollable) variables that confront his investigation and affect his
conclusion. In his proposal, the researcher has to specify such mitigating factors that
hinder the attainment his objectives fully. Such anticipated restrictions are referred as
limitations of the study. The possible sources of the limitations of the study include:

(a) Practical weaknesses in the methodologies the researcher adapted.


(b) Lack of access to the right data.
(c) Poor choice/development/ delivery of instruments
(d) Sampling restriction
(e) Lack of up-to-date literature in the areas
(f) Usual time borne situation in the study site

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8. Procedures for collecting Data

In this section, the details about sampling procedure and the data collecting tools are
described.

(a) Sampling
In the research process, the researcher often comes across unmanageable size of
population in which case he/she may be compelled to draw representative sample by
using different sampling techniques. A research proposal should clearly indicate the
population from which the researcher will draw his/her sample, and describe the
procedure he/she will use to select the sample.

(b) Tools

In order to gather evidence or data for the study, the researcher has developed
appropriate and reliable instrument(s). The researcher must be well versed in the use
of these tools or instruments and fully aware of their merits and demerits.

The research proposal should explain the reasons for selecting a particular tool (s) for
collecting data.

9. Methods of Data Analysis

In this section, the researcher describes how to organize, analyze, and interpret data.
The details of the statistical techniques and the rationales for using such techniques
should be described in the research proposal.

10. Bibliography
This is a section where a list of books, journals and other documents is offered. The
researcher should list all reference materials that he has used in selecting the problem
and which he may use during the conduct of study.

11. Time Schedule


The researcher should also prepare a realistic time schedule for completing the study
within the time available. Dividing a study into phases and assigning dates for the
completion of each phase help the researcher to use his time systematically.

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12. Budget Schedule
The research proposals which are submitted to governmental or non-governmental
organizations for financial assistance should also include a budget schedule. This is a
financial breakdown that helps to estimate the cost of the study.

3.3 The Research Methodology

This section attempts to answer the research question in the most rigorous ways. It is
best to organize the methodology to explain how each specific objective will be
achieved.

A) Procedures for collecting data


The details about the sampling procedures and the data collecting tools are
sdescribed.
B) Tools ( instruments ) in order to collect evidences or data for a study the
researcher has to make use of certain testing and non-testing tools such as
observations, interviews, questionnaires, etc. the research proposal should
explain the reasons for selectin a particulat tolls or tools for collecting data
C) Procdures for treating data (methods of analysis) the researcher describes how
he/she organizes, analyses and interpret the data. The details of the statistical
techniques and the rationale for using such techniques should be described in the
research proposal.

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