An Overview of Big Data and Big Data Analytics, Big Data sources,

Application areas of Big Data. Understanding Hadoop and it Ecosystem. Brief

intro to Hadoop Ecosystem components: Hadoop Distributed File System,
MapReduce, YARN, HBase, Hive, Pig, Sqoop, ZooKeeper, Flume, Oozie,
Ambari. Understanding a Hadoop cluster.

Overview of HDFS. Architecture of HDFS, Advantages and disadvantages of

HDFS, HDFS Daemons, HDFS Blocks, HDFS file write and read, NameNode
as SPOF, Hadoop HA, heartbeats, block reports and rereplication, Safemode
of Namenode, Hadoop fs commands: cat, ls, put, get, rm, df, count, fsck,
balancer, mkdir, du, copyfromlocal, copytolocal.

Hadoop fs commands: expunge, chmod,chown,setrep, stat. Hadoop dfsadmin

commands. Introduction to Apache Pig, Need of Pig. Installation of Pig,
Execution modes of Pig,Pig-Architecture, Grunt shell and basic utility
commands, data types and Opeartors in Pig, Analysing data stored in HDFS
using Pig, Pig operators for Data analysis; Dump, Describe, Explanation,
Illustration, Store

Group, cogroup, join, split, filter, distinct, foreach, order by, limit operators.
Functions in Pig: Eval functions, Load and store functions, Bag and tuple
functions, String functions, Date time functions, Math functions, Case Studies:
Analyzing various datasets with Pig.
 Chapter 1
An Overview of Big Data and Big
Data Analytics

Key Contents
● An Overview of Big Data and Big Data Analytics
● Big Data sources
● Application areas of Big Data
● Understanding Hadoop and its Ecosystem
● Brief introduction to Hadoop Ecosystem components
● Understanding a Hadoop cluster
1.1 Overview of Big Data and Big Data Analytics

Big data refers to the large and complex sets of data that are generated by various sources such as
social media, internet of things (IoT) devices, and business transactions. These data sets are
characterized by their high volume, variety, velocity, and veracity. They can include structured
data such as numbers and dates, semi-structured data such as text and images, and unstructured
data such as social media posts and sensor data.

Big data analytics is the process of analyzing and gaining insights from big data. It involves
using various techniques such as machine learning, artificial intelligence, and statistical analysis
to extract valuable information from the data. The goal of big data analytics is to uncover
patterns, trends, and insights that can be used to inform business decisions, improve operations,
and drive innovation.

Big data analytics can be used in many different industries such as healthcare, finance, retail, and
manufacturing. For example, in healthcare, big data analytics can be used to analyze patient data
to improve treatment outcomes, and in finance, it can be used to detect fraudulent transactions. In
retail, it can be used to analyze customer data to optimize pricing and inventory, and in
manufacturing, it can be used to improve production efficiency and reduce downtime.

Big data analytics can also be used to create predictive models that can forecast future trends and
behaviors based on historical data. This can be used to make more informed decisions in areas
such as finance, healthcare, and marketing.

In summary, Big data refers to the large and complex sets of data generated by various sources,
and Big data analytics is the process of analyzing and gaining insights from big data. Big data
analytics can be used in many different industries to uncover patterns, trends, and insights that
can inform business decisions, improve operations, and drive innovation. It can also be used to
create predictive models that can forecast future trends and behaviors based on historical data.

1.2 Big data sources

Big data can come from a variety of sources, including:

1. Social media: Social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn generate
a large amount of data, including text, images, and videos. This data can be used to gain
insights into consumer behavior, sentiment, and preferences.
 2. Internet of Things (IoT) devices: IoT devices such as smart homes, wearables, and
vehicles generate a large amount of sensor data, which can be used to gain insights into
usage patterns and performance.

3. Business transactions: Businesses generate a large amount of data through their daily
operations, such as sales data, inventory data, and customer data. This data can be used to
gain insights into business performance, customer behavior, and market trends.

4. Government agencies: Government agencies generate a large amount of data, such as

population data, demographic data, and economic data. This data can be used to gain
insights into social and economic trends.

5. Scientific research: Scientific research generates a large amount of data, such as data
from experiments, simulations, and observations. This data can be used to gain insights
into natural phenomena and inform scientific discoveries.

6. Public data: There are many public data sources such as weather data, traffic data, and
crime data that can be used to gain insights into various aspects of society.

In summary, big data can come from a variety of sources such as social media, IoT devices,
business transactions, government agencies, scientific research, and public data. Each of these
sources generates unique data sets that can be used to gain insights into different aspects of
society and inform business decisions.

1.3 Application areas of big data

Big data has many applications across various industries, including:

1. Healthcare: Big data analytics can be used to analyze patient data to improve treatment
outcomes, such as identifying risk factors for diseases, predicting patient outcomes and
creating personalized medicine.

2. Finance: Big data analytics can be used to detect fraudulent transactions, identify
patterns of suspicious activity and analyze financial data to inform investment decisions.

3. Retail: Big data analytics can be used to analyze customer data to optimize pricing and
inventory, target marketing efforts, and gain insights into consumer behavior.

4. Manufacturing: Big data analytics can be used to improve production efficiency, reduce
downtime and optimize supply chain operations.
 5. Transportation: Big data analytics can be used to optimize routes and schedules for
vehicles, improve traffic flow and reduce fuel consumption.

6. Energy: Big data analytics can be used to optimize the performance of power generation
and distribution systems, and predict equipment failures.

7. Security: Big data analytics can be used to detect cyber-attacks and vulnerabilities, and
to improve the security of critical infrastructure.

8. Marketing: Big data analytics can be used to gain insights into customer behavior and
preferences, target marketing efforts, and measure the effectiveness of marketing
campaigns.

In summary, Big data has many applications across various industries such as healthcare,
finance, retail, manufacturing, transportation, energy, security and marketing. Big data analytics
can be used to gain insights into various aspects of society and inform business decisions. It can
also be used to improve the performance and efficiency of various systems, and to detect and
prevent various types of risks.

1.4 Understanding Hadoop and its Ecosytem

Hadoop is an open-source software framework that is used to store and

process large amounts of data. It is designed to scale out horizontally, allowing it to handle very
large data sets that would not fit on a single machine. The core components of Hadoop are the
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) and the MapReduce programming model.

The Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) is the storage component of Hadoop. It is a
distributed file system that allows data to be stored across multiple machines, providing a high
degree of fault tolerance and data accessibility. HDFS is designed to store very large files and
provide fast data access.

The MapReduce programming model is the processing component of Hadoop. It is a

programming model for processing large data sets that is designed to be fault-tolerant and scale
out horizontally. The model consists of two main functions: the Map function, which processes
the data, and the Reduce function, which aggregates the results of the Map function.
The Hadoop ecosystem is a collection of technologies and tools that are built on top of Hadoop
to provide additional functionality and make it easier to use. Some of the key components of the
Hadoop ecosystem include:

1. Pig: A high-level data processing language that is used to write MapReduce programs.

2. Hive: A data warehousing tool that is used to query and analyze data stored in HDFS.

3. HBase: A NoSQL database that is built on top of HDFS.

1.5 Brief intro to Hadoop Ecosystem components

Hadoop is an open-source framework for storing and processing big data. It consists of several
components, each serving a different purpose:

HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System): A distributed file system that stores large amounts
of data on multiple commodity computers, providing high-throughput access to data.

YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator): A resource management system that manages the
allocation of resources like CPU, memory, and storage for running applications in a Hadoop
cluster.

MapReduce: A programming model for processing large amounts of data in parallel across a
Hadoop cluster.

Hive: A data warehousing and SQL-like query language for Hadoop. It allows users to perform
SQL-like operations on data stored in HDFS.

Pig: A high-level platform for creating MapReduce programs used with Hadoop.

HBase: A NoSQL database that runs on top of HDFS and provides real-time, random access to
data stored in Hadoop.

Spark: An open-source, in-memory data processing framework that provides high-level APIs for
distributed data processing.

Flume: A service for collecting, aggregating, and transferring large amounts of log data from
many different sources to a centralized data store like HDFS.
These are some of the major components of the Hadoop ecosystem. Each component can be used
independently or in combination with others to perform various big data processing tasks.

1.5.1 HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System)

The Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) is a key component of the Apache
Hadoop ecosystem and is designed to store and manage large amounts of data in a distributed
and scalable manner. The HDFS architecture is based on the idea of dividing large data sets into
smaller blocks and storing them across multiple nodes in a cluster, which provides both increased
storage capacity and data reliability.

The following diagram provides an overview of the HDFS architecture:

Fig. 1.1 Overview of the HDFS architecture

In this diagram, the NameNode is the master node that manages the metadata of the HDFS file
system, such as the file names, directories, and block locations. The DataNodes are the worker
nodes that store the actual data blocks.

When a file is written to HDFS, it is divided into multiple blocks, typically of 128 MB each.
These blocks are then stored across multiple DataNodes in the cluster. The NameNode keeps
track of the block locations, and clients access the data by connecting to the NameNode to
retrieve the location of the desired blocks, which are then fetched from the appropriate
DataNodes.

In the event of a DataNode failure, the NameNode can use replicas of the blocks stored on other
DataNodes to ensure that data is still available. HDFS also provides mechanisms for balancing
data storage across the nodes in the cluster, so that no single node becomes a bottleneck.

1.5.2 YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator)

YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator) is a resource management system

for Apache Hadoop. It was introduced in Hadoop version 2 to manage the distribution of
processing resources in a cluster and schedule tasks to be executed on these resources.

Here's a basic diagram that shows the components of YARN:

Fig. 1.2 Components of YARN

Application Client: The application client submits a job to the cluster.

Resource Manager: The Resource Manager is the central authority that arbitrates resources
among all the applications in the system. It has two main components: the Scheduler and the
Applications Manager.

Scheduler: The Scheduler is responsible for allocating resources to the applications based on
criteria such as capacity guarantees, fairness, and data locality.

Applications Manager: The Applications Manager is responsible for accepting job submissions,
tracking the application progress, and restarting failed tasks.

Node Manager: The Node Manager is responsible for launching containers, monitoring their
resource usage (CPU, memory, disk, network), and reporting the same to the Resource Manager.

Container: A container is a set of resources assigned to an application, including CPU, memory,

and disk. Containers are the basic units of processing in YARN.

1.5.3 MapReduce

MapReduce is a programming model and an associated implementation

for processing and generating large data sets with a parallel, distributed algorithm on a cluster. It
was originally developed by Google and is now an open-source project within the Apache
Hadoop ecosystem.

Here is a high-level diagram of how MapReduce works in Hadoop:

Input Data: The input data is stored in the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

Map: The Map phase takes the input data and processes it into intermediate key-value pairs.

Shuffle and Sort: The Shuffle and Sort phase sorts and groups the intermediate key-value pairs
based on the keys, so that all values for a specific key are grouped together.

Reduce: The Reduce phase processes the grouped intermediate key-value pairs and aggregates
the data based on the keys to produce the final output.

Output: The final output is stored in the HDFS for future use.

Here's a diagram to help visualize the process:

 Fig. 1.3 visualization of Map Reduce process

1.5.4 Hive

Apache Hive is a data warehousing and SQL-like query language for Hadoop,
which provides an interface to manage and analyze structured and semi-structured data stored in
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

Here's a simple diagram that illustrates the architecture of Apache Hive:

 Fig. 1.4 Architecture of Apache Hive

1. The client submits an SQL query to the driver.

2. The driver compiles the SQL query into a MapReduce job and submits it to the cluster.
3. The executors execute the MapReduce jobs on nodes in the cluster.
4. The result set is returned to the client.

1.5.5 Pig

Apache Pig is a high-level platform for creating MapReduce programs used with
Apache Hadoop. It was created to provide a simpler way to perform large-scale data analysis,
compared to writing MapReduce jobs in Java. Pig provides a simple and expressive language,
Pig Latin, that makes it easy to express complex data analysis tasks.

Here's a diagram to help you visualize the architecture of Apache Pig:

 Fig. 1.5 Architecture of Apache Pig

In this diagram, the client node is where the user writes and submits the Pig Latin script. The
script is then sent to the Pig Server Node, where it is compiled and optimized. The optimized
script is then executed as one or more MapReduce jobs on the Hadoop cluster. Finally, the results
are stored in HDFS for later use or analysis.
1.5.6 HBase

HBase is a NoSQL database that is built on top of Apache Hadoop and runs on the Hadoop
Distributed File System (HDFS). It is an open-source, column-oriented database management
system that provides random real-time read/writes access to your Big Data.

HBase is designed to store large amounts of sparse data, and it allows you to store and access
your data in real-time, making it suitable for handling large-scale, high-velocity data streams,
such as those generated by Internet of Things (IoT) devices, social media platforms, and
e-commerce websites.

Some of the key features of HBase include

1. Scalability: HBase is designed to scale horizontally across many commodity servers,

making it suitable for handling big data.

2. Fault Tolerance: HBase provides automatic failover and recovery in the event of a node
failure, ensuring high availability and reliability.

3. Real-time Read/Write Access: HBase provides real-time read/write access to your data,
making it suitable for use cases that require fast access to large amounts of data.

4. Column-Oriented Storage: HBase stores data in a column-oriented format, more

efficient for handling sparse data.

5. Integration with Hadoop Ecosystem: HBase integrates with the Hadoop ecosystem,
allowing you to use other tools such as Pig, Hive, and MapReduce to process and analyze
your data.

Overall, HBase is a highly scalable, distributed, and real-time database management system that
is well-suited for handling big data.
Here is a simple diagram that illustrates the components of HBase in Hadoop:
 Fig. 1.6 Architecture of HBase in Hadoop

In this diagram, the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) provides the underlying storage for
HBase. The HBase Master node manages the overall metadata and schema information of the
HBase cluster and also coordinates region assignments. HBase Region Server is responsible for
serving data from one or more regions and handling client requests. Each HBase Region contains
a portion of the table data, which is stored in HDFS.

1.5.7 Spark

Apache Spark is an open-source, distributed computing system that can

process large amounts of data quickly. It is designed to be fast, flexible, and easy to use. Spark is
used for a variety of data processing tasks, including batch processing, real-time stream
processing, machine learning, and graph processing.

Spark is often used in conjunction with Hadoop, which is a popular open-source framework for
distributed data storage and processing. Hadoop provides a way to store large amounts of data
across multiple machines, while Spark provides a way to process that data in parallel.

In a Hadoop ecosystem, Spark can run on top of the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) to
process data stored in HDFS. Spark can also access data stored in other storage systems, such as
HBase and Amazon S3.

By combining the power of Spark's fast processing capabilities with Hadoop's scalable storage,
organizations can build big data applications that can handle large amounts of data and provide
quick results.
Here is a diagram that represents the architecture of Spark in a Hadoop environment:

Fig. 1.7 Architecture of Spark in a Hadoop environment

In this diagram, Spark Core provides the fundamental data processing capabilities of Spark,
including the Resilient Distributed Datasets (RDDs) abstraction and support for various
transformations and actions. Spark SQL provides a SQL interface to data stored in Spark,
making it easier to work with structured data. Spark Streaming enables the processing of
real-time data streams. MLlib is a library of machine learning algorithms that can be used with
Spark, and GraphX is a graph processing library for Spark. The HDFS API provides an interface
for reading and writing data to Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

1.5.8 Flume

Flume is designed to efficiently and reliably collect, aggregate, and move

large amounts of log data from various sources, such as web servers, to a centralized data store
like HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System). This enables organizations to process and analyze
large quantities of data generated by their systems, applications, and users.
Flume's architecture is based on a series of agents, where each agent represents a processing unit.
Data flows through a series of agents and is transformed, filtered, enriched, or aggregated at each
step. This makes it possible to configure and extend Flume to meet specific data ingestion and
processing requirements.

In a Hadoop ecosystem, Flume plays a critical role in collecting and aggregating data from
various sources and delivering it to HDFS, making it readily available for processing and
analysis using tools like MapReduce, Hive, Pig, and Spark.

Here's a diagram that illustrates how Flume works in Hadoop:

Fig. 1.8 Representation of Flume works in Hadoop

1. Source: This is where the data originates from. A source could be a web server log, a log
generated by an application, or any other data source.

2. Agent: The agent is the central component of a Flume node and is responsible for
receiving data from sources, transforming the data if necessary, and delivering the data to
sinks. An agent can have multiple sources and sinks.

3. Sink: The sink is responsible for delivering data to the centralized store. In this case, the
sink is an HDFS node.

In this setup, data is sent from the source to the Flume agent, where it is transformed if necessary
and then sent to the sink, which stores the data in HDFS. This allows for the collection and
aggregation of large amounts of data from many different sources into a centralized data store for
further processing and analysis.

1.5.9 Sqoop

Sqoop is a tool designed to transfer data between Hadoop and relational

databases. It provides a simple command-line interface for importing and exporting data between
Hadoop and relational databases such as MySQL, Oracle, and others.

Sqoop uses MapReduce to perform the data transfer, which allows it to handle large datasets
efficiently. Sqoop can be used to import data into Hadoop's HDFS file system or Hadoop's data
processing frameworks, such as Hive or HBase. Similarly, Sqoop can be used to export data from
Hadoop to a relational database.

Sqoop provides several features that make it easy to use, such as automatic parallelization of
imports and exports, support for different data file formats, and the ability to specify the import
and export options in a variety of ways. Additionally, Sqoop provides options for controlling the
level of data compression, the number of MapReduce tasks, and the number of mappers to use
for a job.

Sqoop is a tool in the Hadoop ecosystem that is used for transferring data between Hadoop and
external structured data stores such as relational databases (e.g., MySQL, Oracle, MS SQL
Server, etc.). Sqoop provides efficient data transfer between these systems by using MapReduce
to parallelize the data transfer process.

Here's a simple diagram that illustrates how Sqoop works:

 Fig. 1.9 Representation of Sqoop works

1. Sqoop connects to the external data store and retrieves metadata information about the
data to be transferred.

2. Sqoop generates a MapReduce job based on the metadata information and submits the
job to the Hadoop cluster.

3. The MapReduce job retrieves the data from the external data store and stores it in the
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

4. The data in HDFS can now be processed and analyzed using other tools in the Hadoop
ecosystem, such as Hive, Pig, Spark, etc.

5. Sqoop can also be used to transfer data from Hadoop back to the external data store if
needed.

Note: Sqoop is designed to work with structured data and does not support unstructured data or
binary data.

1.5.10 ZooKeeper

Apache ZooKeeper is a distributed coordination service that is often used

in Apache Hadoop clusters to coordinate communication and manage configuration information.
It provides a centralized mechanism for maintaining configuration information, naming,
providing distributed synchronization, and providing group services.
In Hadoop, ZooKeeper is typically used to coordinate communication between various
components such as Namenode, Datanode, ResourceManager, and NodeManager. For example,
it can be used to manage the coordination of failover between Namenode and Secondary
Namenode, or to manage the allocation of resources in a YARN cluster.

ZooKeeper also provides a simple programming model and easy-to-use APIs that can be used to
develop distributed applications in Hadoop. It is a highly available and scalable service that can
be used to manage configuration data, track the status of nodes in a cluster, and provide
distributed synchronization across a large number of nodes.

Overall, ZooKeeper plays a critical role in ensuring the stability and reliability of Hadoop
clusters and is an important component of the Hadoop ecosystem.

Here is a diagram to illustrate the architecture of ZooKeeper in Hadoop:

Fig. 1.10 Architecture of ZooKeeper in Hadoop

In this diagram, the ZooKeeper cluster is composed of a set of nodes that run the ZooKeeper
service. When a client wants to access a service, it sends a request to the ZooKeeper cluster. The
cluster then processes the request and returns a response to the client. The ZooKeeper nodes
communicate with each other to maintain consistency of the cluster state and ensure that clients
receive accurate responses. The client nodes can be running on any machine in the network and
can be clients of multiple ZooKeeper clusters.

In Hadoop, ZooKeeper is used to coordinate the various components of the Hadoop ecosystem,
such as HDFS, MapReduce, YARN, and others. By providing a centralized service for
coordination, ZooKeeper enables these components to work together seamlessly, leading to a
more robust and scalable big data solution.
1.5.11 Oozie

Oozie is a workflow scheduler system for Apache Hadoop. It is used to manage

and schedule big data processing workflows and coordination jobs in a Hadoop cluster.

With Oozie, you can define a complex workflow of multiple Hadoop jobs as a single unit of
work. It provides a mechanism for expressing dependencies between jobs, so that you can define
workflows that run a set of jobs in a particular order. Oozie also provides an easy-to-use web
user interface that allows you to monitor the status of your workflows, view log files, and
manage your jobs.

Oozie supports multiple types of Hadoop jobs, including MapReduce, Pig, Hive, Sqoop, and
Spark, and it can be used to orchestrate workflows that involve a combination of these job types.
Additionally, Oozie allows you to define workflows that run on a schedule, so you can automate
the running of your big data processing workflows.

Here is a diagram to illustrate how Oozie works in Hadoop:

Fig. 1.11 Representation of Oozie works in Hadoop

1. A client or user submits a workflow file that defines a sequence of Hadoop jobs and their
dependencies.

2. The workflow file is passed to the Oozie server for processing.

 3. The Oozie server coordinates the execution of the jobs defined in the workflow file. It
communicates with the Hadoop cluster to run the jobs and track their status.

4. The Hadoop cluster executes the jobs as directed by the Oozie server and reports the
status of each job back to the Oozie server.

By using Oozie, users can define complex multi-step workflows and automate the running of big
data processing tasks, making it easier to manage and maintain the Hadoop cluster.

1.5.12 Ambari

Apache Ambari is an open-source management platform for Apache Hadoop. It

provides a web-based interface to manage, monitor, and provision Hadoop clusters. Ambari
makes it easier to install, manage, and monitor Hadoop clusters, making it a popular choice for
Hadoop administrators.

With Ambari, administrators can perform various tasks such as:

1. Provision and deploy Hadoop clusters.

2. Manage and monitor the health of the cluster.
3. Configure and manage services like HDFS, YARN, Hive

Apache Ambari provides a comprehensive set of tools to manage and monitor Hadoop clusters.
Here are some key features of Ambari:

1. Cluster Management: Ambari provides an intuitive web-based interface to provision,

deploy, and manage Hadoop clusters. Administrators can easily install and manage
Hadoop components like HDFS, YARN, Hive, Pig, HBase, and others.

2. Monitoring: Ambari provides real-time monitoring of cluster health, performance, and

resource utilization. It also provides alerts and notifications to keep administrators
informed about the health of the cluster.

3. Configuration Management: Ambari makes it easy to manage the configuration of

Hadoop components. Administrators can easily apply configuration changes to a single
node or an entire cluster with a few clicks.
 4. User Management: Ambari provides role-based access control (RBAC) to manage user
access to the cluster. Administrators can create custom roles and assign permissions to
control who can access and perform actions on the cluster.

5. Upgrade and Maintenance: Ambari provides a streamlined process for upgrading

Hadoop components. Administrators can easily upgrade the cluster to the latest version
with minimal downtime. Ambari also provides tools to perform maintenance activities
like rolling restarts and rolling upgrades.

Ambari has become a popular choice for Hadoop administrators due to its ease of use, a
comprehensive set of features, and its integration with Hadoop components. With Ambari,
administrators can manage and monitor Hadoop clusters more effectively, reducing the time and
effort required to manage Hadoop clusters.

Here is a diagram to illustrate how Apache Ambari works in a Hadoop cluster:

Fig. 1.12 Representation of Apache Ambari works in a Hadoop cluster

1. A client or administrator logs into the Ambari server using a web browser.
 2. The Ambari server provides a web-based interface for managing and monitoring the
Hadoop cluster.

3. The administrator can use the Ambari interface to perform various tasks such as
provisioning and deploying the cluster, configuring services, monitoring the health of the
cluster, and performing maintenance activities.

4. The Ambari server communicates with the nodes in the Hadoop cluster to perform the
requested tasks.

By using Ambari, administrators can manage and monitor Hadoop clusters more effectively,
reducing the time and effort required to manage Hadoop clusters. The web-based interface
provided by Ambari makes it easy for administrators to perform tasks, even for those with
limited technical expertise.

1.6 Understanding a Hadoop cluster

A Hadoop cluster is a group of computers that work together to perform large-scale data
processing and storage tasks. It is an open-source software framework for distributed storage and
processing of big data using the MapReduce programming model.

In a Hadoop cluster, there are several types of nodes:

1. NameNode: The NameNode is the central component of the Hadoop Distributed File
System (HDFS) and is responsible for managing the file system metadata, such as the list
of files and directories, mapping of blocks to DataNodes, and tracking the health of the
cluster. The NameNode is a single point of failure in a Hadoop cluster, so it is typically
deployed in a high-availability configuration with a secondary NameNode to take over in
case of a failure.
2. DataNode: The DataNode is the component of a Hadoop cluster that stores the actual
data blocks. Each DataNode stores multiple blocks of data and is responsible for serving
read and write requests from clients. DataNodes communicate with the NameNode to
report the health of the blocks they store and to receive instructions about block
replication and rebalancing.
3. ResourceManager: The ResourceManager is the component of a Hadoop cluster that is
responsible for allocating resources (such as CPU, memory, and disk space) to the tasks
 running on the cluster. The ResourceManager communicates with the NodeManagers to
determine the available resources on each node and to schedule tasks based on those
resources.
4. NodeManager: The NodeManager is the component of a Hadoop cluster that manages
the individual containers that run tasks on a worker node. Each NodeManager
communicates with the ResourceManager to report the resources available on its node
and to receive instructions about which tasks to run.
5. Client: The client is the component of a Hadoop cluster that submits tasks to the cluster
and receives the results. Clients can be either standalone applications or scripts that run
on a client node and communicate with the Resource Manager to submit tasks and
receive results.

In a Hadoop cluster, data is stored in a distributed manner across multiple data nodes. When a
file is written to HDFS, it is split into blocks and each block is stored on multiple DataNodes for
redundancy. The NameNode maintains a record of the mapping of blocks to DataNodes and
provides this information to clients when they request data.

When a task is submitted to a Hadoop cluster, the ResourceManager divides the task into smaller
tasks and schedules them to run on the available NodeManagers. The NodeManagers
communicate with the DataNodes to retrieve the data needed for the task and to store the results.
This allows Hadoop to scale horizontally by adding more nodes to the cluster, as the processing
and storage capacity of the cluster can be increased simply by adding more DataNodes and
NodeManagers.

Overall, a Hadoop cluster provides a flexible and scalable solution for processing and storing big
data, making it an essential tool for organizations that need to manage large amounts of data.
 Chapter 2
Overview of Hadoop Distributed
File System

Key Contents
● Overview of HDFS
● Architecture of HDFS
● Advantages and disadvantages of HDFS
● HDFS Daemons
● HDFS Blocks
● HDFS file write and read
● NameNode as SPOF
● Hadoop HA
● Safemode of Namenode
● Hadoop fs commands
HDFS stands for Hadoop Distributed File System. It is a distributed file system that allows large
amounts of data to be stored and accessed across multiple computers in a cluster. HDFS is a key
component of the Apache Hadoop framework, which is commonly used for big data processing
and analysis.

In HDFS, large files are divided into smaller blocks, which are then distributed across multiple
nodes in a cluster. This allows for parallel processing of data and provides fault tolerance, as data
can be replicated across multiple nodes. HDFS is designed to handle large files and is optimized
for batch processing of data rather than real-time data processing.

2.1 Overview of HDFS

HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) is a distributed file system that is designed to store and
manage large amounts of data across a cluster of computers. It is a core component of the
Apache Hadoop framework, which is widely used for big data processing and analysis.

HDFS provides reliable, scalable, and fault-tolerant storage for large files by breaking them into
smaller blocks and storing them across multiple nodes in the cluster. It also provides data
replication, allowing copies of the data to be stored on different nodes, which increases data
availability and reliability.

HDFS is optimized for batch processing of data and is typically used in conjunction with
Hadoop's MapReduce processing framework. Data is read and written in parallel, allowing for
high throughput and efficient processing of large datasets.

HDFS is designed to work with commodity hardware, which makes it cost-effective and easy to
scale. It is also compatible with a wide range of tools and applications in the Hadoop ecosystem,
such as Hive, Pig, and Spark.

Overall, HDFS is a powerful and flexible solution for storing and processing large amounts of
data in a distributed environment, making it an essential tool for big data processing and
analysis.

2.2 Architecture of HDFS

HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) has a master/slave architecture that is designed to store
and manage large amounts of data across a cluster of computers. Here's a high-level overview of
the HDFS architecture:
 Fig. 2.1 Architecture of HDFS

1. Name Node

The NameNode is a critical component of the HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System)
architecture, serving as the master node that manages the file system metadata and
coordinates file access. Here's a more detailed overview of the NameNode's role in the
HDFS architecture:
 Fig. 2.2 Representation of Name Node in HDFS

I. File System Namespace Management: The NameNode manages the file

system namespace, which includes the hierarchy of directories and files in the file
system. It maintains a tree-like structure of directories and files and stores this
information in the memory of the NameNode. When a client requests access to a file, the
NameNode searches for the file in the file system namespace and returns the location of
the data blocks that make up the file.

II. Block Management: The NameNode also manages the mapping between files
and the data blocks that make up the files. It maintains a block report that lists all the
blocks stored on each DataNode in the cluster. The NameNode is responsible for
determining how the data blocks are distributed across the DataNodes in the cluster. It
uses a block placement policy to ensure that the data blocks are replicated across multiple
DataNodes for fault tolerance and to maximize the efficiency of data access.

III. Replication Management: The NameNode manages the replication of data

blocks to ensure that the desired replication factor is maintained. If a DataNode fails or
becomes unresponsive, the NameNode replicates the missing blocks to other DataNodes
to maintain the desired replication factor. The NameNode also manages the
decommissioning of DataNodes from the cluster. When a DataNode is decommissioned,
the NameNode ensures that its data blocks are replicated to other DataNodes before
removing it from the cluster.
 IV. Heartbeat and Monitoring: The DataNodes send heartbeat messages to the
NameNode periodically to indicate that they are alive and functioning properly. The
NameNode monitors the heartbeat messages to detect failures and unresponsiveness. If a
DataNode fails to send a heartbeat, the NameNode marks the DataNode as offline and
replicates its data blocks to other DataNodes to maintain the desired replication factor.

V. Security Management: The NameNode is also responsible for security

management in the HDFS cluster. It manages the authentication and authorization of
clients accessing the data stored in the cluster. The NameNode authenticates clients using
Kerberos authentication and authorizes them based on the access control lists (ACLs)
associated with the files and directories in the file system namespace.

Overall, the NameNode is a critical component of the HDFS architecture, providing

centralized management of the file system namespace, block management, replication
management, monitoring, and security management. It ensures the reliability, scalability,
and fault tolerance of the HDFS cluster by managing the metadata and coordinating file
access across the DataNodes.

2. Data Nodes

DataNodes are a critical component of the HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System)
architecture. They are responsible for storing the actual data of the files in the HDFS
cluster. Here's a more detailed overview of the DataNodes' role in the HDFS architecture:

I. Storage Management: The DataNodes are responsible for storing the actual data
of the files in the HDFS cluster. They receive data blocks from clients and write
them to their local disk. The DataNodes also read data blocks from their local disk
and send them to clients when requested.

II. Block Replication: The DataNodes are responsible for replicating data blocks to
ensure that the desired replication factor is maintained. The replication factor
determines how many copies of each data block should be stored in the HDFS
cluster. When a DataNode receives a new data block, it checks the replication
factor and replicates the block to other DataNodes if necessary. The DataNodes
also periodically send block reports to the NameNode to inform it about the
blocks that they have stored.
 III. Heartbeat and Monitoring: The DataNodes send heartbeat messages to the
NameNode periodically to indicate that they are alive and functioning properly.
The heartbeat messages also contain information about the DataNode's available
storage capacity and the blocks that it has stored. The NameNode uses the
heartbeat messages to monitor the health of the DataNodes and detect failures and
unresponsiveness. If a DataNode fails to send a heartbeat, the NameNode marks
the DataNode as offline and replicates its data blocks to other DataNodes to
maintain the desired replication factor.

IV. Block Scanner: The DataNodes also perform a block scanner function. The block
scanner periodically scans the data blocks stored on the DataNode's local disk for
errors and corruption. If errors or corruption are detected, the DataNode reports
them to the NameNode, which takes appropriate action to maintain data integrity.

V. Security Management: The DataNodes are responsible for implementing the

security policies defined by the NameNode. They authenticate clients and
authorize them based on the access control lists (ACLs) associated with the files
and directories in the file system namespace.

Overall, the DataNodes are a critical component of the HDFS architecture, responsible for
storing the data, replicating data blocks, sending heartbeat messages, scanning data blocks for
errors, and implementing security policies. They ensure the reliability, scalability, and fault
tolerance of the HDFS cluster by providing distributed storage and processing of data blocks
across multiple DataNodes.

3. Blocks

In HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) architecture, a file is divided into one or more
blocks, which are distributed across multiple DataNodes in the cluster. Here's a more detailed
overview of blocks in the HDFS architecture:

I. Block Size: The HDFS architecture uses a fixed block size for all files, typically 128
MB, 256 MB, or 512 MB. The block size is configurable and can be set according to
the application requirements.

II. Block Placement: The blocks of a file are stored on multiple DataNodes in the
cluster to provide fault tolerance and ensure that data is available even if a DataNode
fails. The HDFS architecture uses a block placement policy to determine how the
blocks are distributed across the DataNodes in the cluster. The block placement
policy ensures that each block is replicated to multiple DataNodes, with a default
 replication factor of three. This means that each block is stored on three different
DataNodes in the cluster.

III. Block Replication: The HDFS architecture uses block replication to ensure that the
desired replication factor is maintained. When a new block is written to the HDFS
cluster, it is replicated to multiple DataNodes to ensure fault tolerance. If a
DataNode fails or becomes unresponsive, the HDFS architecture replicates the
missing blocks to other DataNodes to maintain the desired replication factor. This
ensures that data is available even if one or more DataNodes fail.

IV. Block Size Vs Efficiency: The block size used in HDFS architecture is larger
compared to traditional file systems. This is because HDFS is optimized for
processing large files, and larger block sizes improve data processing efficiency.
When processing large files, smaller block sizes can result in an overhead in terms of
data transmission and storage management. In contrast, larger block sizes improve
data transmission efficiency, reduce the overhead of storage management, and
increase the processing throughput of the Hadoop cluster.

Overall, blocks are a critical component of the HDFS architecture, providing fault tolerance,
efficient data processing, and reliable data storage across multiple DataNodes in the cluster. By
distributing data blocks across multiple DataNodes, the HDFS architecture provides high
availability and fault tolerance, making it an ideal solution for storing and processing large-scale
data.

4. Rack Awareness

Rack awareness is an important feature of HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) architecture
that enhances the reliability and performance of the Hadoop cluster. Rack awareness is the ability
of the HDFS NameNode to track the location of DataNodes in the Hadoop cluster and their
physical placement within racks.

Here's a more detailed overview of the rack awareness feature in the HDFS architecture:

I. Rack Topology: In the HDFS architecture, the Hadoop cluster is organized into racks,
which are groups of DataNodes that are connected to the same network switch. Each rack
is identified by a unique IP address prefix.

II. DataNode Placement: The HDFS architecture ensures that each DataNode is placed in a
unique rack, and no two DataNodes are located in the same rack. This is done to ensure
that the Hadoop cluster is fault-tolerant and resilient to rack-level failures.
 III. Block Placement: When a file is written to the HDFS cluster, the NameNode uses rack
awareness to determine the location of the DataNodes in the cluster and their placement
within racks. The NameNode tries to place the file's blocks on different racks to ensure
that the blocks are distributed across multiple racks.

IV. Network Traffic Optimization: Rack awareness in HDFS architecture is also used to
optimize network traffic between data nodes. When a client reads or writes data from/to
the Hadoop cluster, the NameNode tries to choose the DataNodes that are located in the
same rack as the client to minimize network traffic and reduce latency.

V. Failure Recovery: In the event of a rack-level failure, the HDFS architecture uses rack
awareness to recover the lost data blocks. The NameNode identifies the affected
DataNodes and instructs other DataNodes to replicate the lost blocks to ensure that the
desired replication factor is maintained.

By using rack awareness, the HDFS architecture ensures that the Hadoop cluster is fault-tolerant
and resilient to rack-level failures. It also optimizes network traffic and reduces latency between
Data Nodes, resulting in improved performance and scalability. Overall, rack awareness is a
critical feature of the HDFS architecture that enhances the reliability, performance, and fault
tolerance of the Hadoop cluster.

5. Client

In the HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) architecture, a client is a user or application that
interacts with the HDFS cluster to read, write or manipulate data stored in HDFS. Here's a more
detailed overview of the client in the HDFS architecture:

I. Client Interactions: A client can interact with the HDFS cluster through various
interfaces such as Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) command-line interface
(CLI), HDFS Java API, and Hadoop Streaming API.

II. Data Operations: Clients can read, write, and manipulate data stored in HDFS. The
HDFS architecture provides APIs and interfaces that allow clients to access the HDFS
cluster and perform various data operations.

III. Block Size: Clients can specify the block size while writing data to HDFS. The block
size can be chosen based on the requirements of the application and the data being stored.
 IV. Data Locality: HDFS architecture provides data locality, which means that data is stored
closer to the computation resources. When a client submits a job to process data stored in
HDFS, the HDFS architecture ensures that the computation is performed on the
DataNode that stores the data. This improves performance and reduces network traffic.

V. Security: HDFS architecture provides security features that allow clients to access data
stored in HDFS securely. Clients can authenticate themselves to the HDFS cluster using
Kerberos or other authentication mechanisms. HDFS also supports access control
mechanisms to restrict access to data stored in HDFS.

Overall, clients are an important component of the HDFS architecture, allowing users and
applications to read, write, and manipulate data stored in HDFS. The HDFS architecture provides
various APIs and interfaces that allow clients to interact with the Hadoop cluster and perform
data operations. With features like block size, data locality, and security, the HDFS architecture
provides reliable and efficient storage and processing of large-scale data.

2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of HDFS

Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) is a distributed file system that provides reliable and
scalable storage for big data applications. Here are some advantages and disadvantages of using
HDFS:

2.3.1 Advantages of HDFS

Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) is a distributed file system designed to store and
process large data sets in a distributed environment. Here are some advantages of using HDFS:

1. Scalability: HDFS is highly scalable and can handle petabytes of data by adding more
nodes to the cluster. It enables organizations to scale their storage and processing needs as
their data grows.

2. Fault tolerance: HDFS is designed to handle hardware failures without losing data. It
achieves fault tolerance by creating multiple replicas of data blocks and distributing them
across different nodes in the cluster.

3. Data locality: HDFS is designed to keep data close to the processing nodes to minimize
network traffic and improve performance. It enables efficient processing of data in a
distributed environment.
 4. Cost-effective storage: HDFS uses commodity hardware, which makes it a cost-effective
solution for storing and processing large data sets. It eliminates the need for expensive
storage solutions and allows organizations to manage their data more efficiently.

5. Open source: HDFS is an open-source project, which means it is free to use and can be
customized to suit specific needs. It has a large community of developers, which ensures
that it remains up-to-date and relevant.

6. Compatibility with Hadoop ecosystem: HDFS is a part of the Hadoop ecosystem and is
fully compatible with other Hadoop tools like MapReduce, Hive, and Pig. This enables
organizations to build robust data processing pipelines using Hadoop.

Overall, HDFS provides a reliable, scalable, and cost-effective solution for storing and
processing large data sets in a distributed environment. It has become an essential tool for big
data processing and analytics in many organizations.

2.3.1 Disadvantages of HDFS

While Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) has many advantages, there are also some
disadvantages to consider:

1. Complexity: HDFS is a complex system that requires expertise to set up, configure, and
maintain. It requires specialized hardware and software to work efficiently, and
organizations need to invest time and resources to get it up and running.

2. Single point of failure: HDFS has a single point of failure in the NameNode. If the
NameNode fails, the entire system may become inaccessible until the NameNode is
restored. Although Hadoop has implemented a solution with the use of secondary
namenodes and backup namenodes, the recovery process still requires some downtime.

3. Limited data access: HDFS is designed for batch processing of data and does not
support random reads and writes like traditional file systems. This makes it unsuitable for
applications that require low-latency access to data.

4. Not suitable for small files: HDFS is optimized for storing and processing large files. It
may not be efficient for handling small files because of the overhead associated with file
replication, storage allocation, and metadata management.

5. Performance degradation: While HDFS is optimized for large file processing, the
performance can suffer when working with many small files. Additionally, HDFS relies
 on network communication to transfer data between nodes, and network latency can
impact performance.

6. Limited support for complex queries: HDFS is designed for batch processing of data
and is not optimized for complex queries. To perform complex queries, organizations
may need to integrate HDFS with other tools like Apache Hive or Apache Spark, which
can add additional complexity to the system.

Overall, while HDFS has many advantages, it is important to consider the potential
disadvantages when choosing a storage system for big data applications. Organizations should
weigh the pros and cons carefully to determine if HDFS is the right solution for their needs.

2.4 HDFS Daemons

Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) daemons are the processes that run on each node in an
HDFS cluster and are responsible for performing specific tasks related to managing and storing
data. The three main daemons in HDFS are:

1. NameNode: The NameNode is the central point for managing and storing metadata for
the entire HDFS cluster. It keeps track of where data is stored and maintains the file
system namespace. When a client wants to read or write data, it first contacts the
NameNode to get the location of the data.

2. DataNode: The DataNode is responsible for storing the actual data in the HDFS cluster.
Each DataNode stores a set of data blocks for files that are stored in the HDFS cluster.
When a client wants to read data, it contacts the DataNode that has the required data
blocks.

3. Secondary NameNode: The Secondary NameNode is a helper node for the NameNode.
It periodically reads the metadata from the NameNode and creates a checkpoint of the file
system namespace. This checkpoint is used to recover the file system metadata in case of
a failure in the NameNode.

In addition to these three main daemons, HDFS also has other components, including:

1. Backup Node: The Backup Node is a hot standby for the NameNode. It periodically
synchronizes with the active NameNode to keep its state up-to-date. In the event of a
failure of the active NameNode, the Backup Node can take over as the active NameNode.
 2. JournalNode: The JournalNode is responsible for providing a highly available storage
for the NameNode’s metadata changes. It stores edit logs from the active NameNode and
makes them available to other NameNodes in the cluster.

3. HttpFS: HttpFS is a service that allows users to access HDFS using HTTP protocols. It
provides a REST API for accessing HDFS, which can be used by web applications and
other tools.

Each of these components plays an important role in the HDFS ecosystem and helps ensure the
reliability and availability of the system.

2.5 HDFS Blocks

HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) is a distributed file system that is designed to store
large files across multiple commodity hardware. One of the key features of HDFS is its ability to
split large files into smaller blocks and distribute them across multiple nodes in a cluster. This
allows for faster and more efficient data processing as data can be read and written in parallel. In
HDFS, a file is divided into fixed-size blocks, typically 128 MB or 256 MB in size. The block
size can be set when the HDFS cluster is initially created, or it can be changed later on. Each
block in HDFS is identified by a unique block ID and is stored on a separate data node in the
cluster. The data nodes are the worker nodes in the HDFS cluster that are responsible for storing
and processing data. Each data node typically has a local disk or disks where it can store HDFS
blocks.

The HDFS block concept enables Hadoop to achieve high scalability, fault tolerance, and data
locality. Here are some of the key benefits of using HDFS blocks:

1. Scalability: HDFS blocks allow Hadoop to store large files across multiple nodes in the
cluster. By splitting files into blocks, Hadoop can distribute the blocks across multiple
data nodes, allowing it to store large amounts of data.

2. Fault tolerance: HDFS blocks are replicated across multiple data nodes in the cluster.
This ensures that even if a data node fails, the data can still be accessed from another
node. Hadoop can also automatically replicate blocks to maintain the desired level of
fault-tolerance.

3. Data locality: HDFS blocks are stored on the data nodes that are closest to the data. This
ensures that data processing can be done locally, without the need to transfer data across
the network. This can significantly improve the performance of data processing.
 4. Efficient processing: HDFS blocks enable Hadoop to read and write data in parallel.
This can significantly improve the performance of data processing, especially for large
files.

The block size in HDFS is configurable and can be set based on the application requirements and
the cluster configuration. However, smaller block sizes may lead to higher overheads due to the
replication factor, while larger block sizes may result in higher latency for processing smaller
files.

2.6 HDFS file write and read

HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) is a distributed file system that is designed to store and
process large files across multiple commodity hardware. HDFS supports both file write and reads
operations. Here's how file writes and read operations work in HDFS:

2.6.1 File Write Operation

The file write operation in HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) involves several steps.
Here's a more detailed breakdown of the file write operation in HDFS:

1. The client application sends a request to the NameNode to create a new file in HDFS.
2. The NameNode responds to the client with the list of data nodes where the file can be
stored and the block size to use. The NameNode also creates an entry for the new file in
the namespace and allocates a unique file ID.
3. The client opens a data stream to one of the data nodes that the NameNode has provided.
The client also sends the first block of data to the data node. The size of each block is
configurable, typically 128 MB or 256 MB in size.
4. The data node writes the data to its local disk and acknowledges the write to the client.
5. The client continues to write data blocks to the data nodes until the entire file is written.
When the client reaches the end of a block, it sends a request to the NameNode for the
location of the next data node to write to.
6. The NameNode responds to the client with the next data node to write to. The client then
opens a new data stream to the new data node and writes the next block of data.
7. Once the client has written all the blocks of data, it closes the data stream, and the
NameNode updates the metadata to reflect the new file creation.
8. The metadata update involves adding an entry for the file in the NameNode's namespace
with the file name, file ID, block locations, and other attributes.
9. The file data is now stored in HDFS, and it can be processed by Hadoop applications.
HDFS file write operation is designed for the efficient handling of large files by distributing
them across multiple data nodes in the cluster, allowing parallel writing and providing fault
tolerance.

2.6.2 File Read Operation

The file read operation in HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) involves several steps. Here's
a more detailed breakdown of the file read operation in HDFS:

1. The client application sends a request to the NameNode to read a file from HDFS.
2. The NameNode responds to the client with the locations of the data nodes that store the
file's blocks. The client then retrieves the metadata for the file, such as file size, block
locations, and other attributes.
3. The client opens a data stream to one of the data nodes that store the first block of data.
4. The client reads the first block of data from the data node.
5. The client continues to read blocks of data from the data nodes until the entire file is read.
When the client reaches the end of a block, it sends a request to the NameNode for the
location of the next data node to read from.
6. The NameNode responds to the client with the next data node to read from. The client
then opens a new data stream to the new data node and reads the next block of data.
7. Once the client has read all the blocks of data, it combines the blocks to form the
complete file.
8. The client can now process the file data using Hadoop applications.

HDFS file read operation is designed for efficient handling of large files by distributing them
across multiple data nodes in the cluster, allowing parallel reading and providing fault tolerance.
By storing data locally on each data node, HDFS provides fast and efficient data access, which is
essential for big data processing.

2.7 NameNode as SPOF

The NameNode in HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) is a single point of failure (SPOF)
because it maintains all the metadata about the HDFS file system. If the NameNode fails, the
entire HDFS cluster becomes unavailable. This is because the NameNode is responsible for
managing the file system namespace, including tracking the location of blocks, managing the
replication factor of blocks, and maintaining information about the data nodes in the cluster.
If the NameNode goes down, the cluster cannot access any of the files in HDFS until the
NameNode is restarted or replaced. This downtime can be significant, especially for applications
that require high availability and continuous operation.

To mitigate the risk of a NameNode failure, Hadoop provides several features, including:

1. High availability: Hadoop provides a solution to the SPOF problem by providing a high
availability option for the NameNode. In the high availability mode, two NameNodes run
in an active-standby configuration, and the standby NameNode automatically takes over
if the active NameNode fails.

2. Backup and recovery: Hadoop provides a backup and recovery solution to protect
against data loss. The metadata is regularly backed up to a secondary storage location,
and in the event of a NameNode failure, the backup metadata can be used to recover the
file system.

3. Monitoring and alerting: Hadoop provides tools for monitoring the health of the HDFS
cluster, including the NameNode, and alerting administrators of potential issues.

4. Cluster management tools: Hadoop provides a set of cluster management tools,

including Apache Ambari and Apache Ranger, that simplify the administration of the
HDFS cluster and help ensure that the cluster is configured and operated correctly.

Overall, while the NameNode is a SPOF in HDFS, Hadoop provides several features and tools to
help mitigate the risk of NameNode failure and ensure the availability and reliability of the
HDFS file system.

2.8 Hadoop HA

Hadoop HA (High Availability) is a feature in Hadoop that provides a solution to the single point
of failure (SPOF) problem of the NameNode in Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS). With
Hadoop HA, two or more NameNodes run in an active-standby configuration to provide high
availability and ensure that the file system is always available to clients.

Here's how Hadoop HA works:

1. Active NameNode: One of the NameNodes is designated as the active NameNode,

which manages the file system's namespace, metadata, and block locations. The active
NameNode is responsible for handling all client requests, including file read and write
operations.
 2. Standby NameNode: The other NameNode(s) are in standby mode, constantly
monitoring the active NameNode's health and status. The standby NameNode(s)
maintains a copy of the file system namespace, metadata, and block locations. The
standby NameNode(s) do not handle client requests unless the active NameNode fails.

3. JournalNodes: JournalNodes are a set of nodes that maintain a shared, highly available,
and fault-tolerant storage system that records every file system operation, including
metadata changes and block location updates. The JournalNodes ensure that the standby
NameNode(s) have an up-to-date view of the file system metadata.

4. Failover: If the active NameNode fails, the standby NameNode(s) automatically take
over the active role. The new active NameNode loads the latest metadata and block
location information from the JournalNodes and resumes serving client requests.

5. ZooKeeper: Hadoop HA uses Apache ZooKeeper to coordinate the election of the active
NameNode, manage the fencing of failed NameNodes, and ensure that the active
NameNode is the only one that can perform read and write operations.

Hadoop HA ensures that the Hadoop cluster is always available and that the file system's
metadata is never lost or corrupted. It is a critical feature for enterprises that require high
availability and continuous operation.

2.8.1 heartbeats

In Hadoop HA (High Availability), heartbeats are used to monitor the health of the NameNode in
the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS). Heartbeats are messages sent periodically by the
DataNodes and the standby NameNode to the active NameNode to confirm that they are still
alive and functioning properly. The heartbeat mechanism is a critical part of the Hadoop HA
failover process.

Here's how heartbeats work in Hadoop HA:

1. DataNode heartbeats: Each DataNode in the Hadoop cluster sends a heartbeat message
to the active NameNode every few seconds. The heartbeat message contains information
about the DataNode's status, including its storage capacity, the number of blocks it is
storing, and its current state.
 2. Standby NameNode heartbeats: The standby NameNode also sends a heartbeat
message to the active NameNode every few seconds to confirm that it is still functioning
properly.

3. Active NameNode response: When the active NameNode receives a heartbeat message,
it updates its view of the HDFS cluster's status based on the information in the message.
If the active NameNode does not receive a heartbeat message from a DataNode or the
standby NameNode within a certain timeframe, it marks the node as failed.

4. Failover: If the active NameNode fails or becomes unavailable, the standby NameNode
uses the information from the last heartbeat messages it received from the DataNodes to
reconstruct the file system's metadata. The standby NameNode then takes over as the
active NameNode, and the HDFS cluster continues to operate without interruption.

By using heartbeats to monitor the health of the Hadoop cluster's components, Hadoop HA can
quickly detect and respond to failures, ensuring high availability and reliability.

2.8.2 block reports and rereplication

In a distributed file system like Hadoop HDFS, data is stored across multiple nodes in the cluster.
To ensure high availability and reliability, HDFS creates replicas of each block and stores them
on different nodes.

When a block is corrupted or lost due to a node failure, HDFS uses a process called
"rereplication" to create additional replicas of the lost block on other nodes. This helps to ensure
that there are always enough copies of each block available to maintain data availability.

1. Block Reports

Each DataNode in an HDFS cluster maintains information about the blocks it holds, including
their block IDs, locations, and replication status. To keep the NameNode informed about these
details, DataNodes periodically send "block reports" to the NameNode. These reports contain
information about all the blocks the DataNode currently holds, as well as any changes that may
have occurred since the last report was sent.

Block reports play a crucial role in the proper functioning of HDFS. By collecting up-to-date
information about the status of each block in the cluster, the NameNode can make informed
decisions about how to manage and allocate resources to ensure optimal data availability and
reliability.
 2. Rereplication

In an HDFS cluster, each block is typically replicated several times on different DataNodes to
ensure high availability and data redundancy. If a DataNode containing a copy of a block fails or
goes offline, the cluster will detect the failure through the regular block reports, and will take
action to restore the lost replica(s).

The process of restoring lost replicas is called "rereplication". When the NameNode detects that
a replica of a block is missing, it will identify one or more other DataNodes that hold a copy of
the block and initiate the process of creating additional replicas. This process involves copying
the existing replica(s) to new DataNodes in the cluster to ensure that there are always a sufficient
number of replicas available to ensure data availability.

Rereplication can be a resource-intensive process, particularly if there are many blocks to be

replicated simultaneously. To mitigate this, HDFS employs a number of strategies to optimize the
rereplication process, such as prioritizing replication of the most important or heavily accessed
blocks, and using a pipeline architecture to allow for parallel copying of blocks between
DataNodes.

2.8.3 Safemode of Namenode

Safe mode is a feature of the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) that allows the NameNode
to perform certain maintenance tasks, such as creating snapshots or upgrading metadata, without
allowing any modifications to the file system by the clients.

When the NameNode enters safe mode, it stops accepting any modifications to the file system
from the clients and only allows read-only operations. This ensures that the NameNode can
perform the necessary maintenance tasks without the risk of data corruption.

The NameNode enters safe mode automatically when it starts up, and it can also be triggered
manually by an administrator. To exit safe mode, the NameNode must satisfy certain conditions,
such as having a minimum number of DataNodes and a minimum percentage of blocks reported
as being alive.

In summary, safe mode is an important feature of HDFS that allows the NameNode to perform
maintenance tasks safely without the risk of data corruption.

2.8.4 Hadoop fs commands

Hadoop fs commands are used to interact with the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) from
the command line. Here are some commonly used Hadoop fs commands:

1. hadoop fs -ls: lists the contents of a directory in HDFS.

2. hadoop fs -mkdir: creates a new directory in HDFS.
3. hadoop fs -put: copies a file from the local file system to HDFS.
4. hadoop fs -get: copies a file from HDFS to the local file system.
5. hadoop fs -rm: deletes a file or directory in HDFS.
6. hadoop fs -chmod: changes the permissions of a file or directory in HDFS.
7. hadoop fs -chown: changes the owner of a file or directory in HDFS.
8. hadoop fs -cat: displays the contents of a file in HDFS.
9. hadoop fs -du: displays the size of a file or directory in HDFS.
10. hadoop fs -mv: renames or moves a file or directory in HDFS.

These are just some of the most commonly used Hadoop fs commands. There are many more
commands available for interacting with HDFS from the command line. To see a full list of
available commands and their descriptions, you can run hado
op fs without any arguments.

2.8.4.1 hadoop fs -ls

hadoop fs -ls is a command used to list the contents of a directory in Hadoop Distributed File
System (HDFS) from the command line.

The basic syntax of the command is:

hadoop fs -ls <path>

Where <path> is the HDFS directory path you want to list. For example, to list the contents of
the root directory of HDFS, you can run the following command:

hadoop fs -ls /

This will show you a list of all the files and directories in the root directory of HDFS.

You can also use other options with the hadoop fs -ls command, such as -R to list the contents of
subdirectories recursively, or -h to display the file sizes in a more human-readable format. For
example:
 hadoop fs -ls -R /user

This will show you a recursive listing of all the files and directories under the /user directory in
HDFS.

Overall, hadoop fs -ls is a useful command for quickly seeing the contents of a directory in
HDFS and checking for the existence of files and directories.

2.8.4.2 hadoop fs -mkdir

hadoop fs -mkdir is a command used to create a new directory in the Hadoop Distributed File
System (HDFS) from the command line.

The basic syntax of the command is:

hadoop fs -mkdir <path>

Where <path> is the HDFS directory path you want to create. For example, to create a new
directory called mydata in the root directory of HDFS, you can run the following command:

hadoop fs -mkdir /mydata

This will create a new directory called mydata in the root directory of HDFS.

You can also create nested directories by specifying the full path to the new directory you want
to create. For example, to create a new directory called mydata inside the data directory in the
root directory of HDFS, you can run the following command:

hadoop fs -mkdir /data/mydata

This will create a new directory called mydata inside the data directory in the root directory of
HDFS.

Overall, hadoop fs -mkdir is a useful command for creating new directories in HDFS from the
command line.

2.8.4.3 hadoop fs -put

The hadoop fs -put command is used to copy files or directories from the local file system to
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -put <source> <destination>

Where:

● <source> is the path to the file or directory in the local file system that you want to copy
to HDFS.
● <destination> is the path in HDFS where you want to copy the file or directory.
For example, to copy a file named example.txt from the local file system to HDFS in the
directory /user/myuser/data, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -put example.txt /user/myuser/data

Note that if the destination directory does not exist, it will be created automatically.

2.8.4.4 hadoop fs -get

The hadoop fs -get command is used to copy files or directories from Hadoop Distributed File
System (HDFS) to the local file system.

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -get <source> <destination>

Where:

● <source> is the path to the file or directory in HDFS that you want to copy to the local
file system.
● <destination> is the path in the local file system where you want to copy the file or
directory.

For example, to copy a file named example.txt from HDFS in the directory /user/myuser/data to
the local file system in the directory /home/myuser/data, you would use the following command:
 hadoop fs -get /user/myuser/data/example.txt /home/myuser/data

Note that if the destination directory does not exist, it will be created automatically.

2.8.4.5 hadoop fs -rm

The hadoop fs -rm command is used to delete files or directories from Hadoop Distributed File
System (HDFS).

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -rm <path>

Where:

● <path> is the path to the file or directory in HDFS that you want to delete.
For example, to delete a file named example.txt from HDFS in the directory /user/myuser/data,
you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -rm /user/myuser/data/example.txt

To delete a directory named mydir and all its contents from HDFS in the directory
/user/myuser/data, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -rm -r /user/myuser/data/mydir

Note that the -r option is used to delete directories and their contents recursively.

2.8.4.6 hadoop fs -chmod

The hadoop fs -chmod command is used to change the permissions of files or directories in
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -chmod <mode> <path>

Where:

● <mode> is the new permission mode to be set in octal notation (e.g. 755 for rwxr-xr-x).
● <path> is the path to the file or directory in HDFS that you want to change the permission
of.
For example, to set the permission of a file named example.txt in HDFS in the directory
/user/myuser/data to read and write for the owner and read-only for others, you would use the
following command:

hadoop fs -chmod 644 /user/myuser/data/example.txt

To set the permission of a directory named mydir and all its contents in HDFS in the directory
/user/myuser/data to read, write, and execute for the owner, read and execute for group members,
and read-only for others, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -chmod 755 /user/myuser/data/mydir

Note that the permission changes will apply to the owner, group, and others as specified by the
octal notation.

2.8.4.7 hadoop fs -chown

The hadoop fs -chown command is used to change the ownership of files or directories in
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -chown <owner>[:<group>] <path>

Where:

● <owner> is the new owner to be set.

● <group> is the new group to be set.
● <path> is the path to the file or directory in HDFS that you want to change the ownership
of.
For example, to change the ownership of a file named example.txt in HDFS in the directory
/user/myuser/data to newuser and the group newgroup, you would use the following command:
 hadoop fs -chown newuser:newgroup /user/myuser/data/example.txt

To change the ownership of a directory named mydir and all its contents in HDFS in the
directory /user/myuser/data to newuser and the group newgroup, you would use the following
command:

hadoop fs -chown -R newuser:newgroup /user/myuser/data/mydir

Note that the -R option is used to change ownership of directories and their contents recursively.
If the <group> parameter is not specified, it will default to the user's primary group.

2.8.4.8 hadoop fs -cat

The hadoop fs -cat command is used to display the contents of a file stored in Hadoop
Distributed File System (HDFS) on the command line.

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -cat <path>

Where:

● <path> is the path to the file in HDFS whose contents you want to display.
For example, to display the contents of a file named example.txt in HDFS in the directory
/user/myuser/data, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -cat /user/myuser/data/example.txt

The command will output the contents of the file to the terminal. Note that the hadoop fs -cat
command is typically used for small files. For larger files, you may want to consider using other
HDFS commands, such as hadoop fs -tail or hadoop fs -get.

2.8.4.9 hadoop fs -du

The hadoop fs -du command is used to estimate the size of a file or directory stored in Hadoop
Distributed File System (HDFS).
The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -du [-s] [-h] <path>

Where:

● -s (optional) displays the total size of the specified directory, rather than the size of
individual files.
● -h (optional) displays the size of the file or directory in a human-readable format (e.g.
KB, MB, GB).
● <path> is the path to the file or directory in HDFS whose size you want to estimate.
For example, to estimate the size of a file named example.txt in HDFS in the directory
/user/myuser/data, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -du /user/myuser/data/example.txt

This will output the size of the file in bytes.

To estimate the total size of a directory named mydir and all its contents in HDFS in the
directory /user/myuser/data, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -du -s /user/myuser/data/mydir

Note that the -s option is used to display the total size of the directory and its contents. If the -h
option is specified, the size will be displayed in a human-readable format.

2.8.4.10 hadoop fs -mv

The hadoop fs -mv command is used to move or rename a file or directory in Hadoop Distributed
File System (HDFS).

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -mv <source> <destination>

Where:
 ● <source> is the path to the file or directory in HDFS that you want to move or rename.
● <destination> is the new path for the file or directory.
For example, to move a file named example.txt from /user/myuser/data to /user/myuser/archive,
you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -mv /user/myuser/data/example.txt /user/myuser/archive/

To rename a file named example.txt in /user/myuser/data to newexample.txt, you would use the
following command:

hadoop fs -mv /user/myuser/data/example.txt /user/myuser/data/newexample.txt

Note that if the <destination> is an existing directory, the <source> file or directory will be
moved into the directory with its original name. If the <destination> is a new filename, the
<source> file or directory will be renamed to the <destination> name.

2.8.4.11 hadoop fs -df

The hadoop fs -df command is used to display the amount of free and used space on each
DataNode in a Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) cluster.

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -df [-h] <path>

Where:

● -h (optional) displays the size of the file or directory in a human-readable format (e.g.
KB, MB, GB).
● <path> is the path to the file or directory in HDFS whose space usage you want to
display. If no path is specified, the space usage for the entire HDFS filesystem will be
displayed.
For example, to display the space usage for the entire HDFS filesystem in human-readable
format, you would use the following command:
 hadoop fs -df -h

This will output the amount of free and used space on each DataNode in the cluster in a
human-readable format.

To display the space usage for a specific directory named mydir in HDFS in the directory
/user/myuser/data, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -df -h /user/myuser/data/mydir

Note that the hadoop fs -df command does not display the amount of space used by individual
files or directories, but rather the total amount of free and used space on each DataNode in the
HDFS cluster.

2.8.4.12 hadoop fs -count

The hadoop fs -count command is used to count the number of files, directories, and bytes in a
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -count [-q] [-h] <path>

Where:

● -q (optional) displays only the count of directories and files, excluding the byte count.
● -h (optional) displays the size of the file or directory in a human-readable format (e.g.
KB, MB, GB).
● <path> is the path to the file or directory in HDFS that you want to count.
For example, to count the number of files, directories, and bytes in a directory named mydir in
HDFS in the directory /user/myuser/data, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -count /user/myuser/data/mydir

This will output the number of directories and files, as well as the total byte count for the
directory.
To display only the count of directories and files for a directory named mydir in HDFS in the
directory /user/myuser/data, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -count -q /user/myuser/data/mydir

Note that if the -h option is specified, the byte count will be displayed in a human-readable
format.

2.8.4.13 hadoop fs -fsck

The hadoop fs -fsck command is used to check the health and status of files and directories in a
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -fsck <path> [-files [-blocks [-locations | -racks]]]

Where:

● <path> is the path to the file or directory in HDFS that you want to check the health and
status of.
● -files (optional) displays the status of each file.
● -blocks (optional) displays the status of each block within each file.
● -locations (optional) displays the location of each replica of each block.
● -racks (optional) displays the network topology rack information for each replica.

For example, to check the health and status of a directory named mydir in HDFS in the directory
/user/myuser/data and display the status of each file and block, you would use the following
command:

hadoop fs -fsck /user/myuser/data/mydir -files -blocks

This will output the status of each file and block in the directory.

To display the location of each replica of each block in the directory, you would add the
-locations option:
 hadoop fs -fsck /user/myuser/data/mydir -files -blocks -locations

To display the network topology rack information for each replica, you would add the -racks
option:

hadoop fs -fsck /user/myuser/data/mydir -files -blocks -locations -racks

Note that running the hadoop fs -fsck command can take a long time to complete, especially for
large directories or files.

2.8.4.14 hadoop fs -balancer

The hadoop fs -balancer command is used to balance the data distribution of a Hadoop
Distributed File System (HDFS) cluster.

When a HDFS cluster is running, its data distribution can become imbalanced due to changes in
the workload, the addition or removal of nodes, or other factors. This can result in some nodes
becoming overloaded with data while others remain underutilized. The hadoop fs -balancer
command can be used to redistribute the data across the cluster so that each node is balanced and
evenly utilized.

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -balancer [-threshold <threshold>] [-policy <policy>]

Where:

● -threshold (optional) is the threshold for data imbalance. If the imbalance of the cluster is
less than the threshold, then the balancer will not run. The default threshold is 10.0.
● -policy (optional) is the policy used for data balancing. The default policy is "datanode".

For example, to run the hadoop fs -balancer command with the default options, you would use
the following command:

hadoop fs -balancer
This will initiate a data balancing process in the HDFS cluster, redistributing the data across the
nodes.

To set a custom threshold for data imbalance, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -balancer -threshold 5.0

This will initiate a data balancing process in the HDFS cluster, but only if the imbalance of the
cluster is greater than 5.0.

To use a different policy for data balancing, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -balancer -policy blockpool

This will initiate a data balancing process in the HDFS cluster using the "blockpool" policy.

2.8.4.15 hadoop fs -copyfromlocal

The hadoop fs -copyFromLocal command is used to copy a file from the local file system to a
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -copyFromLocal <localsrc> <dst>

Where:

● <localsrc> is the path to the file in the local file system that you want to copy to HDFS.
● <dst> is the destination path in HDFS where you want to copy the file to.
For example, to copy a file named example.txt from the local file system to a directory named
data in HDFS in the directory /user/myuser, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -copyFromLocal /path/to/example.txt /user/myuser/data

This will copy the file to the data directory in HDFS.

If the destination path in HDFS already exists, the hadoop fs -copyFromLocal command will
copy the file to that path and overwrite any existing file with the same name.

You can also copy multiple files at once by specifying a directory as the source and destination.
For example, to copy all files in a directory named myfiles in the local file system to a directory
named data in HDFS in the directory /user/myuser, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -copyFromLocal /path/to/myfiles /user/myuser/data

This will copy all files in the myfiles directory to the data directory in HDFS.

2.8.4.16 hadoop fs -copytolocal

The hadoop fs -copyToLocal command is used to copy a file or directory from Hadoop
Distributed File System (HDFS) to the local file system.

The syntax for the command is as follows:

hadoop fs -copyToLocal <src> <localdst>

Where:

● <src> is the path to the file or directory in HDFS that you want to copy to the local file
system.
● <localdst> is the destination path in the local file system where you want to copy the file
or directory to.

For example, to copy a file named example.txt from HDFS in the directory /user/myuser/data to
a directory named myfiles in the local file system, you would use the following command:

hadoop fs -copyToLocal /user/myuser/data/example.txt /path/to/myfiles

This will copy the file to the myfiles directory in the local file system.

If the destination path in the local file system already exists, the hadoop fs -copyToLocal
command will copy the file or directory to that path and overwrite any existing file or directory
with the same name.
You can also copy an entire directory from HDFS to the local file system by specifying a
directory as the source and destination. For example, to copy a directory named data from HDFS
in the directory /user/myuser to a directory named mydata in the local file system, you would use
the following command:

hadoop fs -copyToLocal /user/myuser/data /path/to/mydata

This will copy the entire data directory and its contents to the mydata directory in the local file
system.

2.8.4.17 hadoop fs -expunge

The hadoop fs -expunge command is used to delete all the files in the trash directory of the
Hadoop file system. The trash directory is a temporary storage area where files are moved when
they are deleted using the hadoop fs -rm command.

The -expunge option is used to permanently delete all the files in the trash directory. This is
useful when the trash directory is taking up too much space or when you want to free up space
on the Hadoop file system.

It is important to note that the hadoop fs -expunge command should be used with caution, as it
permanently deletes all the files in the trash directory. Once the files are deleted, they cannot be
recovered. Therefore, it is recommended to take a backup of the files before running this
command.

Here is an example of how to use the hadoop fs -expunge command:

hadoop fs -expunge

This command will delete all the files in the trash directory of the Hadoop file system.

2.8.4.18 hadoop fs -chmod

The hadoop fs -chmod command is used to change the permissions of files or directories in the
Hadoop file system. The command is similar to the chmod command in Linux.

The syntax of the hadoop fs -chmod command is as follows:

 hadoop fs -chmod [-R] <MODE[,MODE]... | OCTALMODE> URI [URI ...]

Here, the options are as follows:

● -R: Recursively changes permissions of directories and their contents.

● MODE: One or more permission bits to add or remove. It can be one of u, g, o, a, +, -, or
=. For example, u+x adds execute permission for the owner.
● OCTALMODE: An octal value representing the permissions of the file or directory. For
example, 755 sets read, write, and execute permissions for the owner and read and
execute permissions for the group and others.
● The URI specifies the path to the file or directory whose permissions need to be changed.

Here is an example of how to use the hadoop fs -chmod command:

hadoop fs -chmod 644 hdfs://localhost:9000/example/file.txt

This command changes the permissions of the file file.txt to rw-r--r-- in the Hadoop file system.
The 644 specifies the octal representation of the permissions. The rw- means read and write
permissions for the owner, and the r-- means read-only permissions for the group and others.

Note that the hadoop fs -chmod command requires the user to have the necessary permissions to
change the file or directory permissions.

2.8.4.19 hadoop fs -chown

The hadoop fs -chown command is used to change the ownership of files or directories in the
Hadoop file system. The command is similar to the chown command in Linux.

The syntax of the hadoop fs -chown command is as follows:

hadoop fs -chown [-R] [OWNER][:[GROUP]] URI [URI ...]

Here, the options are as follows:

● -R: Recursively changes ownership of directories and their contents.

● OWNER: The new owner of the file or directory.
● GROUP: The new group of the file or directory. If not specified, the primary group of the
new owner is used.
 ● The URI specifies the path to the file or directory whose ownership needs to be changed.

Here is an example of how to use the hadoop fs -chown command:

hadoop fs -chown hadoop:hadoop hdfs://localhost:9000/example/file.txt

This command changes the ownership of the file file.txt to user hadoop and group hadoop in the
Hadoop file system.

Note that the hadoop fs -chown command requires the user to have the necessary permissions to
change the file or directory ownership.

2.8.4.20 hadoop fs -setrep

The hadoop fs -setrep command is used to change the replication factor of files in the Hadoop
file system. The replication factor determines the number of copies of a file that are stored in the
Hadoop cluster. By default, the replication factor is set to three.

The syntax of the hadoop fs -setrep command is as follows:

hadoop fs -setrep [-R] [-w] <rep> URI [URI ...]

Here, the options are as follows:

● -R: Recursively changes the replication factor of directories and their contents.
● -w: Prints the progress of the command.
● rep: The new replication factor for the file or directory. It must be a positive integer.

The URI specifies the path to the file or directory whose replication factor needs to be changed.

Here is an example of how to use the hadoop fs -setrep command:

hadoop fs -setrep 2 hdfs://localhost:9000/example/file.txt

This command changes the replication factor of the file file.txt to 2 in the Hadoop file system.
Note that changing the replication factor of a file can affect the performance and storage capacity
of the Hadoop cluster. Therefore, it is recommended to carefully consider the impact before
changing the replication factor.

2.8.4.21 hadoop fs -stat

The hadoop fs -stat command is used to retrieve metadata information about a file or directory in
the Hadoop file system. The command displays various attributes of the file or directory, such as
the access time, modification time, file size, replication factor, and permissions.

The syntax of the hadoop fs -stat command is as follows:

hadoop fs -stat [format] URI [URI ...]

Here, the options are as follows:

format: The format string to use for displaying the metadata information. The format string can
include the following placeholders:

● %b: The size of the file in bytes.

● %f: The full pathname of the file.
● %g: The group name of the file.
● %m: The modification time of the file.
● %n: The basename of the file.
● %o: The owner name of the file.
● %r: The replication factor of the file.
● %y: The type of the file (e.g., file or directory).
● %%: A literal % character.

If the format option is not specified, the default format string is %y%n%o%g%b%m%r.

The URI specifies the path to the file or directory whose metadata information needs to be
retrieved.

Here is an example of how to use the hadoop fs -stat command:

hadoop fs -stat "%y %n %o %g %b %m %r" hdfs://localhost:9000/example/file.txt

This command displays the metadata information of the file file.txt in the specified format. The
output will include the file type, filename, owner name, group name, file size, modification time,
and replication factor.

Note that the hadoop fs -stat command may not be supported by all Hadoop distributions or
versions. In such cases, the hadoop fs -ls command can be used to retrieve basic metadata
information about files and directories in the Hadoop file system.
2.9 Hadoop dfsadmin commands

The hadoop dfsadmin command is used to perform various administrative tasks in the Hadoop
Distributed File System (HDFS). It can be used to manage the HDFS cluster, view cluster status,
and perform maintenance tasks.

Here are some of the commonly used hadoop dfsadmin commands:

1. hadoop dfsadmin -report: This command provides a report on the status of the HDFS
cluster. It displays the number of live and dead nodes in the cluster, the total capacity, and
the amount of free and used space.

2. hadoop dfsadmin -safemode [enter|leave|get|wait]: This command is used to enter or

leave the safe mode of the HDFS cluster. Safe mode is a maintenance mode in which the
HDFS cluster is read-only and no data can be added or modified. The get option displays
the current safe mode status, while the wait option waits until the safe mode is exited.

3. hadoop dfsadmin -setrep [-R] <rep> <path>: This command is used to change the
replication factor of files or directories in the HDFS cluster. The -R option specifies that
the replication factor should be changed recursively for all files and directories under the
specified path.

4. hadoop dfsadmin -refreshNodes: This command is used to refresh the list of nodes in
the HDFS cluster. This is useful when new nodes are added or removed from the cluster.

5. hadoop dfsadmin -shutdownDatanode <datanode_host:ipc_port>: This command is

used to shut down a specific datanode in the HDFS cluster. The datanode_host:ipc_port
argument specifies the hostname and IPC port number of the datanode.
 Chapter 3
Introduction to Apache Pig

Key Contents
● Introduction to Apache Pig
● Need of Pig
● Installation of Pig
● Execution modes of Pig
● Pig-Architecture
● Grunt shell and basic utility commands
● Data types and Opeartors in Pig
● Analysing data stored in HDFS using Pig
● Pig operators for Data analysis
● Dump, Describe, Explanation, Illustration, Store
3.1 Introduction to Apache Pig

Apache Pig is a platform for analyzing large data sets that allows developers to write complex
data transformations using a simple, high-level language called Pig Latin. It was developed at
Yahoo! and later became an Apache Software Foundation project.

Pig Latin is a scripting language that abstracts the lower-level details of data processing and
allows users to focus on the data transformations themselves. This makes it easier to write and
maintain data pipelines, even for developers who may not have a deep understanding of
distributed computing.

Pig can run on Hadoop clusters, as well as standalone mode for testing and development. Pig
scripts are compiled into MapReduce jobs, which are then executed on the Hadoop cluster.

Some key features of Pig include:

1. Simplified data processing: Pig Latin abstracts away the complexities of distributed
computing, allowing developers to focus on data transformations.

2. Reusability: Pig Latin scripts are reusable and can be easily modified to handle different
types of data.

3. Extensibility: Pig supports user-defined functions (UDFs), which allow developers to

extend Pig's functionality and implement custom transformations.

4. Integration with Hadoop: Pig can run on Hadoop clusters and can work with data stored
in Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

Overall, Apache Pig provides a powerful tool for analyzing large data sets in a simplified and
efficient way.

3.2 Need of Pig

The need for Apache Pig arises from the challenges of processing large data sets using traditional
programming languages like Java, Python, or SQL. These languages can be time-consuming and
difficult to work with when dealing with big data, and they require a deep understanding of
distributed systems.

Here are some key reasons why Apache Pig is needed:

1. Simplified data processing: Pig Latin is a high-level scripting language that abstracts
away the complexities of distributed computing, allowing developers to focus on data
transformations. Pig Latin simplifies the process of handling complex data processing
tasks and makes it easier to write and maintain data pipelines.

2. Scalability: Pig is designed to handle large-scale data processing, making it an ideal tool
for big data applications. It can scale up or down to handle data processing tasks of any
size, from gigabytes to petabytes.

3. Reusability: Pig Latin scripts are reusable and can be easily modified to handle different
types of data. This makes it easy to adapt to changes in the data or the processing
requirements.

4. Extensibility: Pig supports user-defined functions (UDFs), which allow developers to

extend Pig's functionality and implement custom transformations. This makes it possible
to create new data processing capabilities without having to modify the Pig platform
itself.

5. Integration with Hadoop: Pig can run on Hadoop clusters and can work with data stored
in Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS). This makes it easy to integrate with other
Hadoop tools and technologies, such as HBase, Hive, and Spark.

Overall, Apache Pig provides a powerful tool for analyzing large data sets in a simplified and
efficient way, making it an ideal choice for big data applications.

3.3 Installation of Pig

Here are the general steps to install Apache Pig on a Linux-based system:

1. Download the latest stable release of Apache Pig from the official website
(https://pig.apache.org/releases.html).
 2. Extract the downloaded tarball to a desired location on your system using the following
command:

tar -xzf pig-<version>.tar.gz

Replace <version> with the version number of the Pig release you downloaded.

3. Set the PIG_HOME environment variable to point to the extracted directory:

export PIG_HOME=/path/to/pig-<version>
Replace /path/to with the actual path to the extracted directory.

4. Add the Pig binary directory to your system's PATH environment variable:

export PATH=$PATH:$PIG_HOME/bin

5. Verify the installation by running the following command:

pig --version

If everything is installed correctly, you should see the version number of Pig printed to the
console.

That's it! You have successfully installed Apache Pig on your Linux-based system. Note that
these steps may vary slightly depending on your specific distribution and configuration.

3.4 Execution modes of Pig

Apache Pig can be executed in two modes:

1. Local Mode: In this mode, Pig runs on a single machine and uses the local file system
for input and output. It is useful for testing Pig scripts and debugging them before
running them on a Hadoop cluster. The local mode can be started by using the following
command:

pig -x local
 2. MapReduce Mode: In this mode, Pig runs on a Hadoop cluster and uses Hadoop
Distributed File System (HDFS) for input and output. Pig Latin scripts are compiled into
MapReduce jobs, which are then executed on the Hadoop cluster. MapReduce mode is
used for large-scale data processing and is the primary mode of running Pig in production
environments. MapReduce mode can be started by using the following command:

pig -x mapreduce
Pig also supports the Tez execution engine, which is an alternative to MapReduce. Tez is an
optimized data processing engine that can execute Pig Latin scripts faster than MapReduce. The
Tez execution mode can be started by using the following command:

pig -x tez

By default, Pig uses the MapReduce execution engine. The execution mode can also be set in the
Pig script using the SET command as follows:

SET mapreduce.jobtracker.address = "localhost:8021";

This sets the MapReduce jobtracker address to localhost:8021, which means Pig will run in
MapReduce mode.

3.5 Pig-Architecture

The architecture of Apache Pig can be divided into three main components:

1. Language: Pig Latin is a high-level scripting language used for data processing. Pig
Latin scripts are compiled into MapReduce jobs, which are then executed on a Hadoop
cluster. Pig Latin is similar to SQL and provides a simple and intuitive syntax for
defining data processing operations.

2. Execution Environment: Pig can be executed in either local or MapReduce mode. In

local mode, Pig runs on a single machine and uses the local file system for input and
output. In MapReduce mode, Pig runs on a Hadoop cluster and uses Hadoop Distributed
File System (HDFS) for input and output. Pig supports the MapReduce and Tez execution
engines for executing Pig Latin scripts.

3. Infrastructure: Pig uses several infrastructure components to execute Pig Latin scripts.
These components include:
 ● Parser: The parser reads the Pig Latin script and generates an abstract syntax tree (AST)
of the script. The AST is then compiled into MapReduce jobs or Tez DAGs.

● Optimizer: The optimizer analyzes the AST and applies optimization rules to improve
the efficiency of the data processing operations. The optimizer also generates a logical
plan, which is a sequence of data processing operations that need to be executed to
produce the desired result.
● Compiler: The compiler takes the logical plan and generates MapReduce jobs or Tez
DAGs that can be executed on the Hadoop cluster.

● Execution Engine: The execution engine runs the generated MapReduce jobs or Tez
DAGs on the Hadoop cluster. The engine also handles input/output operations, data
partitioning, and data serialization/deserialization.

● User-Defined Functions (UDFs): Pig supports the creation of user-defined functions,

which can be written in Java, Python, or other programming languages. UDFs can be
used to implement custom data processing operations that are not available in Pig Latin.

Overall, the architecture of Apache Pig provides a powerful tool for analyzing large data sets in a
simplified and efficient way.

3.6 Grunt shell and basic utility commands

The Grunt shell is a command-line interface that allows you to run and manage tasks for your
JavaScript projects. Here are some basic utility commands that you can use in the Grunt shell:

1. grunt init: This command initializes a new Grunt project in the current directory.

2. grunt: This command runs the default task(s) defined in the Gruntfile.js file.

3. grunt taskname: This command runs a specific task named "taskname" that is defined in
the Gruntfile.js file.

4. grunt --help: This command displays a list of available Grunt tasks and their
descriptions.

5. grunt --version: This command displays the current version of Grunt that is installed on
your system.
 6. grunt watch: This command starts watching for changes in your project files and runs
the relevant tasks automatically when changes are detected.

7. grunt clean: This command removes all the files and directories that were generated by
previous Grunt tasks.

8. grunt concat: This command concatenates multiple files into a single file.

9. grunt uglify: This command minifies and compresses JavaScript files.

10. grunt jshint: This command runs a syntax check on your JavaScript code to detect errors
and potential issues.

3.7 Data types and Opeartors in Pig

Apache Pig is a platform for analyzing large datasets using a high-level data flow language
called Pig Latin. Pig supports various data types and operators that enable data transformation,
filtering, and aggregation. Here are some of the data types and operators in Pig:

Data Types:

1. Int: Integer values

2. Long: Long integer values
3. Float: Single-precision floating-point values
4. Double: Double-precision floating-point values
5. Chararray: Character array or string values
6. Boolean: Boolean values (true or false)
7. DateTime: Date and time values

Operators:

1. Arithmetic Operators: + (addition), - (subtraction), * (multiplication), / (division),

% (modulus)

2. Comparison Operators: == (equal to), != (not equal to), < (less than), > (greater
than), <= (less than or equal to), >= (greater than or equal to)

3. Logical Operators: AND, OR, NOT

 4. Relational Operators: JOIN, COGROUP, UNION, DISTINCT, FILTER,
FOREACH, GROUP, ORDER BY, LIMIT

These operators can be used to manipulate data in various ways, such as filtering data, sorting
data, combining datasets, and performing mathematical operations. The Pig Latin language also
supports user-defined functions (UDFs) which allow users to extend the functionality of Pig with
their own custom functions.

3.8 Analysing data stored in HDFS using Pig

Pig is a high-level platform for creating MapReduce programs used for analyzing large datasets.
Pig Latin is the scripting language used by Pig to perform data analysis.

To analyze data stored in Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) using Pig, follow these steps:

1. Start the Pig shell: You can start the Pig shell by typing the following command in the
terminal:

pig

2. Load data from HDFS: Once you are in the Pig shell, you need to load data from
HDFS. You can load data using the LOAD command. For example, to load a file named
data.txt from the input directory in HDFS, you can use the following command:

A = LOAD 'hdfs://localhost:9000/input/data.txt' USING PigStorage(',');

In the above command, A is the name of the relation that will hold the data. PigStorage(',') is a
built-in Pig loader used to load data that is comma-separated. You can replace it with other
loaders depending on your data format.

3. Filter data: You can filter data using the FILTER command. For example, to filter data
where the first field is equal to 1, you can use the following command:

B = FILTER A BY $0 == '1';
In the above command, B is the name of the relation that will hold the filtered data. $0 is the
syntax used to refer to the first field in the relation.
 4. Group data: You can group data using the GROUP command. For example, to group
data by the first field, you can use the following command:

C = GROUP B BY $0;
In the above command, C is the name of the relation that will hold the grouped data.

5. Calculate aggregate functions: You can calculate aggregate functions using the
FOREACH command. For example, to calculate the count of records in each group, you
can use the following command:

D = FOREACH C GENERATE group, COUNT(B);

In the above command, D is the name of the relation that will hold the result of the calculation.
group is a reserved word that refers to the grouping field. COUNT(B) is the syntax used to
calculate the count of records in each group.

6. Store data in HDFS: You can store data in HDFS using the STORE command. For
example, to store the result in a file named output.txt in the output directory in HDFS,
you can use the following command:

STORE D INTO 'hdfs://localhost:9000/output/output.txt' USING PigStorage(',');

In the above command, D is the relation that will be stored in HDFS. PigStorage(',') is a built-in
Pig storage function used to store data that is comma-separated. You can replace it with other
storage functions depending on your data format.

These are the basic steps to analyze data stored in HDFS using Pig. There are many other
commands and functions available in Pig to perform more complex data analysis tasks.

3.9 Pig operators for Data analysis

Pig is a platform for analyzing large datasets that runs on top of Hadoop. Pig provides a
high-level language called Pig Latin, which is similar to SQL, that allows users to write complex
data analysis programs without having to write complex MapReduce code. Pig also provides a
set of operators that can be used to manipulate data within a Pig Latin script. Some of the most
commonly used Pig operators for data analysis include:

1. LOAD: This operator is used to load data from a file or a directory into Pig. The data can
be in various formats, such as CSV, TSV, JSON, or XML.
 2. FOREACH: This operator is used to apply a transformation to each tuple in a relation. It
is often used in conjunction with other operators, such as FILTER or GROUP, to
manipulate data.

3. FILTER: This operator is used to select tuples from a relation that meet certain
conditions. It can be used with various comparison operators, such as ==, !=, >, <, and so
on.

4. GROUP: This operator is used to group tuples in a relation based on one or more
columns. It can be used with other operators, such as COUNT, SUM, AVG, and MAX, to
perform aggregate operations.

5. JOIN: This operator is used to join two or more relations based on a common column.
Pig supports various types of joins, such as INNER JOIN, LEFT OUTER JOIN, and
RIGHT OUTER JOIN.

6. ORDER BY: This operator is used to sort tuples in a relation based on one or more
columns.

7. DISTINCT: This operator is used to remove duplicates from a relation.

8. UNION: This operator is used to combine two or more relations into a single relation.
The relations must have the same schema.

These are just a few of the many operators that Pig provides for data analysis. Each operator can
be used in combination with others to perform complex data transformations and analyses.

3.10 Dump, Describe, Explanation, Illustration, Store

3.10.1 Dump: In Apache Pig, "dump" is a command that is used to output the results of a Pig
Latin script. When you run a Pig Latin script, it creates a directed acyclic graph (DAG) of
operations that need to be performed in order to produce the desired output. The "dump"
command is used to output the final results of that DAG to the console or to a file.

For example, if you had a Pig Latin script that calculated the average age of a group of people,
you could use the "dump" command to output the result to the console like this:

people = LOAD 'people.txt' USING PigStorage(',') AS (name:chararray, age:int);

avg_age = FOREACH (GROUP people ALL) GENERATE AVG(people.age);
dump avg_age;
When you run this script, the "dump" command will output the average age of the people to the
console.

It's worth noting that the "dump" command is typically used for debugging and testing purposes,
rather than for production use. In production environments, you would typically use the "store"
command to write the output of your Pig Latin script to a file or another data store.
3.10.2 Describe: Apache Pig is a high-level platform for analyzing large datasets that is built on
top of Apache Hadoop. It uses a simple and powerful language called Pig Latin, which allows
you to express complex data transformations using a few lines of code.

Here's an example of how you might use Pig to analyze a dataset of customer transactions:
First, you would load the data into Pig using the LOAD statement:

transactions = LOAD 'customer_transactions.csv' USING PigStorage(',') AS (customer_id:int,

transaction_id:int, amount:float, date:chararray);

This statement loads a CSV file called customer_transactions.csv and specifies that the fields are
comma-separated. It also assigns names and types to each field.

Next, you might filter the transactions to include only those that occurred in the last month:

recent_transactions = FILTER transactions BY date >= '2023-03-11';

This statement uses the FILTER operator to select only the transactions that occurred on or after
March 11, 2023.

Then, you might group the transactions by customer and calculate the total amount spent by each
customer:

customer_totals = GROUP recent_transactions BY customer_id;

customer_spending = FOREACH customer_totals GENERATE group AS customer_id,
SUM(recent_transactions.amount) AS total_spending;

This statement uses the GROUP operator to group the recent transactions by customer ID. It then
uses the FOREACH operator to generate a new relation that contains the customer ID and the
total amount spent by that customer.

Finally, you might sort the results by total spending in descending order:
 top_customers = ORDER customer_spending BY total_spending DESC;

This statement uses the ORDER operator to sort the customer_spending relation by the
total_spending field in descending order. It assigns the sorted relation to a new variable called
top_customers.

Overall, this example demonstrates how Pig can be used to load, filter, group, and analyze large
datasets with just a few lines of code.

3.10.3 Explanation: Explanation in Pig

transactions = LOAD 'customer_transactions.csv' USING PigStorage(',') AS (customer_id:int,

transaction_id:int, amount:float, date:chararray);

This code loads a CSV file called 'customer_transactions.csv' and specifies that the fields are
separated by commas. The AS clause assigns names and types to each field. The fields are
customer_id (an integer), transaction_id (an integer), amount (a float), and date (a character
array).

recent_transactions = FILTER transactions BY date >= '2023-03-11';

This code filters the transactions relation to include only those transactions that occurred on or
after March 11, 2023. The FILTER operator takes a condition, which in this case is date >=
'2023-03-11'. This condition selects only the tuples (rows) in the transactions relation where the
date field is greater than or equal to March 11, 2023.

customer_totals = GROUP recent_transactions BY customer_id;

customer_spending = FOREACH customer_totals GENERATE group AS customer_id,
SUM(recent_transactions.amount) AS total_spending;

These lines group the recent_transactions relation by customer_id. The result is a new relation
where each tuple represents a unique customer_id and contains all the transactions associated
with that customer_id.

The FOREACH operator is used to generate a new relation called customer_spending. This
relation contains two fields: customer_id and total_spending. The group keyword is used to
specify that the customer_id field should be set to the customer_id key produced by the GROUP
operator. The SUM function is used to calculate the total spending for each customer, based on
the amount field in the recent_transactions relation.

top_customers = ORDER customer_spending BY total_spending DESC;

Finally, these lines sort the customer_spending relation by the total_spending field in descending
order, using the ORDER operator. The sorted relation is assigned to a new variable called
top_customers. This relation contains the same fields as customer_spending, but with the tuples
sorted by total_spending.

3.10.4 Illustration: Apache Pig is a platform for analyzing large datasets using a high-level
language called Pig Latin. While Pig Latin is designed to be easy to learn and use, it can be
challenging to visualize how Pig scripts operate on datasets. One way to illustrate the data flow
in Pig is to use a diagram.

A Pig script typically consists of a series of data transformations, where each transformation
takes input data and produces output data. To illustrate the data flow in Pig, you can create a
flowchart that shows the input data, the transformations applied to the data, and the output data.
Here is an example of a Pig flowchart:

+-----------------+
| Input Data |
+-----------------+
|
|
+-----------------+
| Load Data |
+-----------------+
|
|
+-----------------+
| Filter Data |
+-----------------+
|
|
+-----------------+
| Group By |
+-----------------+
|
|
+-----------------+
| Aggregate |
 +-----------------+
|
|
+-----------------+
| Store Data |
+-----------------+
|
|
+-----------------+
| Output Data |
+-----------------+

In this example, the Pig script starts by loading input data, then filtering the data, grouping the
data by a specific column, aggregating the data, storing the output data, and finally producing the
output data. Each step in the process is represented by a box in the flowchart, with arrows
showing the flow of data between each step.

Overall, using a flowchart can be a helpful way to illustrate the data flow in a Pig script and
better understand how data is transformed in each step of the process.

3.10.5 Store: In Apache Pig, the STORE command is used to store the results of a Pig Latin
script into a file or a data storage system such as Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) or
Apache HBase.

The basic syntax of the STORE command is as follows:

STORE relation INTO 'output_file_path' [USING storage_function];

Where relation is the name of the relation or alias that contains the data to be stored,
output_file_path is the path to the file or directory where the data will be stored, and
storage_function is an optional parameter that specifies the storage format and options to be
used.

Here's an example that demonstrates how to store the output of a Pig Latin script to a text file:

-- Load data from a text file

input_data = LOAD '/path/to/input/file' USING PigStorage(',');

-- Filter the data

filtered_data = FILTER input_data BY $1 == 'value';
 -- Store the output to a text file
STORE filtered_data INTO '/path/to/output/file' USING PigStorage(',');

In this example, the LOAD command is used to load data from a text file, the FILTER command
is used to filter the data based on a condition, and the STORE command is used to store the
filtered data to a text file using the PigStorage function to specify the delimiter as a comma.

3.10.6 Group: In Apache Pig, the GROUP command is used to group data based on one or more
columns in a relation. The syntax of the GROUP command is as follows:

grunt> grouped_data = GROUP relation_name BY column_name;

Here, relation_name refers to the name of the relation on which you want to perform the
grouping, and column_name refers to the name of the column(s) by which you want to group the
data.

For example, let's say you have a relation called sales_data that contains columns product,
region, and sales. If you want to group this data by product and region, you would use the
following command:

grunt> grouped_data = GROUP sales_data BY (product, region);

This command will group the data in sales_data based on the product and region columns, and
store the result in a new relation called grouped_data.

Once you have grouped the data, you can perform various operations on it, such as calculating
the sum or average of the sales column for each group, or generating other statistics.

The GROUP command is a key feature of Apache Pig and is commonly used for data analysis
and processing tasks.

3.10.7 cogroup: In Apache Pig, the COGROUP command is used to group two or more relations
based on one or more columns, and then combine the grouped data into a single relation. The
syntax of the COGROUP command is as follows:

grunt> cogrouped_data = COGROUP relation1 BY column1, relation2 BY column2, ...;

Here, relation1, relation2, etc. refer to the relations that you want to group, and column1,
column2, etc. refer to the columns by which you want to group the data.

For example, let's say you have two relations: sales_data and inventory_data. The sales_data
relation contains columns product, region, and sales, while the inventory_data relation contains
columns product, region, and inventory.

If you want to group these relations by product and region and combine the data into a single
relation, you would use the following command:

grunt> cogrouped_data = COGROUP sales_data BY (product, region), inventory_data BY

(product, region);

This command will group the sales_data and inventory_data relations based on product and
region, and combine the grouped data into a new relation called cogrouped_data. The
cogrouped_data relation will contain columns product, region, sales, and inventory, with the data
from both relations combined.

Once you have combined the data using the COGROUP command, you can perform various
operations on it, such as calculating the difference between the sales and inventory columns for
each group.

The COGROUP command is a powerful feature of Apache Pig and is commonly used for data
integration and analysis tasks.

3.10.8 join: The JOIN command in Apache Pig is used to combine two or more relations (or
tables) based on a common field. The syntax of the JOIN command is as follows:

joined_relation = JOIN relation1 BY join_field, relation2 BY join_field [, relation3 BY

join_field ...] [JOIN_TYPE];

Here, relation1 and relation2 are the relations to be joined, join_field is the common field on
which the relations will be joined, and JOIN_TYPE specifies the type of join to be performed
(inner, outer, left, right, etc.).

For example, to perform an inner join on two relations sales and customers based on a common
field customer_id, the following Pig Latin code can be used:

sales = LOAD 'sales_data' USING PigStorage(',') AS (customer_id:int, product_id:int,

 price:double);
customers = LOAD 'customer_data' USING PigStorage(',') AS (customer_id:int,
name:chararray, age:int);

joined_data = JOIN sales BY customer_id, customers BY customer_id;

DUMP joined_data;

In this example, sales_data and customer_data are the input data files containing the sales and
customer information respectively. The JOIN command is used to join the two relations sales and
customers based on the customer_id field. The resulting joined data is then output using the
DUMP command.

3.10.9 split: The SPLIT command in Apache Pig is used to split a single relation (or table) into
multiple relations based on a specified condition. The syntax of the SPLIT command is as
follows:

split_relation_name = SPLIT input_relation_name INTO output_relation_name1 IF

condition1, output_relation_name2 IF condition2, ..., output_relation_nameN IF conditionN;

Here, input_relation_name is the name of the input relation, output_relation_name1,

output_relation_name2, ..., output_relation_nameN are the names of the output relations, and
condition1, condition2, ..., conditionN are the conditions based on which the input relation will
be split into multiple output relations.

For example, let's say we have a relation employee_data containing the following fields: name,
age, gender, and salary. We can use the SPLIT command to split this relation into two output
relations, male_employees and female_employees, based on the gender field as follows:

employee_data = LOAD 'employee_data.txt' USING PigStorage(',') AS (name:chararray,

age:int, gender:chararray, salary:int);

male_employees = FILTER employee_data BY gender == 'M';

female_employees = FILTER employee_data BY gender == 'F';

SPLIT employee_data INTO male_employees IF gender == 'M', female_employees IF gender

== 'F';

DUMP male_employees;
DUMP female_employees;
In this example, the LOAD command is used to load the data from a text file into the
employee_data relation. The FILTER command is used to filter the input relation into two
separate relations based on the gender field. The SPLIT command is then used to split the input
relation into two output relations, male_employees and female_employees, based on the gender
field. Finally, the DUMP command is used to output the contents of both output relations.

3.10.10 filter: The FILTER command in Apache Pig is used to extract a subset of data from a
relation (or table) based on a specified condition. The syntax of the FILTER command is as
follows:

output_relation_name = FILTER input_relation_name BY condition;

Here, input_relation_name is the name of the input relation, condition is the condition based on
which the data will be filtered, and output_relation_name is the name of the output relation.

For example, let's say we have a relation sales_data containing the following fields: customer_id,
product_id, and price. We can use the FILTER command to extract all the sales data where the
price is greater than 1000 as follows:

sales_data = LOAD 'sales_data.txt' USING PigStorage(',') AS (customer_id:int, product_id:int,

price:double);

high_value_sales = FILTER sales_data BY price > 1000;

DUMP high_value_sales;

In this example, the LOAD command is used to load the data from a text file into the sales_data
relation. The FILTER command is then used to filter the sales data based on the price field where
the price is greater than 1000. The resulting filtered data is stored in the high_value_sales
relation, and the DUMP command is used to output the contents of this relation.

The FILTER command can be used with a variety of operators, such as ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=, and
logical operators like AND, OR, and NOT. Additionally, the FILTER command can also be used
with regular expressions to filter data based on a pattern.

3.10.11 distinct: The DISTINCT command in Apache Pig is used to remove duplicate records
from a relation (or table). The syntax of the DISTINCT command is as follows:
 output_relation_name = DISTINCT input_relation_name;

Here, input_relation_name is the name of the input relation, and output_relation_name is the
name of the output relation that will contain only the distinct records.

For example, let's say we have a relation sales_data containing the following fields: customer_id,
product_id, and price. We can use the DISTINCT command to extract the unique customer IDs
from this relation as follows:

sales_data = LOAD 'sales_data.txt' USING PigStorage(',') AS (customer_id:int, product_id:int,

price:double);

unique_customers = DISTINCT sales_data.customer_id;

DUMP unique_customers;

In this example, the LOAD command is used to load the data from a text file into the sales_data
relation. The DISTINCT command is then used to extract the unique customer IDs from this
relation, and the resulting data is stored in the unique_customers relation. Finally, the DUMP
command is used to output the contents of this relation.

The DISTINCT command can also be used with multiple fields to extract unique records based
on multiple columns. In that case, the syntax would be as follows:

output_relation_name = DISTINCT input_relation_name { (field1, field2, ...) };

Here, field1, field2, etc. are the fields based on which the unique records will be extracted.

3.10.12 order by: The ORDER BY command in Apache Pig is used to sort the data in a relation
(or table) based on one or more fields. The syntax of the ORDER BY command is as follows:

output_relation_name = ORDER input_relation_name BY field1 [, field2, ...] [ASC | DESC];

Here, input_relation_name is the name of the input relation, field1, field2, etc. are the fields
based on which the data will be sorted, and ASC or DESC specifies the order of the sort
(ascending or descending).
For example, let's say we have a relation sales_data containing the following fields: customer_id,
product_id, and price. We can use the ORDER BY command to sort this relation by the price
field in descending order as follows:

sales_data = LOAD 'sales_data.txt' USING PigStorage(',') AS (customer_id:int, product_id:int,

price:double);

sorted_sales_data = ORDER sales_data BY price DESC;

DUMP sorted_sales_data;

In this example, the LOAD command is used to load the data from a text file into the sales_data
relation. The ORDER BY command is then used to sort the sales data based on the price field in
descending order, and the resulting sorted data is stored in the sorted_sales_data relation. Finally,
the DUMP command is used to output the contents of this relation.

The ORDER BY command can be used with multiple fields to sort the data based on multiple
columns. In that case, the syntax would be as follows:

output_relation_name = ORDER input_relation_name BY field1 [, field2, ...] [ASC | DESC] [,

fieldN [ASC | DESC]];

Here, fieldN is the additional field based on which the data will be sorted, and ASC or DESC
specifies the order of the sort for that field.

3.10.13 limit operators: The LIMIT operator in Apache Pig is used to restrict the number of
output records from a relation (or table). It is often used in combination with the ORDER BY
command to get the top or bottom N records based on a specified sorting order. The syntax of the
LIMIT operator is as follows:

output_relation_name = LIMIT input_relation_name limit;

Here, input_relation_name is the name of the input relation, limit is the maximum number of
output records to be produced, and output_relation_name is the name of the output relation.

For example, let's say we have a relation sales_data containing the following fields: customer_id,
product_id, and price. We can use the LIMIT operator in combination with the ORDER BY
command to get the top 10 sales based on the price field as follows:
 sales_data = LOAD 'sales_data.txt' USING PigStorage(',') AS (customer_id:int, product_id:int,
price:double);

sorted_sales_data = ORDER sales_data BY price DESC;

top_10_sales = LIMIT sorted_sales_data 10;

DUMP top_10_sales;

In this example, the LOAD command is used to load the data from a text file into the sales_data
relation. The ORDER BY command is then used to sort the sales data based on the price field in
descending order, and the resulting sorted data is stored in the sorted_sales_data relation. The
LIMIT operator is then used to restrict the output to the top 10 sales based on the sorted data, and
the resulting data is stored in the top_10_sales relation. Finally, the DUMP command is used to
output the contents of this relation.

The LIMIT operator can also be used without the ORDER BY command to get the first N
records from the input relation. In that case, the syntax would be as follows:

output_relation_name = LIMIT input_relation_name limit;

Here, the output relation will contain the first limit records from the input relation.
 Chapter 4
Functions in Pig

Key Contents
● Functions in Pig
● Eval functions
● Load and store functions
● Bag and tuple functions
● String functions
● Date time functions
● Math functions

Functions in Apache Pig are used to perform data processing operations on data stored in a
relation (or table). Pig provides a wide range of built-in functions that can be used for different
data processing tasks, such as mathematical operations, string manipulations, date and time
manipulations, and more. These functions can be used to transform and manipulate the data
stored in a relation, allowing users to derive new insights and extract meaningful information
from the data.

Pig functions can be categorized into two types: built-in functions and user-defined functions.
Built-in functions are provided by Pig and can be used directly in Pig scripts, while user-defined
functions (UDFs) are custom functions written by the users to perform specific data processing
tasks that are not provided by the built-in functions.
The built-in functions in Pig can be used to perform a wide range of data processing operations,
including:

● Mathematical operations: such as SUM, AVG, MAX, MIN, ABS, and ROUND.
● String manipulations: such as CONCAT, INDEXOF, LOWER, UPPER, REPLACE,
and TRIM.
● Date and time manipulations: such as CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE, YEAR,
MONTH, DAY, and TO_DATE.
● Data type conversions: such as INT, LONG, DOUBLE, FLOAT, and CHARARRAY.
● Aggregation functions: such as GROUP, COUNT, and DISTINCT.

User-defined functions (UDFs) allow users to write custom functions to perform specific data
processing tasks that are not provided by the built-in functions. UDFs can be written in Java,
Python, Ruby, or any other programming language supported by Pig. Users can register UDFs in
their Pig scripts and then use them like built-in functions to perform data processing operations
on their data.

Overall, functions in Apache Pig provide a powerful toolset for data processing and analysis,
allowing users to transform and manipulate their data to extract meaningful insights and
information.

4.1 Functions in Pig

Functions in Apache Pig can be classified into two categories: built-in functions and user-defined
functions (UDFs).

Built-in functions are pre-defined functions provided by Pig that can be used directly in Pig
scripts. These functions cover a wide range of data processing tasks, such as mathematical
operations, string manipulations, date and time manipulations, data type conversions, and
aggregation functions. Here are some examples of built-in functions in Pig:

● Mathematical functions: ABS, ACOS, ASIN, ATAN, CEIL, COS, EXP, FLOOR, LOG,
ROUND, SIN, SQRT, TAN.
● String functions: CONCAT, INDEXOF, LAST_INDEX_OF, LCFIRST, LENGTH,
REGEX_EXTRACT, REGEX_REPLACE, REPLACE, SUBSTRING, TRIM, UPPER.
● Date and time functions: CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE, DAY, HOURS,
MINUTES, MONTH, SECONDS, TO_DATE, YEAR.
● Data type conversion functions: INT, LONG, DOUBLE, FLOAT, CHARARRAY.
● Aggregation functions: COUNT, MAX, MIN, AVG, SUM, GROUP, DISTINCT.
User-defined functions (UDFs) are custom functions that users can write to perform specific data
processing tasks that are not provided by the built-in functions. UDFs can be written in Java,
Python, Ruby, or any other programming language supported by Pig. Users can register UDFs in
their Pig scripts and then use them like built-in functions to perform data processing operations
on their data. Here are some examples of user-defined functions in Pig:

● Custom mathematical functions: such as log_base_n(x, n) to calculate the logarithm of

x with base n.
● Custom string functions: such as reverse(s) to reverse a string s.
● Custom date and time functions: such as date_diff(d1, d2) to calculate the number of
days between two dates d1 and d2.
● Custom data type conversion functions: such as to_binary(s) to convert a string s to a
binary format.
● Custom aggregation functions: such as median(data_bag) to calculate the median value
of a data bag.

Overall, functions in Pig provide a powerful toolset for data processing and analysis, allowing
users to transform and manipulate their data to extract meaningful insights and information.

4.2 Eval functions:

In Apache Pig, the EVAL functions are used to perform various transformations on the data
stored in Pig relations. Here are some of the EVAL functions in Pig:

1. CONCAT: This function concatenates two or more strings together. For example,
CONCAT('Hello', 'World') returns 'HelloWorld'.
2. SUBSTRING: This function returns a substring of a given string. For example,
SUBSTRING('HelloWorld', 5, 5) returns 'Worl'.
3. TRIM: This function removes leading and trailing whitespace from a string. For
example, TRIM(' Hello ') returns 'Hello'.
4. LOWER: This function converts a string to lowercase. For example, LOWER('HeLLo')
returns 'hello'.
5. UPPER: This function converts a string to uppercase. For example, UPPER('HeLLo')
returns 'HELLO'.
6. REPLACE: This function replaces all occurrences of a substring in a string with another
substring. For example, REPLACE('HelloWorld', 'o', 'a') returns 'HellaWarld'.
7. INDEXOF: This function returns the index of the first occurrence of a substring in a
string. For example, INDEXOF('HelloWorld', 'o') returns 4.
8. SIZE: This function returns the number of elements in a bag, map, or tuple. For example,
SIZE({(1,2), (3,4)}) returns 2.
 9. ABS: This function returns the absolute value of a number. For example, ABS(-5) returns
5.
10. ROUND: This function rounds a number to the nearest integer. For example,
ROUND(3.14) returns 3.

These are just some of the EVAL functions available in Pig. There are many more functions

available for performing different types of data transformations and manipulations.

Here are some common eval functions used in Pig:

4.2.1 CONCAT: The CONCAT function in Pig is used to concatenate two or more fields or

strings together into a single string. It takes two or more arguments, each of which can be a field

or a string literal, and returns a new string that is the concatenation of all the arguments.

Here's the syntax for using the CONCAT function in Pig:

CONCAT(string1, string2, ..., stringN)

Here, string1 through stringN are the strings or fields that you want to concatenate together.

Here's an example of how to use the CONCAT function in a Pig Latin script.

-- Load data from a text file

A = LOAD '/path/to/data.txt' USING PigStorage(',') AS (first_name:chararray,
last_name:chararray, age:int);

-- Concatenate first_name and last_name fields into a new field called full_name
B = FOREACH A GENERATE CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) AS full_name;

-- Dump the results to the console

DUMP B;

In this example, the CONCAT function is used to concatenate the first_name and last_name

fields from the input data into a new field called full_name. The CONCAT function also includes

a space character in between the two name fields to ensure that there is a space between the first

and last name in the output.

Note that you can also use the CONCAT function to concatenate more than two fields or strings

together by including additional arguments separated by commas.

4.2.2 SUBSTRING: The SUBSTRING function in Pig is used to extract a substring from a

string. It takes three arguments: the input string, the starting index of the substring (inclusive),

and the length of the substring. The function returns the specified substring as a new string.

Here's the syntax for using the SUBSTRING function in Pig:

SUBSTRING(input_string, start_index, length)

Here, input_string is the string from which you want to extract the substring, start_index is the

index position of the first character of the substring (counting from 0), and length is the number

of characters to include in the substring.

Here's an example of how to use the SUBSTRING function in a Pig Latin script:

-- Load data from a text file

A = LOAD '/path/to/data.txt' USING PigStorage(',') AS (first_name:chararray,
last_name:chararray, age:int);

-- Extract the first three characters of the first_name field

B = FOREACH A GENERATE SUBSTRING(first_name, 0, 3) AS name_prefix;

-- Dump the results to the console

DUMP B;

In this example, the SUBSTRING function is used to extract the first three characters of the

first_name field from the input data. The start_index parameter is set to 0 (which is the index of

the first character in the string), and the length parameter is set to 3, so the function returns the

first three characters of the first_name field as a new field called name_prefix.
Note that you can also use the SUBSTRING function to extract substrings from other positions

in the input string by adjusting the start_index parameter accordingly.

4.2.3 TRIM: The TRIM function in Pig is used to remove leading and trailing whitespace

characters from a string. It takes one argument, the input string, and returns a new string with all

leading and trailing whitespace characters removed.

Here's the syntax for using the TRIM function in Pig:

TRIM(input_string)

Here, input_string is the string from which you want to remove leading and trailing whitespace

characters.

Here's an example of how to use the TRIM function in a Pig Latin script.

-- Load data from a text file

A = LOAD '/path/to/data.txt' USING PigStorage(',') AS (first_name:chararray,
last_name:chararray, age:int);

-- Remove leading and trailing whitespace characters from the first_name field
B = FOREACH A GENERATE TRIM(first_name) AS trimmed_name;

-- Dump the results to the console

DUMP B;

In this example, the TRIM function is used to remove any leading or trailing whitespace

characters from the first_name field in the input data. The function returns the trimmed string as

a new field called trimmed_name.

Note that the TRIM function only removes leading and trailing whitespace characters. If you

want to remove whitespace characters from within a string as well, you can use the REPLACE

function with a regular expression pattern to replace the whitespace characters with an empty

string.
4.2.4 LOWER: The LOWER function in Pig is used to convert all characters in a string to

lowercase. It takes one argument, the input string, and returns a new string with all characters

converted to lowercase.

Here's the syntax for using the LOWER function in Pig:

LOWER(input_string)

Here, input_string is the string that you want to convert to lowercase.

Here's an example of how to use the LOWER function in a Pig Latin script:

-- Load data from a text file

A = LOAD '/path/to/data.txt' USING PigStorage(',') AS (first_name:chararray,
last_name:chararray, age:int);

-- Convert the last_name field to lowercase

B = FOREACH A GENERATE LOWER(last_name) AS lower_last_name;

-- Dump the results to the console

DUMP B;

In this example, the LOWER function is used to convert all characters in the last_name field

from the input data to lowercase. The function returns the lowercase string as a new field called

lower_last_name.

Note that the LOWER function only works with strings. If you want to convert other data types

to lowercase, such as integers or floating-point numbers, you will need to use a different function

or cast the data to a string first.

4.2.5 UPPER: The UPPER function in Pig is used to convert all characters in a string to

uppercase. It takes one argument, the input string, and returns a new string with all characters

converted to uppercase.

Here's the syntax for using the UPPER function in Pig:

 UPPER(input_string)

Here, input_string is the string that you want to convert to uppercase.

Here's an example of how to use the UPPER function in a Pig Latin script:

-- Load data from a text file

A = LOAD '/path/to/data.txt' USING PigStorage(',') AS (first_name:chararray,
last_name:chararray, age:int);

-- Convert the first_name field to uppercase

B = FOREACH A GENERATE UPPER(first_name) AS upper_first_name;

-- Dump the results to the console

DUMP B;

In this example, the UPPER function is used to convert all characters in the first_name field from

the input data to uppercase. The function returns the uppercase string as a new field called

upper_first_name.

Note that the UPPER function only works with strings. If you want to convert other data types to

uppercase, such as integers or floating-point numbers, you will need to use a different function or

cast the data to a string first.

4.2.6 REPLACE: The REPLACE function in Pig is used to replace all occurrences of a

substring within a string with a new substring. It takes three arguments: the input string, the

substring to be replaced, and the new substring to replace it with. It returns a new string with all

occurrences of the old substring replaced with the new substring.

Here's the syntax for using the REPLACE function in Pig:

REPLACE(input_string, old_substring, new_substring)

Here, input_string is the string that you want to perform the replacement on, old_substring is the

substring that you want to replace, and new_substring is the new substring that you want to

replace it with.

Here's an example of how to use the REPLACE function in a Pig Latin script:

-- Load data from a text file

A = LOAD '/path/to/data.txt' USING PigStorage(',') AS (first_name:chararray,
last_name:chararray, age:int);

-- Replace all occurrences of "Smith" in the last_name field with "Smythe"

B = FOREACH A GENERATE REPLACE(last_name, 'Smith', 'Smythe') AS new_last_name;

-- Dump the results to the console

DUMP B;

In this example, the REPLACE function is used to replace all occurrences of the substring

"Smith" in the last_name field from the input data with the substring "Smythe". The function

returns the modified string as a new field called new_last_name.

Note that the REPLACE function is case-sensitive. If you want to perform a case-insensitive

replacement, you will need to use a combination of the LOWER and UPPER functions to

convert both the input string and the substrings to lowercase or uppercase before performing the

replacement.

4.2.7 INDEXOF: In Apache Pig, there is no built-in function called INDEXOF or eval.

However, you can achieve similar functionality using other built-in functions.

If you want to find the index of a substring within a string, you can use the STRPOS function.

STRPOS takes two arguments: the string to search in and the substring to search for. It returns

the index of the first occurrence of the substring in the string, or -1 if the substring is not found.

Here is an example usage:

 input = LOAD 'data.txt' AS (text: chararray);
filtered = FILTER input BY STRPOS(text, 'foo') >= 0;

This will filter out all records where the string 'foo' does not appear in the 'text' field.

If you want to evaluate an expression dynamically, you can use the Pig Latin EVAL function.

EVAL takes a string argument that contains a Pig Latin expression, and evaluates it. Here is an

example usage:

input = LOAD 'data.txt' AS (x: int, y: int);

output = FOREACH input GENERATE EVAL('x + y');

This will compute the sum of the 'x' and 'y' fields for each record in the input relation. Note that

EVAL can be dangerous if used improperly, as it can execute arbitrary code. It is recommended

to sanitize any user-supplied input before using it in an EVAL expression.

4.2.8 SIZE: In Apache Pig, the SIZE function is a built-in function that returns the number of

elements in a bag, map, or tuple. Here is the syntax for the SIZE function:

SIZE(expression)

Where 'expression' is a bag, map, or tuple.

Here is an example usage of the SIZE function:

input = LOAD 'data.txt' AS (id: int, items: bag{t: tuple(name: chararray, value: int)});
output = FOREACH input GENERATE id, SIZE(items) AS num_items;

This will generate a new relation with two fields: 'id' and 'num_items'. The 'num_items' field will

contain the number of items in the 'items' bag.

The EVAL function, on the other hand, takes a string argument that contains a Pig Latin

expression and evaluates it. Here is the syntax for the EVAL function:
 input = LOAD 'data.txt' AS (x: int, y: int);
output = FOREACH input GENERATE EVAL('x + y') AS sum;

This will generate a new relation with one field: 'sum'. The 'sum' field will contain the result of

the expression 'x + y' for each record in the input relation. Note that EVAL can be dangerous if

used improperly, as it can execute arbitrary code. It is recommended to sanitize any user-supplied

input before using it in an EVAL expression.

4.2.9 ABS: In Apache Pig, the ABS function is a built-in function that returns the absolute value

of a numeric expression. Here is the syntax for the ABS function:

ABS(expression)

Where 'expression' is a numeric expression.

Here is an example usage of the ABS function:

input = LOAD 'data.txt' AS (x: int, y: int);

output = FOREACH input GENERATE ABS(x - y) AS abs_diff;

This will generate a new relation with one field: 'abs_diff'. The 'abs_diff' field will contain the

absolute difference between the 'x' and 'y' fields for each record in the input relation.

The EVAL function, on the other hand, takes a string argument that contains a Pig Latin

expression and evaluates it. Here is the syntax for the EVAL function:

EVAL('expression')

Where 'expression' is a Pig Latin expression as a string.

Here is an example usage of the EVAL function:

input = LOAD 'data.txt' AS (x: int, y: int);

output = FOREACH input GENERATE EVAL('x + y') AS sum;
This will generate a new relation with one field: 'sum'. The 'sum' field will contain the result of

the expression 'x + y' for each record in the input relation. Note that EVAL can be dangerous if

used improperly, as it can execute arbitrary code. It is recommended to sanitize any user-supplied

input before using it in an EVAL expression.

4.2.10 ROUND: In Apache Pig, the ROUND function is a built-in function that rounds a

numeric expression to a specified number of decimal places. Here is the syntax for the ROUND

function:

ROUND(expression [, num_digits])

Where 'expression' is a numeric expression, and 'num_digits' is an optional integer that specifies

the number of decimal places to round to (default is 0).

Here is an example usage of the ROUND function:

input = LOAD 'data.txt' AS (x: double);

output = FOREACH input GENERATE ROUND(x, 2) AS rounded_x;

This will generate a new relation with one field: 'rounded_x'. The 'rounded_x' field will contain

the 'x' field rounded to 2 decimal places for each record in the input relation.

4.3 Load and Store functions

In Apache Pig, load and store functions are used to read data from a file system and write data to

a file system, respectively.

The "LOAD" function is used to load data into Pig from a file system. The syntax of the LOAD

function is as follows:

A = LOAD 'file_location' USING function;

Here, "file_location" specifies the location of the file containing the data, and "function"

specifies the function to be used for loading the data. For example, if the data is in a

comma-separated values (CSV) file, we can use the PigStorage function to load the data:

A = LOAD 'data.csv' USING PigStorage(',');

The "STORE" function is used to store data from Pig into a file system. The syntax of the

STORE function is as follows:

STORE A INTO 'file_location' USING function;

Here, "A" specifies the data to be stored, "file_location" specifies the location where the data

should be stored, and "function" specifies the function to be used for storing the data. For

example, if we want to store the data in a CSV file, we can use the PigStorage function:

STORE A INTO 'output.csv' USING PigStorage(',');

Note that in both the LOAD and STORE functions, the file location can be a local file or a

Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) location, depending on the type of file system being

used.

4.4 Bag and Tuple functions

In Apache Pig, bags and tuples are two data types that can be used to store and manipulate data.

Bags are unordered collections of tuples, while tuples are ordered sets of fields.

There are several functions in Pig that can be used to manipulate bags and tuples. Here are some

examples:

1. Bag functions:

● GROUP: This function is used to group the data in a bag based on one or more fields.

The syntax of the GROUP function is as follows:

 B = GROUP A BY field;

Here, "A" is the input bag and "field" is the field on which the data should be grouped. The

output of the GROUP function is a bag of groups, where each group is a bag of tuples.

● FLATTEN: This function is used to flatten a bag of bags into a single bag. The syntax of

the FLATTEN function is as follows:

B = FLATTEN(A);

Here, "A" is the input bag of bags, and "B" is the output bag.

2. Tuple functions

CONCAT: This function is used to concatenate two or more tuples into a single tuple.

The syntax of the CONCAT function is as follows:

C = CONCAT(A, B);

Here, "A" and "B" are the input tuples, and "C" is the output tuple.

● FIELD: This function is used to access a field in a tuple. The syntax of the FIELD

function is as follows:

field = FIELD(A, n);

Here, "A" is the input tuple, "n" is the field number (starting from 0), and "field" is the output of

the function.

These are just a few examples of the many functions available in Pig for manipulating bags and

tuples. By using these functions, users can perform complex data transformations and analysis in

a simple and efficient way.

4.4 String Functions

In Apache Pig, there are many string functions that can be used to manipulate string data. Here

are some examples of commonly used string functions in Pig:

1. CONCAT: This function is used to concatenate two or more strings together. The syntax

of the CONCAT function is as follows:

C = CONCAT('string1', 'string2');

Here, "string1" and "string2" are the input strings, and "C" is the output string.

2. SUBSTRING: This function is used to extract a substring from a string. The syntax of

the SUBSTRING function is as follows:

C = SUBSTRING('string', start, length);

Here, "string" is the input string, "start" is the starting position of the substring (starting from 0),

and "length" is the length of the substring. The output of the function is the substring.

3. INDEXOF: This function is used to find the position of a substring within a string. The

syntax of the INDEXOF function is as follows:

pos = INDEXOF('string', 'substring');

Here, "string" is the input string, and "substring" is the substring to search for. The output of the

function is the position of the substring within the string (starting from 0).

4. TRIM: This function is used to remove leading and trailing whitespace from a string.

The syntax of the TRIM function is as follows:

C = TRIM('string');
Here, "string" is the input string, and "C" is the output string with leading and trailing whitespace

removed.

These are just a few examples of the many string functions available in Pig. By using these

functions, users can perform a wide variety of string manipulations in a simple and efficient way.

4.5 Date time functions

Apache Pig provides a number of built-in functions for working with date and time values. Here

are some commonly used date and time functions in Pig:

1. ToDate: This function is used to convert a string to a date object. It takes two arguments:

the first argument is the string to be converted, and the second argument is the format

string that specifies the format of the input string. The format string uses the same syntax

as the Java SimpleDateFormat class. For example:

ToDate('2018-01-01', 'yyyy-MM-dd') -- returns a date object representing January 1, 2018.

Note that if the input string cannot be parsed using the specified format, this function will return

null.

2. ToString: This function is used to convert a date object to a string. It takes two

arguments: the first argument is the date object to be converted, and the second argument

is the format string that specifies the format of the output string. The format string uses

the same syntax as the Java SimpleDateFormat class. For example:

ToString(date_obj, 'yyyy-MM-dd') -- returns a string representing the date object in the

format yyyy-MM-dd.

3. GetYear: This function is used to extract the year component from a date object. It takes

one argument: the date object from which the year is to be extracted. For example:
 GetYear(date_obj) -- returns the year component of the date object.

4. GetMonth: This function is used to extract the month component from a date object. It

takes one argument: the date object from which the month is to be extracted. For

example:

GetMonth(date_obj) -- returns the month component of the date object.

5. GetDay: This function is used to extract the day component from a date object. It takes

one argument: the date object from which the day is to be extracted. For example:

GetDay(date_obj) -- returns the day component of the date object.

6. CurrentTime: This function is used to get the current time as a Unix timestamp (number

of milliseconds since January 1, 1970). It takes no arguments. For example:

CurrentTime() -- returns the current time as a Unix timestamp.

7. DaysBetween: This function is used to calculate the number of days between two date

objects. It takes two arguments: the first argument is the earlier date, and the second

argument is the later date. For example:

DaysBetween(date_obj1, date_obj2) -- returns the number of days between date_obj1 and

date_obj2.

4.6 Math functions

Apache Pig is a platform for analyzing large datasets, which provides a set of built-in functions

for performing various mathematical operations. Some of the math functions available in Apache

Pig are:

1. ABS():
The ABS() function returns the absolute value of a numeric expression. It takes one argument

which can be any numeric data type like int, long, float or double. It returns the absolute value of

the input argument.

Syntax: ABS(expression)

Example: Suppose we have a dataset with a column named x containing integers, we can use

ABS() function to get the absolute value of each element in the column as follows:

A = LOAD 'data' AS (x:int);

B = FOREACH A GENERATE ABS(x);

2. CEIL():

The CEIL() function returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to a numeric expression. It

takes one argument which can be any numeric data type like float or double. It returns the

smallest integer value greater than or equal to the input argument.

Syntax: CEIL(expression)

Example: Suppose we have a dataset with a column named x containing float values, we can use

CEIL() function to get the smallest integer greater than or equal to each element in the column as

follows:

A = LOAD 'data' AS (x:float);

B = FOREACH A GENERATE CEIL(x);

3. FLOOR():

The FLOOR() function returns the largest integer less than or equal to a numeric expression. It

takes one argument which can be any numeric data type like float or double. It returns the largest

integer value less than or equal to the input argument.

Syntax: FLOOR(expression)

Example: Suppose we have a dataset with a column named x containing float values, we can use

FLOOR() function to get the largest integer less than or equal to each element in the column as

follows:

A = LOAD 'data' AS (x:float);

B = FOREACH A GENERATE FLOOR(x);

4. FLOOR: The FLOOR function returns the largest integer less than or equal to a number.

The syntax for the FLOOR function is as follows:

FLOOR(expression)

The expression can be any valid Pig expression that evaluates to a numeric value (int, long, float,

or double). The FLOOR function returns an integer value that is the largest integer less than or

equal to the input expression.

5. LOG: The LOG function returns the natural logarithm of a number. The syntax for the

LOG function is as follows:

LOG(expression)

The expression can be any valid Pig expression that evaluates to a numeric value (int, long, float,

or double). The LOG function returns a double value that is the natural logarithm of the input

expression.

6. POWER: The POWER function returns the result of raising a number to a specified

power. The syntax for the POWER function is as follows:

POWER(base, exponent)

The base and exponent can be any valid Pig expressions that evaluate to numeric values (int,

long, float, or double). The POWER function returns a double value that is the result of raising

the base expression to the exponent expression.

These are just a few examples of the math functions available in Pig. Other math functions

available in Pig include SIN, COS, TAN, ASIN, ACOS, ATAN, SQRT, and MOD. You can find

a full list of math functions in the Apache Pig documentation.

 Case Studies: Analyzing various datasets with Pig

Pig is a high-level data processing tool that allows users to analyze large datasets using a
language called Pig Latin. Pig Latin is a procedural language that is used to perform data
transformations and queries on large datasets. Here are some examples of how Pig can be used to
analyze various datasets:

1. Analyzing Weblog Data:

Weblog data contains information about the visitors to a website, including their IP address, the

pages they visited, and the time they spent on each page. Pig can be used to analyze weblog data

by processing log files and generating useful statistics such as the number of page views, unique

visitors, and time spent on each page.

For example, to calculate the total number of page views for each page, we can use the following

Pig Latin script:

logs = LOAD 'weblogs' USING PigStorage('\t') AS (ip:chararray, date:chararray,

page:chararray);
pages = GROUP logs BY page;
pageviews = FOREACH pages GENERATE group AS page, COUNT(logs) AS views;

2. Analyzing Social Media Data:

Social media data contains information about user activity on social media platforms, such as

Facebook and Twitter. Pig can be used to analyze social media data by processing the user

activity logs and generating statistics such as the number of likes, comments, and shares.

For example, to calculate the total number of likes for each post, we can use the following Pig

Latin script:

activity = LOAD 'social_media_logs' USING PigStorage('\t') AS (user:chararray,

date:chararray, post:chararray, activity_type:chararray);
likes = FILTER activity BY activity_type == 'like';
posts = GROUP likes BY post;
 total_likes = FOREACH posts GENERATE group AS post, COUNT(likes) AS likes;

3. Analyzing Sales Data:

Sales data contains information about the sales made by a company, including the products sold,

the quantity sold, and the revenue generated. Pig can be used to analyze sales data by processing

the sales logs and generating statistics such as the total revenue, the most popular products, and

the average revenue per sale.

For example, to calculate the total revenue generated by each product, we can use the following

Pig Latin script:

sales = LOAD 'sales_logs' USING PigStorage('\t') AS (product:chararray, quantity:int,

price:float);
product_sales = GROUP sales BY product;
revenue = FOREACH product_sales GENERATE group AS product, SUM(sales.price *
sales.quantity) AS revenue;

In summary, Pig can be used to analyze a variety of datasets, including weblog data, social media

data, and sales data. By using Pig Latin scripts, users can perform data transformations and

queries on large datasets and generate useful statistics that can be used to make data-driven

decisions.
Case Studies: Analyzing various datasets with Pig