1 Mathematical logic

For example:
Let's Study
i) 2 is a prime number.
 Statement ii) Every rectangle is a square.
 Logical connectives iii) The Sun rises in the West.
 Quantifiers and quantified statements iv) Mumbai is the capital of Maharashtra.

 Statement patterns and logical Truth value of a statement:

equivalence
A statement is either true or false. The
 Algebra of statements truth value of a ‘true’ statement is denoted by T
(TRUE) and that of a false statement is denoted
 Venn diagrams by F (FALSE).

Introduction: Example 1: Observe the following sentences.

Mathematics is an exact science. Every i) The Sun rises in the East.
statement must be precise. There has to be
ii) The square of a real number is negative.
proper reasoning in every mathematical proof.
Proper reasoning involves Logic. Logic related iii) Sum of two odd numbers is odd.
to mathematics has been developed over last 100 iv) Sum of opposite angles in a cyclic rectangle
years or so. The axiomatic approach to logic is 180°.
was first propounded by the English philosopher Here, the truth value of statements (i) and
and mathematician George Boole. Hence it is (iv) is T, and that of (ii) and (iii) is F.
known as Boolean logic or mathematical logic Note: The sentences like exclamatory,
or symbolic logic. interrogative, imperative are not considered as
statements.
The word ‘logic’ is derived from the Greek
word ‘Logos’ which means reason. Thus Logic Example 2: Observe the following sentences.
deals with the method of reasoning. Aristotle i) May God bless you!
(382-322 B.C.), the great philosopher and
ii) Why are you so unhappy?
thinker laid down the foundations of study of
logic in a systematic form. The study of logic iii) Remember me when we are parted.
helps in increasing one’s ability of systematic iv) Don’t ever touch my phone.
and logical reasoning and develop the skill of v) I hate you!
understanding validity of statements.
vi) Where do you want to go today?

1.1 Statement: The above sentences cannot be assigned

A statement is a declarative sentence which truth values, so none of them is a statement.
is either true or false but not both simultaneously. The sentences (i) and (v) are exclamatory.
Statements are denoted by letters like p,q,r, .... The sentences (ii) and (vi) are interrogative.
The sentences (iii) and (iv) are imperative.

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Open sentences: Note:
An open sentence is a sentence whose truth i) An open sentence is not considered a
can vary according to some conditions which are statement in logic.
not stated in the sentence. ii) Mathematical identities are true statements.

Example 3: Observe the following. For example:

i) x + 4 = 8 a + 0 = 0 + a = a, for any real number a.
ii) Chinese food is very tasty
Each of the above sentences is an open
sentence, because truth of (i) depends on the
value of x; if x = 4, it is true and if x ≠ 4, it is
false and that of (ii) varies as degree of tasty
food varies from individual to individual.

Activity:

Determine whether the following sentences are statements in logic and write down the truth
values of the statements.
Sr. Sentence Whether it If ‘No’ then Truth value
No. is a statement reason of
or not (yes/No) statement
1. −9 is a rational number Yes –– False ‘F’.
2. Can you speak in French? No Interrogative ––
3. Tokyo is in Gujrat Yes –– False ‘F’.
4. Fantastic, let’s go! No Exclamatory ––
5. Please open the door quickly. No Imperative ––
6. Square of an even number is even. True ‘T’
7. x + 5 < 14
8. 5 is a perfect square
9. West Bengal is capital of Kolkata.
10. i2 = − 1
(Note: Complete the above table)

ii) The sum of interior angles of a triangle is

EXERCISE 1.1 180°

State which of the following sentences iii) You are amazing!

are statements. Justify your answer if it is a iv) Please grant me a loan.
statement. Write down its truth value. v) −4 is an irrational number.
i) A triangle has ‘n’ sides vi) x2 − 6x + 8 = 0 implies x = −4 or x = −2.

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vii) He is an actor. The words or group of words such as
viii) Did you eat lunch yet? “and”, “or”, “if ... then”, “If and only if”, can
be used to join or connect two or more simple
ix) Have a cup of cappuccino. sentences. These connecting words are called
x) (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 for all x, y ∈ R. logical connectives.
xi) Every real number is a complex number. Note: ‘not’ is a logical operator for a single
statement. It changes the truth value from T to F
xii) 1 is a prime number. and F to T.
xiii) With the sunset the day ends. Compound Statement:
xiv) 1 ! = 0 A compound statement is a statement which
is formed by combining two or more simple
xv) 3 + 5 > 11
statements with help of logical connectives.
xvi) The number Π is an irrational number. The above four sentences are compound
xvii) x2 − y2 = (x + y) (x − y) for all x, y ∈ R. sentences.
xviii) The number 2 is the only even prime Note:
number. i) Each of the statements that comprise
xix) Two co-planar lines are either parallel or a compound statement is called a sub-
intersecting. statement or a component statement.
ii) Truth value of a compound statement
xx) The number of arrangements of 7 girls in
depends on the truth values of the sub-
a row for a photograph is 7!.
statements i.e. constituent simple statements
xxi) Give me a compass box. and connectives used. Every simple
xxii) Bring the motor car here. statement has its truth value either ‘T’ or ‘F’.
Thus, while determining the truth value of
xxiii) It may rain today. a compound statement, we have to consider
xxiv) If a + b < 7, where a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0 then all possible combinations of truth values of
a <   7 and b <   7. the simple statements and connectives. This
can be easily expressed with the help of a
xxv) Can you speak in English?
truth table.
1.2 Logical connectives: Table 1.1: Logical connectives
A logical connective is also called a logical Sr. Connective Symbol Name of
operator, sentential connective or sentential No. corresponding
operator. It is a symbol or word used to connect compound
two or more sentences in a grammatically valid statement
way. 1. and ∧ conjunction
Observe the following sentences. 2. or ∨ disjunction
i) Monsoon is very good this year and the 3. not ∼ Negation
rivers are rising. 4. If ... then → conditional or
ii) Sneha is fat or unhappy. (or ⇒) implication
iii) If it rains heavily, then the school will be 5. If and only ⇔ Biconditional
closed. if (or ⇔) or double
or implication
iv) A triangle is equilateral if and only if it is iff
equiangular.
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A) Conjuction (∧): ii) Other English words such as “but”, “yet”,
If p and q are any two statements connected “though”, “still”, “moreover” are also used
by the word “and”, then the resulting compound to join two simple statements instead of
statement “p and q” is called the conjunction of “and”.
p and q, which is written in the symbolic form iii) Conjunction of two statements corresponds
as ‘p∧q’. to the “intersection of two sets” in set
theory.
For example:
Let p : 2 is a rational number SOLVED EXAMPLES
q : 4 + 3i is a complex number Ex. 1: Write the following statements in
The conjunction of the above two symbolic form.
statements is p∧q i.e. 2 a rational number and i) An angle is a right angle and its measure is
4 + 3i is a complex number. 90°.
Consider the following simple statements: ii) Jupiter is a planet and Mars is a star.
i) 5 > 3 ; Nagpur is in Vidarbha. iii) Every square is a rectangle and 3 + 5 < 2.
p:5>3 Solution:
q : Nagpur is in Vidarbha i) Let p : An angle is right angle.
The conjunction is q : Its measure is 90°.
Then, p ∧ q is the symbolic form.
p∧q : 5 > 3 and Nagpur is in Vidarbha.
ii) Let p : Jupiter is plannet
ii) p : a+bi is irrational number for all a ,b ∈ R;
q:0!=1 q : Mars is a star.
Then, p ∧ q is the symbolic form.
The conjuction is
iii) Let p : .............
p∧q : a + bi is irrational number,
q : .............
for all a, b ∈ R and 0 ! = 1 Then, .....................

Truth table of conjunction (p∧q) Ex. 2: Write the truth value of each of the
following statements.
Table 1.2
i) Patna is capital of Bihar and 5i is an
p q p∧q imaginary number.
T T T ii) Patna is capital of Bihar and 5i is not an
T F F imaginary number.
F T F iii) Patna is not capital of Bihar and 5i is an
imaginary number.
F F F
iv) Patna is not capital of Bihar and 5i is not an
From the last column, the truth values of imaginary number.
above four combinations can be decided.
Remark: Solution: Let p : Patna is capital of Bihar
i) Conjunction is true if both sub-statements q : 5i is an imaginary number
are true. Otherwise it is false. p is true; q is true.
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i) True (T), since both the sub-statements are sense that first or second or both possibilities
true i.e. both Patna is capital of Bihar and 5i exist. Hence it is called inclusive sense of ‘or’. In
is an imaginary number are true. mathematics ‘or’ is used in the inclusive sense.
(As T ∧ T = T) Thus p or q (p ∨ q) means p or q or both p and q.

ii) False (F), since first sub-statement “Patna Example: Consider the followinig simple
is capital of Bihar” is true and second sub- statements.
statement 5i is not an imaginary number is i) 3 > 2 ; 2 + 3 = 5 p : 3 > 2
False. (As T ∧ F = F) q:2+3=5
iii) False (F), since first sub-statement “Patna The disjunction is p ∨ q : 3 > 2 or 2 + 3 = 5
is not capital of Bihar” is False and second ii) New York is in U.S.; 6 > 8
sub-statement 5i is an imaginary number is
True. (As F ∧ T = F) p : New York is in U.S.
iv) False (F), since both sub-statement “Patna q:6>8
is not capital of Bihar” and “5i is not an The disjunction is p ∨ q : New York is in
imaginary number” are False. U.S. or 6 > 8.
(As F ∧ F = F) Truth table of disjunction (p ∨ q)
Table 1.3
B) Disjunction (∨):
If p and q are two simple statements p q p∨q
connected by the word ‘or’ then the resulting T T T
compound statement ‘p or q’ is called the
T F T
disjunction of p and q, which is written in the
symbolic form as ‘p ∨ q’. F T T
Note: The word ‘or’ is used in English language F F F
in two distinct senses, one is exclusive and the Note:
other is inclusive.
i) The disjunction is false if both sub-
For example: Consider the following statements. statements are false. Otherwise it is true.
i) Throwing a coin will get a head or a tail. ii) Disjunction of two statements is equivalent
ii) The amount should be paid by cheque or by to ‘union of two sets’ in set theory.
demand draft.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
In the above statements ‘or’ is used in
the sense that only one of the two possibilities Ex. 1: Express the following statements in the
exists, but not both. Hence it is called exclusive symbolic form.
sense of ‘or’.
i) Rohit is smart or he is healthy.
Also consider the statements: ii) Four or five students did not attend the
i) Graduate or employee persons are eligible lectures.
to apply for this post. Solution:
ii) The child should be accompanied by father i) Let p : Rohit is smart
or mother. q : Rohit is healthy
In the above statements ‘or’ is used in the Then, p ∨ q is symbolic form.

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ii) In this sentence ‘or’ is used for indicating EXERCISE 1.2
approximate number of students and not
Ex. 1: Express the following statements in
as a connective. Therefore, it is a simple
symbolic form.
statement and it is expressed as
i) e is a vowel or 2 + 3 = 5
p : Four or five students did not attend the
lectures. ii) Mango is a fruit but potato is a vegetable.
iii) Milk is white or grass is green.
Ex. 2: Write the truth values of the following
iv) I like playing but not singing.
statements.
v) Even though it is cloudy, it is still raining.
i) India is a democratic country or China is a
communist country. Ex. 2: Write the truth values of following
ii) India is a democratic country or China is statements.
not a communist country. i) Earth is a planet and Moon is a star.
iii) India is not a democratic country or China ii) 16 is an even number and 8 is a perfect
is a communist country. square.
iv) India is not a democratic country or China iii) A quadratic equation has two distinct roots
is not a communist country. or 6 has three prime factors.
iv) The Himalayas are the highest mountains
Solution: p : India is a democratic country.
but they are part of India in the North East.
q : China is a communist country.
C) Negation (∼):
p is true; q is true.
The denial of an assertion contained in a
i) True (T), since both the sub-statements are statement is called its negation.
true i.e. both “India is a democratic country”
The negation of a statement is generally
and “China is a communist country” are
formed by inserting the word “not” at some
true. (As T ∨ T = T)
proper place in the statement or by prefixing the
ii) True (T), since first sub-statements “India statement with “it is not the case that” or “it is
is a democratic country” is true and second false that” or “it is not true that”.
sub-statement “China is not a communist
The negation of a statement p is written as
country” is false. (As T ∨ F = T)
∼ p (read as “negation p” or “not p”) in symbolic
iii) True (T), since first sub-statements “India form.
is not a democratic country” is false
For example:
and second sub-statement “China is a
communist country” is true. (As F ∨ T = T) Let p : 2 is an even number

∼ p : 2 is not an even number.
iv) False (F), since both the sub-statements
“India is not a democratic country” and or ∼ p : It is not the case that 2 is an even
“China is not a communist country” are number
false. (As F ∨ F = F) or ∼ p : It is false that 2 is an even number

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 The truth table of negation (∼ p) D) Conditional statement (Implication, →)
Table 1.4 If two simple statements p and q are
p ∼p connected by the group of words “If ... then ...”,
then the resulting compound statement “If p then
T F
q” is called a conditional statement (implication)
F T and is written in symbolic form as “p → q” (read
Note: Negation of a statement is equivalent to as “p implies q”).
the complement of a set in set theory.
For example:
SOLVED EXAMPLES i) Let p : There is rain
q : The match will be cancelled
Ex. 1: Write the negation of the following
statements. then, p → q : If there is rain then the match
will be cancelled.
i) p : He is honest.
ii) Let p : r is a rational number.
ii) q : p is an irrational number.
q : r is a real number.
Solution: then, p → q : If r is a rational number then r
i) ∼ p : He is not honest is a real number.

or ∼ p : It is not the case that he is honest The truth table for conditional statement
or ∼ p : It is false that he is honest. (p → q)
ii) ∼ q : p is not an irrational number. Table 1.5

or ∼ q : p q p→q

or ∼ q : T T T
T F F
F T T
EXERCISE 1.3
F F T
1. Write the negation of each of the following
statements.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
i) All men are animals.
ii) − 3 is a natural number. Ex. 1: Express the following statements in the
iii) It is false that Nagpur is capital of symbolic form.
Maharashtra i) If the train reaches on time, then I can catch
iv) 2 + 3 ≠ 5 the connecting flight.

2. Write the truth value of the negation of each ii) If price increases then demand falls.
of the following statements.
Solution:
i) 5 is an irrational number
i) Let p : The train reaches on time
ii) London is in England
q : I can catch the connecting flight.
iii) For every x ∈ N , x + 3 < 8. Therefore, p → q is symbolic form.

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ii) Let p : price increases For example:
q : demand falls i) Let p : Milk is white
Therefore, p → q is symbolic form. q : the sky is blue
Therefore, p ↔ q : Milk is white if and only
Ex. 2: Write the truth value of each of the if the sky is blue.
following statements.
ii) Let p : 3 < 5
i) If Rome is in Italy then Paris is in France. q : 4 2 is an irrational number.
ii) If Rome is in Italy then Paris is not in Therefore, p ↔ q : 3 < 5 if and only if 4 2
France. is an irrational number.
iii) If Rome is not in Italy then Paris is in
France. Truth table for biconditional (p ↔ q)
iv) If Rome is not in Italy then Paris not in Table 1.6
France. p q p↔q
T T T
Solution:
T F F
p : Rome is in Italy
F T F
q : Paris is in France
F F T
p is true ; q is true.
i) True (T), since both the sub-statements are SOLVED EXAMPLES
true. i.e. Rome is in Italy and Paris is in
France are true. (As T → T = T) Ex. 1: Translate the following statements (verbal
form) to symbolic form.
ii) False (F), since first sub-statement Rome
is in Italy is true and second sub-statement i) Price increases if and only if demand falls.
Paris in not in France is false. ii) 5 + 4 = 9 if and only if 3 + 2 = 7
(As T → F = F)
Solution:
iii) True (T), since first sub-statement Rome is
i) Let p : Price increases
not in Italy is false and second sub-statement
Paris is in France is true. (As F → T = T) q : demand falls
Therefore, p ↔ q is the symbolic form.
iv) True (T), since both the sub-statements are
false. i.e. Rome is not in Italy and Paris is ii) Let p : 5 + 4 = 9
not in France both are false. (As F → F = T) q : 3 + 2 = 7
Therefore, p ↔ q is the symbolic form.
E) Biconditional (Double implication) (↔)
or (⇔): Ex. 2: Write the truth value of each of the
If two statements p and q are connected by following statements.
the group of words “If and only if” or “iff”, then i) The Sun rises in the East if and only if
the resulting compound statement “p if and only 4+3=7
if q” is called biconditional of p and q, is written
in symbolic form as p ↔ q and read as “p if and ii) The Sun rises in the East if and only if
only if q”. 4 + 3 = 10

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iii) The Sun rises in the West if and only if ii) It is false that Nagpur is capital of India iff
4+3=7 3+2=4
iv) The Sun rises in the West if and only if iii) ABCD is a parallelogram but it is not a
4 + 3 = 10 quadrilateral.
iv) It is false that 32 + 42 = 52 or 2 is not a
Solution: rational number but 32 + 42 = 52 and 8 > 3.
p : The Sun rises in the East;
q : 4 + 3 = 7; Solution:
p is true, q is true. i) Let p : quadrilateral is a square
The truth value of each statement is given q : quadrilateral is a rhombus.
by Then, p → ∼ q is symbolic form.
i) True (T), since both the sub-statements (i.e. ii) Let p : Nagpur is capital of India
“The Sun rises in the East” and “4 + 3 = 7”) q : 3 + 2 = 4
are true. (As T ↔ T = T) Then, ∼ p ↔ q is the symbolic form.
ii) False (F), since both the sub-statements iii) Let p : ABCD is a parallelogram
have opposite truth values (i.e. “The Sun
rises in the East” is true but “4 + 3 = 10” is q : ABCD is a quadrilateral
false.). (As T ↔ F = F) Then, p ∧ ∼ q is the symbolic form.
iii) False (F), since both the sub-statements iv) Let p : 32 + 42 = 52
have opposite truth values (i.e. “The Sun q : 2 is a rational number
rises in the East” is false but “4 + 3 = 7” is r : 8 > 3.
true.). (As F ↔ T = F)
Therefore, (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) ∧ (p ∧ r) is the
iv) True (T), since both the sub-statements symbolic form of the required statement.
have same truth values (i.e. they are false.)
(As F ↔ F = T) Ex. 2: Express the following statements in
Therefore, p ↔ q is the symbolic form. symbolic form and write their truth values.
Note: i) It is not true that 2 is a rational number.
i) The biconditional statement p ↔ q is the ii) 4 is an odd number iff 3 is not a prime factor
compound statement “p → q” and “q → p” of 6.
of two compound statements. iii) It is not true that i is a real number.
ii) p ↔ q can also be read as –
a) q if and only if p. Solution:

b) p is necessary and sufficient for q. i) Let p : 2 is a rational number.

Then ∼ p is the symbolic form.
c) q is necessary and sufficient for p.
Given statement, p is false F.
d) p implies q and q implies p. ∴∼p≡T
e) p implies and is implied by q. ∴ the truth value of given statement is T.
Ex. 1: Express the following in symbolic form ii) Let p : 4 is an odd number.
using logical connectives. q : 3 is a prime factor of 6.
i) If a quadrilateral is a square then it is not a ∼ q : 3 is not a prime factor of 6.
rhombus.
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 Therefore, p ↔ (∼ q) is the symbolic form. Ex. 3: If p and q are true and r and s are false,
Given statement, p is false F. find the truth value of each of the following.

q is true T. i) (p ↔ ∼ q) ∧ (r ↔ ∼ s)

∴ ∼ q is false F. ii) (p → r) ∨ (q → s)

∴ p ↔ (∼ q) ≡ F ↔ F ≡ T iii) ∼ [(p ∧ ∼ s) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ r)]

∴ the truth value of given statement is T. Solution:

iii) Let p : i is a real number. i) Without truth table : (p ↔ ∼ q) ∧ (r ↔ ∼ s)
∴ ∼ p : It is not true that i is a real number. = (T ↔ ∼ T) ∧ (F ↔ ∼ F)
Therefore, ∼ p : is the symbolic form. = (T ↔ F) ∧ (F ↔ T)
p is false F. =F∧ F
=F
∴ ∼ p : is true T.
∴ the truth value of the given statement is
T.
Construct truth table
Table 1.7
p q r s ∼q ∼s p↔∼q r↔∼s (p ↔ ∼ q) ∧ (r ↔ ∼ s)
T T F F F T F F F

ii) Without truth table : Construct truth table

(p → r) ∨ (q → s) = (T → F) ∨ (T → F) Table 1.9
=F∨F (Note: Construct truth table and complete
=F your solution)

Construct truth table EXERCISE 1.4

Table 1.8
Ex. 1: Write the following statements in
p q r s p → r q → s (p → r) ∨ (q → s) symbolic form.
T T F F F F F i) If triangle is equilateral then it is equiangular.
ii) Without truth table : (Activity) ii) It is not true that “i” is a real number.
∼ [(p ∧ ∼ s) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ r)] iii) Even though it is not cloudy, it is still
raining.
= ∼ [( ∧∼ )∨( ∧ )]
iv) Milk is white if and only if the sky is not
= ∼ [( ∧ T) ∨ (T ∧ T)] blue.
=∼( ∨ ) v) Stock prices are high if and only if stocks
are rising.
=∼( )
vi) If Kutub-Minar is in Delhi then Taj-Mahal
= is in Agra.

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Ex. 2: Find truth value of each of the following 1.2.1 Quantifiers and Quantified statements:
statements.
i) For every x ∈ R, x2 is non negative. We
i) It is not true that 3 − 7i is a real number. shall now see how to write this statement
ii) If a joint venture is a temporary partnership, using symbols. ‘∀x’ is used to denote “For
then discount on purchase is credited to the all x”.
supplier.
Thus, the above statement may be written
iii) Every accountant is free to apply his own in mathematical notation " z ∈ R, z2 ≥ 0.
accounting rules if and only if machinery is The symbol ‘"’ stands for “For all values
an asset.
of”. This is known as universal quantifier.
iv) Neither 27 is a prime number nor divisible
by 4. ii) Also we can get x ∈ N such that x + 4 = 7.
To write this in symbols we use the symbol
v) 3 is a prime number and an odd number. ∃ x to denote “there exists x”. Thus, we have
∃ x ∈ N such that x + 4 = 7.
Ex. 3: If p and q are true and r and s are false,
find the truth value of each of the following The symbol ∃ stands for “there exists”. This
compound statements. symbol is known as existential quantifier.
i) p ∧ (q ∧ r)
Thus, there are two types of quantifiers.
ii) (p → q) ∨ (r ∧ s)
a) Universal quantifier (")
iii) ∼ [(∼ p ∨ s) ∧ (∼ q ∧ r)]
b) Existential quantifier (∃)
iv) (p → q) ↔ ∼ (p ∨ q)
Quantified statement:
v) [(p ∨ s) → r] ∨ ∼ [∼ (p → q) ∨ s]
An open sentence with a quantifier becomes
vi) ∼ [p ∨ (r ∧ s)] ∧ ∼ [(r ∧ ∼ s) ∧ q]
a statement and is called a quantified statement.
Ex. 4: Assuming that the following statements
are true, SOLVED EXAMPLES
p : Sunday is holiday,
q : Ram does not study on holiday, Ex. 1: Use quantifiers to convert each of the
find the truth values of the following following open sentences defined on N, into a
statements. true statement.
i) Sunday is not holiday or Ram studies on i) 2x + 3 = 11
holiday.
ii) If Sunday is not holiday then Ram studies ii) x3 < 64
on holiday. iii) x + 5 < 9
iii) Sunday is a holiday and Ram studies on
holiday. Solution:

Ex. 5: If p : He swims i) ∃ x ∈ N such that 2x + 3 = 11. It is a true

q : Water is warm statement, since x = 4 ∈ N satisfies 2x + 3 =
11.
Give the verbal statements for the following
symbolic statements. ii) x3 < 64 ∃ x ∈ N such that it is a true
statement, since x = 1 or 2 or 3 ∈ N satisfies
i) p↔∼q
x3 < 64.
ii) ∼ (p ∨ q)
iii) ∃ x ∈ N such that x + 5 < 9. It is a true
iii) q → p statement for x = 1 or 2 or 3 ∈ N satisfies
iv) q ∧ ∼ p x + 5 < 9.

11
Ex. 2: If A = {1, 3, 5, 7} determine the truth For example:
value of each of the following statements.
i) (p ∨ q) → r
i) ∃ x ∈ A, such that x2 < 1.
ii) ∃ x ∈ A, such that x + 5 ≤ 10 ii) p ∧ (q ∧ r)
iii) " x ∈ A, x + 3 < 9 iii) ∼ (p ∨ q) are statement patterns

Solution: Note: While preparing truth tables of the given

statement patterns, the following points should
i) No number in set A satisfies x2 < 1, since be noted.
the square of every natural number is 1 or
greater than 1. i) If a statement pattern involves n component
∴ the given statement is false, hence its statements p, q, r, ..... and each of p, q, r, .....
truth value is F. has 2 possible truth values namely T and F,
then the truth table of the statement pattern
ii) Clearly, x = 1, 3 or 5 satisfies x + 5 ≤ 10.
consists of 2n rows.
So the given statement is true, hence truth
value is T. ii) If a statement pattern contains “m”
iii) Since x = 7 ∈ A does not satisfy x + 3 < 9, connectives and “n” component statements
the given statement is false. Hence its truth then the truth table of the statement pattern
value is F. consists of (m + n) columns.
iii) Parentheses must be introduced whenever
EXERCISE 1.5 necessary.
Ex. 1: Use quantifiers to convert each of the For example:
following open sentences defined on N, into a ∼ (p → q) and ∼ p → q are not the same.
true statement.
i) x2 + 3x − 10 = 0 SOLVED EXAMPLES
ii) 3x − 4 < 9
iii) n2 ≥ 1 Ex. 1: Prepare the truth table for each of the
iv) 2n − 1 = 5 following statement patterns.
v) Y + 4 > 6 i) [(p → q) ∨ p] → p
vi) 3y − 2 ≤ 9 ii) ∼ [p ∨ q] → ∼ (p ∧ q)
Ex. 2: If B = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7} determine the truth iii) (∼ p ∨ q) ∨ ∼ q
value of each of the following.
iv) (p ∧ r) ∨ (q ∧ r)
i) " x ∈ B such that x is prime number.
ii) ∃ n ∈ B, such that n + 6 > 12 Solution:
iii) ∃ n ∈ B, such that 2n + 2 < 4 i) [(p → q) ∨ p) → p
iv) " y ∈ B such that y2 is negative
v) " y ∈ B such that (y − 5) ∈ N Truth table 1.10
p q p → q (p → q) ∨ p [(p → q) ∨ p]
1.3 Statement Patterns and Logical →p
Equivalence:
T T T T T
A) Statement Patterns:
T F F T T
Let p, q, r, ..... be simple statements. F T T T F
A compound statement obtained from these
F F T T F
simple statements by using one or more of the
connectives ∧, ∨, →, ↔, is called a statement ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) → ∼ (p ∧ q)
pattern.
12
 Truth table 1.11
p q p∨q ∼ (p ∨ q) (p ∧ q) ∼ (p ∧ q) ∼ (p ∨ q) → ∼ (p ∧ q)
T T T F T F T
T F T F F T T
F T T F F T T
F F F T F T T

iii) (∼ p ∨ q) ∨ ∼ q iii) p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ (p ∨ r)
Truth table 1.12 iv) ∼ r → ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ (q → r) → ∼ p
p q ∼p ∼q ∼p∨q (∼ p ∨ q) ∨ ∼ q
Solution:
T T F F T T i) ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
T F F T F T
Truth table 1.14
F T T F T T
F F T T T T p q ∼ p ∼ q p ∧ q ∼ (p ∧ q) ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
iv) (p ∧ r) ∨ (q ∧ r)
T T F F T F F
Complete the following truth table :
T F F T F T T
Truth table 1.13
F T T F F T T
p q r p∧r q∧r (p ∧ r) ∨ (q ∧ r)
F F T T F T T
T T T T
T F From the truth table 1.14, we observe that
F
all entires in 6th and 7th columns are identical.
F T T
∴ ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
F F
F T F ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q
T F F
Truth table 1.15
T
p q ∼ p ∼ q p ∨ q ∼ (p ∨ q) ∼ p ∧ ∼ q
F F F
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
B) Logical Equivalence: T T F F T F F
Two or more statement patterns are said to T F F T T F F
be logically equivalent if and only if the truth
values in their respective columns in the joint F T T F T F F
truth table are identical. F F T T F T T
If s1 , s2 , s3 , .... are logically equivalent From the truth table 1.15, we observe that
statement patterns, we write s1 ≡ s2 ≡ s3 ≡ ... all entires in 6th and 7th columns are identical.
∴ ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q.
For example: Using a truth table, verify that
i) ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q

13
iii) Activity
p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ (p ∨ r)

Truth table 1.16

p q r q∨r P∨ p∨q p∨r (p ∨ q) ∨ (p ∨ r)
(q ∨ r)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
T T T T
T T T T
F T T T
F F T T T
F T T
F T T T F T
T F T T
F F
From the truth table 1.16, we observe that all entires in 5th and 8th columns are identical.
∴ p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ (p ∨ r)

iv) Activity
∼ r → ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ (q → r) → ∼ p

Prepare the truth table 1.17

p q r ∼p ∼r p∧q ∼ (p ∧ q) ∼r→ q→r ∼ (q → r) ∼ (q → r)
∼ (p ∧ q) →∼ p

C) Tautology, contradiction, contingency: component statements is called a tautology.

Tautology: For example:
A statement pattern always having the truth Consider (p ∧ q) → (p ∨ q)
value ‘T’, irrespective of the truth values of its

14
 Truth table 1.18 In the table 1.20, the entries in the last
column are not all T and not all F. Therefore, the
p q p∧q p∨q (p ∧ q) → (p ∨ q)
given statement pattern is a contingency.
T T T T T
SOLVED EXAMPLES
T F F T T
F T F T T Ex. 1: Using the truth table, examine whether
F F F F T the following statement patterns are tautology,
contradictions or contingency.
In the above table, all the entries in the last
column are T. Therefore, the given statement i) (p ∧ q) → p
pattern is a tautology. ii) (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) ↔ ∼ (p ∧ q)
iii) (∼ q ∧ p) ∧ q
Contradiction:
iv) p → (∼ q ∨ r)
A statement pattern always having the truth
value ‘F’ irrespective of the truth values of its
Solution:
component statements is called a contradiction.
i) The truth table for (p ∧ q) → p
For example:
Truth table 1.21
Consider p ∧ ∼ p
p q p∧q (p ∧ q) → p
Truth table 1.19 T T T T
p ∼p p∧∼p T F F T
T F F F T F T
F T F F F F T
In the above truth table, all the entries in the In the table 1.21, all the entries in the last
last column are F. Therefore, the given statement column are T. Therefore, the given statement
pattern is a contradiction. pattern is a tautology.
Contingency:
ii) Activity:
A statement pattern which is neither
a tautology nor a contradiction is called a Prepare the truth table for (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) ↔ ∼
contingency. (p ∧ q)
For example: Truth table 1.22
Consider (p → q) ∧ (q → p) p q ∼ p ∼ q p ∧ q ∼ (p ∧ q) (∼ p ∨∼ q) ( ∼ p ∨∼ q)
↔ ∼ ( p ∧ q)
Truth table 1.20
p q p → q q → p (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
iii) The truth table for (∼ q ∧ p) ∧ q
F F T T T

15
 Truth table 1.23 i) q ∨ [∼ (p ∧ q)]
p q ∼q ∼q∧p (∼ q ∧ p) ∧ q ii) (∼ q ∧ p) ∧ (p ∧ ∼ p)
T T F F F iii) (p ∧ ∼ q) → (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
T F T T F iv) ∼ p → (p → ∼ q)
F T F F F
3. Prove that each of the following statement
F F T F F pattern is a tautology.
In the table 1.23, all the entries in the last i) (p ∧ q) → q
column are F.
ii) (p → q) ↔ (∼ q → ∼ p)
Therefore, the given statement pattern is a
contradiction. iii) (∼ p ∧ ∼ q) → (p → q)
iv) The truth table for p → (∼ q ∨ r) iv) (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) ↔ ∼ (p ∧ q)

Truth table 1.24 4. Prove that each of the following statement

p q r ∼q ∼q∨r p → (∼ q ∨ r) pattern is a contradiction.
T T T F T T i) (p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
T T F F F F ii) (p ∧ q) ∧ ∼ p
T F T T T T iii) (p ∧ q) ∧ (∼ p ∨ ∼ q)
T F F T T T iv) (p → q) ∧ (p ∧ ∼ q)
F T T F T T
5. Show that each of the following statement
F T F F F T pattern is a contingency.
F F T T T T i) (p ∧ ∼ q) → (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
F F F T T T ii) (p → q) ↔ (∼ p ∨ q)
In the table 1.24, the entries in the last iii) p ∧ [(p → ∼ q) → q]
column are neither all T nor all F.
iv) (p → q) ∧ (p → r)
Therefore, the given statement pattern is a
contingency.
6. Using the truth table, verify

i) p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
EXERCISE 1.6
ii) p → (p → q) ≡ ∼ q → (p → q)
1. Prepare truth tables for the following iii) ∼ (p → ∼ q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ (∼ q) ≡ p ∧ q
statement patterns.
iv) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p
i) p → (∼ p ∨ q)
ii) (∼ p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) 7. Prove that the following pairs of statement
patterns are equivalent.
iii) (p ∧ r) → (p ∨ ∼ q)
i) p ∨ (q ∧ r) and (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
iv) (p ∧ q) ∨ ∼ r
ii) p ↔ q and (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
2. Examine whether each of the following iii) p → q and ∼ q → ∼ p and ∼ p ∨ q
statement patterns is a tautology, a
contradiction or a contingency iv) ∼ (p ∧ q) and ∼ p ∨ ∼ q.

16
D) Duality:
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Two compound statements s1 and s2 are said
to be duals of each other, if one can be obtained Ex. 1: Write the duals of the following statements:
from the other by replacing ∧ by ∨ and ∨ by ∧,
and c by t and t by c, where t denotes tautology i) ∼ (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ q ∧ ∼ p)
and c denotes contradiction. ii) (p ∨ q) ∧ (r ∨ s)
iii) [(p ∧ q) ∨ r] ∧ [(q ∧ r) ∨ s]
Note:
i) Dual of a statement is unique. Solution: The duals are given by
ii) The symbol ∼ is not changed while finding i) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ q ∨ ∼ p)
the dual. ii) (p ∧ q) ∨ (r ∧ s)
iii) Dual of the dual is the original statement iii) [(p ∨ q) ∧ r] ∨ [(q ∨ r) ∧ s]
itself.
Ex. 2: Write the duals of the following statements:
iv) The connectives ∧ and ∨, the special
statements t and c are duals of each other. i) All natural numbers are integers or rational
numbers.
v) T is changed to F and vice-versa.
ii) Some roses are red and all lillies are white.
For example: Solution: The duals are given by
i) Consider the distributive laws, i) All natural numbers are integers and rational
p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r) ... (1) numbers.
p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) ... (2) ii) Some roses are red or all lillies are white.
Observe that (2) can be obtained from (1)
by replacing ∧ by ∨ and ∨ by ∧ i.e. interchanging EXERCISE 1.7
∧ and ∨.
1. Write the dual of each of the following :
Hence (1) is the dual of (2).
i) (p ∨ q) ∨ r
Similarly, (1) can be obtained from (2) by
replacing ∨ by ∧ and ∧ by ∨. Hence, (2) is the ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∧ [p ∨ ∼ (q ∧ ∼ r)]
dual of (1). iii) p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r
Therefore, statements (1) and (2) are called iv) ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
duals of each other.
2. Write the dual statement of each of the
following compound statements.
ii) Consider De-Morgan’s laws :
i) 13 is prime number and India is a
∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q ... (1) democratic country.
∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q ... (2) ii) Karina is very good or every body likes
her.
Statements, (1) and (2) are duals of each
other. iii) Radha and Sushmita can not read
Urdu.
iv) A number is real number and the square
of the number is non negative.

17
E) Negation of a compound statement: 3) Negation of negation:
We have studied the negation of simple Let p be a simple statement.
statements. Negation of a simple statement is Truth table 1.25
obtained by inserting “not” at the appropriate
p ∼p ∼ (∼ p)
place in the statement e.g. the negation of “Ram
is tall” is “Ram is not tall”. But writing negations T F T
of compound statements involving conjunction., F T F
disjunction, conditional, biconditional etc. is not
straight forward. From the truth table 1.25, we see that
∼ (∼ p) ≡ p
1) Negation of conjunction:
Thus, the negation of negation of a
In section 1.3(B) we have seen that ∼ (p statement is the original statement - ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p.
∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q. It means that negation of the
conjunction of two simple statements is the For example:
disjunction of their negation.
Let p : 5 is an irrational number.
Consider the following conjunction.
The negation of p is given by
“Parth plays cricket and chess.”
∼ p : 5 is not an irrational number.
Let p : Parth plays cricket.
∼ (∼ p) : 5 is an irrational number.
q : Parth plays chess.
Therefore, negation of negation of p is
Given statement is p ∧ q. ∼ (∼ p) i.e. it is not the case that 5 is not an
You know that ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q irrational number.

∴ negation is Parth doesn’t play cricket or OR it is false that 5 is not an irrational

he doesn’t play chess. number.
OR 5 is an irrational number.
2) Negation of disjunction:
In section 1.3(B) we have seen that 4) Negation of Conditional (Implication):
∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q. It means that negation of You know that p → q ≡ ∼ p ∨ q
the disjunction of two simple statements is the
∴ ∼ (p → q) ≡ ∼ (∼ p ∨ q)
conjunction of their negation.
≡ ∼ (∼ p) ∧ ∼ q ... by De-Morgan's law
For ex: The number 2 is an even number or the
number 2 is a prime number. ∴ ∼ (p → q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ q
Let p : The number 2 is an even number. We can also prove this result by truth table.
q : The number 2 is a prime number.
Truth table 1.26
∴ given statement : p ∨ q. p q p → q ∼ (p → q) ∼q p∧∼q
You know that ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q 1 2 3 4 5 6
∴ negation is “The number 2 is not an T T T F F F
even number and the number 2 is not a prime
T F F T T T
number”.
F T T F F F
F F T F F F

18
 All the entries in the columns 4 and 6 of 5) Negation of Biconditional (Double
table 1.26 are identical. implication):
∴ ∼ (p → q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ q Consider the biconditional p ↔ q.
e.g. If every planet moves around the Sun Method 1:
then every Moon of the planet moves around the We have seen that
Sun. (p ↔ q) ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
Negation of the given statement is, Every ∴ ∼ (p ↔ q) ≡ ∼ [(p → q) ∧ (q → p)]
planet moves around the Sun but (and) every ≡ ∼ (p → q) ∨ ∼ (q → p)
Moon of the planet does not move around the ... by De-Morgans law
Sun. ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)
... by negation of the
conditional statement
∴ ∼ (p ↔ q) ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)

Method 2:
We also prove this by using truth table 1.27.
Truth Table 1.27
p q p ↔ q ∼ (p ↔ ∼ q) ∼p ∼q p ∧ ∼ q q ∧ ∼ p (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
T T T F F F F F F
T F F T F T T F T
F T F T T F F T T
F F T F T T F F F
Since all the entries in the columns 4 and 9 of truth table 1.27 are identical.
∴ ∼ (p ↔ q) ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p).

For example: 2n is divisible by 4 if and only if For example: Consider the statement pattern
n is an even integer. (∼ p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ q). Its negation is given by :
Let p : 2n is divisible by 4 i.e. ∼ [(∼ p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ q)]
q : n is an even integer. ≡ (p ∨ ∼ q) ∧ (∼ p ∧ q)
6) Negation of a quantified statement:
Therefore, negation of the given statement
is “2n is divisible by 4 and n is not an even integer While forming negation of a quantified
or n is an even integer and 2n is not divisible statement, we replace the word ‘all’ by ‘some’,
by 4”. “for every” by “there exists” and vice versa.

Note: SOLVED EXAMPLES

Negation of a statement pattern involving
Ex. 1: Write negation of each of the following
one or more of the simple statements p, q, r, ...
statements :
and one or more of the three connectives ∧, ∨, ∼
can be obtained by replacing ∧ by ∨, ∨ by ∧ and i) All girls are sincere
replaicng p, q, r ....by ∼p, ∼q, ∼r. ....

19
ii) If India is playing world cup and Rohit is Converse: q → p i.e. If a man is happy
the captain, then we are sure to win. then he is rich.
iii) Some bureaucrats are efficient. Inverse: ∼ p → ∼ q i.e. If a man is not rich
then he is not happy.
Solution: Contrapositive: ∼ q → ∼ p i.e. If a man is
i) The negation is, not happy then he is not rich.
Some girls are not sincere ii) Let p : The train reaches on time.
OR, There exists a girl, who is not sincere. q : I can catch the connecting flight.
ii) Let p : India is playing world cup Therefore, the symbolic form of the given
q : Rohit is the captain statement is p → q.

r : We win. Converse, q → p i.e.

The given compound statement is Inverse i.e.

(p ∧ q) → r Contrapositive i.e.

Therefore, the negation is, Ex. 3: Using the rules of negation, write the
∼ [(p ∧ q) → r] ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ ∼ r negation of the following :
India is playing world cup and Rohit is the i) (∼ p ∧ r) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ r)
captain and we are not sure to win. ii) (p ∨ ∼ r) ∧ ∼ q

iii) The negation is, all bureaucrats are not iii) The crop will be destroyed if there is a
efficient. flood.

Converse, Inverse and contrapositive: Solution:

Let p and q be simple statements and i) The negation of (∼ p ∧ r) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ r) is
let p → q be the implication of p and q. ∼ [(∼ p ∧ r) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ r)]
Then, i) The converse of p → q is q → p. ≡ ∼ (∼ p ∧ r) ∧ ∼ (p ∨ ∼ r)
ii) Inverse of p → q is ∼ p → ∼ q. ... by De-Morgan's law
iii) Contrapositive of p → q is ∼ q → ∼ p. ≡ (p ∨ ∼ r) ∧ (∼ p ∧ r)

For example: Write the converse, inverse and ... by De-Morgan's law and
contrapositive of the following compound ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p and ∼ (∼ r) = r.
statements.
ii) The negation of (p ∨ ∼ r) ∧ ∼ q is
i) If a man is rich then he is happy.
ii) If the train reaches on time then I can catch ∼ [(p ∨ ∼ r) ∧ ∼ q]
the connecting flight. ≡ ∼ (p ∨ ∼ r) ∨ ∼ (∼ q)
... by De Morgan's law
Solution:
≡ (∼ p ∧ r) ∨ q
i) Let p : A man is rich.
q : He is happy. ... by De Morgan's law and
∼ (∼ q) ≡ q.
Therefore, the symbolic form of the given
statement is p → q.

20
iii) Let p : The crop will be destroyed. 2. Using the rules of negation, write the
q : There is a flood. negations of the following :

Therefore, the given statement is q → p i) (p → r) ∧ q

and its negation is ∼ (q → p) ≡ q ∧ ∼ p ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) → r
i.e. the crop will not be destroyed and there iii) (∼ p ∧ q) ∧ (∼ q ∨ ∼ r)
is a flood.
3. Write the converse, inverse and
contrapositive of the following statements.
EXERCISE 1.8
i) If it snows, then they do not drive the
1. Write negation of each of the following car.
statements. ii) If he studies, then he will go to college.
i) All the stars are shining if it is night.
ii) ∀ n ∈ N, n + 1 > 0 4. With proper justification, state the negation
of each of the following.
iii) ∃ n ∈ N, (n2 + 2) is odd number
i) (p → q) ∨ (p → r)
iv) Some continuous functions are
differentiable. ii) (p ↔ q) ∨ (∼ q → ∼ r)
iii) (p → q) ∧ r

1.4 Algebra of statements:

The statement patterns, under the relation of logical equivalence, satisfy various laws. We have
already proved a majority of them and the rest are obvious. Now, we list these laws for ready reference.
1. p∨p≡p Idempotent laws p∧p≡p
2. p ∨ (q ∨ r) Associative laws p ∧ (q ∧ r)
≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r
≡p∨q∨r ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r
3. (p ∨ q) ≡ q ∨ p Commutative laws p∧q≡q∧p
4. p ∨ (q ∧ r) Distributive laws p ∧ (q ∨ r)
≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)
5. p∨c≡p Identity laws p∧c≡c
p∨t≡t p∧t≡p
6. p∨∼p≡t Complement laws p∧∼p≡c
∼t≡c ∼c≡t
7. ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p Involution law (law of
double negation)
8. ∼ (p ∨ q) DeMorgan’s laws ∼ (p ∧ q)
≡∼p∧∼q ≡∼p∨∼q
9. p→q Contrapositive law
≡∼q→∼p

21
Note: In case of three simple statements p,q,r, ≡ [(p ∧ ∼ p) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)] → q
we note the following : ... by Distributive law
i) p ∧ q ∧ r is true if and only if p, q, r are all ≡ [(c ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)] → q
true and p ∧ q ∧ r is false even if any one of
p, q, r is false. ... by Complement law
ii) p ∨ q ∨ r is false if and only if p, q, r are all ≡ (∼ p ∧ q) → q ... by Commutative law
false, otherwise it is true. ≡ ∼ (∼ p ∧ q) ∨ q
... by ∼ ∼ (p → q) ≡ ∼ (p ∧ ∼ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ q
SOLVED EXAMPLES

Ex. 1: Without using truth table, show that ≡ [(p ∨ ∼ q) ∨ q ... by De Morgan's law
i) p ∨ (q ∧ ∼ q) ≡ p ≡ p ∨ (∼ q ∨ q)] ... by Associative law
ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ≡p∨t
iii) p ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ≡ p ∨ q ≡t

Solution:
EXERCISE 1.9
i) p ∨ (q ∧ ∼ q)
≡p∨c ... by complement law 1. Without using truth table, show that
≡ p ... by Identity law i) p ↔ q ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ii) p ∧ [(∼ p ∨ q) ∨ ∼ q] ≡ p
≡ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) iii) ∼ [(p ∧ q) → ∼ q] ≡ p ∧ q
... by De Morgans law iv) ∼ r → ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ [∼ (q → r)] → ∼ p
v) (p ∨ q) → r ≡ (p → r) ∧ (q → r)
≡ ∼ p ∧ (∼ q ∨ q)
... by Distributive law 2. Using the algebra of statement, prove that
≡∼p∧t i) [p ∧ (q ∨ r)] ∨ [∼ r ∧ ∼ q ∧ p] ≡ p
... by Complement law ii) (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q) ≡
≡ ∼ p ... by Identity law p ∨ ∼ q)

iii) p ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) iii) (p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) ≡ (p ∨ ∼ q) ∧
(∼ p ∨ q)
≡ (p ∨ ∼ p) ∧ (p ∨ q)
... by Distributive law 1.5 Venn Diagrams:
≡ t ∧ (p ∨ q) ... by Complement law We have already studied Venn Diagrams
while studying set theory. Now we try to
≡ p ∨ q ... by Identity law
investigate the similarly between rules of logical
connectives and those of various operations on
Ex. 2: Without using truth table, prove that
sets.
[(p ∨ q) ∧ ∼ p] → q is a tautology.
The rules of logic and rules of set theory go
Solution: hand in hand.
[(p ∨ q) ∧ ∼ p] → q

22
i) Disjunction in logic is equivalent to the iii) iv)
union of sets in set theory.
ii) Conjunction in logic is equivalent to the
intersection of sets in set theory.
A = B A∩B≠φ
iii) Negation of a statement in logic is equivalent
to the complement of a set in set theory. v)
iv) Implication of two statements in logic is
equivalent to ‘subset’ in set theory.
v) Biconditional of two statements in logic is
A ∩ B = φ
equivalent to “equality of two sets” in set
Fig. 1.1
theory.
Main object of this discussion is actually to Observe the following four statements
give analogy between algebra of statements in i) a) All professors are educated.
logic and operations on sets in set theory. b) Equiangular triangles are precisely
Let A and B be two nonempty sets equilateral triangles.
i) The union of A and B is defined as ii) No policeman is a thief.
iii) Some doctors are rich.
A∪B = {x / x∈A or x∈B}
iv) Some students are not scholars.
ii) The intersection of A and B is defined as
These statements can be generalized respectively
A∩B = {x / x∈A and x∈B} as
iii) The difference of A and B (relative a) All x’s are y’s c) Some x’s are y’s
complement of B in set A) is defined as b) No x’s are y’s d) Some x’s are not y’s
A−B = {x / x∈A, x∉B}
a) Diagram for “All x’s are y’s”
Note: One of the possible relationships between There are two possibilities
two sets A and B holds .
i) All x’s are y’s i.e. x ⊂ y
i) A ⊂ B ii) x’s are precisely y’s i.e. x = y
ii) B ⊂ A For example:
iii) A = B i) Consider the statement
iv) A ⊄ B , B ⊄ A and A ∩ B ≠ φ “All professors are educated”
v) A ⊄ B , B ⊄ A and A ∩ B = φ Let p : The set of all professors.
E : The set of all educated people.
Figure:
Let us choose the universal set as
i) ii) u : The set of all human beings.

A ⊂ B B⊂A

P⊂E
Fig. 1.2
23
 The Venn diagram (fig. 1.2) represents the
truth of the statement i.e. P ⊂ E.
ii) Consider the statement
India will be prosperous if and only if its
citizens are hard working. E∩O=φ
Let P : The set of all prosperous Indians. Fig. 1.5
H : The set of all hard working Indians.
U : The set of all human beings. The Venn diagram (fig. 1.5) represents the
truth of the statement i.e. E ∩ O = φ.
Diagram for “Some X’s are Y’s”

i) Consider the statement

Fig. 1.3 Some even numbers are multiple of seven.
Let E : The set of all even numbers.
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.3) represents the
truth of the statement i.e. P = H. M : The set of all numbers which are
multiple of seven.
b) Diagram for “No X’s are Y’s”
Let us choose the universal set as
i) Consider the statement
U : The set of all natural numbers.
No naval person is an airforce person.
Let N : The set of all naval persons.
A : The set of all airforce persons.
Let us choose the universal set as
U : The set all human beings.
E∩M≠φ
Fig. 1.6

The Venn diagram represents the truth of

the statement i.e. E∩M ≠ φ
N∩A=φ
ii) Consider the statement
Fig. 1.4
Some real numbers are integers.
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.4) represents the Let R : The set of all real numbers.
truth of the statement i.e. N ∩ A = φ. I : The set of all integers.
Let us choose the universal set as
ii) Consider the statement U : The set of all complex numbers.
No even number is an odd numbers.
Let E : The set of all even numbers.
O : The set of all odd numbers.
Let us choose the universal set as
U : The set of all numbers. I⊂R
Fig. 1.7

24
 The Venn diagram (fig. 1.7) represents the SOLVED EXAMPLES
truth of the statement i.e. I⊂R.
Ex. 1: Express the truth of each of the following
Diagram for “Some X’s are not Y’s” statement by Venn diagram.
i) Consider the statement i) Equilateral triangles are isosceles.
Some squares of integers are not odd ii) Some rectangles are squares.
numbers. iii) No co-operative industry is a proprietary
Let S : The set of all squares of integers. firm.
O : The set of all odd numbers. iv) All rational numbers are real numbers.
Let us choose the universal set as v) Many servants are not graduates.
U : The set of all integers. vi) Some rational numbers are not integers.
vii) Some quadratic equations have equal roots.
viii) All natural numbers are real numbers and x
is not a natural number.

Solution:
S − O ≠ φ
i) Let us choose the universal set.
Fig. 1.8 U : The set of all triangles.
Let I : The set of all isosceles triangles.
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.8) represents the
E : The set of all equilateral triangles.
truth of the statement i.e. S − O ≠ φ.

ii) Consider the statement

Some rectangles are not squares.
Let R : The set of all rectangles.
S : The set of all squares. E⊂I
Let us choose the universal set as Fig. 1.10
U : The set of all quadrilaterals.
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.10) represents the
truth of the given statement i.e. E ⊂ I.
ii) Let us choose the universal set.
U : The set of all quadrilaterals.
Let R : The set of all rectangles.
S : The set of all squares.
R − S ≠ φ
Fig. 1.9

The Venn diagram (fig. 1.9) represents the

truth of the statement i.e. R − S ≠ φ.
R∩S≠φ
Fig. 1.11
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.11) represents the
truth of the given statement i.e. R ∩ S ≠ φ.

25
iii) Let us choose the universal set. vi) Let us choose the universal set.
U : The set of all industries. U : The set of all real numbers.
Let C : The set of all co-operative industries. Let Q : The set of all rational numbers.
P : The set of all proprietary firms. I : The set of all integers.

C∩P=φ Q−I≠φ
Fig. 1.12 Fig. 1.15
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.12) represents the The Venn diagram (fig. 1.15) represents
truth of the given statement i.e. C ∩ P = φ. truth of the given statement i.e. Q − I ≠ φ shaded
portion.
iv) Let us choose the universal set.
U : The set of all complex numbers. vii) Let us choose the universal set.
Let A : The set of all rational numbers. U : The set of all equations.
B : The set of all real numbers. Let A : The set of all quadratic equations.
B : The set of all quadratic equations
having equal roots.

A⊂B
Fig. 1.13
B⊂A
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.13) represents Fig. 1.16
truth of the given statement i.e. A ⊂ B.
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.16) represents the
v) Let us choose the universal set. truth of the given statement i.e. B ⊂ A.
U : The set of all human beings.
Let G : The set of all servants. viii) Let us choose the universal set.
C : The set of all graduate people. U : The set of all complex numbers.
Let N : The set of all natural numbers.
R : The set of all real numbers.

G−C≠φ
Fig. 1.14
(a) (b)
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.14) represents Fig. 1.17
truth of the given statement i.e. G − C ≠ φ.

26
 The Venn diagram (fig. 1.17) represents the By Venn diagrams (fig. 1.19), we observe
truth of the given statement. that truth set of statements (i) and (ii) are equal.
Hence, statements (i) and (ii) are logically
Ex. 2: Draw the Venn diagram for the truth of equivalent.
the following statements.
i) There are students who are not scholars. EXERCISE 1.10
ii) There are scholars who are students.
1. Represent the truth of each of the following
iii) There are persons who are students and
statements by Venn diagrams.
scholars.
i) Some hardworking students are
obedient.
Solution:
ii) No circles are polygons.
Let us choose the universal set. iii) All teachers are scholars and scholars
U : The set of all human beings. are teachers.
Let S : The set of all scholars. iv) If a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then it
T : The set of all students. is a parallelogram.

i) ii) iii) 2. Draw a Venn diagram for the truth of each

of the following statements.
i) Some sharebrokers are chartered
accountants.
ii) No wicket keeper is bowler, in a cricket
Fig. 1.18 team.
We observe that (by Venn diagram) truth
3. Represent the following statements by Venn
set of statements (ii) and (iii) are equal. Hence, diagrams.
statements (ii) and (iii) are logically equivalent.
i) Some non resident Indians are not rich.
ii) No circle is rectangle.
Ex. 3: Using the Venn diagram, examine the
logical equivalence of the following statements. iii) If n is a prime number and n ≠ 2, then
it is odd.
i) Some politicians are actors.
ii) There are politicians who are actors.
Let's Remember
iii) There are politicians who are not actors.
1. Statement: Declarative sentence which
Solution: is either true or false, but not both
Let us choose the universal set. symultaneously.
U : The set of all human beings. ∗ Imperative, exclamatory, interrogative
Let P : The set of all politicians. and open sentences are not statements.
A : The set of all actors. ∗ The symbol ‘∀’ stands for “all values
of”. It is universal quantifier.
i) ii) iii)
∗ The symbol ‘∃’ stands for “there
exists”. It is known as existential
quantifier.
∗ An open sentence with a quantifier
Fig. 1.19 becomes a quantified statement.

27
2. Logical connectives:
Sr. Name of the
No. Compound Connective Symbolic form Negation
statement
1. Conjunction and p∧q ∼p∨∼q
2. Disjunction or p∨q ∼p∧∼q
3. Negation not ∼p ∼ (∼ p)
=p
4. Conditional or If ... then p→q p∨∼q
implication or
p⇒q
5. Biconditional or If and only p↔q (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨
double implication if ... iff ... (or p ⇔ q) (~p ∧ q)

3. Tautology: A statement pattern which is always true (T) is called a tautology (t).
Contradiction: A statement pattern which is always false (F) is called a contradiction (c).
Contingency \: A statement pattern which is neither a tautology nor contradiction is called a
contingency.

4. Algebra of statements :
(Some standard equivalent statements)
1. p∨p≡p Idempotent laws p˄p≡p
2. p ∨ (q ∨ r) Associative laws p ∧ (q ∧ r)
≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r
≡p∨q∨r ≡p∧q∧r
3. p∨q≡q∨p Commutative laws p∧q≡q∧p
4. p ∨ (q ∧ r) Distributive laws p ∧ (q ∨ r)
≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)
5. p∨c≡p Identity laws p∧c≡c
p∨t≡t p∧t≡p
6. p∨∼p≡t Complement laws p∧∼p≡c
∼t≡c ∼c≡t
7. ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p Involution law (law of
double negation)
8. ∼ (p ∨ q) DeMorgan’s laws ∼ (p ∧ q)
≡∼p∧∼q ≡∼p∨∼q
9. p→q Contrapositive law
≡∼q→∼p

28
i) p→q≡∼q→∼p≡∼p∨q 2. Which of the following is an open statement?
ii) p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p) ≡ (∼ p ∨ q) ∧ a) x is a natural number.
(∼ q ∨ p) b) Give me a glass of water.
5. Venn-diagrams : c) Wish you best of luck.
i) All x’s are y’s d) Good morning to all.

3. Let p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r). Then, this

law is known as.
a) commutative law
b) associative law
X ∩ Y = X ≠ φ
c) De-Morgan’s law
ii) “No x’s are y’s” d) distributive law.

4. The false statement in the following is

or
a) p ∧ (∼ p) is contradiction

X ∩ Y = φ b) (p → q) ↔ (∼ q → ∼ p) is a contradiction.
c) ~ (∼ p) ↔ p is a tautology
iii) “Some x’s are y’s”
d) p ∨ (∼ p) ↔ p is a tautology

5. For the following three statements

or
p : 2 is an even number.
q : 2 is a prime number.
X ∩ Y ≠ φ X∩Y=Y≠φ
r : Sum of two prime numbers is always
iv) “Some x’s are not y’s” even.
Then, the symbolic statement (p ∧ q) →
∼ r means.
or
a) 2 is an even and prime number and the
sum of two prime numbers is always
X − Y ≠ φ X−Y≠φ even.
b) 2 is an even and prime number and
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 1 the sum of two prime numbers is not
always even.
I) Choose the correct alternative.
c) If 2 is an even and prime number, then
1. Which of the following is not a statement? the sum of two prime numbers is not
a) Smoking is injurious to health. always even.
b) 2 + 2 = 4. d) If 2 is an even and prime number, then
the sum of two prime numbers is also
c) 2 is the only even prime number.
even.
d) Come here.

29
6. If p : He is intelligent. b) truth value of p is F
q : He is strong c) p is both true and false
Then, symbolic form of statement “It is d) p is neither true nor false.
wrong that, he is intelligent or strong” is
a) ∼ p ∨ ∼ p b) ∼ (p ∧ q) 13. Conditional p → q is equivalent to
c) ∼ (p ∨ q) d) p ∨ ∼ q a) p → ∼ q
b) ∼ p ∨ q
7. The negation of the proposition “If 2 is
prime, then 3 is odd”, is c) ∼ p → ∼ q

a) If 2 is not prime, then 3 is not odd. d) p ∨ ∼ q

b) 2 is prime and 3 is not odd. 14. Negation of the statement “This is false or
c) 2 is not prime and 3 is odd. That is true” is
d) If 2 is not prime, then 3 is odd. a) That is true or This is false
b) That is true and This is false
8. The statement (∼ p ∧ q) ∨∼ q is
c) That is true and That is false
a) p ∨ q b) p ∧ q
d) That is false and That is true
c) ∼ (p ∨ q) d) ∼ (p ∧ q)
15. If p is any statement then (p ∨ ∼ p) is a
9. Which of the following is always true?
a) contingency
a) (p → q) ≡ ∼ q → ∼ p
b) contradiction
b) ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
c) tautology
c) ∼ (p → q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ q
d) None of them.
d) ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q
II) Fill in the blanks:
10. ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) is logically equivalent
to i) The statement q → p is called as the
––––––––– of the statement p → q.
a) ∼ p b) p
ii) Conjunction of two statement p and q
c) q d) ∼ q is symbolically written as –––––––––.

11. If p and q are two statements then (p → q) iii) If p ∨ q is true then truth value of
↔ (∼ q → ∼ p) is ∼ p ∨ ∼ q is –––––––––.

a) contradiction iv) Negation of “some men are animal” is

–––––––––.
b) tautology
v) Truth value of if x = 2, then x2 = − 4 is
c) Neither (i) not (ii) –––––––––.
d) None of the these vi) Inverse of statement pattern p ↔ q is
given by –––––––––.
12. If p is the sentence ‘This statement is false’
vii) p ↔ q is false when p and q have
then
––––––––– truth values.
a) truth value of p is T

30
 viii) Let p : the problem is easy. r : It is xi) If x is real number then x2 ≥ 0.
not challenging then verbal form of xii) Do not come inside the room.
∼ p → r is –––––––––.
xiii) What a horrible sight it was!
ix) Truth value of 2 + 3 = 5 if and only if
− 3 > − 9 is –––––––––.
2. Which of the following sentences are
III) State whether each is True or False: statements? In case of a statement, write
i) Truth value of 2 + 3 < 6 is F. down the truth value.
ii) There are 24 months in year is a i) What is happy ending?
statement. ii) The square of every real number is
iii) p ∨ q has truth value F is both p and q positive.
has truth value F. iii) Every parallelogram is a rhombus.
iv) The negation of 10 + 20 = 30 is, it is iv) a2 − b2 = (a + b) (a − b) for all a, b ∈ R.
false that 10 + 20 ≠ 30.
v) Please carry out my instruction.
v) Dual of (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ t is (p ∨ ∼ q) ∨ C.
vi) The Himalayas is the highest mountain
vi) Dual of “John and Ayub went to the range.
forest” is “John and Ayub went to the
forest”. vii) (x − 2) (x − 3) = x2 − 5x + 6 for all x∈R.

vii) “His birthday is on 29th February” is viii)

What are the causes of rural
not a statement. unemployment?

viii) x2 = 25 is true statement. ix) 0! = 1

ix) Truth value of 5 is not an irrational x) The quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0

number is T. (a ≠ 0) always has two real roots.

x) p ∧ t = p. 3. Assuming the first statement p and second

as q. Write the following statements in
IV) Solve the following: symbolic form.
1. State which of the following sentences are i) The Sun has set and Moon has risen.
statements in logic.
ii) Mona likes Mathematics and Physics.
i) Ice cream Sundaes are my favourite.
iii) 3 is prime number iff 3 is perfect square
ii) x + 3 = 8 ; x is variable. number.
iii) Read a lot to improve your writing iv) Kavita is brilliant and brave.
skill. v) If Kiran drives the car, then Sameer
iv) z is a positive number. will walk.
v) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 for all a, b ∈ R. vi) The necessary condition for existence
vi) (2 + 1)2 = 9. of a tangent to the curve of the function
is continuity.
vii) Why are you sad?
vii) To be brave is necessary and sufficient
viii) How beautiful the flower is! condition to climb the Mount Everest.
ix) The square of any odd number is even. viii) x3 + y3 = (x + y)3 iff xy = 0.
x) All integers are natural numbers. ix) The drug is effective though it has side
effects.
31
 x) If a real number is not rational, then it 7. Assuming the following statements.
must be irrational. p : Stock prices are high.
xi) It is not true that Ram is tall and q : Stocks are rising.
handsome. to be true, find the truth value of the
xii) Even though it is not cloudy, it is still following.
raining. i) Stock prices are not high or stocks are
xiii) It is not true that intelligent persons are rising.
neither polite nor helpful. ii) Stock prices are high and stocks are
xiv) If the question paper is not easy then rising if and only if stock prices are
we shall not pass. high.
iii) If stock prices are high then stocks are
4. If p : Proof is lengthy. not rising.
q : It is interesting. iv) It is false that stocks are rising and
Express the following statements in stock prices are high.
symbolic form. v) Stock prices are high or stocks are not
i) Proof is lengthy and it is not interesting. rising iff stocks are rising.
ii) If proof is lengthy then it is interesting.
8. Rewrite the following statements without
iii) It is not true that the proof is lengthy using conditional –
but it is interesting. (Hint : p → q ≡ ∼ p ∨ q)
iv) It is interesting iff the proof is lengthy. i) If price increases, then demand falls.
5. Let p : Sachin wins the match. ii) If demand falls, then price does not
q : Sachin is a member of Rajya Sabha. increase.
r : Sachin is happy. 9. If p, q, r are statements with truth values
Write the verbal statement for each of the T, T, F respectively determine the truth
followings. values of the following.
i) (p ∧ q) ∨ r ii) p → r i) (p ∧ q) → ∼ p
iii) ∼ p ∨ q iv) p → (p ∧ r) ii) p ↔ (q → ∼ p)
v) p → q vi) (p ∧ q) ∧ ∼ r iii) (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q)
vii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∧ r iv) ∼ (p ∧ q) → ∼ (q ∧ p)
v) ∼ [(p → q) ↔ (p ∧ ∼ q)]
6. Determine the truth value of the following
statements. 10. Write the negation of the following.
i) 4 + 5 = 7 or 9 − 2 = 5 i) If ∆ABC is not equilateral, then it is
ii) If 9 > 1 then x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 for x = 1 not equiangular.
iii) x + y = 0 is the equation of a straight
ii) Ramesh is intelligent and he is hard
line if and only if y2 = 4x is the equation
working.
of the parabola.
iv) It is not true that 2 + 3 = 6 or 12 + 3 iii) An angle is a right angle if and only if
=5 it is of measure 90°.

32
 iv) Kanchanganga is in India and Everest 16. State the dual of each of the following
is in Nepal. statements by applying the principle of
v) If x∈A∩B, then x∈A and x∈B. duality.
i) (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧∼ (p ∧ q)
11. Construct the truth table for each of the ii) p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ ∼ [(p ∧ q) ∨ (r ∨ s)]
following statement pattern.
iii) 2 is even number or 9 is a perfect
i) (p ∧ ∼ q) ↔ (q → p) square.
ii) (∼ p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
iii) (p ∧ r) → (p ∨ ∼ q) 17. Rewrite the following statements without
using the connective ‘If ... then’.
iv) (p ∨ r) → ∼ (q ∧ r)
i) If a quadrilateral is rhombus then it is
v) (p ∨ ∼ q) → (r ∧ p) not a square.

12. What is tautology? What is contradiction? ii) If 10 − 3 = 7 then 10 × 3 ≠ 30.

Show that the negation of a tautology iii) If it rains then the principal declares a
is a contradiction and the negation of a holiday.
contradiction is a tautology.
18. Write the dual of each of the following.
13. Determine whether following statement i) (∼ p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
pattern is a tautology, contradiction, or
contingency. ii) (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r)
i) [(p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ p)] ∨ [p ∧ (∼ q)] iii) p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (q ∨ r)
ii) [(∼ p ∧ q) ∧ (q ∧ r)] ∨ (∼ q) iv) ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q
iii) [∼ (p ∨ q) → p] ↔ [(∼ p) ∧ (∼ q)] 19. Consider the following statements.
iv) [∼ (p ∧ q) → p] ↔ [(∼ p) ∧ (∼ q)] i) If D is dog, then D is very good.
v) [p → (∼ q ∨ r)] ↔ ∼ [p → (q → r)] ii) If D is very good, then D is dog.
14. Using the truth table, prove the following iii) If D is not very good, then D is not a
logical equivalences. dog.
i) p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r) iv) If D is not a dog, then D is not very
good.
ii) [∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (p ∨ q)] ∧ r ≡ r
Identify the pairs of statements having the
iii) p ∧ (∼ p ∨ q) ≡ p ∧ q same meaning. Justify.
iv) p ↔ q ≡ ∼ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∧ ∼ (q ∧ ∼ p)
v) ∼ p ∧ q ≡ (p ∨ q)] ∧ ∼p 20. Express the truth of each of the following
statements by Venn diagrams.
15. Write the converse, inverse, contrapositive i) All men are mortal.
of the following statements. ii) Some persons are not politician.
i) If 2 + 5 = 10, then 4 + 10 = 20. iii) Some members of the present Indian
ii) If a man is bachelor, then he is happy. cricket are not committed.
iii) If I do not work hard, then I do not iv) No child is an adult.
prosper.
33
21. If A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, determine the truth 22. Write the negation of the following
value of each of the following statements. statements.
i) ∃x∈A, such that 3x + 2 > 9. i) 7 is prime number and Tajmahal is in
Agra.
ii) ∀x∈A, x2 < 18.
ii) 10 > 5 and 3 < 8.
iii) ∃x∈A, such that x + 3 < 11.
iii) I will have tea or coffee.
iv) ∀x∈A, x2 + 2 ≥ 5. iv) ∀n∈N, n + 3 > 9.
v) ∃x∈A, such that x + 5 < 11.
Activities
1 : Complete truth table for ∼ [p ∨ (∼ q)] ≡ ∼ p ∧ q; Justify it.
p q ∼p ∼q p∨∼q ∼ [p ∨ (∼ q)] ∼p∧q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
T T F F
F F
F F F
F F T T
Justification : ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2: If p ↔ q and p → q both are true then ii) Some students are hard working.
find truth values of following with the help of iii) Sunday implies holiday.
activity.
i) p∨q 4: You have given following statements.
ii) p ∧ q p : 9 × 5 = 45
p ↔ q and p → q are true if p and q has truth q : Pune is in Maharashtra.
values , or , r : 3 is smallest prime number.
i) p∨q Then write truth values by activity.

a) If both p and q are true, then i) (p ∧ q) ∧ r = ( ∧ )∧

p∨q= ∨ = = ∧
b) If both p and q are false, then =
p∧q= ∧ = ii) ∼ [p ∧ r] = ∼ ( ∧ )
ii) p ∧ q =∼
=
a) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
iii) p → q = →
b) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - =
3 : Represent following statement by Venn iv) p → r = ↔
diagram. =
i) Many students are not hard working.

v v v
34