Kreith PrinciplesOfHeatTransfer 1958

Principles of
Heat Transfer
FRANK KREITH
Associate Professor of
Mechanical Engineerint:
LEHIGH UNIVERSITY
1958 I n.lernational Textbook Company · Scranton
164
Digitized by Coogle Original from

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
iltlft. I:Hn&rJ
Qc
3J..O
,t\9~
COPYRIGHT 1958 BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOJC COMPANY. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Printed in the United States of America by The Haddon Craftsmen, Inc., at
Scranton, Pennsylvania. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 58-6712.

' ';
Preface
This book is an amplification of lecture notes used by the author in

teaching a one-semester course in heat transfer for engineering students at
the senior and first-year graduate level. The material has been organized
as a text, but it can also serve as a convenient reference for practicing
engineers interested in fundamental techniques of analyzing heat-transfer
problems. It is assumed that the reader has an elementary knowledge of
thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, d-e circuit theory, calculus, and differ-
ential equations, although a certain amount of review of these topics has
been included.
The purpose of the book is to present a basic introduction to the field
of engineering heat transfer. The presentation endeavors to convey to
the reader a physical understanding of the processes by which heat is
transferred and to provide him with the tools necessary to obtain quanti-
tative solutions to engineering problems involving one or more of the basic
modes of heat flow. An effort has been made to present information from
recent and authoritative sources, but the amount of empirical data in-
cluded is no more than considered necessary to give the reader a sufficiently
broad background to use the available literature effectively. No attempt
has been made to present rigorous mathematical solutions which, although
available for numerous problems, require a more advanced mathematical
background than most engineering students acquire in their undergraduate
curriculum.
Although the field of heat transfer is generally subdivided into conduc-
tion, radiation, and convection, in most practical situations heat is trans-
ferred by several of these modes simultaneously. The author deemed it
desirable, therefore, to introduce a general method for handling heat-
transfer problems in the first chapter. This method makes use of the
simi1arity between the equations governing the flow of heat and the flow
of electric current to develop an analogy between electrical and thermal
systems. With the aid of this analogy, heat-transfer problems can be
reduced to thermal networks which can be analyzed with simple and
familiar principles of d-e circuit theory. The thermal-circuit method of
analysis also makes it possible to consider realistic problems throughout
the book, and the reader can thereby acquire a "feel" for the order of
vii
Digitized by Google Original from

viii PREFACE
n1agnitude of thermal resistances under various conditions. This is often

of help in spotting errors in the solution to a particular problem when the
numerical answer seems unreasonable in the light of past experience.
Interpreting a heat-transfer problem as a thermal circuit is not difficult
once one has acquired a physical understanding of the analogies involved.
However, the elements of the circuit can be evaluated quantitatively only
after a detailed knowledge of the basic modes of heat transfer has been
acquired. To this end, each heat-flow mechanism and its analysis is
considered separately in subsequent chapters.
In the chapters dealing with conduction heat transfer, numerica1,
graphical, and electrical-model-analogue methods of solution have been
freely employed. Although numerical and graphical methods do not lend
themselves to parameterizations, they yield rapid approximations to indi-
vidual problems and are therefore widely used in industry. They also
appeal to the students because the temperature field can be visualized.
A modified analogue-network method has been applied to the solutifln
of radiant-heat-transfer problems. This approach circumvents the need
for matrix algebra in the solution of more complex problems and integrates
radiant heat transfer into the over-all scheme of analysis.
In the treatment of convection, the interrelationship between the flow
of heat and the flow of the fluid has been emphasized. Prandtl's concept
of the boundary layer has been presented and one problem, namely the
flow over a flat plate, has been treated in detail. This problem is not only
the simplest case to analyze, but is perhaps also the most important be-
cause many practical situations approximate flow over a plate, while others
are described by equations which can be reduced by appropriate transfor-
mation to the flat-plate boundary-layer equations.
In as complex a field as convective heat transfer, the practicing engineer
is forced to rely considerably on available experimental results. The
derivation and interpretation of dimensionless parameters used to correlate
empirical data can therefore not be overlooked. To acquaint the reader
with the use of dimensional analysis in correlating heat-transfer data, the
ba.."ic aspects of the Buckingham pi theorem have been presented in the
introductory chapter on convection and several pertinent examples have
been worked out. The European method of deducing similarity param-
eters from differential equations is illustrated in the chapter on free
convection.
The evaluation of convective-heat-transfer coefficients from empirical
equations is taken up in separate chapters for free convection, forced con-
vection inside conduits, and flow over tubes and other bodies. Heat
transfer of boiling and condensing fluids is treated in the chapter on heat
transfer with phase change, in which melting and freezing processes are
also considered. The amount of empirical data presented has been limited

PREFACE ix
to configurations of widest practical interest, but the effect of variable

fluid properties on heat transfer and friction coefficients has been empha-
sized.
In the chapter dealing with the design and thermal analysis of heat
exchangers, the concept of effectiveness has been emphasized. Basic ma-
terial on the mean-temperature-difference method of analysis has been
included because this technique is widely used in industry.
In Professor Andersen's chapter on mass transfer, the analogy between
the transfer of mass, heat, and momentum has been emphasized. The
material has been organized in such a manner that it can be presented
immediately after, or simultaneously with, heat transfer by convection.
The appendix contains a survey of thermal properties. The property
tables are designed to supplement the discussion and to provide a handy
source of data for solving the problems at the end of each chapter. Wher-
ever answers are given, they have been obtained with the physical properties
listed in the appendix.
One of the most difficult and probably the most controversial task in
preparing an introductory text for a field as broad as heat transfer is the
selection of the material. The author has tried to avoid overspecialization
as much as possible but has illustrated the basic principles by applying
them to the solution of specific problems dealing with nuclear reactors,
temperature-measuring techniques, solar radiation, high-speed flow, rocket-
motor cooling systems, compact heat exchangers, and many other devices
of current interest. Highly specialized areas such as regenerator theories,
film cooling, and heat transfer at extreme temperatures and pressures have
not been treated because the author believes that these problems do not
fall within the scope of an introductory text. Wherever practical, how-
ever, a sufficiently complete bibliography has been included to enable the
reader to pursue his special interest more fully.
This text makes no claim to originality. The author has merely at-
tempted to collect pertinent material and present it in a teachable form.
The material itself has been selected from the literature, and wherever
possible the author has given credit to the original sources. In his ap-
proach the author has been greatly influenced by the philosophy of Dean
L. M. K. Boelter and his coworkers, especially the late 1\fr. Earl Morrin.
The author acknowledges with pleasure the help and encouragement
given him by his colleagues and students. Several members of the staff
of the Mechanical Engineering Department at the University of California
at Berkeley, particularly Professor H. A. Johnson, Dr. R. Drake (now at
Princeton University), Professor R. V. Dunkel, and Dr. R. A. Seban, have
offered suggestions and contributed some of the student exercises. Professor
.J. T. Anderson, Michigan State University, Professor \V. M. J(ays, Stanford
l"niversity, Professor J. F. Lee, North Carolina Rtate Colle~e. Dr . P . .J.

X PREFACE
Schneider, University of Minnesota, and Dr. L. B. Andersen, Lehigh

University, have read the manuscript in its entirety and have contributed
many valuable suggestions.
Dr. 0. P. Bergelin, University of Delaware, Dr. A. J. Chabai, Lehigh
University, and Dr. W. M. Rohsenow, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, have given technical advice. Mr. Kun Min checked the illustra-
tive problems and prepared some of the drawings. Miss Joyce Broadhead
and Mrs. Helen Farrell typed portions of the manuscript. Particular
thanks are due to Marion Kreith for helping in many tangible and many
more intangible ways.
FRANK KREITH
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
January, 1958

Contents 1
PREFACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vll
1. INTRODUC'riON. . • • . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • • • . . 3
1-1. The Relation of Heat Transfer to Thermodynamics...... 3
1-2. Modes of Heat Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1-3. Basic Laws of Heat Transfer.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1-4. Combined Heat-Transfer Mechanisms...... . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1-5. Analogy Between Heat Flow and Electrical Flow. . . . . . . . 18
2. STEADY ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CoNDUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . 23

2-1. Wails of Simple Geometrical Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2-2. Composite Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2-3.* Systems with Heat Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2-4. Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3. Two- AND THREE-DIMENSIONLEss STEADY-STATE CoNDUCTION. 69

3-1. Methods of Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3-2. Derivation of the Heat-Conduction Equation . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3-3. • Analytical Solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3-4. Potential-Field Plotting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3-5. • Analogical Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3-6. • Numerical Relaxation Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3-7. Closure ............................................ 109
4. CoNDUC'riON oF HEAT IN THE UNsTEADY STATE .••••••.••••••. 116

4-1. Transient and Periodic Heat Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4-2. Transient Heat Flow in Systems with Negligible Internal
Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4-3.* Periodic Heat Flow in Systems with Negligible Internal
Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4-4. * Transient Heat Flow in an Infinite Plate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4-5. Charts for Transient Heat Conduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4--6. Graphical Method.. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 15:{
4-7.* Numerical Method .................................. 168
Sections marked with an • can be omitted in an undergraduate course without in-

1
terrupting the continuity of the presentation.

xl

xii Contents
5. fii~A T TRANI':iFER BY RADIATIOX. . . . . . . . . . • . • . . • • . • • • • • . . • . . . 17 5

5-1. Thermal Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 5
5-2. Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission of Radiation. . . 177
.5-3. Kirchhoff's Law and the Black Body. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
.5-4. Radiation Intensity and Total Emissive Power .......... 185
.5-5. Radiation from Real Surfaces ......................... 187
5-6. Heat Transfer by Radiation Between Blaek Surfac-es. . . . . 193
5-7. Radiation Between Black Surfaces In the Presence of
Reradiating Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5-8. Heat Transfer by Radiation Between Gray Surfaces. . . . . 202
5-9. Radiation Combined with Convection and Conduction. . . 207
'./ 5-10.* Radiation from Gases, Vapor:s, and Flames ............ 211
\ 5-11. * Solar, Terrestrial, and Atmospheric Radiation. . . . . . . . . . 217
(.). F U!\DAMEXTAL:-5 OF CONVECTIO:\'". 2.·1.> .' 1J

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. • . . . . .
0-1. The Convective-Heat-Transfer Coefficient .............. 2:3:3
(j-2. Energy Transport 1\.f~chanism and Fluid Flow. . . . . . . . . . 2:{-t
n-:J. Boundary-Layer Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2:~;3
(}-4. The Nusselt l\1odulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2:~u
()-5. Evaluation of Convective-Heat-Transfl'r Coefficients ..... 2-t I
6-6. Dimensional Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24:3
(
I n-7. * Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-t
()-8. Approximate Boundary-Layer Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
6-9. Analogy Between Heat and l\:fomentum Transfer. . . . . . . . 277
j
' f.}-10. Reynolds Analogy for Turbulent Flow over a Flat Plate 28:~
I
G-11. Turbulent Flow over Plane Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-t
()-12. Closure ............................................ 2HO
7. FREE CoxvECTIO~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2V7

7-1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
7-2. Similarity Parameters for Free Convection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
7-3. Evaluation of Unit-Surface Conduetancc\ .. . .. . ......... :307
7-4.* Free Convection Caused by Centrifugal Forces .......... 319
7-5.* Convection from Rotating Disks and Cylinders ......... 32-t
S. FoRCED CoxvEcTIO~ l:\siDE TcnEs A:\'D DucTs ............... 331

8-1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
8-2. Analogy Between Heat and :\I omentum Transfer. . . . . . . . 340
8-3. Heat-Transfer Cocffieieuts for Turbulent Flow. . . . . . . . . . 346
8-4. Forced Conve<"'tion in Laminar Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :3.5-l
8-.5. Forced Convection in Transition Flow ................. 361

Contents xiii
9. FoRCED CoNVECTIO~ OVER ExTERIOR SuRFAcEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

9-1. Flow over Bluff Bodies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
9-2. Cylinder and Sphere in Crossflow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
9-3. Tube Bundles in Crossflow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
9-4. Application to Heat-Exchanger Design ................ :390
/-10. HEAT TRAXSFER WITH CHANGE IN PHASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

1Q-1. Fundamentals of Boiling Heat Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
1Q-2. Correlation of Boiling-Heat-Transfer Data ............. 405
1Q-3. Heat Transfer in Condensation .............. . ........ 419
1o-4. * Freezing and 1\.:Jelting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
11. HEAT ExcHANGERs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4:~9

11-1. Design and Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4:19
11-2. Basic Types of Heat Exchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
11-3. A:1ean Temperature Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4--15
11-4. Heat-Exchanger Effectiveness ........................ 452
11-5. Fouling Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
11-6. Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
. 12.* HEAT TRANSFER IN HIGH-SPEED FLo'v ...................... 470

F' 12-1. Aerodynamic Heating. . . . . . . . . . . . ............... ,. . . 470
12-2. Flow Regimes ...................................... 471
12-3. Friction and Heat Transfer in Laminar High-Speed Flow 4 74
12-4. Friction and Heat Transfer in Turbulent High-Speed
Flo\\' ................... . .... . .... . .............. 481
12-5. Convective-Heat Transfer in Free ~Jolecule Flow. . . . . . . 483
12-8. Closure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48()
13. * ~IASS TRAXSFER. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

13-1. Introduction ....................................... 489
13-2. l\1ass Transfer by l\Jolecular l)iffusion ................ 490
13-3. l\1ass Transfer by Convection ...... . .. . .............. 496
13-4. Evaluation of l\Iass Transfer Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
13-5. Interphase l\·I ass Transfer .. . ... . .................... 501
13--6. Simultaneous Heat and 1\rfass Transfer ................ 50()
1:l-7. 1\-fa..~-Transfer Equipment ...... . .................... 515
~-\PPEI\DIX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
I. Nomenclature .................... . .. .. ............. 521
II. Units, Dimensions, and Convt•rsion Factors ............ 527
I II. Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5:3:2

Principles of
Heat Trans!er
Di git ized by Google Original from

,
~
I
~
l
'
I
f
f
~
I
I
Di git ized by Google Orig inal from

1 Introduction
1-1. THE RELA liON OF HEAT TRANSFER TO THERMODYNAMICS
\Vhenever a temperature gradient exists within a sy~tem, or when two

systems at different temperatures are brought into contact, energy is
transferred. The process by which the energy transport takes place is
known as heat transfer. The thing in transit, called heat, cannot be meas-
ured or observed directly, but the effects it produces are amenable to
observation and measurement. The flow of heat, as the performance of
work, is a process by which the internal energy of a system is changed.
The branch of science which deals with the relation between heat and
other forms of energy is called thermorlynam1·cs. I t:o; principles, like all
ln.ws of nature, are based on observations and have been generalized into
laws which are believed to hold for u.ll processes occurring in nature,
because no exceptions have flver been detected. The first of these principles,
the first law of thermodynamics, states that energy can be neither created
nor destroyed but only changed from one form to another. It governs
all energy transformations quantitatively but places no restrietions on the
direction of the transformation. It is known, however, from experience 1
that no process is possible whose~ result is the net transfer of heat from 1~ ·
a region of lower temperature to a region of higher temperature. This
statement of experimental truth is known as the second law of thermo-
dynamics.
All heat-transfer processes involve the transfer and conversion of
energy. They must therefore obey the first as well as the second law of
thermodynamics. At a first glance one might therefore be tempted to
assume that the principles of heat transfer can be derived from the basic
laws of thermodynamics. This, however, would be an erroneous conclusion
because classical thermodynamics is restricted primarily to the study of
equilibrium states, including mechanical and chemical as well as thermal
equilibriums, and is therefore, by itself, of little help in determining quanti-
tatively the transformations which occur from a lack of equilibrium in
engineering processes. Since heat flow is the result of temperature non-
equilibrium, its quantitative treatment mu~t be based on other branches of
science. The same reasoning applies to other types of transport processes
such as mass transfer and diffusion.
3

4 INTRODUCTION
Limitations of classical thermodynamics. Classical thermodynamics

deals with the states of systems from a macroscopic view and makes no
hypotheses about the structure of matter. To perform a thermodynamic
analysis it is necessary to describe the state of a system in terms of gross
characteristics, such as pressure, volume, and temperature, which can
be measured directly and involve no special assumptions regarding the
structure of matter. These variables or thermodynamic properties
are of significance for the system as a whole only when they are uniform
throughout it, i.e., when the system is in equilibrium. Thus, classical
thermodynamics is not concerned with the details of a process but rather
with equilibrium states and the relations among them. The processes
employed in a thermodynamic analysis are idealized processes, devised
merely to give information concerning equilibrium states.
From a thermodynamic viewpoint, the amount of heat transferred
during a process simply equals the difference between the energy change of
the system and the work done. It is evident that this, type of analysis con-
siders neither the mechanism of heat flow nor the time required to transfer
the heat. It simply prescribes how much heat to supply to, or reject
from, a system during a process between specified end states without taking
care of whether or how this could be accomplished. The reason for this
lack of information obtainable from a thermodynamic analysis is the
absence of time as a variable. The question of how long it would take
to transfer a specified amount of heat, although it is of great practical
importance, does not usually enter into the thermodynamic analysis.
Engineering heat transfer. From an engineering viewpoint, the deter-
mination of the rate of heat transfer at a specified temperature d·ifference is
the key problem. To estimate the cost, the feasibility, and the size of
equipment necessary to transfer a specified amount of heat in a given time,
a detailed heat-transfer analysis must be made. The dimensions of boilers,
heaters, refrigerators, and heat exchangers depend not only on the amount
of heat to be transmitted, but rather on the rate at which the heat is to be
transferred under given conditions. The successful operation of equip-
ment components such as, for example, turbine blades or the walls of
combustion chambers depends on the possibility of cooling certain metal
parts by removing heat continuously at a rapid rate from a surface. Also,
in the design of electric machines, transformers, and bearings, a heat-
transfer analysis must be made to avoid conditions which will cause
overheating and damage the equipment. These varied examples show
that in almost every branch of engineering, heat-transfer problems are en-
countered which are not capable of solution by thermodynamic reasoning
alone, but require an analysis based on the science of heat transfer.
In heat transfer, as in other branches of engineering, the successful
solution of a problem requires assumptions and idealizations. It is almost

INTRODUCTION s
impossible to describe physical phenomena exactly, and in order to express
a problem in the form of an equation that can be solved it is necessary to
make some approximations. In electric-circuit calculations, for example,
it is usually assumed that the values of the resistances, capacitances, and
inductances are independent of the current flowing through them. This
assumption simplifies the analysis but may in certain cases limit the
accuracy of the results severely.
It is important to keep the assumptions, idealizations, and approxi-
mations made in the course of an analysis in mind when the final results
are interpreted. Sometimes insufficient information on physical properties
makes it necessary to use engineering approximations to solve a problem.
For example, in the design of machine parts for operation at elevated
temperatures it may be necessary to estimate the proportional limit or the
fatigue strength of the material from low-temperature data. To assure
satisfactory operation of the part, the designer should apply a factor of
safety to the results he obtains from his analysis. Similar approximations
are also necessary in heat-transfer problems. Physical properties, such
as the thermal conductivity or the viscosity, change with temperature,
but if suitable average values are selected, the calculations can be con-
siderably simplified without introducing an appreciable error in the final
result. When heat is transferred from a fluid to a wall, as for example in
a boiler, a scale forms under continued operation and reduces the rate of
heat flow. To assure satisfactory operation over a long period of time, a
factor of safety must be applied to provide for this contingency.
When it becomes necessary to make an assumption or approximation
in the solution of a problem, the engineer must rely on his ingenuity and
past experience. There are no simple guides to new and unexplored
problems, and an assumption valid for one problem may be misleading in
another. Experience has shown, however, that the first and foremost
requirement for making sound engineering assumptions or approximations
is a complete and thorough physical understanding of the problem at hand.
In the field of heat transfer, this requires not only a famiJiarity with the
laws and physical mechanisms of heat flow, but also with those of fluid
mechanics, physics, and mathematics.
1-2. MODES OF HEAT FLOW
Heat transfer can be defined as the transmission of energy from one
region to another as a result of a temperature difference between them.
Since differences in temperatures exist all over the universe, the phenomena
of heat flow are as universal as those associated with gravitational attrac-
tions. Unlike gravity, however, heat flow is governed not by a unique
relationship, but rather by a combination of various independent laws of
physics.

6 INTRODUCTION
The literature of heat transfer generally recognizes three distinct modes

of heat transmission: conduction, radiation, and convection. Strictly speak-
ing, only conduction and radiation should be classified as heat-transfer
processes, because only these two mechanisms depend for their operation
on the mere existence of a temperature difference. The last of the three,
convection, does not strictly comply with the definition of heat transfer
because it depends for its operation on mechanical mass transport also.
But since convection also accomplishes transmission of energy from regions
of higher temperature to regions of lower temperature, the term "heat
transfer by convection" has become generally accepted.
Each of these modes of heat transfer will be described and analyzed
separately. Yet it should be emphasized that, in most situations occurring
in nature, heat flows not by one, but by several of these mechanisms acting
simultaneously. It is particularly important in engineering to be aware of
the confluence of the various modes of heat transfer because, in practice,
when one mechanism dominat~s quantitatively, useful approximate solu-
tions are obtained by neglecting all but the dominant mechanism. How-
e,·er, a change of external conditions will often require that one or both
of the previously neglected mechanisms be taken into account.
Conduction. Conduction is a process by which heat flows from a region
of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature within a medium
(solid, liquid, or gaseous) or bet\veen different mediums in direct physical
contact. In conduction heat flow, the energy is transmitted by direct
molecular communication without appreciable displacement of the mole-
cules. According to the kinetic theory, the temperature of an element of
matter is proportional to the mean kinetic energy of its constituent mole-
cules. The energy possessed by an element of matter by virtue of the
velocity and relative position of the molecules is caJled internal energy.
Thus, the more rapidly the molecules are moving, the greater will be the
temperature as well as the internal energy of an element of matter. \Vhen
molecules in one region acquire a mean kinetic energy greater than that of
molecules in an adjacent region, as manifested by a difference in tempera-
ture, the molecules possessing the greater energy will transmit part of their
energy to the molecules in the lower-tCinperature region. The transfer of
energy could take place by elastic impact (e.g., in fluids) or by diffusion
of faster-moving elcetrons from the higher- to the lower-temperature
regions (e.g., in metals). Irrespective of the exact mechanism, which is
by no means fully understood, the observable effect of heat conduction is
an equalization of temperature. However, if differenceH in temperature
are maintained by addition and removal of heat at different points, a con-
tinuous flow of heat from the hotter to the cooler r~gion will be established.
Con duet ion is the only n1echanism by which heat en.n flow in opaque
solids. Conduet ion i~ abo important in fluid~, hut in nonsolid mediun1s

INTRODUCTION 7
it is usually combined with convection, and in some cases with radiation

also.
Radiation. Radiation is a process by which heat flows from a high- ~
femperature body to a body at a lower temperature when the bodies are!

eparated in space, even when a vacuum exists between them. The term
"radiation" is generally applied to all kinds of electromagnetic-wave
phenomena, but in heat transfer only those phenomena which are the result
of temperature and can transport energy through a transparent medium
or through space are of interest. The energy transmitted in this manner
is termed radiant heat.
All bodies emit radiant heat continuously. The intensity of the emis-
sions depends on the temperature and the nature of the surface. Radiant
energy travels at the speed of light (186,000 mps) and resembles phenome-
nologically the radiation of light. In fact, according to the electromagnetic
theory, light and thermal radiation differ only in their respective wave-
lengths.
Radiant heat is emitted by a body in the form of finite batches, or
quanta, of energy. The motion of radiant heat in space is similar to the
propagation of light and can be described by the wave theory. When
the radiation waves encounter some other object, their energy is absorbed
near its surface. Heat transfer by radiation becomes increasingly im-
portant as the temperature of an object increases. In engineering problems
involving temperatures approximating those of the atmosphere, radiant
heating may often be neglected.
Convection. Convection is a process of energy transport by the com-
bined action of heat conduction, energy storage, and mixing motion.
Convection is most important as the mechanism of energy transfer between
a solid surface and a liquid or a gas.
The transfer of energy by convection from a surface whose temperature
iM above that of a surrounding fluid takes place in several steps. First,
heat will flow by conduction from the surface to adjacent particles of fluid.
The energy thus transferred will serve to increase the temperature and the
internal energy of these fluid particles. Then the fluid particles will move
to a region of lower temperature in the fluid where they will mix with,
and transfer a part of their energy to, other fluid particles. The flow in
this case is of fluid as well as energy. The energy is actually stored in
the fluid particles and is carried as a result of their mass motion. This
mechanism does not depend for its operation merely on a temperature
difference and therefore does not strictly conform to the definition of heat
transfer. The net effect, however, is a transport of energy, and since it
occurs in the direction of a temperature gradient, is also classified as a
mode of heat transfer and is referred to as heat flow by convection.
Convection heat transfer is classified according t.o the mode of motivat-

8 INTRODUCTION
ing flow into free convect·ion and forced convection. When the mixing motion
takes place merely as a result of density differences caused by temperature
gradients, we speak of natural, or free, convection. When the mixing
motion is induced by some external agency, such as a pump or a blower,
the process is called forced convection.
The effectiveness of heat transfer by convection depends largely upon
the mixing motion of the fluid. Consequently a study of convective heat
transfer is predicated on a knowledge of the characteristics of the fluid flow.
In the solution of heat-transfer problems, it is necessary not only to
recognize the modes of heat transfer which play a role but also to determine
whether a process is steady or unsteady. When the rate of heat flow in a
system does not vary with time, i.e., when it is constant, the temperature
at any point does not change and steady-state conditions prevail. Under
steady-state conditions, the rate of heat influx at any point of the system
must be exactly equal to the rate of heat effl.ux, and no change in internal
energy can take place. The majority of engineering heat-transfer problems
are concerned with steady-state systems. Typical examples are the flow
of heat from the products of combustion to water in the tubes of a boiler,
the cooling of an electric light bulb by the surrounding atmosphere, or the
heat transfer from the hot to the cold fluid in a heat exchanger.
The heat flow in a system is transient, or unsteady, when the tempera-
tures at various points in the system change with time. Since a change
in temperature indicates a change of internal energy, we conclude that
energy storage is part and parcel of unsteady heat flow. Unsteady-heat-
flow problems are more complex than are those of steady state and can
often be solved only by approximate methods. Unsteady-heat-flow prob-
lems are encountered ~uring the warm-up periods of furnaces, boilers, and
turbines or in the heat treatment and stress-relieving of metal castings.
A special ca.se of unsteady heat flow occurs when a system is subjected
to cyclic variations in the temperature of its environment. In such prob-
lems the temperature at a particular point in the system returns periodically
to the same value; also, the rate of heat flow and the rate of energy storage
undergo periodic variations. Problems of this type come under the clas-
sification of periodic or quasi-steady-state heat transfer. Typical examples
are the variation of temperature of a building during any twenty-four-hour
period or the heat flow through the cylinder walls of a reciprocating engine
when the temperature of the gases within the cylinder changes periodically.
1-3. BASIC LAWS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Any meaningful engineering analysis demands a quantitative answer.

To perform such an analysis of heat-transfer problems we must investigate
the physical laws and relations which govern the various mechanisms of
heat flow. In this section we shall make a preliminary survey of the basic
Digiti zed by Coogle Orig inal from

INTRODUCTION 9
equations governing each of the three modes of heat transfer. Later we

shall show how to combine these relations when several of the heat-flow
mechanisms are operating concurrently, either in series or in parallel. Our
preliminary aim is to obtain a broad perspective of the field without
becoming involved in the details of any particular mechanism. We shall,
therefore, consider only simple cases and postpone more complex problems
for later chapters.
Direction of Heat Flow Direct5on of Heat flow
+T +T
I ------•+s
+4%
~.
l +s
F1o. 1-l. Sketch illustratmg sign convention for conduction heat flow.
Conduction. The basic relation for heat transfer by conduction was

proposed by the French scientist, J. B. J. Fourier, in 1822. It states that
q~~;, the rate of heat flow by conduction in a material, is equal to the product
of the follo\\;ng three quantities:
1. k, the thermal conductivity of the material.
2. A, the area of the section through which heat flows by conduction,
to be measured perpendicularly to the direction of heat flow.
3. dT /dx, the temperature gradient at the section, i.e., the rate of
change of temperature T with respect to distance in the direction
of heat flow x.
To write the heat conduction equation in mathematical form, we must
adopt a sign convention. We specify that the direction of increasing
distance x is to be the direction of positive heat flow. Then, since ac-
cording to the second law of thermodynamics heat will automatically flow
from points of higher temperature to points of lower temperature, heat
flow will be positive when the temperature gradient is negative (Fig. 1-1).
Accordingly, the elementary equation for one-dimensional conduction in
the steady state is written
q" = -kA dT (1-1)

dx

10 INTRODUCTION
300
Co~r
200 I I
Aluminum
-
100
I
80
Zinc
60
r-
40
____Steel,
r-- -!!:'·carbon
r-
I
20 ............
Lead
t'--
10
8
---~
18-8 Stainleu Steel
I
1
Silicon Carbide
I
-
6
--
I&.
.
.l:
~
4
- I I
',
:>
Iii
r---r-- ..._ Mogne5ite Brick
2
i-
s·\·IICa ~·IC k
'\ ~ce
">
.13
:>
"'0
c
0 0.8
1 ....-
~ v~
u Missouri firebrick
0 0.6
i
..
~
.s:: 0.4 ~
~
/ Water
I
-~
~~~
0 .2
0.1
..,.,.
. .,j
0.08
Oils
0.06
Diatomaceous Earty
0.04
'
V
I
~
..,...
~
St~~
I
--
Air
- -
0.02
Methane V V !
E~ICo•bon I o;.,,;d. '
i I
O.Ql j 7 Benzene I
0 .008 (gaseous!
'
1
0.006 I I
200 600 1000 I .COO 1800 2200 2600
Absolute Temperature, Rankine
FIG. 1-2. Variation of thermal conductivitv of

solids, liquid~, and gases with temperat urr~
For dimensional consistency of Eq. 1-1, the rate of heat flow qk is

expressed in Btu/hr, the area A in sq ft, and the temperature gradient
dT /rlx in F./ft. The thermal conductivity k is a property of the material
a.nd indicates the quantity of heat that will flow across a unit area if the
temperature gradient is unity. The units for k used in this text are
British thermal units per hour per square foot per unit temperature
~radient in degrees Fahrenheit per foot, i.e.,
Btu 'hr ~q ft Btu

or
F ft hr ft F
1 Throu~hout ttw remainder of this book units of physiral quantitirs will lw giv('n
in eOIIVPntionall.' · ahhn·viatt>d form without expandin~ them.

INTRODUCTION 11
Thermal conductivities of engineering materials at atmospheric pressure

range from about 4 X t0- 3 for gases through about 1 X I0- 1 for liquids to
2.4 X 102 for copper. Orders of magnitudes of the thermal conductivity
of various classes of material are shown in Table 1-1 and Fig. 1-2.
l\faterials having a high thermal conductivity are called conductors, while
materials of low thermal conductivity arc referred to as insulators. In
general, the thermal conductivity varies with temperature, but in many
engineering problems the variation is sufficiently small to be neglected.
TABLE 1-l
ORDER OF ~\IAGNITUDE oF THERMAL CoNDUCTIVITY
Material kin Btu/hr ft F
Gases at atmospheric pressure .......... . ..... . . 0.004-D.10
Insulating materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 02-o. 12
N onn1etallic liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 05-0. 40
Nonmetallic solids (brick, stone, concrete) . . . . . . . 0. 02-1 . 5
Liquid metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . Q-45
Alloys. ...................................... 8. Q-70 ·
Pure metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Q-240
For the simple case of steady-state heat flow through a plane wall, the
temperature gradient and the heat flow do not· vary with time and the
cross-sectional area along the heat-flow path is uniform. The variables
in Eq. 1-1 can be separated and the resulting equation is
QkiL
- dx = - 1Tcold kdT
A 0 Thot
The limits of integration can be checked by inspection of Fig. 1-3, where

t.he temperature at the left-hand face (x = 0) is uniform at Thot and thP
temperature at the right-hand face (x = L) is uniform at Tcold·
If k is independent of T, we obtain, after integration, the following
expression for the rate of heat conduction through the wall
Ak AT
Qk = £ (Tbot - Tcold) = L iAk (1-2)
In this equation ~T, the temperature difference bet,veen the higher

temperature Thot and the lower temperature Tcold, is the driving potential
which causes the flow of heat. L/Ak is equivalent to a thermal resistance
Rk, \Vhich the wall offers to the flow of heat by conduction and we haY<>
L
Rk = - (1-3)
Ak

12 INTRODUCTION
The reciprocal of the thermal resistance is referred to as the thermal con-

ductance
Ak
K~~:=- (1-4)
L
and k/L, the thermal conductance per unit area, is called the unit thermal
conductance for conduction heat flow. The subscript k indicates that the
transfer mechanism is by conduction. The thermal conductance has the
units of Btu/hr F temperature difference and the thermal resistance bas
the units hr F /Btu. The concepts of resistance and conductance are
helpful in the analysis of thermal systems where several modes of heat
transfer occur simultaneously.
--•S
F10. 1-3. Temperature distribu-
tion for steady-state conduction
through a plane wall.
Radiation. The quantity of energy leaving a surface as radiant heat

depends upon the absolute temperature and the nature of the surface. A
perfect radiator or black body1 emits radiant energy from its surface at a
rate q,. given by
Btujhr (1-G)
where At is the surface area in sq ft, T1 is the surfacet emperature in degrees
Rankine (R), and u is a dimensional constant '";th a value of0.1714 X 1o-8
Btujhr sq ft R 4• The quantity u is named the Stefan-BoUzmann constant
after two Austrian scientists, J. Stefan, who in 1879 found Eq. 1-5 exper·
imenta.lly, and L. Boltzmann, who in 1884 derived it theoretically.
An inspection of Eq. 1-5 shows that any black-body surface above a
temperature of absolute zero radiates heat at a rate proportional to the
1 A detailed discussion of the meaning of these terms is presented in Chapter 5.

INTRODUCTION 13
fourth power of the absolute teml?!.rature. While the rate of emission is

independent of the conditions of the surroundings, a net transfer of radiant
heat requires a difference in the surface temperature of any two bodies
bet,veen which the exchange is taking place. If the black body radiates
to an enclosure which completely surrounds it and whose surface is also
black, i.e., absorbs all the radiant energy incident upon it, the net rate of
radiant heat transfer is given by
(1-6)
where Ts is the surface temperature of the enclosure in degrees Fahrenheit
absolute.
Real bodies do not meet the specifications of an ideal radiator but emit
radiation at a lower rate than black bodies. If they emit, at a temperature
equal to that of a black body, a constant fraction of black-body emission
at each wavelength, they are called gray bodies. The net rate of heat
transfer from a gray body at a temperature T1 to a black surrounding
at Ts is
(1-7)
where e1 is the emissivity of the gray surface and is equal to the ratio of
emission from the gray surface to the emission from a perfect radiator at
the same temperature.
If neither of two bodies is a perfect radiator and if the two bodies
possess a given geometrical relationship to each other, the net heat transfer
by radiation between them is given by
(1-8)
where fft-t is a modulus which modifies the equation for perfect radiators
to account for the emissivities and relative geometries of the actual bodies.
In many engineering problems, radiation is combined with other
modes of heat transfer. The solution of such problems can often be
simplified by using a thermal conductance K,, or a thermal resistance R,,
for radiation. The definition of K, is similar to that of K~c, the thermal
conductance for conduction. If the heat transfer by radiation is written
q,. = K,.(T1 - T2') ( 1-9)
the conductance, by comparison with Eq. 1-8, is given by
K,. = uAt5t-2(Tt 4 - Ts 4) (1-10)
Btu/hr F
Tt - T2'
and the unit thermal conductance for radiation h, by
Btu/hr sq ft F (1-11)

14 INTRODUCTION
where T2' is any convenient reference temperature whose choice is often

dictated by the convection equation, which will be discussed_ next. Simi-
larly, the thermal resistance for radiation is
T1 - Tt'
Rr = u A tffl-2 (T 14 - T 2•) hr sq ft F /Btu (1-12)
Convection. The rate of heat transfer by convection between a surface

and a fluid may be computed by the relation
(1-13)
1rhere Qe = rate of heat transfer by convection, Btu/hr;
A = heat transfer area, sq ft;
ilT = difference between the surface temperature T, and a tempera-
ture of the fluid T co at some specified location (usually far
away from the surface), F;
he = average unit thermal convective conductance (sometimes
called the film heat-transfer factor, surface coefficient of
heat transfer, or convective heat transfer coefficient),
Btu/ hr sq ft F.
The relation expressed by Eq. 1-13 was originally proposed by the
British scientist, Isaac Newton, in 1701. Engineers have used this equa-
tion for many years, even though it is a definition of he rather than a phe-
nomenological law of convection. The evaluation of the convective heat-
transfer coefficient is difficult because convection is a very complex phe-
nomenon. The methods and techniques available for a quantitative
evaluation of he will be presented in later chapters. At this point it is
sufficient to note that the numerical value of he in a system depends on the
geometry of the surface and the velocity, as well as on the physical prop-
erties of the fluid and often even on the temperature difference llT. In
view of the fact that these quantities are not necessarily constant over a
surface, the convective heat-transfer coefficient may also vary from point
to point. For this r~ason we must distinguish between a local and an
average convective heat-transfer coefficient. The local coefficient he is
defined by
(1-14)
while the average coefficient ii,. can he defined in terms of the local value by
(1-15)
For most engineering applications, we shall be interested in average

values. For general orientation, typical values of the order of magni-

INTRODUCTION 15
tude of average convective heat-transfer coefficients encountered in en-

gineering practice are presented in Table 1-2.
TABLE 1-2
Ono~<.:R oF l\IAGNITUDE oF CoNVECTIVE 1-h: AT-TRAt..;SFER CoEFFICIENTS
Condition h in Btu/hr sq ft F
Air, free convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Superheated steam or air, forced convection . . . . . . 5-50
Oil, forced convection.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-300
\Yater, forced convection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-2000
\Vater, boiling. . ... . . .. . . ... . . .. ...... . . .. .. . . 500-10,000
Steam, condensing . . . ... .. .. . . .. . .. . .. . . . ...... 1000-20,000
Using Eq. 1-13, we can define the thermal conductance Kc for con-
vect.ive heat transfer aR
(1-16)
and the thermal resistance to convective heat transfer Rro which is equal
to the reciprocal of thP conductance, as
. 1
Rc = --- (1-17)
hcA
1-4. COMBINED HEAT-TRANSFER MECHANISMS
In the preceding section the three mechanisms of heat transfer have
been considered separately. In practice, however, heat is usually trans-
ferred in steps through a number of different series-connected sections, the
transfer frequently occurring by two mechanisms in parallel for a given
section in the system. The transfer of heat from the products of com-
bustion in the combustion chamber of a rocket motor through a thin wall
to a coolant flowing in an annulus over t.he ontl-:iide of the wall will illustrate·
~uch a case (Fig. 1-4).
Products of combustion contain gases, ~uch as CO, C02, and H20
which emit and absorb radiation. In the first section of this system, heat
is therefore transferred from the hot gas to the inner surface of the wall of
the rocket motor by the mechani~ms of convection and radiation acting in
parallel. The total rate of heat flow q is
q = Qc + Qr
= hcA(Tfl - TIJu) + hrA(Ta - T,a) (1-18)
or q = + hrA) (T a - T,u)
(hcA
= (Kc + Kr) (T a - 1\a)
Di giti zed by Google Original from

16 INTRODUCTION
where T, = temperature of hot gas;

T •11 = temperature at inner surface of wall;
R 1 = combined or effective thennal resistance of the first section,
Rt = 1/(hr + hc)A.
A.-A.
Wall
FIG. 1-4. Heat transfer in a rocket motor.
In the steady state, heat is conducted through the shell, the second section
of the system, at the same rate and
kA
q = qlc = L (T,II - TIC) (1-19)
T,ll - T,c
R2
where T,c = surface temperature at wall on coolant side;
R2 = thermal resistance of second section.
After passing through the wall, the heat flows through the third section of
the system by convection to the coolant. Assuming that radiant heat
transfer is negligible compared to convection, the rate of heat flow in the
last step is
(1-20)

INTRODUCTION 17
where Tc = temperature of the coolant;
Ra = thermal resistance in the third section of the system.
It should be noted that the symbol he stands for the unit-surface conduct-
ance in general, but the numerical values of the conductances in the first
and third sections of the system depend on many factors and will in general
be different. Also the areas of the three heat-flow sections are not equal.
But since the wall is very thin, the change in the heat-flow area is so small
that it can be neglected in this system.
In practice, often only the temperatures of the hot gas and the coolant
are k:no\vn. The intermediate temperatures can be eliminated by algebraic
addition of Eqs. 1-18, 1-19, and 1-20, or
T, - Tc ATtotal
q= (1-21)
R1 + Rt + Ra R1 + R2 + Ra
where the thermal resistances of the three series-connected sections or heat-
flow steps in the system are defined in Eqs. 1-18, 1-19, and 1-20.
In Eq. 1-21 the rate of heat flow is expressed only in terms of an over-
all temperature potential and the heat-transfer characteristics of individual
sections in the heat-flow path. From these relations it is possible to eval-
uate quantitatively the importance of each individual thermal resistance
in the path. An inspection of the order of magnitudes of the individual
terms in the denominator often indicates means of simplifying a. problem.
When one or the other term dominates quantitatively, it is sometimes
permissible to neglect the rest. As we gain facility in the techniques of
determining individual thermal resistances and conductances, there will be
numerous occasions where such approximations will be illustrated. There
are, however, certain types of problems, notably in the design of heat ex-
changers, where it is convenient to simplify the \Vriting of Eq. 1-21 by
combining the individual resistances or conductances of the thermal
system into one quantity, called the over-all unit condktance, the over-aU
transmittance, or the over-all coefficient of heat transfer, U. The use of an
over-all coefficient is a convenience in notation, and it is important not to
lose sight of the significance of the individual factors which determine the
numerical value of U.
Writing Eq. 1-21 in terms of an over-all coefficient gives
q = UAATtotat (1-22)
1
where UA - ------------ (1-23)
(Rl + R2 + Ra)
The over-all coefficient U may be based on any chosen area. To avoid
misunderstandings, the area basis of an over-all coefficient should therefore
always be stated.

18 INTRODUCTION
The numerical evaluation of the various resistances or conductances

of a thermal system is generally the most difficult part of any engineering
heat-transfer problem. In fact, the material to which most of the follow-
ing chapters is devoted deals with the determination of individual resist-
ances and conductances from external conditions which can either be
measured or specified. Once the individual resistances or conductances
have been evaluated, the over-all coefficient of heat transfer can be ob-
tained and, for steady-state conditions, the rate of heat transfer can be
determined for a specified temperature difference. For heat flow along a
path consisting of n thermal sections in series, the over-all conductance U A
is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the resistances of the individual
sections, or
1
UA = (1-24)
Rt + R2 + · · · + Rn
where each resistance is the reciprocal of the sum of the conductances for
that section.
The over-all heat-transfer coefficient will be found useful primarily in
problems involving thermal systems consisting of several series-connected
sections. The analysis of heat flow at boundaries of complicated geometry
and in unsteady-state conduction problems can be simplified by using a
combined unit-thermal-surface conductance h. The combined unit-
thermal-surface conductance, or unit-surface conductance for short, com-
bines the effects of heat flow by convection and radiation between a.
surface and a fluid and is defined by
(1-26)
The unit-surface conductance specifies the average total rate of heat flow
per unit area between a surface and a fluid per degree temperature dif-
ference. Its units are Btu/ hr sq ft F.
1-5. ANALOGY BETWEEN HEAT FLOW AND ELECTRICAL FLOW
Two systems are said to be analogous when both obey similar equations
and also have similar boundary conditions. This means that the equation
describing the behavior of one system can be transformed into the equa-
tion for the other system by simply changing the symbols of the variables.
For example, the flow of heat through a thermal resistance is analogous to
the flow of direct current through an electrical resistance because both
types of flow obey similar equations. If we replace, in the heat-flow
crt nation
;1T
q=- (1-26)
R

INTRODUCTION 19
the symbol for the temperature potential tlT by the symbol for the electric
potential, i.e., the voltage difference, tlE and the symbol for the thermal
resistance R by the symbol for the electrical resistance R ,, we obtain the
equation for i, the flow rate of electricity, i.e., the current
. =~
t - (1-27)
R,
Having once established the basic analogy, we can apply certain concepts
from direct-current theory to heat-transfer problems. For instance, an
Metal Wall
Hot Gas
Coolant
----Tc
PhyJical SyJtem
Thermal Circuit
Rel c
Analogous Electrical Circuit
Fm. l-5. Thermal circuit and analogous electric cir-

cuit for heat. flow from a hot gas through a mf'tal wall to
a coolant.
electric circuit has a corresponding thermal circuit, and vice versa. In the
problem of the preceding section, the heat flow from the hot gases to the
coolant can be visualized as analogous to the flow of current in a simple
direct-current circuit. In the equation for the current flow, analogous to
Eq. 1-21 for the heat flow, we find that
tlE
t - (1-28)
\vhere Re~ is the effective resistance of two parallel resistances. One of

them is analogous to the thermal resistance encountered hy the ronve!'t.ion

20 INTRODUCTION
heat flow, the other to the thermal resistance met by the heat flow from
the gas to the wall by radiation. The thermal circuit and the electrical
circuit for this problem are shown in Fig. 1-5.
Example 1-1. In the design of a heat exchanger for aircraft application, the maxi-
mum wall temperature is not to exceed 1000 F. .F'or the conditions tabulated belo\'".
determine the maximum permissible thermal resistance per square foot area of the
metal wall between hot gas on the one side and cold gas on the other.
Hot-gas temperature = 1900 F
Unit-surface conductance on hot side ii. = 40 Btu/hr sq ft F
Unit-surface conductance on cold side ii3 = 50 Btujhr sq ft F
· Cold-gas temperature = 100 F
Solution: In the steady state we can write q/ A from gas t~ hot side of wall = q I ..tl
from hot side of wall through wall w cold ga.-.
or
Substituting numerical valueH for the thermal resi::ttances and temperatures yields
1000 - 1000 1000 - 100
=
1/40 n~ + 1/50
Solving for R2 gives

R2 = 0.005 hr sq ft
F /Btu A ns.
A thermal resistance per unit area larger than 0.005 hr sq ft F /Btu would raise the inner
wall above 1000 F.
Rt= 0.2.50 R=0.20
1=36 Amp
E=18V
'--------illllllllllt------'
FIG. 1-6. Electric circuit analogous to
the thermal circuit for Example 1-2.
Example 1-2. Draw the analogous electrical circuit for the preceding problem and
determine the values of the electrical resistances in ohms if an 18-volt (v) d-e battery
is used to provide the electrical potential, and a heat-flow rate of 1000 Btu/hr ~q ft
corresponds to 1 ampere (amp) of current.
Solution: \Ve first determine the heat-flow rate per unit area in the thermal sy8tetn
! = h1(T,- T.g) = (40)(900) = 36,000 Btu/hr sq ft
The current in the electric cireuit is therefore 36 amp and the total electrical re~istanee
of the three elements in series is 18/3() = 0 ..5 ohm~.

INTRODUCTION 21
For the two circuit~ to be analogouA, the ratio of each electrical resistance to the
over-all resi8tance must be equal to the corre8ponding ratio in the thermal circuit. The
va.lues of the respective electrical resistances are indicated on the circuit diagram (Fig.
1-6) and should be checked by the reader. A tabulation of quantities analogous in
both systems is given below:
Quantity Thermal System Electri('al System
Potential ........ . 1F 0.01 v

Flow .... . ... . . . . 1 Btu/hr sq ft 0.001 amp
Resistanef• . . .. .. . 1 hr F/Btu 10.0 ohm
The analogy between the flow of heat and the flow of electricity may
be used as an aid in visualizing relations in a thermal system by relating
them to a more familiar electrical system. The analogy is also an aid in
the quantitative analysis of a thermal circuit because methods and tech-
niques familiar from d-e-circuit theory can be applied. There are numer-
ous instances where solutions to heat-transfer problems are available in
terms of an analogous system.
The analogy between electrical and thermal systems illustrated in this
section is by no means complete. Other useful analogies will be considered
in later chapters in connection with problems in two-dimensional heat
conduction and in transient thermal systems.
PROBLEMS
1-1. Heat is transferred through a plane wall from the inside of a room at 70 F
to the outside air at 30 F. The unit-surface conductances at the inside and outside
~urfac~ are 2 and 3 Btu/hr sq ft. F, respectively. The thermal resistance of the wall
per unit area is 3 hr sq ft F /Btu. Determine the temperature at the outer surface of
the wall and the rate of heat flow through the wall per unit area.
1-2. Draw the thermal circuit for heat transfer from the sun through a window to
the air in a room. Identify each circuit element.
1-3. Steam is condensing inside a pipe at 134 psis. The unit-surface conduct-
ance on the steam side is 1000 Btu/hr sq ft F. The thermal resistance of the pipe
per unit area is 0.001 hr sq ft F /Btu and the unit-surface conductance at the ou~ide of
the pipe is 5 Rtu/hr sq ft F. (a) Estimate the per cent of the over-all thermal resistance
offered by (I) the steam, (2) the pipe, and (3) the steam and the pipe. (b) Determine
the temperature at the outer surface of the pipe if the pipe is suspended in a room
at 70 F. The values of the unit conductances and the reRistance are ba..qed on the outside
ares of the pipe.
1"""'- Using Table 1-2 as a guide, prepare a similar table showing the order of
magnitudes of the thermal resistances per unit area for convection between a surface
and various fluids.
1-6. Draw the thermal circuit, determine the rate of heat flow per unit area from
a furnace wall, and estimate the exterior surface temperature under the following
conditions:
--1. Convective heat-transfer coefficient at the interior surface is 10 Btu/hr sq ft. F.
2. Rate of heat flow by radiation from hot gases and particles (3500 F) to interior
1
Wall surface is 20,000 Btu/hr sq ft.

22 INTRODUCTION
3. Unit thermal conductance of wall (interior surface temperature about 1500 F) is

40 Btu/hr sq ft. F.
4. Free convection from outer surface.
1-6. A thermocouple (if-in.-00 wire) is used to measure the temperature of quies-
cent gas in a furnace. The thermocouple reading is 300 F. It is known, however, that
the rate of radiant heat flow per inch length from hotter furnace wall~ to the thermo-
couple wire is 0.1 Btu/hr and the unit conductance between the wire and the go.s i!:4 1.2
Btu/hr sq ft F. \Vith this information, estimate the true gaR temperature. State your
88Rumptions and indicate the equations used.
1-7. The thermal conductivity of cork at 86 F is given in Table .\-2 of Appendix III
in Btu/hr ft F. \Vhat i~ iU4 value in watt~ per square centimeter per degree centigrade
per centimeter (w /em C)? An~. 4.32 X to-~
1-8. Determine the rate of radiant heat emission in Btu per hr per sq ft from a black
body at (a) 300 F; (b) 3000 F; (c) 3000 R; (d) 10,000 R.
Am. (a) 5.8 X 101 ; (b) 2.46 X 106 ; (c) 1.3~) X 106 ; (d) 1.7 X 107
1-9. A flat plate placed in the sunlight re<"eiveR 200 Btu/hr sq ft of radiant heat from
the 8Un and the atmosphere. If the air temperu.ture is 80 F and the unit-surface con-
ductance between the plate and the u.ir is 2 Btu/hr sq ft F, determine the plate tempera-
ture. Neglect heat losse~ from the bottom of the plate.
1-10. How much Fibergla.'4 immlation (k == 0.02 Btu/hr ft. FJ iH needed to enable
a guarantee that the outside temperature of a kitchen oven will not exceed 120 F?
The maximum oven temperature to be maintained by the conventional type of thermo-
,..tatic control is 550 F, the kitchen temperature may vary from 60 F to 90 F and the
average heat-transfer coefficient between the oven ~urface and the kitchen is 2 Btu/hr
·"''I ft F.
1-11. A hot acid storage tank wall is to be constructed with 1-in.-thick lead
(k =- 20 Bt.u/hr ft F) lining, an insulating layer of brick (k .... 0.5 Btu/hr ft. F), and !-in.-
thick steel (k - 26 Btu/hr ft F) outer case. With the inside surface of the lead at
IUO F and the room at 80 F, the temperature of the outside surface of the steel case is
to be no higher than 140 F, selected as the maximum to prevent burns to workmen. De-
termine the necessary thickness of insulating brick to permit an inside lead surface temp-
erature of 280 F.

2 Steady One-Dimensional
Heat Conduction
2-1. WALLS OF SIMPLE GEOMETRICAL CONFIGURATION
In this section we shall consider steady-state heat conduction through

simple systems in which the temperature and the heat flow are functions
of a single coordinate.
Plane wall. The simplest case of one-dimensional heat flow, namely
heat conduction through a plane wall, was treated in Sec. 1-3. We found
that, for uniform temperatures over the hot and the cold surfaces, the rate
of heat flow by conduction through a homogeneous material is given by
Ak llT
qk = L (Thot - T cold~ = R~t: = Kk!lT [ 1-2]
Example 2-1. The interior surfaces of the walls in a large building are to be main-
tained at 70 F while the outer surface temperature is -10 F. The walls are 10 in.
thick and constructed from a brick material having a thermal conductivity of 0.-l
Btu/hr ft :F. Calculate the heat loss for each square foot of wall surface per hour.
&lution: If we neglect the effect of the corners where the walls meet and the effect
of mortared brick joints, Eq. 1-2 applies. Substituting the thermal conductivity and
the pertinent dimensions in their proper units (e.g., L = H ft) we obtain
.!L - (0.4)[ 70 - ( -lO)] =- 38 4 Bt /h ft

A 10/12 · u r sq
Thus, 38.4 Btu will be lost from the building per hour through each square foot of wall-
surface area. An.-..
Effect of nonuniform thermal conductivity. It has already been
mentioned that the thermal conductivity varies with temperature. The
variation of thermal conductivity with temperature may be neglected if
the temperature range under consideration is not large or if the temperature
dependence of the conductivity is not too severe. On the other hand, if
the temperature difference in a system causes substantial variations in the
thermal conductivity, the temperature dependence must be taken into
account.
For numerous materials, especially within a limited temperature range,
23

24 STEADY ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION
the variation of the thermal conductivity with the temperature can be

represented by the linear function.
k(T) = ko(l + ~~cT) (2-1)

where ko is the thermal conductivity at T = 0 and ~k is a constant called
the temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity. \Vhen the variation of
thermal conductivity is available in the form of a curve showing how k
varies with T, the temperature coefficient can be obtained approximately
by drawing a straight line between the temperatures of interest and
measuring its slope. Then ko is a hypothetical value of the thermal con-
ductivity equal to the ordinate intercept at zero temperature. It is de-
termined graphically by continuing the straight line representing the
h (T) •O.OJ1+0.000031T
=o.03111 +O.oom
0.~
..... ""' ,.._ Slope -1: =

0.000031
X Experimental Points
0 100 200 300

Temperature f
FIG. 2-1. Graphical determination of the tempcrat urc cocfticicnt of thermal

conductivity.
actual thermal conductivity over a limited temperature range through the

axis of conductivity at zero temperature (Fig. 2-1).
\Vith a linear approximation to the temperature variation of thP
thermal conductivity, the rate of heat flow by conduction through a
plane wall is, from Eq. 1-2,
1
Tcold
- ko(l + P~cT)dT (2-2)

hot
Integration of Eq. 2-2 gives
(2-3)

STEADY ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION 25
which can be written more conveniently as
(2--4)
where k,. = ko [1 + 13~c (That + Tcotd)/2] represents a mean value of the

thermal conductivity. For a linear variation of k with T, the thermal
conductivity in Eq. 1-2 should therefore be evaluated at the arithmetic
mean temperature (Thot + Tcotd) /2.
Example 2-2. The conductivity of an 85 per cent magnesia immlating material iR
i-lhown a..~ a function of temperature in Fig. 2-1. (a) Determine fJk and ko for a linear
approximation between 100 and 300 F. (b) Estimate the rate of heat flow per unit
area between these temperatures for a slab of 3-in. thickness.
Solution: (a) By means of the graphical method illustrated in Fig. 2-1, the slope
of the straight line connecting the thermal-conductivity curve between 100 and 300 F
i1" found to be +0.000031. The ordinate intercept at 0 degrees (deg) is 0.031. Thus
we have
k(T) = 0.031 (1 + 0.001 1') for 100 F < 7' < 300 F
The mean temperature is 200 F and the mean value of the thermal conductivity is
k"' = 0.031 (1 + 0.001 X 200) = 0.0372 Btu/hr ft F Ans.
b) The rate of heat flow per unit urea i~, from Eq. 2-4,
r qk 200
- = - (3112 )/(0.0372 ) = 2.15 Btu/hr sq ft Ans.
A
Hollow cylinders. Hadial heat flow by conduction through a hollow

circular cylinder is another one-dimensional conduction problem of con-
siderable practical importance. Typical examples are conduction through
pipes and through pipe insulation.
If the cylinder is homogeneous and sufficiently long that end effects
may be neglected and the inner surface temperature is constant at T i while
the outer surface temperature is maintained uniformly at To, the rate of
heat conduction is, from Eq. 1-1,
dT
q" = - kA-
dr
where dT/dr = temperature gradient in the radial direction.

For the hollow cylinder (Fig. 2-2), the area is a function of the radius
and

where r is the radius and l the length of the cylinder. The rate of heat
ftow by conduction can thus be expressed as
dT
qk = -k21rrl - - (2-6)
dr
Separating the variables and integrating between To at ro and T i at r i
yields
(2-6)
Solving Eq. 2-6 for qk yields

Ti - .To
(2-7)
In Cro/ r .)
- - -- --
27rkl
the equation for calculating the rate of heat conduction through a hollow
circular cylinder such as a pipe. An inspection of Eq. 2-7 shows that the
Fw. 2-2. Sketch illustrating nomenclature for con-

duction through a hollow cylinder.
rate of radial heat flow varies directly with the cylinder length l, the
thermal conductivity k, the temperature difference between the inner and
outer surfaces T, - To, and inversely as the natural logarithn~ 1 of the
ratio of the outside and inside radii ro/ ri or the corresponding diameter
ratio Do/ D i· By analogy to the case of a plane wall and Ohm's law, the
thermal resistance of the hollow cylinder is
1 The natural logarithm of a number, In, is 2.3026 times the logarithm to base 10.
Digit ized by Coogle Orig inal from

Rt = In (ro/ri) (2-8)
21rkl
The temperature distribution in the curved wall is obtained by inte-
grating Eq. 2-5 from the inner radius ri and the corresponding temperature
T i to an arbitrary radius r and the corresponding temperature T, or
r qk dr = _lT(r)dT
l rj
k(21rl) r
Ti
which gives
Thus the temperature in a hollow circular cylinder is a logarithmic func-

tion of the radius r (Fig. 2-3), while for a plane wall the temperature
distribution is linear.
Flo. 2-3. Temperature distribu-

tion in a hollow cylinder.
For some applications it is helpful to have the equation for heat con-
duction through a curved wall in the same form as Eq. 1-2 for a plane
wall. To obtain this form of equation we equate the right-hand sides of
Eqs. 2-7 and 1-2, using, however, L = (ro - ri), the thickness through
which heat is conducted, and A = A in Eq. 1-2. ~This yields
_k.At:.T = 2rklt:.T ~-'f
ro- r, In (ro / ri)
Di gitized by Google Original from

28 STEADY ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT., CONDUCTION
from which A is
21r(r o - r i)l
A- ln (ro / ri)
Noting that 27rTol = 4o, the area of the outside surface, and that ro/ri =
A ol A i, we can express A as
Ao- Ai
A- (2-9)
In (Ao/ A i)
The area A defined by Eq. 2-9 is called the logarithmic mean area. The
rate of heat conduction through a hollow circular cylinder can then be ex-
pressed as
To-T;,
qk = - - - - - - = (2-10)
(ro - ri) / kA
The rate of heat flow Qk will be in Btu / hr if To- Ti is in F, ro.- ri is in
ft, k is in Btu/ hr ft F, and A is in sq ft.
For values of Ao/A • < 2 (i.e., ro/ ri < 2) the arithmetic mean area
(A o + A i) /2 is within 4 per cent of the logarithmic mean area and may be
used with satisfactory accuracy. For thicker walls this approximation is
generally not acceptable.
Example 2-3. Calculate the heat lo8s from 10 ft. of 3-in. nominal-diameter pipt:•
covered with 1 ~ in. of an insulating material having a thermal conductivity of 0.040
Btu/hr ft F. Assume that the inner and outer surface temperatures of the insulation
are 400 and 80 F, respectively.
Solution: The outside diameter of a nominal 3-in. pipe is 3.50 in. This is also
the inside diameter of the insulation. The outside diameter of the immlat.ion is 6.50 in.
The logarithmic mean area is
Ao - A, 107r(6.50 - 3.50)/12
A- ln(AofA,)
- ln(6 ..50/3.50)
= ~:~ = 12.70 sq ft
Since r0 jr, < 2, the arithmetic mean area would be an acceptable approximation and
Ao + A, = ! 6.50 + 3.50 =
13 · 10 sq f t
2 2 12
Applying Eq. 2-10, the rate of heat loss is

400 - 80
Ans.
q1c = (
3112 )/(0.0 4 ) 02 _7 ) = 650 Btu/hr
Radial heat conduction through a hollow cylinder made of a material
whose thermal conductivity varirs linearly with temperature can be

handled in a manner analogous to that used for the plane wall. Substi-
tuting Eq. 2-1 into Eq. 2-5, separating the variables, and integrating
yields
qk = ------=- (2-11)
(To - T,)jk,.A
where k.. = ko [1 +
fJ~c ( T, + To) /2], the thermal conductivity at the
arithmetic mean of the temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces.
Equations 2-7 and 2-10 apply only to radial heat flow at right angles
to the cylinder axis. If the length of the cylinder is short in comparison
with its diameter, end effects become important because the direction of
heat flow near the ends is no longer perpendicular to the axis. Such
cases come under the classification of two-dimensional heat flow.
FIG. 2-4. Sketch illustrating no-

menclature for conduction through
spherical shell.
Spherical and parallelepiped shells. A sphere has the largest volume

per outside surface area of any geometrical configuration. For this reason
a hollo\V sphere is sometimes used in the chemical industry for ]ow-tempera-
ture \Vork, when heat losses are to be kept at a minimum. Conduction
through a spherical shell is also a one-dimensional steady-state problem if
the interior and exterior surface temperatures are uniform and constant.
The rate of heat conduction for this case (Fig. 2-4) is
q~: = 41rTiTok(To- T.i) = k~ To- Ti.
(2-12)
T0 - T& To- Ta .
if the material is homogeneous. If the thermal conductivity is a linear
function of temperature, then it should be calculated at the arithmetic
mean value between the inner and outer surface temperatures.
~ Digitized by Coogle Original from

• ·
Equation 2-12 can also be used as an approximation for parallelepiped
shells which have a small inner cavity surrounded by a thick wall. An
example of such a system would be a small furnace surrounded by a large
thickness of insulating material. For this type of geometry the heat
flow, especially in the corners, is not perpendicular to the bounding surfaces,
and hence cannot strictly be considered one-dimensional. However,
when the cavity is roughly cubic and the surrounding walls are thick
(Ao/ A, > 2), the rate of heat flow can be estimated according to Schumann
(1) by multiplying the geometric mean area in Eq. 2-12, ~'by the
semi-empirical correction factor 0. 725. More accurate correction factors
have been determined by Langmuir et al. (2) and are summarized in
Ref. 3.
Example 2-4. The working chamber of an electrically heated laboratory furnace

is 6 by 8 by 12 in. and the walls, 6 in. thick on all sides, are made of a refractory brick
(k = 0.2 Btu/hr ft F). If the temperature at the interior surface is to be maintained
at 2000 F while the outside surface temperature is 300 F, estimate the power con-
sumption in kilowatts (kw).
Solution: {"nder ~teady-state conditions the power consumption will equal the heat
loss. The inner surface area A a is
A
__
2
(6 X 8) + (6 X 12) + (8 X 12) f
1 144 = 3 sq t.
The outer surface area .1 0 i:-

Ao == 2 (18 X 20) + (18 : 24) + (20 X 24) = 17.7 sq ft
1 4
Since A0 /.-L > 2, we can usc E<.1. 2-12 with the empiric11l eorreetion factor 0.725, and
the heat loss is
qk = (0.2H0.725)~3 X 17.7 (!~~) = 7500 Btu/hr
Since 1 Btu/hr = 2.H3 X l0- 4 kw, the power consumption is about 2.56 kw. Ans.
2-2. COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

The general method for analyzing problems of stea.Jy-stu.te heat flow
through composite structures has been presented in Sec. 1-4. In this
section we shall consider some examples of composite structures in which
the heat flow is one-dimensional, or at least approximately so. In order
to make the treatment applicable to practical cases where the surface
temperatures are generally not known, heat flow through thermal resistances
at the boundaries will be included in the treatment. '\Ve shall assume that
the system is exposed to a high-temperature medium, i.e., a heat source, of
known and constant temperature on one side and to a low-temperature
medium, i.e., a heat sink, of known and constant temperature on the other

side. The surface conductances between the medium and the surface will
-~- be taken as constant over a given surface.
Composite walls. A composite wall, typical of the type used in a large
fumace, is shown in Fig. 2-5. The inner layer, which is exposed to the
high-temperature gases, is made of firebrick. The intermediate layer
· consists of an insulating brick and is followed by an outer layer of ordinary
- red brick. The temperature of the hot gases is Ti ' and the unit-surface
conductance over the interior surface is h;. The atmosphere surrounding
the furnace is at a temperature To and the unit-surface conductance over
the exterior surface is iio. Under these conditions there will be a con-
tinuous heat flow from the hot gases through the wall to the surrounding;~.
q ... q
r.
Thermal Circuit
Fu;. 2- 3. Temperature distribution and t lu·r-

mal circuit for heat flow through a f:f'ril'~ <"om-
posite plane wall.
Since the heat flow through a given arf'a A is the san1e for any sectioll.
we obtain
- klA (T 1 - T2)
L1 ,
The symbols in Eq. 2-13 can he identified by inspf'('tion of Fig. 2-5.

Equation 2-13 can be written in terms of the thern1al n•sistaiH'PS of the
various sections as
T., - To
q= (2-14)
where the resistances may be detcnnincd from Eqs. 1-3 and 1-1:3 or hy

comparison of corresponding terms in Eqs. 2-13 and 2-14. Solving for

the various temperature differences in Eq. 2-14 we obtain
Ti- Tt = qR1
Tt - T2 = qR2 (2-15)
T2- Ta = qRa
T3- T,. = qR"
T4 - To -= qR;,
Adding the left- and right-hand sides of these equations yields
T, - To = q(Rt + R2 + Ra + R. + R;,) (2-16)
or q=
(2-17)
The result expressed by Eq. 2-17, namely that the heat flow through the
five sections in series is equal to the over-all temperature potential divided
by the sum of the thermal resistances in the path of the heat flow, can also
he obtained from the thermal circuit shown in Fig. 2-5. Using the analogy
between the flow of heat and the flow of electric current, Eq. 2-17 can be
written directly.
Example 2-6. · A furnace wall consists of two layers, 9 in. of firebrick (k = 0.8
Btu/hr ft F) and 5 in. of insulating brick (k = 0.1 Btu/hr ft F). The temperature
inside the furnace is 3000 F and the unit-surface conductance at the inside wall i~
12 Btujhr sq ft F. The temperature of the surrounding atmosphere is 80 F and the
unit-surface conductance at the outer wall is 2 Btujhr sq ft F. Neglecting the thermul
resistance of the mortar joints, estimate (a) the rate of heat. loss per square foot of wnll
und the temperatures at the (b) inner !'lurface and (c) outer surface.
Solution: (a) The rate of heat flow is obtained from Eq. 2-17 as
q 3000 - 80 2920
-- = -------------------- - -----------------------
A +
l2" l"2"/0.8 +
-r~~/0.1 ~ + 0.083 + O.U4 + 4.17 + 0.50
2920
= .
5 69
= 513 Btu/hr sq ft Ans.
It is of interest to note that the insulating brick, while representing only about one-third
of the wall thicknes~, accounts for three-quarters of the total thermal resistance.
Applying Eq. 2-14, the temperature drop between the furnuce ga.~es and the interior
~urface ifo; T, - 1', = q R, = (5• 13) (0.083) = 43 F
This relatively small temperature difference is in accordance with previous con!:'idera-

tion~ indicating t.hat the thermul re~iHtance of the fir:o~t section in the eirruit is negligihl<>.
ThuF, heat can flow without u. large potpntiu.l and the temperature at the interior wall i!-l
ItParly equal to that of the ga.~e~, that i~, 1\ = 1\ - 43 F = 3000 - 43 = 2957 F A Tl·"·
hl The temperature of the outer ~urfacP, ohtain<>d in a like mannPr, i1'1336 F. .·\ns.

In numerous practical applications, combinations of series- and parallel-

connected heat-flow paths are encountered. An example of such a case
is illustrated by the composite wall shown in Fig. 2-6. An approximate
solution can be obtained by assuming that the heat flow is essentially one-
dimensional. The composite wall can then be divided into three sections.
The thermal resistance of each section can be determined with the aid of
the thermal circuit shown in Fig. 2-6. The intermediate layer consists
blr
--.-
---- -· j;_-- --- .4-........,_.,......
b2
1
~Steel
FICi. 2-6. Thermal circuit _for a para~lel-serics composite wall. (L1 = 1 in.;
Lt - h m.; La == t m. ; for Example 2-6.)
of two separate thermal paths in parallel and its thermal conductance is

the sum of the individual conductances. For ~ wall section of height
b1 + ~ (Fig. 2-6) the conduc~~ceis--- --
..,-
_.
- K
-- k.,bt k1b2
2 =
14
+-- --
k - ·-
per unit length of,vaiJ. O~i:; Eq. 1-24, t~~ ove:-~n unit transmittance U
from surface to surface is
u= 1 -
1
--------------------------
R. + ~ + Ra £. + --------------+--
b1 + b2 La
kt (kt~l LJ},. + (~2bt! ~) ka
\
Example 2-6. A layer of 2-in.-thick firebrick (kb == 1.0 Btu/hr ft F) is placed

between two i-in.-thick steel plates (k, = 30 Btu/hr ft F). The faces of the brick
adjacent to the plates are rough, having solid-to-solid contact only over 30 per cent of
the total area, with the average height of the asperities being ~ in. If th~ outer ~teel-

plate surface temperatures are 200 and 800 F respectively, specify the rate of he..'lt
flow per unit area.
Solution: The real system is first idealized by assuming that the a.Rperities of the
surface are distributed, as shown in Fig. 2-6. \Ve note that the composite wall is sym-
metrical with respect to the center plane and therefore only consider one-half of the
system. The over-all heat-transfer coefficient for the composite wall is then
1/2
u = ------~~-----
R.R.
R. + Rc + R. + Ra
from an inspection of the thermal circuit.
The thermal resistance of the steel plate R3 is, on the basis of a unit area, equal to
L, 1/4
Ra == k. ... (l ) (30) == 0.694 X
2
to-• hr sq ft F /Btu
The thermal resistance of the brick asperities R4 is, on the basis of a unit area, equal to
t/32)(l.O) =- 8.7 X 10-· hr sq ft F /Btu

= (1 )(0.
2 3
Since the air is trapped in very small compartments, the effect.s of convection are small
and it will be assumed that heat flows through the air by conduction. At a tempera-
ture of 280 F, the conductivity of air ko is 0.02 Btu/hr ft F. Then R 5, the thermal
resistance of the air trapped between the asperities, is, on the basis of unit area, equal to
R,
- 0. Ltko -- (l )(0.1/32 = -a
7 2 7 )(0.02 ) 187 X 10 hr sq ft F /Btu
The factors of 0.3 and 0. 7 in R4 and R6 respectively, represent the per cent of the total
area for the two separate heat-flow paths.
The total thermal resistance for the two paths, R4 and R6 in parallel, is
R.R. (8.7)(187) X to-e _ _1
R t = Rt + R. == (8 .7 + 187 ) X to-a - 8.3 X 10 hr sq ft F /Btu
The thermal resistance of one half of the solid brick, R1, is
1 Lt 1 2
R. =
2 k =
6 2 (12 ) (l.O) == 83.5 X to-a hr sq ft F /Btu
and U, the over-all heat-transfer coefficient, is

1/2 X 10 1
U = 83 .5 + 8 .3 + 0. 69 - 5.4 Btu/hr sq ft F
An inspection of the values for the variouP thermal resistances shows that the steel
offers a negligible resistance, while the contact section, although only i'f in. thick.
contributes 10 per cent to the total resistance. From Eq. t-21, the rate of heat flow
per unit area is
! -= UtlT = 5.4(800 - 200) = 3250 Btu/hr sq ft Ans.
The thermal resistance bet\veen two surfaces is called contact re81:stance.

The analysis of the contact resistance in the preceding problem is only
approximate because, in addition t.o roughness, the contact resistance

depends on the contact pressure. For more information on contact

resistance, see Refs. 4 and 5.
Concentric cylinders. Hadial heat flow through concentric cylinders
of different thermal conductivity is encountered in many industrial instal-
lations. An insulated pipe, with a hot fluid flowing inside and exposed to
a colder medium on the outside, is typical of such problems (Fig. 2-7).
If the pipe is relatively long, then the heat flow through the walls will be
FIG. 2-7. Sketch illustrating nomenclature of com-

posite cylinder wall.
in a radial direction. In the steady state, the rate of heat flow through
each section is the same and is represented by
Thot - T1
q = 21rr1lhi (T i - 1\) for the inner surface
Rt
~
21f'ktl Tt - T2
q= . (Tt - T2) for the inner cylinder
ln(r2:r1) R2
21fk·i T2- Ta
q= (T2- Ta) - for the outer cylinder
In (r.,/ r2) Ra
Ta- T('O)d
q = 2Trralho(Ta - To) - -- - - -- for the outer surface
R,
In most practical applications the temperature of the fluid inside and
the temperature of the medium surrounding the insulation are known or
specified. The intermediate temperatures can be elimina.ted by addition
of the temperature-difference terms and transposition. The resulting

expression for the rate of heat flow through two concentric cylinders then
becomes
(2-18)
The over-all heat-transfer coefficient U for this system can be based on

any area, but its numerical value will depend on the area selected. Since
the outer diameter is the easiest to measure in practice, A o = 27rT3l is
usually chosen as the base area and the rate of heat flow is
q = U Ao(Thot - Tcold)
Then, by comparison with Eq. 2-18, the over-all heat-transfer coefficient

becomes
(2-19~
Example i-7.. Calculate the heat loss per linear foot from a 3-in.- steelsched. 40 pipe
(3.07 in. lD, 3.500 in. OD, k = 25 Btu/hr ft F) covered with a ~-in. thickne..q8 of a.sbest&.;
insulation (k = 0.11 Btu/hr ft. F). The pipe transports a fluid at 300 F with an inner
unit-surface conductance of 20 Btu/hr sq ft F and is exposed to ambient air at 80 F with
an average outer unit-surface conductance of 2.0 Btu/hr sq ft F.
Solution: Using Eq. 2-18, the rate of heat transfer for l = 1 is
220
-= ·" I I 1( I
i;(3.07 /12)20 + 11 (a~: 2~· 07 ) + 11
2~(~.·~~· 5
) + ~""(4.5/12)2
2
- 0.0312 + 0.000:5 : 0.363 + 0.212 =
362 Htu/hr ft Art!.
It is to be noted that the thermal resistance is concentrated in the insulation and

in the low surface conductance at the outer surface, while the resistance of the metal
wall is negligible. If the pipe were hare, the heat. loss would be 722 Btu/hr ft, or nearly
twice as large as with the insulation.
Critical thickness of insulation. The addition of insulation to the out-

side of small pipes or wires does not always reduce the heat transfer. "\Ye

have previously noted that the radial rate of heat flow through a hollow
cylinder is inversely proportional to the logarithm of the outer radius and
the rate of heat dissipation from the outer surface is directly proportional
to this radius. Thus, for a single-wall tube of fixed inner radius r i, an
increase in outer radius ro (e.g., the insulation thickness) increases the
thermal resistance due to conduction logar:ith1nical~y
. .. ' -
\ ./.
and at the same time
reduces the.thermal resistance at the outer surface l?,nearly with ro. Since
the total thermal resistance is proportional to the sum of these two resist-
ances, the rate of heat flow may increase as insulation is added to a bare
pipe or \\'ire. If the insulation thickness is then further increased, the heat
loss gradually drops below the loss for a bare surface. This principle is
widely utilized in electrical engineering where lagging is provided for cur-
rent-carrying wires and cables, not to reduce the heat loss, but to increase
it. It is also of importance in refrigeration, where heat flow to the cold
refrigerant should be kept at a minimum. In many such installations
where small-diameter pipes are used, insulation on the outside surface
would increase the rate of heat flow.
The relation between heat transfer and insulation thickness can be
studied quantitatively with the aid of Eq. 2-18. In many practical
situations the thermal resistance is concentrated in the insulation and at the
outer surface. We shall therefore simplify Eq. 2-18 by assuming that
T i is the temperature at the inner surface of the insulation. This boundary
condition applies to an insulated electric wire whose outer surface tempera-
ture T, is fixed by the current density, the wire size, and the material.
Then,
(2-20)
where ro is the outer radius, r, the inner radius, and k the thermal con-
ductivity of the insulation.
For a fixed value of r,, the rate of heat flow is a function of ro, i.e.,
q = q(ro), and will be a maximum at that value of ro for which
(2-21)
From Eq. 2-21 the radius for maximum heat transfer, called the critical
radius, is Toe ik/ho.
Enm.ple 2-8. An electrical cable, ! in. OD, is to be insulated with rubber (k - 0.09
Btu/hr ft F). The cable is to be located in air (h0 = 1.5 Btu/hr sq ft F) at 70 F.
Inv~tigate the effect of insulation thickne~s on the heat diAAipation, assuming a cable
~urface temperature of 150 F.

Solutwn: Applying Eq. 2-20, the rate of heat dissipation per unit length is
.... 2,..(0.09)(150 - 70) = 45.2 Btu/hr ft

q ln(ro/i) + (0.09)(12/1.5ro) ln4ro + (0.72/ro)
if To is in inches. The first term of the denominator is proportional to the thermal
resistance of the insulation, the second term to the surface resistance. In Fig. 2-8
each of these terms is plotted against the outer radius T0 • The dotted line, representing
the sum of both terms, has a minimum at roc = 0.72 in. This is the critical radius at
which the rate of heat dissipation reaches a maximum value of
q = ~~~: = 22.8 Btu/hr ft length
If the wire were bare, the mtP of heat di~~ipation would be 15.7 Btu/hr ft length,
a reduct.ion of 45 per cent.
3.0r----~--~-----r-r----,.----,-----,
0.72 2.0
r;-
or
0
r0 , Inches
Fm. 2-8. Variation of thermal resistance with outside radius

for an insulated electric wire.
In a practical situation, the selection of the insulating thickness also

requires a cost analysis, and usually a compromise between the desirability
of dissipating as much heat as possible and the necessity of keeping cost
down must be made. Such a compromise might be an insulation thickness
of -l in. (ro = 0.5 in.), which requires only about 50 per cent of the material.
yet dissipates heat at a rate equal to 98 per cent of the maximum rate.
For cases when ri is larger than k/ho, addition of insulation will always
reduce the rate of heat transfer, and the optimum insulation thickness
must be determined by a cost analysis that takes into account the cost and
depreciation of the insulation, the cost and depreciation of the equipment
required to make up for the energy lost as heat, and sometimes the space
occupied by the insulation.
2-3. SYSTEMS WITH HEAT SOURCES

.Systems with heat sources (or sinks) are encountered in many branches
of engineering. Typical examples are electrie coils, resistance lwn.t.er:"'.

nuclear reactors, and the combustion of fuel in the fuel bed of a boiler
furnace. The dissipation of heat from internal sources is also an important
consideration in rating electric motors,. generators, and transformers.
In this section we shall consider two simple cases: steady-state heat
conduction in a flat plate and a circular cylinder with homogeneous internal
heat generation. For a treatment of more complicated problems such as
svstems with nonuniform
~ . heat sources, constant local heat sources, or
moving heat sources, see Refs. 3 and 8.
Flat plate with uniformly distributed heat sources. Consider a flat
plate in which heat is generated uniformly. This plate could be a heating
element such as a flat bus bar in which heat is generated by passing an
14---2L.---..~
Fw. 2-~l. Sk(•tch illustrating nonwrl-

clature for heat conduction in a pluue
wall with internal h<~at gcneratiou.
electric current through it. If we assume that steady state exists, that
the material is homogeneous, and that the plate is large enough that end
pffects may be neglected, an energy equation for a differential element
(Fig. 2-9) can be expressed semantically as
Heat conducted in heat generated by heat conducted out
through the left + sources in the element through the right
face during time ll8 during time ~8 face during time tl.8
The corresponding algebraic expression is
dT dT
-kA
at :c
~8 + q(A~x)~8 = -kA -
dx at (.r + ~:c)
tl.8 (2-22)
where rj is the heat-source-strength per unit volume and unit time.

According to the mean-value theorem f(x), the value of a function of :.r

at x, is related tof(x + .1x), the value of that sa~e function at (x + dx),
by
d
f(x + AX) = f(x) + -d- [f(x)]
X at M
AX
where M is located somewhere between x and (x + Ax). In particular, if

we take f(x) = [dT(x)jdx], the temperature gradients at x and (x +ax) arc
related by the mean-value theorem ·
-dT
dx at (.r + .1.r)
=dT
-
dx nt .r
+---
[ d (dT )]
dx dx at .u
AX (2-23)
where M is located somewhere between x and (x + Ax) as shown in Fig.

2-10. Substituting Eq. 2-23 for the temperature gradient at (x + AX) in
Eq. 2-22 yields, after dividing each term by AfJ,
dT-
-kA
dx .r
+ q(Aax) = -kA -dT
dx .r
-kA - [d (dT )]
dx
--
dx M
ax (2-24)
__ j _________ _
[4~~;:}] 11 4s .Jr~-----+-: ~{~~
--1----1 I M
I I
I :
I I
I I
I 1 I
I 1 I
,,.
_ ___,_1 4s.-J
1 I I
II
FIG. 2-10. :\lean-value thPorem u.pplied to heat conduction.
\Ve can simplify Eq. 2-24 by canceling the terms -kA (dT idx)atr and
noting that
d (dT) = -
dx dx
Equation 2-24 then becomes
If we divide the above equation by A ~x and let the size of the clement

approach zero as a limit, a value at M becomes a value at the poin~ x. Sinco

this point is a perfectly general one, the equation
d2T
k -2 =-4 (2-26)
dx
must hold at every point in the body.
A solution to Eq. 2-25 is obtained by two successive integrations. The
first yields the temperature gradient
dT q
dx = -kx + cl (2-26)
and the second integration gives the temperature distribution
q
T = - - x2
2k
+ Ctx + Ct (2-27)
where cl and c2 are constants of integration whose values are determined

by the boundary conditions. If we specify that the temperature at both
faces is To, then the boundary conditions are
T = To at X = 0 and T = To at X = 2L
For the. solution to satisfy these conditions we substitute them suc-
cessively into Eq. 2-27 and solve for C1 and C2. This yields
To= C2
and
qL
Solving for Ct we obt.ain C1 = - -
k
Substituting tlw~e expressions for Ct and C2 in Eq. 2-27 yields the tempera-
ture distribution as
q
T = - -
2k
x2 + -qL
k
X + To (2-28)
or q£2 [ ( X )
T - T 0 = 2k 2 L - ( LX )2]
Thus, the temperature distribution across the plate is a parabola with the
apex at the median plane, x = L.
\Ve can check this last result from another point of view. Since the
l':iystcm is symmetrical about the mid-plane at .r = L, no heat can flow

--=-= ·:..:::.:··-·.- -: _ _;. .,.,.___-=---------------
across this plane. This means that, at x = L, the temperature gradient

must be zero and the temperature a maximum. Substituting qL/k for
Ct in Eq. 2-26 yields, at x - L
dT
dx z=L
as expected.
.
18
The temperature difference between the ~ter
----
planQ and the surface
q£2
(T - To)max = k (2-29)
2
If the plate is immersed in a fluid at Too and the surface conductance
at both faces is r~.o, then the heat generated in one half of the plate must
flow continuously through the adjacent face under steady-state conditions.
This condition, expressed algebraically for a unit of area, is
aT
qL = - k - = ho(To- Too) (2-30)
ax atz=O
In Eq. 2-30 the first term represents the rate at which heat is generated
in the plate, the second terrn the rate at which heat is conducted to the
surface. and the third term the rate at which heat flows by convection and
radiation from the surface to the surrounding medium. The temperature
difference To - Too required to remove the heat from the surface is therefore
(2-31)
Example 2-9. A fluid (Tro = 150 F) of low electrical conductivity is heated by a

long iron plate, ~ in. thick and 3 in. wide. Heat is generated uniformly in the plate
at a rate q = 100,000 Btu/hr cu ft by passing electric current through it. Determine
the unit-surface conductance required to maintain the temperature of the bar below
300 F.
Solution: Disregarding the heat dissipated from the edges, Eq. 2-29 applies and
the temperature difference between the mid-plane and the surface is
(T - T ) = qLt = (100,000)(1/12)1 = 0 87 F
" max 2k (2) (25) ·
The temperature drop in the iron is so low because its thermal conductivity ts high
(k = 25 Btu/hr ft F). From Eq. 2-31 we get
- = qL _ (100,000)( i /12)
h 0 - - - - - - = 14 Btu/hr sq ft F
To - Too 150
Thus the minimum unit-surfaee conductance which will keep the temperature in the
heater below 300 F i!-1 14 Bt u/ hr sq ft F. .~1 ns.

Long solid cylinder with uniformly distributed heat sources. A long

solid circular cylinder with uniform internal heat generation may be thought
of as an idealization of a real system such as an electric coil, in which heat is
generated as a result of the electric current in the wire, or a cylindrical
fuel ~lement of uranium 235, in which heat is generated by nuclear fission.
F1o. 2-11. Hketch illustrating nomenclature

for heat conduction in a long circular cylinder
with internal heat generation.
The energy equation for an annular element (Fig. 2-11) formed between an
inner cylinder of radius rand an outer cylinder of radius r + dr is
dT dT
-kA, -d
r r
+ ql21rrdr = -kAr+dr -d
r r+dr
(2-32)
where A, = 21rrl and Ar+dr = 21r(r + dr)l. Using the mean-value the-
orem to relate the temperature gradient at r + dr to the temperature
gradient at r, we obtain, after some simplifications,
qr = -k (dTdr + r rPT)
dr 2
- (2-33)
Integration of Eq. 2-33 can best be accomplished by noting that
d ( dT) dT d2T
dr r dr =-+r-
dr dr2
and rewriting it in the form
qr = -k .!!__
dr
(r dT)
dr

Integration then yields

qr2 dT
-
2
= -kr-
(/T
+ cl (2-34)
from whieh we deduce that to satisfy the boundary rondition,

dT
-= 0 at r 0
dr
the constant of integration Ct must be zero. Another integration yields

the temperature distribution
-
The second integration constant C2 must satisfy the condition that the
maximum temperature T ma-x occurs in the center, so that ( '2 = Tmr,x· The
temperature distribution in a long solid cylinder can then be expressed as
..-o\
T
--;:--;- =
_ qr"~
- -,- .
( -r )2 __l-. \ (2-36)
1 rnax 4/.' J :.1: , :~; l'o
where ro is the outside radius.

Example 2-10. A sketch of a graphite-moderated reartor, t.vpical of the type
which will be uged for commen~ial power production, i~ shown in Fig. 2-12. Heat i:-;
generated at t.he rate of 7.2 X 108 Btu/hr cu ft in long 1-in.-OD uranium rods 2 (k = 17
Btu/hr ft F) which are jacketed by an annulu~ in which water i~ flowing. For un
average water temperature of 270 F and a unit-~nrfuce conductanee of 1000 Btu/hr
sq ft F, determine the maximum temperature of the fuel rod~.
Solution: Applying Eq. 2-34,

_ k dTI. = qro = (7.2 X 10 11 Btu/hr cu ft}(l/12 ft)
dr r = ro 2 2
= 3 X lOb Btu/hr sq ft
The rate of heat flow by conduction at the outer ~urface equals the rate of hPat flow by
conve<"tion from the surfare to the water
from which
k (dT/dr)r(l
Tr0 =
hv + T water
l'pon !'llh~tituting the data speeified in the statement of the problem, we get
7' = ~_?< 10:. Bt u/hr ~q ft + 270 F = 300 F

r, l X lOt Btu/hr sq ft F
2 This value of the thPrmal eonductivit.\- is tak('ll from R(•f. 11.

---~ - · ·

Vertical Safety Rods
fuel Column
WoterAnnuf
Biolooicol Shield 0
Cooling Tube
F1o. 2-12. Graphite-moderated reactor. (Reprinted from General

Electric Review.)
+ :~
2
and T mu == 1'r 0 == 300 + 735 == 1035 F Ans.
The exact determination of the rate of heat conduction and temperatur<'

distribution in a nuclear pile is a complicated problem. The precedin~
problem only illustrates the basic idea, and for more complete information
Refs. 11, 12, 14, 15, and 16 should be consulted.
2-4. HEAT TRANSFER FROM EXTENDED SURFACES
The problems considered in this section are encountered in practice when
a solid of relatively small cross-sectional area protrudes from a large body
into a fluid at a different temperature. Such extended surfaces have wide
industrial applications as fins attached to the walls of heat-transfer equip-
ment for the purpose of increasing the rate of heating or cooling.
Fins of uniform cross section. As a simple illustration, consider a pin
fin having the shape of a rod whose base is attached to a wall at surface
temperature T. (Fig. 2-13). The fin is cooled along its surface by a fluid
at temperature Too· The fin has a uniform cross-sectional area A, is madP
of a mat("t"ial having a uniform thermal conductivity k, and the heat-

Ta
Fw. 2-13. Sketch and nomenclature for a

pin fin protruding from a wall.
transfer coefficient between the surface of the fin and the fluid is ii. '\Ve
shall assume that transverse temperature gradients are so small that the
temperature at any cross section of the rod is uniform, i.e., T = T(x)
only. The limitations of this simplification, which reduces the problem to
one-dimensional heat flow, has been investigated analytically in Ref. 10.
The results of this study show that, even in a relatively thick fin, the error
in a one-dimensional solution is less than one per cent.
To derive an equation for the temperature distribution, we make a heat
balance for a small element of the fin. Heat flows by conduction into the
left face of the element, while heat flows out of the element by conduction
through the right face and by convection from the surface. Under steady-
~tate conditions, the rate of heat flow into the element is equal to the rate
of the heat flow out of the element, or
Rate of heat flow rate of heat flow by rate of heat flow by con-
by conduction conduction out of + vection from surface be-
into element at x element at (x + dx) tween x and (x + rl;r)
In symbolic form, this equation becomes
dT
-kA-=
dx
[ -kAdT- + d-( - k A
dx dx
dT)
- dx +hPdx(T-Ta)
dx
J - (2-36)
where P is the perimeter of the rod and Pdx represents the surface areu
between sections x and (x + dx) in contact with the surrounding fluid.
r:quation 2-36 can be simplified to
d2T
dx 2 = rn 2 (T - T 00) (2-37)
where m 2 = hP /kA. Equation 2-37 is a standard form of an ordinary

second-order linear differential equation whose general solution is
(2-38)

--~- - --- · ---- -
where cl and cl are constants of integration whose values must be de-

termined from the boundary conditions. One of the boundary conditions
is T = T, at x = 0, the temperature at the base of the rod equals the tem-
perature of the surface to which the rod is attached. To obtain a solution
satisfying this condition, we substitute it in Eq. 2-38 and get ·
(2-39)
To solve for C1 and Ct we need another equation, i.e., another boundary
condition. The second boundary condition depends upon the nature of
the problem. Since the appropriate selection of boundary conditions
often causes considerable difficulty, we shall consider several cases which
will assist the reader in gaining some facility in applying physical concepts
to a mathematical analysis. Figure 2-14 illustrates schematically the
conditions described by the three boundary conditions to be analyzed.
a) If the rod is infinitely long, its temperature will approach the tempera-
ture of the fluid as x--+ co, or T = Too at x--+ co. Substituting this con-
dition in Eq. 2-38 yields
(2-40)
Since the second term is zero, the boundary condition is satisfied only if
C1 = 0. Substituting 0 for(\ in Eq. 2-39 gives
C2 = T. - T c.o
and the temperature distribution becomes
T - T 00 = (T - T , 00 )e-m.r (2-41)
The heat-flow rate from the fin to the fluid can be obtained by two
different methods. Since the heat flowing by conduction across the root
of the fin must be transmitted by convection from the surface of the rod
to the fluid,
q,in = - kA -dT-
dx z =o
= J.oo-
o
hP(T - T aJdx (2-42)
/.
Differentiating Eq. 2-41 and substituting the result for x = 0 in Eq. 2-t2 \ )
yields 'l ~ ,..; ~\
qfin = -kA[ -m(T,- Too)e<-'">o] =...JhPi:A(T,- TaJ (2-43)
z=O
The same result is obtained by evaluating the convective heat flow from
the surface of the rod

Equations 2-41 and 2-43 arc reasonable approximations of the tempera-

ture distribution and heat-flow rate in a finite fin if its length is very large
compared to its cross-sectional area.
T(s)
~ . ~·
~----~- - - L - - - - - t
For An 3 Cases Tlx=O aT,

FIG. 2-14. Sdwmatic illu:-:tration of thr·ee boundary condition~ for u. pin fin.
b) If the rod is of finite length, but th~ ll<'at loss from the end of the rod
is neglected, or if the end of the rod is insulated, the second boundary
condition requires that the temperature gradient at x = L be zero, or
dT /dx = 0 at x = L. Differentiating Eq. 2-38 and inserting this con-
dition, gives
C2 = (\e2mL
Sub~tituting this expre::-sion for C 2 in Eq. 2-39, we obtain
T.~ - Trn
Ct = - - -- -
1 c2m L +
and
The complete solution is therefore
emz e-mx )
T - Too = ( T a - T 00 ) (
1 + e2mL
+1+ e-2mL
(2--44)

or, in simplified dimensionless form, 3

T-T m eosh nz(L - x)
- ----
T (2-44a)
1l
•
-
00 cosh (mL)
.-\s L becomes infinite, Eq. 2-44 redueeH t.o the pre\"iou~ solution, a~ would
be expected.
The heat loss from the fin can be found fron1 Eq. 2--!2 by substituting
the temperature gradient at the root
dT 1 1
dx
= (T. - T oo )m (
1 + e2m 1.-
-
1 + e-2m L
)
% = 0
The above equation can be put into more convenient form by placing the
final member of the right-hand side over a common denominator, and
noting that
emL _ e-mL
L L = tanh (mL)
e"' +e- m
where tanh is the hyperbolic tangent. The heat-flow rate from the rod
is then found to be
-kA dT = v'PhkA (Ts - TaJtanh (mL) (2--46)

Qrod = dx
% = 0
c) If the end of the rod loses heat by convection, the heat flowing by
conduction to the face at x = L must be equal to the convection heat flow
from the end section of the rod to the fluid, or
-kdT
dx
z = L
The heat-transfer coefficient at the end face fi L is not necessarily equal to

the value of ii over the circumferential surface of the rod. Substituting
for Tz-L and (dT/dx)r-L from Eq. 2-38 we obtain
Qz-L = -k(Ctmemz- C2me-mr).r .... L = f~,L(Tr-L- Too)
fiL
or C2e-mL - CtemL = -- (CtemL + C2e-mL) (2--46)
. -. km ___ .
Equations 2-39 and 2-46 can now be solved simultaneously to obtain the
constants f't and C2, just as in the previous cases. The algebra is some-
a Tht» reduction of Eq. 2-44 to 2-44a is left as an exercise for the reader. The
. hyperbolic cosine, cm~h for short, is defirwd h~' eo~h x = (cz + e· z) /2.

what more involved, but the principle is the same. It is left as an exerci:-;t_.
for the reader to show that the dimensionless temperature distribution
along the fin_ is
I
T cosh m(L - x) + (hL / mk)sinh m(L - x) :'
(2-47)
T, cosh mL + (iiL.hnk) sinh mL
and the heat-flow rate from the fin is
qfin
·
= ~ (T,- Tm) sinhhmLL:
cos m
~~d;n~)
m -s
L_ 4
c: m~ ..(2-,48~
m -
It is important to check the end results of more complicated cases by re-
ducing them to the results available for simpler rases, because this often
shows up errors which might otherwise remain unnoticed. Comparing
Eqs. 2-47 and 2-48 with the corresponding results for case b (i.e., the end
face insulated), we note that, for hL = 0, these equations indeed reduce to
those obtained previously for (dT /dx)at z-L = 0. Only the second terms
in the numerator and the denominator contain ii L· These terms indicate
the influence of the heat loss from the end face of the rod and modify the
results obtained when the end losses were neglected.
Example 2-11. The temperature of steam flowing in a 3-in. steel pipe has been
meSBured in the laboratory by means of a mercury-in-glass thermomet-er immersed iu
an oil-filled steel well. \Vhile a reliable pressure gauge in the line read 153 p.~ia, the
mercury thermometer indicated a temperature of 355 F. Reference to steam tahl~
indicates that the saturation temperature of steam at 153 psia i8 360 F. At first glant'e
the thermometer reading, since it is below the flaturation temperature, seems in error.
For the temperature-measuring station shown in Fig. 2-15, show that the ther-
mometer reading is not inconsistent with the pressure reading and estimate the true
temperature if the pipe-wall temperature is 200 F and the heat-transfer coefficient
between the steam and the thennometer well is 50 Btu/hr sq ft F.
Solution: The thermometer well is essentially a hollow rod protruding into steam
at temperature T aJ· Since heat flows from the steam along the well toward the cooler
pipe walls, the thennometer does not indicate the true Rteam temperature, but rather the
temperature at the bottom of the well. \Ve can estimate the steam temperature by
treating the thermometer well a.s a rod. The conduction along the glSB~ (k ::a 0.5
Btu/hr ft F) is neglected, since it is very small compared with the heat flow along thP
steel well. The cross-sectional area of the fin A is (r/4) 10/2.) 2 - (1/4) 2] = 0.147.:;
sq in. The perimeter P is ~ r = 1.57 in. The thennal conduC'tivity of steel is 25
Btu/hr ft F. Thus
(50) (1.57)
m ::z {hE - 12 16
\}IT (25)(0.1475) =
As a first approximation, we could use Eq. 2---tl with .r = -i ft. Then,

1' - Too = ( 1', - Too Jf -IS 6 == ( T, - Too) 0.07
~olving the above equation for 'foo with T~ = 355 F, we obtain Too ::z 360 F.
Although this first-order correct ion yields a reasonable value. the boundary condi-
tions used to obtain Eq. 2-41 are not in phyf'ical correspondence with the condition:-~

of the well. Since heat also flows from the end of the fin, Eq. 2-47 is more nearly true.
For x :::&L, we get
1
T - T a:~ .... (T, - T a:~) 1i .
cosh mL + ( L/mk) smh mL
Substituting numerical values, we find

1
T- Ta:~ .. (T,- Tal) 7 . 18 + [50/(25 )( 16)}( 7.04) = (T,- Ta:~)(0.124)
The preceding equation yields a steam temperature T a:~ of 365 F. Therefore, the steam
in the pipe is actually superheated and the error in the thermometer reading was 10 F.
This error could be reduced to less than 2 F by increasing the length of the thermometer
well to 3 in. and inserting it at a 45-deg angle to prevent it from touching the wall.
FIG. 2-15. Thermometer well for Example 2-11.
Rumple 2-12. Estimate the increase in heat-dissipation rate which could be ob-
tained from a cylinder wall by using four pin-shaped fins per square inch, each having
a diameter of h in. and a height of 1 in. Assume that the heat-transfer coefficient
between the surface of the cylinder wall or a fin and the surrounding air is 25 Btu/hr
sq ft F, the cylinder wall is at 600 F, and the air at 70 F. The wall and the fins are made
of aluminum.
&lution: The heat dissipation per square inch of surface, without the fin, is
! - ~~~ (600 - 70) = 92 Btu/hr sq in.
The heat dissipation for a single fin can be estimated from Eq. 2-4.5. The rate of heat
transfer per fin q is equal to
VPf"Ak (T, - T a:~) t.anh mL

where p = C~) C~) ~ 0.0492 ft

r
A - C~)' (:) c~4) = O.C00192 sq ft

k = 120 Btu/hr ft F
VP/iAk = V(0.049)(25)(0.000192)(120) == 0.167
mL = _!_ g_p =
12 '\j!CX
_!_
12
(25)(0.0492) - 0 192
(120)(0.000192) .
go that Qnn = (0.167) (530) (0.188) = 16.7 Btu/hr

For four fins the heat-dissipation rate would be 66.8 Btu/hr. The rate of heat dissipa-
tion from the remaining '':'all surface would be approximately equal to the area not oc-
cupied by fins times the product of the heat-transfer coefficient and the temperature
potential. On this basis, the total rate of heat transfer for the wall with fins is
~ ~ 67 + 92 (1.0 - 0.11) = 149 Btu/hr sq in.
Thus we see that the use of the fins can increase the heat-dissipation rate by over
50 per cent. Ans.
Rectangular Fin
FIG. 2-16. Rectangular-fin nomenclature.
The straight rectangular fin (Fig. 2-16) can be treated by the same
methods as those used for the rod. If the width of the fin b is large conl-
pared with its thickness t, then the fin perin1eter is
p = 2(b + t) ~ 2b

The cross-sectional area of the fin is A = bt, and
m= {hP ~ {2h
\}JZ4 \}Tt
The development of the equations for the temperature distribution
and the heat flow in a rectangular fin are identical to the previous cases,
and the results may be applied directly.
Tapered fin. 4 The tapered fin (Fig. 2-17) is of practical interest because
it very closely approximates the shape yielding the maximum heat flow per
unit weight. \Ve shall base our analysis upon width band again assume
that the temperature is only a function of x. A heat balance for a dif-
ferential section of the fin between x and x + dx yields
!!:__
dx
(kA dT(x))
dx
= JiP(T(x) - T 00
) [ 2-36]
''1lile A and Pare constant for a rod, they are both functions of x for the
tapered fin. Upon performing the differentiation with respect to x, Eq.
2-36 becomes
(2-4:9)
'Ve note that Eq. 2-49 is a linear second-order differential equation with
variable coefficients. The coefficients kA (x), k [dA (x)/dx], and hP(x) are
variable because their values depend on the independent variable x.
Equation 2-49 can be written in more convenient form by dividing
through by kA to give
2
d T (dA / dx) dT _ iiP (T _ T ) O
dx 2 + A dx kA oo . -
(2-60)
+s
r.
Taper.d or Wedge f'an
FIG. 2-17. Tapered-fin nomenclature.

4 This subsection may be omitted without breaking the continuity of the presenta-
tion.

If we neglect the effect of the sides, then P ~ 2b, and the cross-sectional
area of the fin can be obtained by noting that the thickness of the fin at
any point xis equal to t(x/ L) so that A = (bt/ L)x. Substituting this ex-
pression for A in Eq. 2-50, we find that
2
dT +! dT _ 2Lh (T _ T ) = O (2-61)
dx 2 x dx ktx co
Equation 2-51 resembles a modified Bessel equation (7), whose general

form for any value of n is
d2 y
2
z - 2
dz
+ z -dy
dz
- (z 2 + n )y
2
= 0 (2-62)
The solutions to this type of equation have been worked out and tabulated
(see, for example, Ref. 6) in much the same fashion as the sine and cosine
functions. Therefore, we shall transform Eq. 2-51 into the same form as
Eq. 2-52 in order to take advantage of the available solution. For con-
venience, let B 2 represent the constant 2Lh/kt and let y = (T - T 00 ) .
l\fultiplying Eq. 2-52 by x2 , we obtain
(2-53)
This is almost the desired form for n = 0, except for the coefficient - B 2x
in the last term. We shall therefore try to find a variable related to x
which will modify this term. Whether or not such a variable exists can
be determined by a. technique which has been outlined in detail by \Vylie (7).
In our case we can readily see that, if the coefficient of the last term B 2x
is to be the square of some other variable, it must be proportional to Bvx,
the square root of B 2x. If we assume that this new variable, which we
shall call z, is equal to a constant, C, times By'X, we obtain by differentia-
tion the following relations:
z = CBvx or
dz = CB x-t
dx 2
dy dy dz dy CB _1.
-=--=---x~
dx dz dx dz 2
and
2
d y = !!_ (dy CB x-!)
dx 2 dx dz 2
= dy CB
dz 2
(-!2 x-t) + ddzy dxdz CB2
2
2
x-i

Substituting the preceding relations in Eq. 2-53 changes the variable from
x to z and the resulting equation is
d2y dy 4
z2 - + z---z
2
2y=O (2-M)
dz 2 dz C
This equation is identical to the modified Bessel equation of zero order

(n = 0) if C2 = 4 or z = 2Bv'X. The general solution is then (7)
(2-65)
where cl and c'l. are constants of integration which must be determined
from the boundary conditions, while I o(z) and Ko(z) are modified zero-
order Bessel functions of the first and second kind, respectively.
For convenience, selected values of I o(z) and Ko(z) have been tabulated
in Table 2-1. 6 It should be noted that Io(O) = 1, while Ko(O) = oo. To
evaluate C1 and C2 we apply the boundary conditions. The first boundary
condition is one which we have used previously, namely, that the tempera-
ture at the root of the fin is T.. Note, however, the manner in which the
coordinate system of Fig. 2-17 is set up. In this coordinate system the
first boundary condition is T = T. at x = L.
The second boundary condition is that the temperature of the fin must
be everywhere finite. At the tip of the fin (x = 0), Ko(O) approaches in-
finity and therefore the coefficient C2 must be zero for the temperature to
remain finite. Substituting these two boundary conditions in the usual
manner gives the temperature distribution
T - Too I o(2Bvx)
- (2-66)
T. - Too I 0 (2Bv'L)
The heat-flow rate from the fin is obtained by differentiating Eq. 2-56,
evaluating the temperature gradient at the root x = L, and multiplying
the result by the root area. For the purpose of differentiation we use the
relation (see e.g. Ref. 7)
d[I n(Cz)] = I n+l (Cz) d(Cz)
so that, for n = 0,
Then, the rate. of heat flow from the fin is
q,,. = kA : = v'2hkb (T. - T m) I,(2Bv'L) (2-67)

z =- L I o(2BVi)
•In Ref. 6 /,.(z) is written i-" J,. (ix) and 2/7r K,. (z) is written i"+ 1 H,. <•> (ix).

TABLE 2-1
SELEcTED MAGNITCDE:o; oF BEssEL FcNCTIONs
, I o<z) I,(z)
2
;r K tt(Z)
2
...-Kdz)
0.0 1.0000 0.0000 Infinity Infinity
0.2 1.0100 0.1005 1.116 3.040
0.4 1 .0404 0.2040 0.7095 1.391
0.() 1.0920 0.3137 0.4950 0.8294
0.8 1.1665 0.4329 0.3599 0.5486
1 .0 1.2661 0.5652 0.2680 0.3832
1. 2 1.3937 0.7147 0.2028 0.2767
1. 4 1.5534 0.8861 0.15512 0.2043
1. 6 1. 7.500 1.0848 0.11966 0.15319
1.8 1. 98H6 1. 3172 0.00200 0. 11626
2.0 2.2796 1.5906 0.07251 0 .08904
2.2 2.6291 1.9141 0.05683 0.06869
2 .4 3.0493 2.2981 0.04470 0.05330
2.6 3.5533 2.7554 0.03527 0.04156
2.8 4. 1573 3.3011 0.02790 0.03254
3.0 4.8808 3.9534 0.02212 0.02556
3.2 5.7472 4.7343 0.017568 0.02014
3.4 6. 7848 5.6701 0.013979 0.015915
3.6 8.0277 6.7927 0.011141 0.012602
3 .8 9.5169 8.1404 0.028891* 0.029999.
4.0 11.3019 9.75H5 0.027105 0.027947
4.2 13.4425 11.7056 0 .02.5648 0.026327
4.4 16.0104 14.0462 0.024.551 0.025044
4.6 19.0026 16.8626 0.023648 0.024027
4 .8 22.7937 20.2528 0.022927 0.023218
5.0 27.2399 24.3356 0.022350 0.022575
5.2 32.5836 29.2543 0.021888 0.022062
5.4 39.0088 35.1821 0.021518 0.021653
5.6 46.7376 42.3283 0.021221 0.021326
5.8 56.0381 50.9462 0.039832 0.021065
6.0 67.2344 61.3419 0.037920 0.038556
6 .2 80.72 73.89 0.036382 0.036879
6 .4 H6.U8 8U.03 0.035156 0.03.5534
6.() 116.54 107.30 0.034151 0.034455
(). 8 140. 1-1 129.38 0.033350 0.033588
7 .0 1f>8. {j 156.04 0.032704 0.032891
7.2 202.H 188.3 0.032184 0.032331
7.4 244.3 227.2 0.031765 0.031880
7.6 2H-1.3 274>2 0.031426 0.031517
7.8 354.7 331. 1 0.031153 0.031225
8.0 427.6 3B9.9 0 .049325 0.049891
8.2 .515.6 483.0 0.047543 o.047mH
8.4 621. H 583.7 0.046104 0.0464.=>8
8.6 7.:>0.5 705.4 0.044941 0.045220
8.8 005.8 852.7 0.044000 0 .044221
n.o 10~)3. 6 1030.9 0.043239 0 .043415
9.2 1320.7 1246 .7 0.042624 0.042763
U.4 1595.3 1507.9 0.042126 0.042236
U.6 1927. 1824. 0.0417226 0.041810
9.8 232U. 2207. 0.0413962 0.041466
10 .0 . • • 0. ... .. 0.0411319 0.041187
• In tLe enlnmn!! f,,r K. IZ) and Kif;-) from thi11 point down, the fi~t integ('r indicates the number of
zero~.for in~tanct• 0.0288~1 = O.U088!H.
56

Eumple 2-13. The inMtallation of fins is under consideration for the purpose of
increasing the heat dissipation from an air-cooled cylinder wall. If the wall temperature
is 1100 F and the heat-transfer coefficient between the solid surface and the air
(Too = 100 F) is 15 Btu/hr sq ft F, compare the effectiveness of a tapered fin with that
of a straight rectangular fin on the basis of heat flow per unit weight. Each fin is to be
l in. thick at the base anti 4 in. long and made from a stainless steel (k =- 15 Btu/hr ft F).
:\ll'"o plot the temperature distribution along the fins.
1200
1100 1-
1000
\
900
800
' "-
~
~ -- r-- - V . . Tapered
- -
1-
.... 700
,;
-
...... """ ~ ...... - I...- -
~
I! 600 - -- '~
~
f
1-5()0 ~
RSt•oio>t )
~ .........
t--
' '
300
'~ !'-/Taper~
.......
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 -4 5
length of Fin from Cylinder Surface, Inches
F10. 2-18. Temperature distribution for tlw

tapered fin and the rectangular fin of Examplt>
2-13.
Solution: \Ve shall first con~ider each fin shape separately.

Tapered fin: From the data, we obtain
(2) (4/12) (1.1)

B= (2iX = - V8 = 2.83
'\jlcb (15) (1/12)
From Eq. 2-56, the temperature distribution is
T = 100 + (1100 - 100) /o (S. 66 Vx)

lo (5.66 Vl)
From Table 2-1 we get I o (2BVi) = I o (3.26) = 6.05 by interpolation and
T = 100 + 165 lo (5.66 Vx)
Digiti zed by Coogle Original from

The temperature distribution is plotted in Fig. 2-18.
The rate of heat flow from the fin per foot of width can he obtained from Eq. 2-57 a.~
q = vf2Kkb (1100 - 100) / 1 ( 2B vl)

lo (5.66 Vl)
= V(2)(15)(15)(-?~) X 1000 I 0 ( 3 .26 )

I o (3.26)
= 5050 Btu/hr ft
The weight of the fin per foot of width is
(pbL/2)/ft - (490) (~) c~4 ) 4

= 6.8lb/ft
Finally, the rate of heat flow per unit weight i8
5050
q - _ == 744 Btu/hr Ibm
68
8traighi re(·tangu/ar }in: AC'eording to the !-<pedfientions we have
'hP 2V6
m=~kA-= (15)(2) =
(15)(-f-,)
The temperature distribution is, from Eq. 2-47,
eosh 2v'6( 13 - x) + l/2v'6 sinh 2v'6( 12 - x)J

1' - 100 + 1000 [ - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - -- -
cosh 1.63 + 0.204 sinh 1.63 .
The temperature distribution along the fin is plotted in Fig. 2-18. The rate of
heat flow from the fin per foot width can be found from Eq. 2-48:
sinh 1.63 + 0.204 cosh 1.63

q - 6130 cosh 1.63 + 0.204 sinh 1.63 - 5820 Btu/hr ft
The weight of the fin is twice that of the tapered fin, i.e., 13.6 lb/ft, and the heat
dissipation per unit weight for the straight fin is 428 Btu/hr Ibm. Hence, the taper~d
fin can dissipate 75 per cent more heat per unit weight than the straight fin. A n3.
Selection and design of fins. The selection of a suitable fin geometry

requires a compromise of the cost, the weight, the available space, and the
pressure drop, as well as the heat-transfer characteristics of the extended
surface. Harper and Brown (10) and Gardner (9) have analyzed a variety
of fin geometries, and their papers are recommended for a general treatment
of the problem. The following remarks are largely based on their \\~ork.
For a plane surface of area A, the thermal resistance is 1/hA. The
addition of fins increases the surface area, but at the same time it also
introduces a conductive resistance over that portion of the original surfa<'e

at which the fins are attached. The addition of fins will therefore notal-
ways increase the rate of heat transfer.
For a fin of uniform cross-sectional area, the limiting condition can be
obtained by differentiating the rate of heat flow (Eq. 2-45 or Eq. 2-48)
with respect to the fin length for given values of ii, k, P, and A and setting
the result equal to zero. This operation shows that increased heat
transfer can be expected by the addition of fins only if iiA/Pk < 1. In
practice, however, the addition of fins is hardly ever justified unless ii is
less than 0.25Pk/A.
Using the values of the average surface conductances in Table 1-2 as a
guide, we can easily see that fins effectively increase the heat transfer to or
from a gas, are less effective when the medium is a liquid in forced convec-
tion, but offer no advantage in heat transfer to boiling liquids or from con-
densing vapors. For a i-in.-diameter aluminum pin fin in a typical gas
heater, hA/Pk = hD/4k = [(20)(0.125/12)]/[(4)(115)] = 0.00045,
whereas in a water heater, for example, hA/Pk = [(1000)(0.125/12)]/-
[(4)(115)] = 0.022. In the gas heater the fin would therefore be much
more effective than in the water heater.
It is apparent from these considerations that, when fins are used, they
should be placed on the side of the heat-exchange surface where the heat-
transfer coefficient between the fluid and the surface is the lowest. Thin,
slender, and closely spaced fins are superior to fewer and thicker fins
from the heat-transfer standpoint. Obviously, fins made of materials
having a high thermal conductivity are desirable.
Fins are often attached circumferentially to the outer surface of tubes.
The performance of such fins can be calculated approximately by using
the equations for straight fins with the area A and the perimeter P taken at
a mean between the root and outer radii of such a circumferential fin.
This approximation is satisfactory so long as the fin height is small com-
pared with the base diameter. Exact methods of calculations are pre-
sented in Refs. 3, 8, 9 and 10.
To calculate the over-all conductance of a finned surface and to evaluate
its thermal performance, the temperature gradient along the extended
:,"Urfaces must be considered. The unfinned portion of the surface is at the
wall temperature and transfers heat at 100 per cent efficiency. The por-
tion of the surface to which the fins are attached is not directly in contact
with fluid, but heat flows through it by conduction to or from the fin. The
heat transfer to or from the surface of the fin is by convection, but since the
temperature varies along the fin, its surface does not operate at maximum
efficiency. To evaluate the thermal performance of the fin, its efficiency
must therefore be known. The fin efficiency .,, is the ratio of the heat
transferred across the fin surface to the heat which would be transferred

if the ntir urfac w re at th bas t mp ratur . F r a fin of r tangular

ro cti n (l n th L an thickn · t) ( e Ref. 9 and Prob. 2- 26) th fin
ffici ncy is approximately giv n by
tanh [ V2hJki (L + t/ 2)] (2-68)

T}J =
2h/ kt (L + t/ 2)
wh r as for ir ular pin fin of diameter D and length L the effici ncy 1
tanh v'4L h/ kD 2
(2-59)
T}f =
4L h/ kD
2
F r circumf r ntial fin of re tangu lar cr ction, the approximat fin

ffi i ncy i pl t d in Fi . 2- 19 family of urv ( R. f. 9) whi h ap-
pr ach in th limi ting ca 'e the b havior of th traight fin, Eq. 2- 58.
1.0
~
~~ Fin Efficiency - Circular and Straight F in~
0 .9
~ ~~ I
"-'~~ s.',aigh:Fi•
1
~
0.8 '~~
~ '\__~~~- -
'
~ t'-. t': L
0.7 :-
~~ill~ l I
.,,, I
1 ~~~~
~\
0 .6 1 J. "'-"';:::~t'---:c-
\ \\ I """'~ r--.._ ~~
0.5
\
U /A ~ r,I :- "~"' ~~"'~
r-- (1 1)/
~ .......,i''ro+~ r,z......_~
~ 1- ~ I ......_ 1.25 f...
~ -: • .....
0.4
i'--.. 1.f0- ~ t:::' r--
...........
~ ....._
2.r ,
I'-..
:---~
1- - 1- -f- ........_
l.po, ~'-.......
0.3
0 0.2 o...c 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 16 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.
(ro+ ~-r;) 312 ihTki(ro--;:~ or (L+trh Y21i/klL
F1 .. 2- 1 . Efficiency f ·ireum fercnt in.l fin .- f f(' ·la ngulu.r
T
obtain th t tal effici nc) f a . urfac with fin 17t w ombin th
unfinn d portion f th ·urfa . at 100 p r nt ffi i nc; with the urf e
ar a f th fin at YJI r
AY}t = A - AI+ 1171 = A - AI (1 - .,.,,) (2-60)
wh r A = tot l h at-tran fer nr a·
A 1 = h at- r n f r ar a of the fin .
Th \ r- 11 h at- r · n.·f r > ffi i n , ba:ed n th al ut .r urfac
Original from
Digitized by Coogle UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
area, for heat transfer between two fluids separated by a wall with fins can
then be expressed as
1 (2-61)
U=
1 Ao
-=---
TJtoho
+ R~c w
att + TJt~ahi-
where Rk wall = thermal resistance of the wall to which the fins are
attached, in Btu/hr F sq ft outside surface;
A o = total outer surface area, in sq ft;
A i = total inner surface area, in sq ft;
TJto = total efficiency for outer surface;
T/ti - total efficiency for inner surface;
ho - average unit conductance for outer surface, 1n Btu · hr
sq ft F;
Jil - average unit conductance for inner surface, 1n Btu l1r
sq ft F.
For tubeH with fins on the outside only, the usual case in practice, T/ti lH
unity and A i = 1rD,l.
In the analysis presented in this chapter, details of the convection heat ·
flow between the fin surface and the surrounding fluid have been omitted.
A complete engineering analysis not only requires an evaluation of the fin
performance, but must also take the interrelation between the fin geometry
and the convection heat transfer into account. Problems on the convec-
ti,·e heat transfer part of the design \Vill be considered in later chapters.
REFERENCES
1. R. Schuman, Jr., },-fetallurgical Engineering, Vol. I, Eng-ineering Principles.
tCambridgc, l\lass.: Addison-\Vesley Publishing Company, Hl.~2.)
2. I. Langmuir, E. Q. Adams, and S. F. ~Ieikle, "Flow of Heat Through Furnace
Walls," Trans. Am. ElecLrochem. Soc., Vol. 24 (1913), pp. 53-84.
3. P. J. Schneider, Conduction Heat Transfer. (Cambridge, .Mass.: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, 1955.)
-t. l\1. E. Barzelay, K. N. Tong, and G. F. Holloway, "Effect of Pressure on Thermal
( 'onductu.nce of Contact Joints," N ACA TN 3245, l\lay, 1955 .
.5. T. N. Cetinkale and l\1. Fishenden, ' 4Thermal Conductance of ~leta] Surfaees
in Contact," General Discussion on Heat Transfer, pp. 271-275. (London: I~IE; ::\ew
York: ASl\iE, 1951.)
6. E. Jahnke and F. Emde, Tables of Functions urith Formulae and Curves, 4th ed.
1:\ ew York: Dover Publications, 1945.)
7. C. R. Wylie, Jr., Advanced Engineering Jfathematics. (New York: l\IeGru.w-1-Iill

Book Company, Inc., 1951.)
8. M. Jakob, Heat Transfer, Vol. I. (!\cw York: John \Vile~' & Sons, Inc., 1949.)
9. K. A. Gardner, "Efficiency of Extended Surfaces," Trans. AS.~.l!E, Vol. 67
1
1!'43), pp. 621-631.
10. W. P. Harper and D. R. Brown, ' 4 :\lathematical Equations for Heat Conduction
in the Fins of Air-Cooled Engines," .VACA Report 158, 1922.

11. H. A. Saller, "llranium and its Alloys'', The Reactor Handbook, Vol. 3, AECD-
3647, p. 391. (USAEC, 1\lay, 1955.)
12. S. Glasstone, Principles of Nuclear Reactor Engineering. (Princeton, :S. J.:
D. Van Nostrand C-ompany, Inc., 1955.)
13. J. R. Dietrich and D. Okrent, "Spatial Distribution of Heat Generation,"
The Reactor Handbook, Vol. 2, AECD-3646, pp. 87-121. (USAEC, ~lay, 1955.)
14. A. S. Thompson and 0. E. Rodgers, Thermal Power from Nuclear Reactors.
(New York: John \Viley & Sons, Inc., 1956.)
15. C. F. Bonilla, Nuclear Engineering. (New York: ~lcGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., 1957.)
16. H. C. Schwenk and R. H. Shannon, Nuclear Power Engineering (New York:
:\lcGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957.)
PROBLEMS
2-1. The interior of a refrigerator, having inside dimensions of 1!-by 1!-ft base
area and 4-ft height, is to be maintained at 45 F. The walls of the refrigerator are
constructed of two 1-in. mild-steel sheets with 3 in. of glass-wool insulation between
them. If the average heat-tranl'lfer eoefficients at the inner and outer surfaces are 2.0
and 2.5 Btu/hr sq ft F respectively, estimate the rate at which heat must be removed
from the interior to maintain the specified temperature in a kitchen at 85 F. What
will be the temperature at the outer surface of the wall?
J 2-2. In a manufacturing operation, a large sheet of plastic, ~ in. thick, is to be
glued to a 1-in.-thick sheet of cork boarrl. To effect a bond, the glue is to be maintained
at a temperature of 110 F for a considerable period of time. This is accomplished by a
radiant heat source, applied uniformly over the surface of the plastic (k = 1.3 Btu/hr
ft F). The exposed sides of the cork and of ..the plastic have a heat-transfer coefficient
by convection of 2.0 Btu/hr sq ft 'F, and the room temperature during the operation
is 70 F. Neglecting heat losses by radiation from the sheets, estimate the rate at which
heat must be supplied to the surface of the plastic to obtain the required temperature
at the interface. The thermal resistance of the glue may be neglected. Draw the
thermal-circuit for the system.
\/' W.' Steam having a quality of 98 per cent at a pressure of 20 pRia is flowing at a
veloeity of 3 fps through a !-in. steel pipe (1.05 in. OD, 0.824 in. ID). The heat-transfer
coefficient at the inner surface, where condensation occurs, is 1000 Btu/hr sq ft F. A
dirt film at the inner surface adds a unit thermal resistance of 1.0 hr sq ft F /Btu. Esti-
mate the rate of he~t loss per foot length of pipe if (a) the pipe is bare, (b) the pipe is
covered with a 2-in. layer of 85 per cent magnesia insulation. For both cases a.~ume
that the unit-surface conductance at the outer surface is 2.0 Btu/hr sq ft F and that the
environmental temperature is 70 F. Also estimate the change in quality per 10-ft
length of pipe in both case~:~.
2-4. The rate of heat flow per unit length q/ L through a hollow cylinder of inside
r,
radius and outside radius To is
q/L-= Aka T/(ro- r,)
where A - 2r(ro - r,)/ln (rofr,). Determine the per cent error in the rate of heat
flow if the arithmetic mean area r(ro + r,) is used instead of the logarithmic mean area
A for ratios of inside to out~ide diameters (Dol D,) of 1.5, 2.0, and 3.0. Plot the results.
2-6. Estimate the rate of heat loss per unit length from a 2-in.-ID, 21-in.-OD steel
pipe covered with asbestos insulation (3f in. OD). Steam flows in the pipe. It has a
quality of 99 per cent and is at 300 F. The total thermal resistance at the inner wall

is 0.015 hr sq ft F /Btu, the heat-transfer coefficient at the outer surface is 3.0 Btu/hr
sq ft F, and the ambient temperature is 60 F.
2-6. , To measure the thermal conductivity, two similar 1-in.-thick specimens are
Placed in an apparatus Rhown in the accompanying ske~h. Electric current is supplied
to the 6- by 6-in. guarded heater, and a wattmeter shows that the power dissipation is
7 watts (w). Thermocouples attached to the warmer and to the cooler surfaces show
temperatures of 120 F and 80 F respectively. Calculate the thermal conductivity of
the material at the mean temperature in Btu/hr ft F.
Guard Ring and Insulation
E S
Heater
Guard Ring and Insulation
PROB. 2-6.
J'2-1. Estimate the rate of heat flow per sq ft area through a furnace wall consisting
of an 8-in.-thick inner layer of chrome brick, a center layer of kaolin insulating brick
(-1 in. thick) and an outer layer of masonry brick (4 in. thick). The unit-surface con-
ductance at the inner surface is 15 Btu/hr sq ft F and the outer-surface temperature
i~ 150 F. The temperature of the gases inside the furnace is 3000 F. What tempera-
ture~ prevail in the steady state at the inner and outer surfaces of the center layer'?
~ r---·-+-1·-!·~
PROB. 2-8.
2-8. A composite insulating wall is made of two layers of cork (k - 0.025 Btu/hr
sq ft F) as shown in the accompanying sketch. If the spaces are filled with atmospheric
air, determine the total unit thermal resistance of the wall and compare it with that of
a solid wall.

J 2-9. An electrical heater capable of generating 10,000 w /ft is to be designed. The
heating element is to be a stainless steel wire, having an electrical resistivity of 32 X Io-•
ohms per square inch area per inch length. The operating temperature of the stainle._q_CI
~teel is to be no more than 2300 F. The heat-transfer coefficient at the outer surface
is expected to be no less than 300 Btu/hr sq ft F in a medium whose maximum tem-
perature is 200 F. A transformer capable of delivering current at 9 and 12 vis available.
Determine a suitable size for the wire, the current required, and discuss what effect a
reduction in the heat-transfer coefficient could have. HINT: Demonstrate .first that
the temperature drop between the center and the surface of the wire is independent of
the wire diameter, and determine its value.
2-10. Design the contour of a tapered fin of copper i in. thick at base and 4 in. long.
which will produce a linear temperature gradient.
2-11. Derive an expres.."lion for the temperature distribution in an infinitely long
rod of uniform croRs section within which there is uniform heat generation at the rate of
1 Btu/sec per in. length. Assume that the rod is attached to a surface at T, and i:-o
exposed through a unit-surface conductance h to a fluid at T a;)·
. 2-12. A thin fiat electrical heating element is covered on one side with a layer of
Mbest.os (p = 36 lb/cu ft) 1 in. thick and on the other side with a carbon-steel plate
l in. thick. The heat-tram~fer coefficient for the fluid on the outer sides of thi:-;
sandwich plate is 2 Btu/hr RQ ft F and the fluid there is at 60 F. Calculate (a) the
rate of heat dis...,ipation at the heater, in watts per sq ft which will make the heater
temperature 700 F under conditions of steady state, and (b) specify the temperature of
the outside surface of the steel for these conditions.
2-13. Compare the rates of heat transfer per unit weight of fin material for thrPC
types of fins attached to a wall at T wan: (a) a rectangular fin, 4 in. from base to tip, t in.
thick, and 1ft long; (b) same as (a) except tapered from ito h in. (base to tip); and (C'J
same base area, length, and width, but the thickness is tapered to produce a linear
temperature drop.
In each ca.~ consider copper with h = 2 Btu/hr sq ft F and Twall- Ta;) = 150 F.
J 2-14. To determine the thermal conductivity of a long, solid 1-in.-diam rod, one
half was inserted into a furnace while the other half was projecting into air at 80 F.
After steady state had been reached, the temperatures at two points 3 in. apart were
measured and found to he 258 F and 1H6 F reRpectively. The heat-transfer coefficient
over the surface of the rod exposed to the air was estimated to be 4.0 Btu/hr sq ft F.
\Yhat is the thermal conductivity of the rod?
(2-16. A turbine blade 2~ in. long. cross-sectional area A of 0.005 sq ft, perimeter
P otO:-trio ft is made of stainles~ steel (k = 15 Btu/hr ft FL The temperature of the
root 7'. is BOO F. The blade is exposed to a hot gas at 1600 F, and the unit-surface
conductance fi is 80 Btu/hr sq ft. F. Determine the tempPrature distribution and tlw
rate of heat flow at the root of the blade. Assume that the tip is insulated.
2-16. In a cylindrical fuel rod of a nuclear reactor, heat is generated internally
according to the equation
q = q1 [I - (r/ro) 1]
where q = local rate of heat generation per unit volume at r;
ro = outside radius;
ri• rate of heat generation per unit volume at the center line.
=
Calculate the temperature drop from the center line to the surface for a 1-in.-OD rod
having a thermal conductivity of IS Btu/hr ft F if the rate of heat remo'val from itH
surface is 500,000 Btu/hr sq ft.
2-17. Two long pieces of copper wire, r1lr in. in diameter, are to be soldered together
end to end. If the air temperature is 80 F and the melting point of the solder is 450 F,

what is the minimum rate of heat input required'? Assume that the unit-surface con-
ductance between the surface of the wire and the ambient air is 3.0 Btu/hr ~q ft. F.
2--18. Show that the temperature distribution in a long solid tube, insulated on the
outside, led on the inside, with uniform heat generation within the solid, is given by
, q• 2 • 2
qro r
T(r) - 1 o = -
4
k (r - ro') + 2
k In -;::
2-19. The heated aircraft wing-deicing system in the leading edge (nose section l
i!'O arranged substantially a.~ indicated in the sketch. That is, air heated to a temperatun-'
7\ Rupplies a Rpanwise duct, D, and is diRtribut.ed, at a rate of JVlb/hr ft of Hpan.
into trapezoidal-shaped "double skin'' chordwise ducting at a temperature of 7'z. l.. et
7'4 = out~ide air temperature; heat-transfer coefficients ha = outside surface, h2 = inside
trapezoidal duct surfaces, and h1 = inside D-duct surfaces, d = depth, 2h and b th<>
width:-\, and L the length of the trapezoidal ducts. Assuming that T1 ~ T2 = 7',..
derive n. formula for the rate of heat transfer to the outer air per foot of span lPnKt h
for n trapezoidal thu·t i'! per foot.
Section A-A
PROB. 2-19.
2-20. For a finite fin of evlindricnl cross sertion, radius ro, insulated at the end. t lu•
relation governing the heat lo!'ls is
q = V2 ii k n- 2 r03 ( T. - 1'coi tanh mL
where m == V2hjkr, and L is the length of the fin. Find the length of such a fin thut.
is m~t et"onomical from the ~tandpoint of the lea..~t amount of material used to give the
maximum heat dissipation. A m1. L = 0.222/111
/Steel Liner
t ;'//
I
~
0'---"--i _"______,,_!
c llH
\ Alumin-um--------..11 ii
Jo+-----+,~-+----5" -·
PHOB. 2-21.
2-21. An aircraft cylinder has the dimension~ ~hown in the accompanying ~ketch.
For an in ... ide wall temperature of 1500 F and an he of 30 Btu/hr sq ft F, find the

temperature distribution through the cylindP.r and along the fin. For the same cylinder.
fin dimensions, and spacing but with radial fins, find the temperature distribution.
Compare the heat transfer rate with the circular fins to that with the radial fins. What
assumptions or simplifications have you made in this problem?
2-22. In practice, the end of a tapered fin will be flat, as shown in the accompanying
sketch. Find an expression for the temperature distribution and the rate of heat loss
from this fin, assuming that the end is insulated. Also, plot the temperature distribu-
tion along the fin if To - 0 F, T Ql - 212 F, b - l in., and he = 10 Btu/hr sq ft F.
The fin material is aluminum.
PHClB. 2-22. PaoB. 2-23.
2-23. The top of a 12-in. I beam is maintained at a temperature of 500 F, while

the bottom is at 200 F. The thickness of the web is! in. Air at 500 F is blowing along
the side of the beam so that li - 7 Btu/hr sq ft F. The thermal conductivity of the
steel may be assumed constant and equal to 25 Btu/hr ft F. Find the temperature
distribution along the web from top to bottQm and plot the result.
2-2'- Find the temperature distribution along a wedge-shaped fin which is 3 in.
l\ide at the base and 12 in. long. The fin is constructed of stainless steel whose k =- 15
Btu/hr ft F. The base temperature is 1600 F, the ambient gases are at 400 F, and the
heat-transfer coefficient between the fin and the gases is 15 Btu/hr sq ft F. Plot the
results and also determine the total rate of heat loss per foot length of the fin.
r; /
/
/
/
/
/
/
l~i/t4-- PRoB. 2-24.
2-21. The handle of a ladle used for pouring molten lead is 12 in. long. Originally
the handle was made of l- by !-in. mild-steel bar stock. To reduce the grip tempera-
ture, it is proposed to form the handle of tubing n in. thick to the same rectangular
shape. If the average unit-surface conductance over the handle surface is 2.5 Btu/hr
sq ft F, estimate the reduction of the temperature at the grip in 70 Fair.

2-28. Derive Eq. 2-58 in detail. Assume that tip losses are taken into account by
extending the length of the pin by t/2, while the end of this extended pin is adiabatic
(L 1 =- L + t/2, aT /oz =- 0 at z =- L 1).
2-27. Derive Eq. 2-44a in detail.
2-28. Derive Eq. 2-47, showing all steps.
2-29. (a) Find the thermal resistance per sq ft of a wall constructed of 2 by 4
wooden beams on 16-in. centers, with l-in. boards on the exterior, l-in. sheet
rock on the interior, and rock wool insulation in the space between the Rtuds. (b) If the
inRide air temperature is 70 F, the outside 40 F, and the surface heat-transfer coefficient is
2 Btu/hr sq ft F on both sides, what is the rate of heat loss per Mquare foot? (c) If a 20-ft
eubical structure has walls and roof of this resistance, what is the necessary current
rating of a ll~v electric heater if it is to maintain the specified conditions?
Data: Two-by-four dimensions == II in. x 3l in.
One-inch board thickness - l in.
Wood conductivity - 0.10 Btu/hr ft F
Sheet rock conductivity - 0.30 Btu/hr ft F
Rock wool conductivity = 0.03 Btu/ft F
....
•
. ..•
--1! .
•
...
. .
PROB. 2-29.
2-30. The addition of insulation to a cylindrical surface, such as a wire, may some-
times increase the rate of heat dissipation to the surroundings. (a) For a No. 10 wire
(0.102 in. diam), what is the optimum thickness of rubber insulation (k - 0.08 Btu/hr
ft F) if the unit-surface conductance is 3 Btu/hr sq ft F? (b) If the current-carrying
capacity of this wire is considered to be limited by the insulation temperature, what per
cent increase in capacity is realized by addition of the insulation?
1-31. (a) Derive an expres.qion for the temperature rise of the center of a current-
carrying wire relative to the surface as a function of the current, the diameter, and the
electrical and thennal conductivities. (b) Compare the temperature differences be-
tween center and surface for No. 14 wires (0.064 in. diam) of copper and nichrome when
both are carrying 15 amps. (c) Compare the surface temperature rise of these wires if
the unitrsurface conductance is 2 Btu/hr ft F for both.
A88ume: Thermal conductivity of copper - 220 Btu/hr ft F
of nichrome - 8 Btu/hr ft F
Electrical conductivity of copper - 1.47 x 101 mho/in.
of nichrome - 3.76 x 10' mho/in.
1-32. A standard 4-in. steel pipe (ID - 4.026 in., OD =- 4.500 in.) carries super-
heated steam at 1200 Fin an enclosed space where a fire hazard exists, limiting the outer-
surface temperature to 100 F. In order to minimize the insulation cost, two materials
are to be used; first a high temperature insulation (relatively expensive) applied to the

. .
~~ -::""...:~ ~ -=----..:;;~----,:.;;~-~~..,;.,..-------------------

pipe and then magnesia (a less expensive material) on the outside. The maximum
temperature of the magnesia is to be 600 F. The following constants are known:
Steam side coefficient h = 100 Btu/hr sq ft F
High-temperate insulation conducting k = 0.06 Btu/hr ft F
~lagnesia condurtivity k = 0.045 Btu/hr ft F
Outside heat-transfer coefficient h = 2.0 Btu/hr sq ft F
Steel conductivity k = 25 Btu/hr ft F
Ambient temperature Too = 70 F
(a) Specify the thickness for each insulating material. (b) Calculate the over-all con-
ductance ba.'led on the pipe OD. (c) What fraction of the total resiHtance is due (1)
Hteam side resistance, (2) steel pipe resiRtance, (3) insulation (combination of the two),
and (4) outside resistance'? (d) How much heat is transferred per hour, per foot length
of pipe'?
2-33. Heat is transferred from water to air through a bra.o.;s wall (k = 45 Btu/hr ft
Fl. The addition of rectangular brass fins, 0.03 in. thick and 1 in. long, spaced 0.5
in. apart, is contemplated. Assuming a waterside heat-tran8fer coefficient of 30 Btu/hr
~q ft F and an airside heat-transfer coefficient of 3 Btu/hr sq ft F, compare the gain in
heat-transfer rate achieved by adding fins to (a) the waterside, (b) the airside, and (c)
both sides. (Neglect temperature drop through the wall.)

3 Two- and Three-Dimensional
Steady-State Conduction
3-1. METHODS OF ANALYSIS
In the preceding chapter we dealt with problems in which the tempera-

ture and the heat flow can be treated as functions of a single variable. ~Iany
practical problems fall into this category, but when the boundaries of a
:-;ystem arc irregular or when the temperature along a boundary is non-
uniform, a one-dimensional treatment may no longer be satisfactory. In
such cases the temperature is a function of two, and possibly even three,
coordinates. The heat flow through a corner section where two or three
walls meet, the heat conduction through the walls of a short, hollow cylinder,
or the heat loss from a buried pipe are typical examples of this class of
problems.
In this chapter we shall consider some methods for analyzing conduc-
tion in two- and three-dimensional systems. The emphasis will be placed
on two-dimensional problems because they are less cumbersome to ~mlvc
and illustrate the basic methods of analysis equally well.
Heat conduction in two- and three-dimensional systems can be treated
by analytit'-al, graphical, Gf~~Jlogit»l, and nttmen~ mtl+r'a. A complete
treatment of analytical solutions requires a prior knowledge of Fourier
serie:;, Bessel functions, Legendre polynomials, Laplace transform methods,
and complex variable theory. A number of excellent books dealing ex-
clusiv(!ly with n1athematical solutions of heat-conduction problems are
available. Since most of this material is too advanced for an introductory
course, it will not he presented here. We shall consider only the analytical
solution of one relatively simple problem to illustrate the analytical method
of approach. The other three methods will be considered in more detail
because they do not require advanced mathematics and are more useful
for engineering calculations where a good approximate solution is usually
~ati~factory, especially when it can be obtained quickly. The reader
intere:;ted in additional information on mathematical solutions of heat-
conduction problems should consult Refs. 1, 2, 3, and 4.
69

70 TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION
3-2. DERIVATION OF THE HEAT-CONDUCTION EQUATION
•
Before discussing specific problems, we shall derive the differential
equation governing the temperature distribution in a body. Then, by
making certain assumptions, we shall simplify this equation and reduce
it to forms which are amenable to analytical, graphical, or numerical
solutions.
Consider a small element of material in a solid body. The element has
the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped with its edges dx, dy, and dz
parallel, respectively, to the x, y, and z axes as shown in Fig. 3-1. To
9x--+--
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
I
I
I
I
I
I
FIG. 3-1. Sketch illustrating nomenclature
for the derivation of the genera] heat-con-
duction equation in Cartesian coordinates.
obtain an equation for the temperature distribution we \vrite an energy

balance for the element for a small time dO. Semantically the energy
balance can be written in the form
Heat in- heat generated by in- · heat out- change in in-

flow dur- + ·temal sources during , flow dur- + ternal energy (3-1)
ing dO dO ing d8 during dO
or algebraically in the form
1 (qf+ q, + q,) dO+ q(dxdydz) dO= (qz+d:c + QJI+du + qll+dz) dO

+ cpdT (dx dy dz)
where dT is the temperature change of the element during d8. Since
the temperature T will in general vary throughout the body, it is a func-
tion of the three coordinates x, y, z as well as of time 8, i.e., T = T(x,y,z,8).

TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION 71
The heat conducted into the element per unit time across the left face
in the x direction, q z, can according to Eq. 1-1 be written as
q. = ( - k ~~ ) dy dz
The temperature gradient is expressed as a partial derivative because T

is not only a function of x, but also of y, z, and 8. By the mean-value
theorem explained in Sec. 2-3, or by expanding q z in a Taylor series about
x and neglecting all but the first two terms, the corresponding rate of heat
outflow across the right face at x + dx, qz+dz, can be written
Subtracting the heat-flow rate out of the clement from the heat-flow rate
into the element yields
and similarly for the y and z directions
a(k ~:)
q,+dv - q, = dx dy dz
ay
• - a(k
az
~) dx dy dz
Substituting these relations into the energy balance and dividing each
tenn by dx dy dz d8 gives
-a ( kaT) -a ( kaT)· a ( aT) aT (3-2)

ax ax- + ay ay- + -az kaz- + q = Cp-
ae
if the specific heat c and the density pare independent of temperature. If
k is assumed to be uniform, Eq. 3-2 can be written
(3-3)
where the constant a = kfcp is called the thermal diffusivity and has the
units, ~ ft/hr, in the engineering system. Equation 3-3 is known as the

@TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION
general heat-conduction equation and governs the temperature distribu-

tion and the conduction heat flow in a solid having uniform physical
properties.
If the system contains no heat sources, Eq. 3-3 reduces to the Fourier
equation
(3-4)
If the system is steady, but heat sources are present, Eq. 3-3 becomes
the Poisson equation
(3-6)
Fw. 3-2. Cylindrical coordinate system.
In the steady state the temperature distribution in a body free of heat

sources must satisfy the Laplace equation
(3-6)
For one-dimensional steady heat conduction, Eq. 3-6 becomes rPT /dx 2 =
0, which yields, after integration, dT /dx = constant, as anticipated from
Eq. 1-1 for steady one-dimensional heat conduction.
~e are numerous problems in heat conduction which ran he handled
1nore conveniently in a cylindrical or spherical roordinate system. The

general heat-conduction equation in the cylindrical coordinate system

shown in Fig. 3-2 is
a2T + ! aT + ~ aT
2 2
+ a T_ + ~ = ~aT (3-7)
iJT 2
T iJT r2 iJcp2 iJz 2
k a iJ8
The derivation of this equation is left as an exercise. However, attention

is directed to the fact that the area through which heat flows into the
element in the positive r direction is r dq, dz and the area through which
heat flows out of the element in the r direction is (r + dr) dq,dz. This
change in area results in the term (1 / r)(iJT j ar) in Eq. 3-7.
In the spherical coordinate system shown in Fig. 3-3, the general heat-
conduction\equation becomes
'
1 a2 (r7') + 1 aT (.
- - aT)
SID tf>-
T OT'l I T2 Sill 4> aq, ·- aq,
/
.... __ _ .
/
(3-8)
' !
' . 'f
' ·_ j
,...------ ----
Fw. 3-3. :-;pherieal eoonlirmte sy~t<.•m.
3-3. ANALYTICAL SOLUTION 1

An analytical solution of a heat-conduction problem must satisf~ the
heat-conduction equation as well as the boundary conditions specified by
the physical conditions of the particular problem. The classical approach
to an exact solution of the Fourier equation is the separation-of-variables
technique. \Ve shall illustrate this approach by applying it to a relatively
simple problem. Consider a thin rectangular plate, free of heat sources and
insulated at the top and bottom surface (Fig. 3-4). For a thin plate,
1 This section ma.y be omitted without interrupting the continuit.v of the prPsPnta-
tion.

1
T=Tms~n(Kf-)
6~---------------~
T=O T•O
o~-----~T~·~O~-----~--~.~
L
Fw. 3-4. Rectangular adiabatic plu.tc.
aT ;az is negligible and the temperature is a function of x and y only,

i.e., T = T(x,y). The temperature distribution in a plate with adiabatic
faces must therefore satisfy the equation
a2T a2T (3-9)
-+
2
-=
2
0
ax ay
if the thermal conductivity is uniform. Equation 3-9 is a linear and homo-

geneous partial-differential equation. This type of equation usually can
be integrated by assuming a product solution for T(x,y) of the form..
T = XY (3-10)
where X= X (x), a function of x only, and Y = Y(y), a function of y alone.
Substituting Eq. 3-10 in Eq. 3-9 yields
1 d2X 1 d2 Y
----- (3-11)
The variables are now separated. The left-hand side is a function of x

only, while the right-hand side is a function of y alone. Since neither side
can change as x and y vary, both must be equal to a constant, say X2 •
\Ve have, therefore, the two total-differential equations
d 2X
dx 2
+ AX 2
= 0 (3-12)
and
d2 Y
- A2 Y = 0 (3-13)
dy2
The general solution to Eq. 3-12 is

X = A cos AX + B sin AX
the general solution to Eq. 3-13 is
Y = Ce-" 11 + De" 11

and therefore
1' = X}p = (A cos X x + B sin X x)(Ce->-" + De>-11) (3-14)
where A,B,C, and D are constants to be evaluated from the boundary
conditions. As shown in Fig. 3-4, the boundary conditions to be satisfied
are
T=O at y = 0
T=O at x = 0
T=O at x = L
. 7rX
T = T m Sln- at y = b
L
Substituting Eq. :3-14 forT we get from the first condition

(A cos X x + B sin X x) (C + D) = 0
from the second condition
A (Ce->-" + De>-") = 0
and from the third condition

(A cos X x + B sin X x)(Ce->-L + De>-L) = 0
The first condition can be satisfied only if C = - D, and the second if
A = 0. Using these results in the third condition, we obtain
(B sin XL) C (e-;~ - i-L) = 2BC sin XL sinh X y = 0
To satisfy this condition, sin X L must be zero or X = n1r I L, where n -
1,2,3, etc. 2 There exists therefore a different solution for each integer n
and each solution has a separate integration constant Cn· Summing
these solutions, we get
00
~ n1rx . , n7rY
T = Li Cn sin L stn L (3-16)
The last boundary condition demands that, at y = b
~ C . n1rx . h n1rb T . 1rX

Li n Sln L Sln L = m Sln L (3-16)
t The value n == 0 is excluded because it would give the trivial solution T == 0.

7 6 TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION
so that only the first term in the series solution with Ct = T "'/ sinh (1rb / L)
is needed. The solution therefore becomes
sinh(1ry I L) . 1rX
T(x,y) = T"' sinh(1rb/ L) sin L- (3-17)
The corresponding temperature field is shown in Fig. 3-5, where the solid
lines are isotherms and the dotted lines are heat-flow lines drawn perpen-
dicular to the isotherms.
- - hotherms
- - - H.at - Flow Unes
Fu:. 3-.5. Isotht•rms and hcn.t-ftow

lines in the rectangular adiabatie
plate shown in Fig. 3--4.
\Vhen the boundary conditions are not as simple as in the illustrative

problem, the solution is obtained in the form of an infinite series. For
example, if the temperature at the edge y = b is a function of x, say T(x,b)
- F(x), then the solution, as shown in Ref. 1, is the infinite series
T -_ !_
L
~oo sinh(n1r/L)y . 1rn
. h n1r (b ;/L ) Slll L
s1n X
J.LF( ) . X Sill
~~ d
L X X 13_18 )
0
n.-1
which is quite laborious to evaluate quantitatively.

The separation-of-variables method can be extended to three-dimen-
sional cases by assuming T = XYZ, substituting this expression for T in
Eq. 3-6, separating the variables, and integrating the resulting total-
differential equations subject to the given boundary conditions. Examples
of three-dimensional problems are presented in Refs. 2, 8, and 20.
Analytical solutions are useful when they can be obtained. There
are, however, relatively few practical problems dealing with geometries
and boundary conditions which can be solved analytically without making
simplifying assumptions, and even when a solution has been obtained, it
is often too complicated to justify the time and effort required to evaluate
it quantitatively. The main advantages of analytical solutions are the
ea.._"'e with which they lend themselves to parameterization and the possi-
bility of applying them, once they are available, to similar problerns.

3-4. POTENTIAL-FIELD PLOniNG
An approximate solution of the Laplace equation for a two-dimensional

system can be obtained graphically by plotting the temperature field
freehand. The graphical method is particularly simple in systems with
isothermal boundaries, but it can also be applied to cases in which heat
flows across a boundary of unknown temperature by convection or radia-
tion from a source, or to a sink, of known temperature. For problems of
the latter type, the graphical method becomes quite tedious, and ana-
logical or numerical methods will give an answer more quickly. We shall
therefore restrict the scope of the graphical method to the solution of
problems with isot~ermal boundaries. The application of the graphical
method to systms\\ith- unknown boundary temperatures is illustrated in
detn.il in Refs. 1 and 5.
/
Direction of
Heat Flow
"/ / ·· / · ..
Insulated Surface
Flci. 3-H. Is:1thNms and lwat-flow

lines in a plauc wall.
The object of a graphical solution is to construct a network consisting

of isotherms and lines of constant-heat flow. The heat-fl. ow lines are
analogous to streamlines in a fluid-flow field, i.e., they are tangent to the
direction of heat flow at any point. Const~quently no heat can flow
aeross heat-flow lines, and a constant amount of heat flows between any
two of them.
The basic principles of the graphical method can be illustrated hy
applying it to heat conduction through a plane wall. If the temperatur('~
Tt and T2 are constant over the faces of the wall, isotherms and lines of
constant heat flow can be readily drawn. As shown in Fig. 3-6, tlw
heat-flow lines run perpendicular to and the isotherms run parallel to the
faces of the wall. If the heat-flow lines are equally spaced so that the
~arne amount of heat flows in each flow tuhe formed between adjacent

heat-flow lines, the total rate of heat flow equals the rate of heat flow per
tube ~'1 times the number of tubes N.
An inspection of the net in Fig. 3-6 shows that isotherms and heat-
flow lines cross at right angles everywhere. This condition is obvious for
the plane wall, but it must be satisfied, as we shall see, in any system.
In fact, the basis of the graphical method is to draw, by trial and error, the
isotherms and flow lines so that they are perpendicular at their points of
intersection and satisfy the boundary conditions. Once such a net has
been drawn, the temperature distribution and the rate of heat flow can
be determined. This technique, called potential-field, or flux, plotting.
will now be considered in detail.
/
/
T+.4T
Fw. 3-7. Potential-field element.
An elementary portion of a flux plot in a system of unit thickness is

shown in Fig. 3-7. The rate of heat flow in one flow tube is
Al} = l}(Am) (3-19)
where q = qI A = the rate of heat flow per unit area, or the heat flux, in
Btu/hr sq ft;
Aml = area of the flow tube, in sq ft.
The change in temperature AT over a distance An perpendicular to H
heat-flow line is, from Eq. 1-2
fj
AT= --An (3-20)
k
Dividing Eq. 3-19 by Eq. 3-20 gives
Al} Am
=- (3-21)
-k~T An

which shows that the ratio Am/ An is a constant when heat flows at the
same rate between any two adjacent flow lines and the temperature
difference is the same between any two adjacent isotherms. Equation
3-21 indicates that, in general, a net of isotherms and heat-flow lines in a
tw<Hlimensional heat-flow region consists of small rectangles having a
width Am and a length An. To facilitate the graphical construction of a
net, it is convenient to select An = Am, so that the net consists of small
squares. A net of square blocks is the easiest to draw by eye because any
deviation is easy to detect. It is also convenient to use for numerical
work because the rate of heat flow in each stream tube is related to the
temperature difference between adjacent isotherms by
AI}= -kAT (3-22)
irrespective of the size of the squares.
To show that isotherms and heat-flow lines intersect at right angles, we
write a heat balance for the triangular element abc of Fig. 3-7. Heat is
conducted into the element across the face ab at the rate AlJ. If lJz and
iJ, are the x and y components of the heat flux iJ, heat is conducted out of
the element at the rate lJ zA!/ - iJ ,dx, where the minus sign of the second
tenn is a result of the sign convention which specifies that the heat flow
is negative when it is in the negative direction of a coordinate. As the
size of the element approaches zero, the heat balance at a point x,y can
be written in the form
d[q(x,y)] = l}:rfly - q;lx
.-\long a line of constant heat flow, the value of lJ is constant. The dif-
ferential of lJ is therefore zero along a constant-heat-flow line and the
slope of a constant-heat-flow line at any point is
~~q = const = ~:
Also the temperature is a function of x and y, and a differential change in
temperature may be written as
aT
d[T(x,y)J = - dx
ax
+ -aT
ay
dy
.Along an isotherm, dT = 0 and the slope of an isotherm at any point is

therefore
dy - aT;ax
-
dx T=con!lt aT;ay

1\:Iultiplying the numerator and the denominator by k, the slope of an iso-

therm can be \Vritten as
dy k (aT ;ax) 'l.r

=--
dx T = const
k (aT ;ay) lJu
Then, at any point of intersection between an isotherm and a heat-flow

line,
dy ( 1 )
dx T = const = - dyjdx q =canst (3-23)
whieh is the condition of perpendicularity.

Except for the plane wall, the elements of a heat-flow net will not be
geometrically perfect squares unless they are made infinitesimally small.
In an irregularly shaped body they form so-called curvilinear squares. The
sides of a curvilinear square intersect orthogonally, and the sums of op-
posite sides are equal, or as shown in Fig. 3-7
ab + de = ae + bd
A curvilinear square in a flow field has the same physical characteristics

as a true square, and Eq. 3-22 applies.
In making a flux plot, the general procedure is to divide the body into
eurvilinear squares by trial and error, at the same time satisfying the giv~n
boundary conditions. The problem is solved when the network satisfips
the following requirements:
1. Boundary conditions.
a. Flow lines are perpendicular to isothermal boundaries.
b. Isotherms are perpendicular to insulated boundaries.
c. Flow lines leading to a comer of an isothermal boundary bisect
the angle betw<~en the surfaces of the boundary at the corner.
2. Isotherms and flow lines intersect each other at right angles.
:3. Isotherms and flow lines forn1 a network of curvilinear squares.
4. Diagonals of curvilinear squares bisect each other at 90 deg and
bisect the corners.
A graphical solution, just as an analytic solution of a heat-conduction
problem described by the Laplace equation and appropriate boundary
conditions, is unique. Therefore any network which satisfies all of the
above conditions represents the correct solution.
The rate of heat flow between isothermal boundaries can be obtained
directly from the network. Each heat-flow tube may be thought of a.s a

composite wall with equal series resistances (Sec. 1-4), and the rate of
heat flow through it is, from Eq. 3-22,
k
AfJ = M (T2 - Tt) (3-24)
where .llJ is the number of curvilinear squares in the channel. Finally, for
..V tubes, we get
N
q = lrl k(T2 - Tt) = Sk(T2 - Tt) (3-26)
"·here the ratio N I M, the number of flow tubes divided by the number of
squares (i.e., AT's) in each, is called the shape factor, S, of the system. It
should be noted that the number of flow tubes and the number of tempera-
ture increments enter only as a ratio. Hence, the size of the unit curvi-
linear square makes no difference in the result. If the number of either
flo\\" tubes or temperature increments is not integral, a fraction of a tube
or cunrilinear square must be interpolated.
Freehand flux plotting is something of an art, and no set of infallible
rule-S can be given. However, the following general suggestions by Bewley
(fl) \Vill help to reduce the amount of trial and error:
1. Note conditions of symmetry. Lines of symmetry are flow lines
and divide the temperature field into compartments.
2. Select a known isotherm as a datum, and mark all known isothern1s.
3. At each comer of an isothermal boundary, draw a short line bisPf't-
ing the angle. All such lines are the beginnings of flow lines.
4. Tentatively extrapolate the lines of (3) to other isotherms .
•=J. Start isotherms in a region (if there is one) where flow lines arc uni-
formly spaced.
G. Begin with a crude network and first find the approximate orienta-
tion of the isothermal and heat-flow lines with a minimum of
erasure.
7. At first attempt it will usually be found that the flow lines cannot
be made orthogonal to the isotherms and at the same time form a.
network of curvilinear squares. To satisfy the requirements, indi-
vidual or simultaneous adjustments may have to be made in the lo-
cations of isotherms and flow lines.
After a plausible-appearing network has been drawn, it is sometimes
advisable to sketch in the diagonals in order to expose errors. The diago-
nals should also form an orthogonal grid and bisect each other at right
angles in each square. A cross, scribed on a tran~parent sheet, aid~ in
checking orthogonality.

82 TWO· AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION
Eumple 3-1. Determine (a) the shape factor and (b) the rate of heat conduction
through the corner section of Fig. 3-Sa. The thermal conductivity of the material is
0.50 Btu/hr ft F, the face ABC is at 600 F, the face DEF is at 100 F and the faces CD
and A F are insulated.
, E F
{a) c D {b) c D
(c) c D
FIG. 3-8. Construction of potential field for Example 3-1.
Solution: (a) The evolution of the flux plot is shown in Figs. 3-8b and 3-Sc. The
faces AF and CD are insulated, and each of them forms, therefore, one boundary of a
flow tube. \Ve select initially five equal temperature increments, and start the isothermF
perpendicular to the two insulated faces. Then we bisect the comers at B and E, the
lines being the beginnings of flow tubes. The first trial plot is shown in Fig. 3-8b.
The blocks in the corner are not curvilinear squares, and the 200 F isotherm muet bt·
shifted upward. This necessitates other adju~tments which have been made in Fig.
3-Sc. In this plot the comer sections have been further subdivided to check the net-
work there. The lines form an "arrowhead'' pattern which, if subdivided further,
wnnld eventually evolve into curvilinear square~.

TABLE 3-1
Coso u cTION SHAPE FACTORS FOR VARious SYsTEMS
[qA: = Sk (1\ - 1':!) I
De.. cription of System Shape Factor S
C'tnduetioa through a homog('llCOUS nwdium

of thermal conduc·tivit.y k lwtween an iso- 2.-D
-- - --
thermal surface and a sphere buried a dis- 1 + (D/4z)
tance z below
Conduction through a homogeneous medium 2rL/ln(2L/D)

of thermal conductivity k between an iso- - ·- - -- -- -
1 + ln(2z/L)
thermal surface and a horizontal cylinder
ln(2L/D)
of length L buried with its axis a distane<•
z below the surface If D << z and z << L
Conduction through a homogeneous medium
of thermal conductivity k between an iso- ) ///D~. ...-+-L--'-+.A........<
thermal surface and an infinitely long eyl- , ~ -
inder buried a distance z below '' /
Conduction through a homogeneous medium

of therm!\l conductivity k between an i!-io- /
thermal surface and a vertical circular c.\"1- ln (4L/D)
inder of length L
Horizontal thin circular disc buried fur 1, ),\), \ ')'>.\ ~\ ' >")""
l-..elow an isothermal surface in a homo- : . / / / ,' / _>// 4D
geneous material of thermu.l conductivity k I/ ·> T~
.!!..// / ///
! /
· -:;D//
/
!
Conduction through a homogeneous rna- : -~ / J:' /,, / / , / i: /
<,~ •
tf:'rial of thermal conductivity k betwN~n i ·L ' ,_0 ' ~
two long parallel cylinders a distnnce L . , ,'
a part /,· / / / / //·
Conduction through two plane sections and 1 r.

the edge section of two walls of thermal ;c.,~-=lp&a.-...~·~..,
eonductivity k-inner and outer surface I
1
!!i_
~X
+ !!!_ + 0.54[
~X
tenlperatures uniform• 1
I
Conduction through the corner section c of
three homogeneous walls of thermal conduc-
tivity k-inner and outer surface tcmpPra- 0.1.5 .1x
tun"s uniform •
• Thf"~ ,.h3pe fnctors apply only to enclosures whose iru~itle dimenHion" nre grc:-tter than one-fifth
tbe wall thi,.knet.t~ .U. For enclosures having smaller in~idc ciimen~ion" ~ee Ref. 8.
From the final plot we obtain the number of flow tubes ( N = 15) nnd the number
of curvilinear squares per flow tube (M = .5 ). Thul-'1, the shape factor is
S - N = 15 =3 Ans.
1\-1 5
h) From Eq. 3-25, the rate of heat flow i~
q = Sk ('/''1 - '/', ) = (3 l f0 .•51(()00- IOO l - 750 Btu/hr An.~.
83
Di gitized by Google Original from

84 TWQ- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION
Appropriate shape factors for some geo1netrical configurations of

practical importance in engineering problems have been determined theo-
retically or experimentally (7,8,9) and arc tabulated for in Table 3-1.
Example 3-2. A long 6-in.-OD pipe is buried with its center line 30 in. below the
surface in soil having an average thermal conductivity of 0.20 Bt.u/hr ft F. (a) Deter-
mine, by means of a flux plot, the rate of heat loss per foot length of pipe if the ~urftu·e
temperature of the pipe is 200 F and the surface of the soil is at 40 F. (b) Compare
the result with that obtained by using the appropriate shape factor from Table 3-1.
o•
60.
eo•
--
J! N
~ It-/_
r---.....
..............
I
~
too•
120.
'r-1 tf b( } ~ I
~ Df'VK / ~
'
uo•
160.
teo•
~ ~ ~ l/" v y
200.
\
~ 7-- ~
K l)Z
~
w
v I--
r;-
~
i'v
V\
[\ J
)v
1\.
v
~
~
"" f'..
"""" K7
7011
l7
v
/
v eo"
--- ~
9d'
FIG. 3-9. Potential field for Example 3-2.
Soltdion: (a) The flux plot for this problem iH shown in Fig. 3-9. Because of the
symmetry, only one half of the heat-flow field has been plotted. There are 18 heat-
flow tuhes leading from the pipe to the surface, and each flow t ube con~i~t~ of 8 curvi-
linear squares. The shape factor is therefore S = 18/ 8 = 2.25
and the rate of heat flow is
Dig it ized by Coogle Orig inal from

q = (0.2) (2.25) (200 - 40) = 72 Btu/hr ft An~.
b) From Table 3-1,

2~ 2,-
s = ------- = - = 2.08
30 + v3oz---=- 32 3.0
In
3
and the rate of heat flow is

q = (0.2) (2.08) (160) = 66.5 Btu/hr ft Ans.
The~ reason for the difference between the two answers is that the potential field in
Fig. 3-9 has been drawn approximately with a finite number of flow lines and isotherms.
The accuracy of the graphical solution can be increased by further subdividing the
pot~ntial field.
3-5. ANALOGICAL METHODS
\Vhen two or more phenomena can be described mathematically by the

same equation, the phenomena are said to be mathematically analogous
and the variables in one system are called the analogues of the corresponding
variables in any other systems. A simple example of such a case is the
two-dimensional Laplace equation. Not only does it apply to a tempera-
ture field, but, if the symbol T(x,y) is replaced by E(x,y) (the potential in
an electric field), the equation governing the voltage distribution in an
electrical field is obtained. An examination of the respective equations
and
shows that the electrical potential E(x,y) can be regarded as the analogue
of the thermal potential T. In other words, constant-voltage lines in an
electric field correspond to constant-temperature lines in a heat-flow field,
and lines of electric-current flow correspond to heat-flow lines. A similar
correspondence can be established between a two-dimensional potential
fluid-flow field in the steady state and either of the two aforementioned
phenomena. Table 3-2 illustrates the analogy.
There are many heat-flow problems for which solutions cannot be
obtained analytically and for which experimental solutions in a thermal
system would be too expensive or too time-consuming. It is often possible,
however, to obtain experimental solutions of such problems quite simply
in an analogous system and reinterpret the solution in terms of the thermal
problem. The application of an experimental solution obtained in one
system to an analogous system is the basis of the experimental-anal-
ogic method.

TABLE 3-2
Type of Flow Field PotentiRl Lines Flow Lines
Heat Constant temperature Heat-flow

or isotherms lines
Ineompressible Constant veloeity Streamlines

in viscid fluid potential
Eleetridty Constant voltage Lines of

potential force or
electric
current
'rhere are many experimental-analogic methods by which heat-flow

problems can be solved. The fluid-flow analogy by means of l\1oore's fluid
mapper (10), the membrane analogy (1), which is also applicable to fieldM
with sources ( 11), and the various electrical analogies are all valuable
analogic methods. Schneider (1) and Jakob (4) give extensive reviews of
these methods. We shall consider in detail only the Analog Field Plotter,
an electrical-geometrical analogue whieh is simple and has been more widely
used on two-dimensional steady-~·4ate problems than any of the other
methods. An electrical-analogir network method which is suitable for
unsteady-state problems will he presented in Chapter 5.
Null Detector
Power Supply
CD
Power u~- - -- -- - - L Leads
Slider of Vottage Divider
- -----vi :
r~~------------~
~ ~--------~
;
,. I
I I
I I
I 1.....
'
I ' ',-------,
.............
+
.....
........
.....
..... .....
........ Marking Stylus
Drawing Board
FIG. 3-10. :-:\ehematic circuit diagram fur .\nalug Field Plotter.
Digiti zed by Google UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

Original from
The Analog Field Plotter (12) makes use of a thin sheet (0.004 in.) of
electrically conducting "Teledeltos" paper of relatively high resistivity
which can be cut to a shape geometrically similar to that of the heat conduc-
tor. An electrical-current-flow pattern can be set up in the paper by means
of suitably attached and energized electrodes. The resultant pattern of
constant-voltage lines is detected and marked (i.e., plotted) directly on the
paper by means of a searching stylus which is attached to a high-sensitivity
detecting instrument. Figure 3-10 is a schematic sketch and circuit
diagram of the equipment. Boundary conditions corresponding to a
constant-temperature potential in the heat flow are obtained in the electrical
field by applying copper wires, or highly conductive areas of silver paint,
to the surface of the paper and attaching them to a direct-voltage source.
Vofloge Sou~
...ulation
Fw. 3-11. Arrangement of the Analog Field Plotter

for solving Example 3-1.
Insulated surfaces in the heat-flow field correspond to plain edges of the

conducting paper. Lines of constant voltage are obtained directly by
selecting a voltage level on the null detector, moving the stylus to maintain
a zero reading on the instrument, and making small perforations in the
paper while tracing the equipotential lines. The voltage level of the
particular equipotential being traced is determined by the shder position
chosen on the voltage-dividing potentiometer of the null detector. By
selecting equal increments of voltage, adjacent lines become analogous to
isotherms separated by the same temperature difference.
Since the heat-flow, or current-flow, lines are everywhere perpendicular
to the potential lines, they can usually be sketched in freehand, so that the
resulting network forms curvilinear squares. The flow lines can also be
traced by simply reversing the insulating and conducting portions of the
boundary. By selecting appropriate voltage increments, a curvilinear
network is then obtained. Figure 3-11 illustrates this latter method for
the comer section considered in Example 3-1.

I
I
I 0-C R«tdifier
I Pow•r Unit
I 6-8 Volts
I
I
J.
,., /
..l '
/ .......
/
Teledeltos
Plotting Sheet
FIG. 3-12. Arrangement of the Analog Field PI tt r for olving Ex mpl 3-2.
(Courte y of un hiue cientific In trument)
The experimental etup u ed for determining the i otherm between the

ground and the buried pipe (Example 3- 2) i hown in Fig. 3- 12. In t ad
of painting the i oth rmal ground urface a a con tant-voltage lin , a
mirror i'mage of the pipe i placed into the fi ld. A a re ult of the ym-
metry of this arrang ment, the boundary condition at the ground i auto-
mati ally ati fied. The pipe are painted on the heet and conne ted to
the v ltag upply by copper wire a hown. Th interpretation of the
re ulting net" ork is identi al to that given for the fr ehand flux plot,

since both methods establish a network of curvilinear squares formed by

constant-potential lines and flow lines. The Analog Field Plotter is more
accurate and faster, but a freehand flux plot usually gives satisfactory
results.
Electrical-geometrical analogues which can account for finite thermal
resistances of the boundaries1 and even for variable thermal conductivities,
have been used by Kayan (13,14).
In addition to the geometrical analogues of which the electric field
plott€r is the handiest, net\vork analogues have been used to solve heat-
transfer problems. The latter use an equivalent "lumped" electrical
circuit to simulate the thermal system. For steady-state heat flow without
heat sources or sinks, the network consists simply of resistors (Example
1-2). They are equivalent to the fictitious heat-conducting rods which
will be described in the following section, dealing with a numerical method.
An interesting application of the network analogue to the determination
of the temperature field in an internally cooled turbine blade is described
by Ellerbrook et al. (15).
3-6. NUMERICAL RELAXATION MD HOD
The relaxation method is a numerical method for solving a set of alge-
braic equations or a differential equation such as the heat-conduction
equation. The general method was first used by Sir Richard Southwell,
in 1935, to solve framework problems; since that time, it has become a
powerful tool in the solution of many other types of engineering problems.
The basic principle of the method is very simple, but the speed with which
a solution is obtained depends on how familiar the operator is with the
many short cuts and variations which can be employed in practice. Here
we shall consider only basic features of the method and illustrate the re-
laxation technique by applying it to steady-state heat-transfer problems. ·
A detailed treatment of other applications, as well as various short cuts
and simplifications of the basic process, is presented in Refs. 16, 17, and 18.
Basic concepts. The fundamental ideas of the relaxation techniqu~
can be illustrated by solving numerically the pair of algebraic equations
-4x + y +56= 0 (3-26)
X- 2y + 34 = 0
The solution of Eq. 3-26 could of course be obtained by determinants or

by eliminating one of the unknowns in one of the equations and substituting
the resulting expression in the other equation to obtain the remaining
unknown. However, as the number of equations becomes larger, the
amount of labor required to solve a set of equations by these methods in-
creases tremendously and the numerical relaxation method will save
time and effort.

90 TWo- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION
To obtain a solution to the problem contained in Eq. 3-26 by there-

laxation method, the equations are first rewritten in the fonn
F1 = -4x + y + 56 (3-27)
F2 = X - 2y + 34
where Ft and F2 are called residuals. The objective of the numerical
procedure is to reduce the values of the residuals systematically and even-
tually to make them zero, or as nearly zero as practicable. Those values
of x and y which make the residuals in Eq. 3-27 equal to zero are the desired
values, since they satisfy Eq. 3-26.
The first step in the numerical solution is to select initial values for
x and y. \Vhen dealing with algebraic equations which do not represent
a physical problem, it is satisfactory to take the unkno,vns initially equal
to zero. With this choice the residuals are Ft = 56 and F2 = 34.
The next step in the relaxation method is to set up an operation tab!€
which shows the effect of a unit positive increment in the variables x and
y on the residuals. For the system of Eq. 3-26 involving two equations
in two unknowns, the operation table is
~F~ D.F2
-
I~X= 1 -4 1
1 ay = 1 1 -2
\Ve observe that an incrernental change ax will not only affect the residual
F1, but also F2. Similarly, a change ay will affect the value of F,_ a...,
well as of F 1·
According to the basic rule of relaxation, the aim of each step of the
procedure is to reduce the value of the currently largest residual to zero.
Following this rule, we begin by changing x by dx = 14. This reduces
F1 to zero, but leaves a residual F2 of 48.
The actual computations are conveniently recorded in tabular form
The relaxation table for the solution of Eq. 3-26 is shown in Table 3-3.
TABLE 3-3
/t\ /t'2
X= 0 y = 0 56 34
:lx = 14 0 4.8
fly = 24 24 0
~X= 6 . 0 6
fly= 3 3 0
:lx = 1 -1 1
X= 21 y = 27 -1 1 a
ax= -0.3 0.2 0.7
6y = 0.4 0.6 -0.1
ax = 0.1 0.2 0.0
X= 20.8 y = 27.4 0.2 0.0
Digiti zed by Google Original from

TWO- AND TH~EE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION 91
We observe how the residuals are relaxed in a stepwise manner. The

results of each step are recorded on consecutive lines and the reader can
easily verify the details. Following Allen's suggestions (16), the relaxation
method has first been used to obtain a solution correct to the nearest
whole number. The results of these preliminary calculations are sum-
marized in line a and checked by substituting the numerical values of x
andy in Eq. 3-27. 1 Then, the calculations are refined to obtain a solution
to the first decimal place by using first-decimal increments. Further re-
finements could be made in a similar manner if desired.
Short cuts. The technique used in the preceding example could, in
principle, also be applied to more complex problems. However, with a
little insight and ingenuity, considerable time and effort can be saved by
modifying the basic technique. When dealing with equations derived
from a physical problem, the first modification is to start the calculations
with initial values estimated from a preliminary survey of the physical
aspect of the problem. This step will be illustrated when the relaxation
method is applied to heat-transfer problems.
The second short cut is called overrelaxation. Instead of reducing each
residual to zero, it is desirable to choose larger increments and change a
negative residual to a positive one, and vice versa. Overrelaxation is
useful in all practical applications, but no general quantitative rule for the
choice of the increments which will speed up the process most effectively
can be given. The selection of the best incremental changes is mostly a
matter of experience, as will become apparent from the illustrative ex-
amples.
The third device requires the creation of additional operations in the
operation table. The most important of these is the block operation, which
consists of changing each of the variables by the same amount. The
effects produced on the residuals by a unit block operation are obtained by
adding together the changes due to the individual unit increments in the
operation table. For the illustrative example the new operation is repre-
sented by the last line in the operation table. The unit step can be used
11Ft tJ.F2
11% 1 IIIII -4 1
Ay- 1 1 -2
11% = 1, Ay = 1 -3 -1
at any stage but it is of particular value in the initial step of the calculation.
If we add the residuals and divide the sum by the total effect of the unit
block operation ( -4 in our case), a block operation with a step of this
1If a mistake is discovered at this point, there is no need to repeat the eal<mlations.
One simply continues relaxing, hut uses the corrected values for the residuals.

AFt ~F,
x- y=-0 56 34
90
~ = ~y - - $::$ 22 -10 12
4
y-6 -4 0
X- -1 0 -1
X =- 21, y - 28 0 -1
size will reduce the net sum of all the residuals to zero. This initial step
substantially reduces the number of subsequent steps required to eliminate
the residuals. The table above illustrates the application of the unit step •
in the solution of Eq. 3-26. We observe that the number of steps required
to eliminate the residuals is now only four instead of the six steps neces-
sary without the unit block operation. In addition to the modification
considered here, group relaxation and multiplying factors are useful. For
these and other useful hints, the reader should consult Refs. 16 and 17.
Application to heat-transfer problems. Before the relaxation method
can be applied to a heat-transfer problem, or any other physical prob- ·
lem described by a differential equation, some preliminary steps are
necessary. The purpose of these preliminary steps is to approximate the
differential equation and the boundary conditions by a set of algebraic
equations. This is accomplished by replacing the continuous domain by
a pattern of discrete points within the domain and introducing finite-
difference approximations between the points. If n points are selected,
a set of n algebraic equations is obtained. It can be solved by the nu-
merical method for the values of unknown at the n points.
The preparation of a problem for solution by the relaxation method
can be accomplished mathematically or physically. In the mathematical
approach the derivatives in the differential equation are simply replaced
with finite-difference approximation ( 1, 16). We shall follow here a physical
approach and obtain the pertinent equations from simple heat balances.
To apply the relaxation method to a heat-conduction problem we sub-
divide the system into a number of small but finite subvolumes and assign
a reference number to each. Then we assume that each subvolume is at
the temperature corresponding to its center and replace the physical system
by a network of fictitious heat-conducting rods between the centers, or
nodal points, of the subvolumes. Now, if a thermal conductance corre-
sponding to the conductance of the material between nodal points is
assigned to each rod, the heat flow in the rod network will approximate the
heat flow in the continu.pus system.
In the absence of heat sources or sinks within the system, the rate of
heat flow toward each nodal point must equal the rate of heat flow away
from it in the steady state. To satisfy this condition we set up heat
balances for each nodal point, estimate nodal-point temperatures, and

correct them in successive steps until the rate of heat inflow equals the
rate of heat outflow at every point in the system. The details of the
numerical method will be illustrated in the following examples. A one-
dimensional heat-flow problem has been selected as the first example
because it illustrates the basic concepts without introducing unnecessary
conceptual difficulties.
One-dimensional example. Consider the circular pin fin shown in
Fig. 3-13. l)t is 0.25 ft long and 0.05 ft in diameter. Its base is attached
to a wall at ~()() F, while its surface is exposed to a gas at 100 F through an
average unit-surface conductance of 20 Btu/hr sq ft F. The fin is made
of a stainless steel with a thermal conductivity of 10 Btu/hr ft F. The
temperature distribution along the fin and the rate of heat dissipation are
to be determined numerically, and the results are to be compared with the
2-·
analytic solution obtained in Sec. 3-5. ~
A------- 0.25 Ft --------.f•i

/ h=20 ltu/Hr Sq Ft f
T.= 100 F
FIG. 3-13. Circular pin fin subdivided for relaxation solution.
First Step. The first step is to subdivide the system. 'Ve choose the
uniform linear network shown in Fig. 3-13 with six equally spaced nodal
points. This selection yields four complete subvolumes with half sub-
volumes at the base and at the tip of the fin. Increasing the number of
nodal points will improve the accuracy of the solution but will also increase
the amount of work and time required.
Second Step. The second step consists of writing heat-balance equa-
tions for each of the nodal points. The same heat-balance equation holds
for all interior points, but the nodal points at the base and at the tip (i.e.,
the boundary conditions) require separate analyses. For the interior
point 3 (Fig. 3-14a), the heat-balance equation is simply
(3-28)
\\·here Q1c 2-a = K~c 'lt-3 (T2 - Ta), the rate of heat conduction from 2 to 3;
qc oo-a = Kc oo-a (T (X) Ta), the rate of heat flow by convection
-
from the surrounding gas to the curved surface;

q~c 4- 3 = K~c ._, (T. - Ta), the rate of heat conduction from 4 to 3.

The physical basis of Eq. 3-28 is analogous to Kirchhoff's first law for
electrical circuits. The equation simply states that the algebraic sum of
a.ll the heat flows (or currents) at a junction point of a network equals
zero in the steady state. The arrows indicate that the direction of positive
heat flow is toward the nodal point 3. This, of course, does not imply
that heat flows only toward point 3. If T2, T. or T m is less than Ta,
any one of the three terms may be negative.
-4%-
{a}
(b) {c)
Frn. 3-14. Skt"tdws illustrating heat ualance::;.
If we write the heat balance ns
(3-29)
then Qa is the residual at 3 which must be zero in the steady state. The
residual in Eq. 3-29, Q3, can be interpreted physically as the rate of in-
ternal energy change at point 3.
Assuming straight-line temperature distributions along the fictitious
rods between nodal points, a reasonable assumption when the points arc
close together, the conductances can be evaluated from Eqs. 1-4 and 1-16.'
For the circular fin we have
and
In the residual Eq. 3-29, terms of the order of .:U4 are neglected (see Ref. 19).
4
Equation 3-29 is therefore only an acceptable approximation, when ar is small.

\\.ith these expressions for the conductances, Eq. 3-29 can be written
Qa = ~~· (T, - Ta) + furDflx(T oo - Ta) + ~~· (T,- Ta)
or in simplified form as
r- , Q 4h~x2 ( 4h.lx2)
Q3 = krD2j4~ = T2 + T, + kD TC»- 2 + kD Ta
where the term involving Too drops out if all tempera turPs are measured
above or below T and Too is taken as zero.
00
,
At the base of the fin (Fig. 3-14b) the temperature T1 is equal to the
wall temperature and remains constant. The residual equation with Too =
0 becomes therefore
' Q 4~x ( 2h.lx2) .·
Q = 1 k1rD 2I 4~x = k1rD 2 qb +T 2 - 1+ kD T1 ·./
where qb is the rate of heat conduction from the wall to the base of the fin.
At the tip of the fin, heat is transferred by conY£lrtion (Fig. 3-14c)
and the residual equation for point 6 is -, :. ,~ \'7 ~ _ -r(_ ) 1 · '
1
' Q ( 2h.lxl h.lx2 ) ,· ,, J ,
Qs = krD2 /4~x = Tr,- 1 + kD- + kD 1'~ . _. l .r.:

"'- _J l [i iJ I\ '<:' c I
Third Step. The third step consists of collecting the re~idual equations--
for all the nodal points and evaluating the coefficientH. For the circular
fin these equations are summarized below.
Point Equation for Q'
I 2. 54 q, + T 2 - 240
2 200+Ta-2.4T2
3 Tz + T,- 2.4 Ta -
4 T3 + T1 - 2.4 To~
5 T&+T,-2.4T5
6 T6 - 1.3 T 6 "
'j ' ,_
I '..;
The only remaining problem is that of finding the values of T2, Ta, T.,
T,, and Ta which satisfy the residual equations and eliminate the residuals.
Since we have a set of five equations in five unknowns, the relaxation method
can be used. Following the procedure previously outlined, we guess
initial temperatures and set up a relaxation pattern corresponding to the
operation table. The relaxation pattern for the fin is shown in Table
3-4, which includes, in the last line, the changes produced by a unit block.
Because T1 is fixed, there is no relaxation pattern at point 1. How-
e,·er, once the temperatures have been calculated, the rate of heat flow

TABLE 3-4
RELAXATION pATTERN
AQ{ AQ; AQ; AQ; AQ~ •'

A
!:lT2 = 1 +1 -2.4 +1 • .. 0. 0 • •• . ...

!:lTa = 1 ... +1 -2.4 +1 •• 0 0 • • 0 •
!:lT. = 1 ... • 0 •• +1 -2.4 +I .....

!:lT6 = 1 ... .. . .. .. .. +1 -2.4 +1
61' 6 = 1 ... .. • 0 • 0 .... 0 ••• +I -1.3
!:lT~ = !:lTa = ... = !:lT e = 1 ... -1.4 -0.4 -0.4 -0.4 -0.3
through the ba e of the fin can be determined by ub t ituting the num r-

ical valu of T2 into the r idual equation for point 1.
Th num ri al olution i carri d out in Table 3-5. Th temp r tur
di tribution a urn d initially is hown in the fir t line. A thorou h ,
phy ical under tanding of th probl m and pa t experience with similar
problem will a i t t he op rator in electing rea onable value fo r th un-
known temperatur s to start with, but any initial gu s i ace pta 1 .
The r iduals corre ponding to the initial temperature are r cord d in
the second line. ince the r idual are predominantly n gative, a blo .k
peration i applied a a fir t tep to reduce the net total of all the re idu
TABLE 3-5
RELAXATION TABLE U IN O OvERRELAXATI N AND I NITIAL BLO K RELAXATION
r, r.
7', r. • iin
( fi d)
'" Tt ~
--
•
--
T
--
.., 1 110
--
80 . 10
- - --
1
-;, - 34 - 32 - 1 +11
- 4.0 - 40
--
10<' - 0 - 40 - 4.0 - 40 3
-- --
+ -1 - 1 + +23 + 0
--- -- --
+2 +11 -3
--
- 10 - - ~. +
- + - l.J - 6 I
0 +O. - +
- 1 - .8 -1.4
- 1.6 - 1 + A - - 1. I
-- --
- --
2 1 34 1 11
-- - - --
2 143 2 52 2
- 2 1.6 - 14 - 1. - 2. - 2
-
- 1.
-
- 1
- -A
+
--
- -- -
1.
-- -- --
HI k- - 2 - i - 2 - 2 - 2
-- ·-- -
+ 1.2 - 0.2 - .4 . - l
T-Tr»( r I 2
--
1 7
-- --
32 2
--
lll 1
<>
r:
- -
T-Tr» n ly i I) 1 7 3- l 1 lf 1

to zero and to distribute the residuals more uniformly. The appropriate

size of the block, rounded off to the nearest whole number, is
t:.T = -50 -34 -32 -10 +11 = 115 ~ 40
-1.4 -0.4 -0.4 -0.4 -0.3 2.4
The values of the new residuals are recorded on line 4. The largest
residual is now at point 6. \Ve change Te by + 20, using some over-
relaxation to speed up the convergence. The new values of the residuals
resulting from the increase in Teare recorded on line 5. The next tempera-
ture correction, an increase in T 6 by + 12, is also recorded on line 5 to
save space.
The subsequent steps of the relaxation process are shown in the table and
the reader can verify them by himself. In line 10 all of the residuals are listed,
and in line 11 the temperatures at each of the nodal points are recorded.
These temperatures are obtained by adding the temperature adjustments
made during the relaxation process to the initial temperatures. Then
the residuals in line 10 are checked by substituting the temperatures from
line 11 in the residual equations. In line 12 a unit block operation of -2
is carried out, and the final results are recorded in line 13. For comparison,
the temperature distribution T<X> - Too calculated from Eq. 2-47 is shown
in the last line. The agreement is within 2 F.
The rate of heat flow to the fin is
107
2~
T2- 240 240
q, =
2.54
- = 52.3 Btu/hr
from the first residual equation, whereas the rate of heat flow calculated
from the analytic solution, i.e., Eq. 2-48, is 49.5 Btu/hr, a difference of
about 6 per cent.
In practice the relaxation method is not used when an analytic solution
is available. The error in the final result can therefore not be determined
directly. One way of checking the accuracy of the answer is to repeat the
calculations with successively smaller subdivisions until there are no further
changes in the numerical results. For additional information on the accu-
racy of relaxation solutions, Refs. 1 and 19 are recommended.
Two-dimensional systems. The relaxation method can readily be
extended to two- and also to three-dimensional systems. Consider a two-
dimensional system such as a solid of constant thickness b (Fig. 3-15). Sub-
divide the system into squares so that each subvolume has the dimensions
tllMb, and select the center of each suhvolume as a nodal point. Re-
placing the materi~l between nodal points by fictitious rods having the
same conductance as the actual material, a steady-state heat balance on
an interior point such as 0,
Qt-o + Q2-o + Q3-o + Q•-o = 0

~-_ . Y=<.-~~ · - -· - :-~~- .. _ ~~-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
•.:::;..
can be expressed as a residual equation in the form
Qo = Kk t-o(Tt - To) + Kt 2-o(T! - To)

+ K~c s-o(Ta - To) + Kk t--o(T-e - To) (3-30)
where Qo is the residual which must be zero in the steady state and
k(~lb)
KA: 1-o = = kb = Kk 2-o = Kk 3-o = K~; 4-o
~l
Since ~l, the size of the subvolume, cancels, it is evident that, for square
subdivisions, the numerical value of the conductance is independent of
Fw. 3-15. Relaxation network for interior nodnl

point in a two-dimensional system.
the actual size of the squares. The residual equation for an interior point
can therefore be written
(3-31)
In the process of subdividing a two-dimensional system it is usually

convenient to start by selecting a square network of nodes. Interior point.s
are then surrounded by full squares of material, but the nodal points at the
edges have less material associated with them. Thus, while Eq. 3-31 ap-
plies to all interior points, the residual equations for nodal points at a
boundary depend on the geometry as well as the particular boundary con-
ditions. Several typical cases will be considered to illustrate the tech-
nique of setting up residual equations for points at a boundary.
a) Nodal point at an isothermal boundary (Fig. 3-16a). Since T 2 =
T-e = To, heat can only flow along the fictitious rod between 3 and 0 and
from the outside to 0. Thus,
, Qo ;1[
Qo = - =
kb
q-
k
+ Ta - To

,-
9'I
I
I I II I
L-- L - ..J .. - ...J lnsulat.d Surface
l1 T2•To
~ (T2 is Fictitiovs)
(a) Nodal Pomt ot an (b) Nodal Point ot an
lso ....rmol Boundary Insulated Surface
Fluid at r.
in Contact with
This Surface
r 4 -= r.
(c) Nodal Point at Surtoc. {d) Nodal Point in Exterior Corner

ill Contact witt~ a fluid ..tween llofhermal Surfoces
Insulated Surfoces
T1 -= r 2 • r.
Ic 1-o z.Kc 2-o = lidlb/2
(e) Nodal ,oint at an Exterior Comer (J) Nodal Point at an Exterior Corner
letwHn Insulated Surfaces in Contact with o Fluid
r.= o I
I
I
I
(B) Nodal ,_.. at an Interior Corner {h) Nodal Point at on Interior Comer
.... ..,. lnsulatwd Surfoces wflose Surfaces are in Contact
with a fluid at Tat 0 =
Fw. 3-16. Sketches illustrating heat balances for nodal points at boundaries
of a two-dimensional system.

where ij is the rate of heat flow per unit area from the outside to the sub-
volume having its nodal point at 0.
b) Nodal point at an insulated surface (Fig. 3-16b). In this case
heat can flow between the points 1 and 0, 3 and 0, and 4 and 0. How-
ever, the area between points 1 and 0, and points 3 and 0 is only ~lb/2,
i.e., one half of the heat-flow area between points 4 and 0. Thus,
Qo
+ Ta) + T4
1
Qo = kb = }(T1 - 2T0
c) Nodal point at a surface in contact with a fluid at T a, unit-surface

conductance h (Fig. 3-16c). The rate of heat flow from the fluid to the
subvolume around the nodal point is given by Eq. 1-13, and the residual
equation is
I
Q0 = }(T2 + T4) + T1 + Tm ii~lb

k - To 2
(
+ khtilb)
d) A nodal point in an exterior comer between isothermal surfaces
(Fig. 3-16d) has no residual equation because no heat can flow to or from
it.
e) Nodal point at an exterior corner between insulated surfaces (Fig.
3-16e). Heat can flow from 1 to 0 and from 2 to 0, the conductance in
each case is equal to kb /2. The residual equation is
Q~ = !(Tl + T2) - To
f) Nodal point at an exterior comer whose surfaces are in contact with
a fluid at T unit-surface conductance
00 , h (Fig. 3-16f). For this case the
residual equation is
'
Qo = 2(T3
1
+ T4) + Tm kh:1lb - To
(iitllb
k + 1)
(It is suggested that the reader derive the above and the following rela-
tions from the individual heat-flow terms.)
g) For a nodal point at an interior comer between insulated surfaces
(Fig. 3-16g) the residual equation is
Q~ = !CT1 + T2) + (Ta + T .. ) - 3To
h) For a nodal point at an interior comer whose surfaces are in contact
with a fluid at T m (Fig. 3-16h) the residual equation is
The mechanics of the solution for a two-dimensional relaxation problem

are identical to those used for the one-dimensional case. When dealing
with a relatively large number of nodal points, time will be saved, however,
if a coarser network is relaxed first and the results used as a first approx-
imation in the final network. The recording of the numerical computa-
tions can be done either in a table or in a form suggested by Emmons
(20). In the latter method the initially assumed temperature and its sub-
sequent corrections form a column to the right of each nodal point, while
the values of the residuals form a column to the left side. The largest
residual in the net is relaxed in accordance with the appropriate residual
equation, and the resulting changes in the neighboring residuals and
temperatures are recorded. When the residuals have become as small as
V. th Section of Tall
.,.....____ ,., ___

...a.imney -for Problem 3-3
-'-~
Fw. 3-17. Sketch of chimney for Examples 3-3 and 3-4.
the desired accuracy in the temperature distribution warrants, the tempera-

ture columns are added to obtain the temperature at each point. Rates
of heat flow can be determined from the temperature gradients or by sub-
stituting the final temperatures into pertinent residual equations (for
which, of course, the residuals are zero or nearly so). The following
examples illustrate the relaxation method for two-dimensional systems.
E:umple 3-3. Determine the temperature distribution and the rate of heat flow
per foot of height for a tall chimney whose cross section is shown in Fig. 3-17. Assume
that the inside surface-temperature is 500 F, the outside surface-temperature is 100 F,
and the thermal conductivity of the wall material is 1.0 Btu/hr ft F.
Solution: From the observed symmetry we need consider only the one-eighth section
which is Ahown enlarged in Fig. 3-18. A large meNh has hef.>n cho~en for the rela..xation

treatment to reduce the amount of labor. For better accuracy, the mesh should be .
subdivided once more after the coarser network has been relaxed. The new solution
should be started from the results obtained in the previous one.
Since the boundary temperatures are constant, we only need to relax the nodal
points 1, 2, 3, and 4. Points 2 and 3 are simple interior points, and Eq. 3-31 applies.
For instance, if the initial temperatures at 1, 2, 3, and 4 are assumed to be 300 F, the
initial residual at 3 is
Q~ == T 2 + Tu + T• + T, - 4 Ta - 300 + 100 + 300 + 500 - 1200 == 0
Point 1 is located on a line of symmetry, and the influence of points 2• and 9*, the
mirror images of points 2 and 9, is taken into account by doubling the residual due to
temperatures at points 2 and 9. A similar procedure is followed for point 4. For
instance, the initial residual at point 1 is
Q; == 2 (7't + T,) - 4 T1 == 2 (300 + 100) - 1200 = - 400
The relaxation process is shown in Fig. 3-18. The subscripts indicate the sequence of
the steps in the relaxation proceBR. It is suggested that the reader check the results by
carrying out the individual steps in tabular form.
,. / ... r-41- .. -~
~--------~6~--------4
500
Q' r u•
~===(4 ----+------~-_-:_-:_-_--=®
-400o 300, o, lOOa o0 ; 300o o, lOOa
0 -100, -1~ - 25 1 - 25 2 - ll 4 -16.
/-50, -20, o, 74 -1. o. -4'
-20,
- o... , ~0
/
30]
-28. -7, (296J
/
j
161 +.c, -
o, o, o,
/ [IE] .. , 12681
9 (}}----------{JI't----------1
100 100 100 100
FIG. 3-18. Xumerical network for the chimney section of Example 3-3.
The heat-flow rate from the furnace is found by summing the heat-flow rates through
the rods terminating at the inner surface, or
q - 8 k ({500- 268) + (500 - 291)
) ,
+l (500 - 296)] - 4356 Btu/hr
.J-.' . , . 1
Ans.
Example 3-4. For the tall chimney wall whose cross section is shown in Fig. 3-1 i,
determine the temperature distribution and the rate of heat loss per foot height. As-
sume that the temperature of the gases flowing through the chimney is 100 F above
that of the surrounding atmosphere, T a:~, which is taken as the datum and set equal t.o
zero. The unit-surface conductances at the interior and exterior surfaces are 12 and
3 Btu/hr sq ft F respectively. The thermal conductivity of the wall is 1.0 Btu/hr ft F.
Solution: Because of the geometrical symmetry of the system, we need consider

only a one-eighth section. We subdivide this section as shown in Fig. 3-19, using again
n relatively coarse network to reduce the amount of labor.

Original from
Since the chimney is tall, we neglect end effects and treat a section as a two-dimen-
sional system of unit height. The residual equations are written first. For nodal points
located on a line of symmetry, the influence of mirror-image points is taken into acrount
by doubling the residual due to the points in the network. For example, the residual
equation for point 1 is
Ql - 2[K2-l (T, - T1) + Ko-1 (To - T1)]
where K1-1 - kA/lll - (1 Btu/hr ft F) (0.25 sq ft)/(0.5 ft) - 0.5 Btu/hr F;
Ko.-1 - AoA - (3 Btu/hr sq ft F) (0.25 sq ft) .. 0.75 Btu/hr F;
so that Q1 - 2[0.5 (T, - T1) + 0.75 (0 - T1)) - (Tt - 2.5 T1) Btu/hr
and Q~ - Qafkb - (Tt - 2.5 T1) F
since kb is 1 Btu/hr F. The same result is obtained from caaef in Fig. 3-16 where both
Ts and T. are equal to T~ in this network and T co = 0. The residual equations for the
12 nodal points are !-lummarized below.
Nodal Point Equation for Q'

1 T2-2.5T1
2 0. 5 Tt + Ta + 0. 5 T. - 3. 5 T2
3 2 T2+ 2 T, - 4 T3
4 0.5 T2 + T, + 0.5 T1- 3.5 T.
5 Ta + T. + Ts + Ta - 4 T,
6 2 T, + Te + 600 - 9 Ts
7 0.5 T. + Ts + 0.5 Tto- 3.5 T1
8 T,+ T1+ Tg+ Tu- 4 Ts
9 0.5 Ts + Ts + 0.5 T12 + 600- 8 T,
10 T1 + Tu- 3.5 Tto
II 2 Ts + Tto + T12 - 4 Tu
12 Tv+ Tu + 600 - 8 T12
These 12 equations in 12 unknowns yield the relaxation pattern of Table 3-6 for unit
temperature increments. Before starting the relaxation operations we estimate initial
nodal-point temperatures. :-\ince the thermal re~istance between the inner surface and
the gas is small, the temperatures at nodal points 6, 9, and 12 will only be slightly below
TABLE 3-6
RELAXATION PATTERN Jo'OR EXAMPLE 3-4
I
I ~(J; AQ; i_AQ~
I
: A(/~
'
_I a(J~ ACJ~ AC/;

I
I
MJ~ AQ~ I ~Q;o ~(,;1 aCJ;s
I
-..
I
I I
I
2• o.s I
ATt I
I - 1.0·"
I
I
o..:;
~T,
AT•
AT•
--1
1
I I
...
...
-3.5
1.0
0.5
2.0 I
-4.0
... - a
...
~
1.0
1.0 . .. 0.5
--..
,,.')
~Ta I I ... . .. 2.0 1.0 -4.0 2.0
ATe J ... ... ... . .. 1.0 -9.0 ... ... 0.5
AT, 1 ... ... . .. 0.5 ... . .. -3.5 1.0 . .. 1.0
AT.
ATt
---
1
1
...
...
...
. ..
. ..
...
...
...
1.0
.. .
. ..
1.0
1.0
...
-4.0
1.0
1.0
-8.0
. ..
---
2.0
- .. 1.0
AT••
~Tu
-- I
1
I ...
.. .
...
...
...
...
. .
'
. ..
...
. ..
. ..
.. .
0.5
. ..
' . .
1.0
. ..
' ..
-3.5
1.0
1.0
-4.0 I 1.0
- -- I
I I
AT., 1 ... ... . .. ... . .. . .. ... ... 0 ..') .. 1.0 -8.0
4Tt ATt
.... .ATu 1 -1.5 -1.5 0 -1.5 0 -6.0 -1.5 0 -6.0 -1.5 0
I -6.0

the gas temperature. \Ve guess 95 F for the initial temperature at these points. At.
the outer surface the thermal resistance is larger than at the inner surface; also, near
the comer the effective heat-transfer area is larger than near the midsection. The
temperatures at the exterior points 7 and 10 will be taken as 20 F, at 4 as 15 F, and at
1 as 10 F. The interior-point temperatures will be assumed to be at a mean value
between the wall temperatures as shown in the first line of Table 3-7. The residuals
corresponding to the initial temperatures are then calculated and recorded next to
the temperatures in the first line. The sum of the initial residuals is -95 F. From
the relaxation pattern we find that the sum of the residual changes due to a unit block
is -25.5. The initial block operation should therefore be a step of 95/25.5 - 3.73 F,
or 4 F when rounded off to the nearest whole number. The results of this and subsequent
r----------~~;it..---
'ii"_T_
T .t: lc • 1 ltu/Hr f1f _
r- -u---
I
11
II
I
I
/-
-
q
~·'r-=-~=
11"
al
I
I
r- ~1---
11 I
.t:
q
N
rl- lOOF
Jip• 12 ltv/Hr Sq Ft F 9 )::::==*~
FIG. 3-19. Numerical network for the chimney section

of Example 3-4.
relaxation operations in which overrelaxation is freely used are shown in the relaxation
table. After 14 steps the residuals in line 15 are checked by substituting into the residual
equations the temperatures obtained by adding the various incremental changes to
the originally assumed values. Although mistakes are discovered at nodal points
8, 9, and 11, the relaxation operationA are continued without tracing back to find out
where the errors were made, but with the correct residuals. The final temperatures
are agam substituted in the residual equations, the residuals are calculated, and the
values thus obtained are compared with the values in the table. This check completes
the relaxation operations on the coarse network. The corresponding isotherms, shown
in Fig. 3-20, will help in visualizing the temperature distribution in a quarter chimney
section. The rate of heat loss through the wall is found by summing up the rates of

TABLE 3-7
RELAXATioN TABLE •·oa ExAMPL•~ 3- 4 ~
Nodal Point - 1 2 3
• 5
-
6 7 R 9 10 11
Q;,
12 lioe
0I
z>
0 ~ Tt <b Tt Q~ Ta Q; T, ~ Ta Q~ T, Q7 Tr Q~ T~ ~ Te cbo Tto Q;. Tu T11 1 c
Initial VaJuee -10 10 12.5 15 -50 50 7.5 20 -15 60 -40 95 10 !!() -5 60 -5 95 10 20 -5 60 -5 95 1 .....
<0'
_, _, _, _, _, _, _,
c:t.
N
ro
D..
rr
'<
Unit stl'p,
~T- -4
~Ta- -14
~Ta- -8
~T.- -4
-· 18.5 _,
4.5
-50
6
-10
-1·
13.5 _,
5.5
-15
-29
-1
3 -8
-16
-32
4 -4
16 -5
-13
19
17
-4 16 -4 -5 19 -4 2
:J
4
5
::J:
:Ia
m
mI
CJ
0
~T1 • 6
~Tt- 2
~Tto • 6
8 .5
6
-5
-2
I 7
9 1 I
22
1 8 1
21 7
8
6
-
c
~
m
0 .!1Tt, - 3 4 -3 I g
z
00
~
(V
.!1T8 =
.iTa""'
.iT, =
2
-3
2
1.5
2.5
2 -I
1.5 I
-2
1
0
0
1
1 I 10
11
12
-
(/)
0
.1Tt =
AT, =-
-2 1 -I u 13 z
~Tu = 1
0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8
2
1.3
2 0 1 -2
14
) .} >
~
-- - ·- · (/)
Check { 6:~
4 lt 29 18 4~ S7.6 22 .lS 93 22 57 !l-1 ......
- - -- - ·
1 1.5 2 }..')
-
0.6 0.6 1 -12.
----
'1...s• 2 •• -2
--
16 m
~T " = -3 -2.4 -2 0 -3 l.l\ -- -
r--- -.
_?
- 17 >
c
.!1Ta = -0.6 0.8 0.9 0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.6 18
~T10 = 0.6 -1.7 -0.1 · --o:e --.l...4 19 -<•
ATt = 0.2 -0.4 -0.4 0.2 0 .1 -~- - - -1.8 20 (/)
.1Ttt = -0.:3 o.os -1.7 o.o~&.al! - ......
ATu = -0 ..1 -O.fl 0.6 0.3-0.1 0.1 22 )'>
c ~Tr = -0.6 0.6 0.4 -0.8 -1.5 -1.2 23 ......
z AT,= 0.6 1.6 0.6 0.6 2.0 0.9 24 m
<
m ~Ta = 0.6 0 -0.4 0.6 0.6 I 2.~ n
;:o ATt = 0.6 0.1 0.6 0.3 26
VlO AT,. = -0.4 0
~<9:
::::l
AT1o = -0.·1
0.2 0
-0.2
0.1 -0.4 -0.35 -0 ..)
0.2-0.4 -0.9
27
28 zc
0!!!. AT, = O.:l 04.5 -0.15 0.3 0.5 0.05 29
AT, = 0.1 -0.2 -o.o;, 0.1 0.1 -0.2 0.1 0 -0.1-0.1 -0.1 30 c
'TI -
:s::o ATt = 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0 0 31 n
-3
()
I
AT, = 0.1 -0.0.5 0.1 0.1:)
---
0 0 0.1 -0.2 0.05 0.1 -0.35 0 -0.1 -0.1
-
32
-0......
G)
)>
z
Final
Tt>mpcraturt'tl 4.7 11.7 29.6 18.3 4i ..'i 87.6 21.4 1 54.6 93.2 22.2j 56.3 93.7 z
...
0
VI
heat flow through the rods terminating either at the inner or at the outer surface. At
the inner surface we have
q - 8[K,,-t (T, - Te) + Kt:t-e (T, - T,) + Kn-a (T, - T~t)]

-= 8[12 X 0.25(100- 87.6) + 12 X 0.5(100- 93.2) + 12 X 0.25(100- 93.7)]
- 8 X 96.9 - 755.2 Btu/hr A ns.
It is left as an exercise to show that, when the heat loss from the outer surface is cal-
culated, it agrees within one-half per cent with the results of the preceding calculation.
This constitutes also a check on the accuracy of the relaxation calculations.
When a body has an irregular shape, a square net will not fit the con-
tour exactly. In such a case the residual equations for the nodal points
70f
90f
7i•100f
hi•12ltv/hr ft2 r
....
L~ J~,.--l.Oft.--~~
FIG. 3-20. Isotherms in chimney
cross section of Example 3-4.
adjacent to the boundary must be modified, but in the interior a unifonn

square network and the corresponding residual equations can be used
without change.
Figure 3-21 sho,vs a nodal point in the vicinity of a curved boundary.
The boundary cuts across two of the fictitious rods of the square network
and thereby affects the conductances between the nodal point 1 and its
neighbors. The conductances can be evaluated by subdividing the region
near the boundary as shown in Fig. 3-21. This subdivision neglects terms
of the order of ~za as compared to terms of the order ~l 4 in the int~rior
( 1, 19) but is still sufficiently accurate in practice.
The temperatures at the boundary are designated by primed numben:
c·orresponding to the numbers of the nodal points along the rod outside
the houndary, and the distances along a fictitious rod from the nodal

point 1 to the boundary are given in per cent of al, the distance between
interior points. The symbols with appropriate subscripts indicate th~
fraction of Ill.
Using the rectangular subdivision shown in Fig. 3-21 the conductances
pt>r unit depth are
K
2'-1 -
_ k A2-1 = k al(l + Su,) / 2 -
k(l + Stfi)
£,._. al8t2 2s12
K3-t
= k il3-1 = k .1l(l + 812) / 2 -
k(l + 8t2)
L3-t al 2
K _ k A•-1
4--1 -
= k .1l(l + 8u) / 2 -
k(l + su)
L•-• .11 2
K 6 ' - 1_- k Ab-t _

---
k ~l(l + St2) / 2 -
k(l + 812)
Lr-t alst6 28u;
FtG. 3-21. Hketeh illustrating no-

menclature for relaxation equation
at an irregular boundary.
The residual equation becomes
Di git ized by Coogle Original from

or. after dividing by k(l + s12)(1 + su,),/ 4 and rearranging, we get
Q1, = 2 T 2 7~ 2 T
812(1 + Sn) 2' + 1 + St& 3 + 1 + S12 4
2
+
Su( 1 + SIO)
T 6' - 2 (_!_
Su
+ __!_) T
Sa
1 (3-32)
It may be observed that, when s12 = St6 = 1, Eq. 3-32 reduces to Eq. 3-:31
for the rectangular network.
Three-dimensional systems. The application of the relaxation method
to three-dimensional systems requires no additional concepts. However.
an interior nodal point will now have six neighbors and there will be 6 fic-
titious conducting rods emanating from it. If the body is subdivided into
cubes of sides alas shown in Fig. 3-22, a heat balance on an interior nodal
point, such as point 0 gives
Qo = Kt-o (T1 - To) + K2-o (T2 - To) + K3-o (Ta - To)
+ K4-o (T .. - To) + K,_o (T, - To) + K6-o (Ts - To) (3-33)
where Kt-o = K2-o = K3-o = Ko~-o = Kr.-o = Ks-o = kal
Dividing Eq. 3-33 by kal yields the residual equation in the form
Qo' = Qol kal = T 1 + T2 + T a + T _. + T r, + T6 - 6 To
FIG. 3-22. Hdn.xation network for interior nodal point in

a three-dimensional ~yst<'m.

The residual equations for nodal points on system boundaries can be

derived from appropriate heat balances, using the approach illustrated
previously for one- and two-dimensional systems.
3-7. CLOSURE
In this chapter we have considered solutions to heat conduction prob-

lems in more than one dimension by analytical, graphical, experimental-
analogic, and finally by numerical means. Each of these methods has
certain advantages which should be recognized before the solution of a
problem is initiated. Although it is not possible to give infallible rules for
the selection of the most suitable method for a particular problem, the
following comments will aid in the selection.
The analytical approach is recommended for problems dealing with
systems simple in geometry and boundary conditions. It is the most ac-
curate method and lends itself readily to parameterization. However,
when the geometry or the boundary conditions are complex, the analytical
approach becomes too involved to be practical.
Systems of complex geometry, but with isothermal and insulated bound-
aries, are readily amenable to a solution by potential field plotting. The
graphical method becomes unwieldy, however, when the boundary condi-
tions involve heat transfer through a surface conductance. For those cases
the choice is between the analogic and the numerical approach.
If the solution to a complex heat conduction problem under one given
set of conditions is desired, the numerical method is the logical choice.
Although a numerical solution may be time consuming, the method is
flexible and is even applicable to systems with variable physical properties
and nonuniform boundary conditions. Moreover, the relaxation method
uses only the simplest of algebra and once the relaxation table is set up, the
numerical steps in the solution can be carried out by a relatively unskilled
operator.
The experimental-analogic approach should be considered when the
solution of a complex problem under a variety of conditions is to be found.
Under these circumstances the combined cost of constructing an analogue,
obtaining the solutions in the analogous system, and translating them back
into the thermal system is often less than the cost of repeating the numerical
solution for different conditions.
REFERENCES
1. P. J. Schneider, Coruluctwn Heat 1'rmUJjer. (Cambridge, ~tass.: Addison-Wesley
2. 1\t. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in Solids. (London: Oxford
University Press, 1947.)
3. L. R. Ingersoll, 0. J. Sobel, and A. C. Ingersoll, Heat Coruluction: With Engineer-
ir,g and Geological Applications. (New York: 1\leGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1948.)

4. ~1. Jakob, Heat Tramfer, Vol. 1. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1949.)
5. 0. Lutz, "Graphical Determination of Wall Temperatures for Heat Transfer
Through Walls of Arbitrary Shape," (translation from German), NACA TM 1280, 1950.
6. L. V. Bewley, Two Dimensional FitddB in Electrical Engineering. (New York:
The Macmillan Company, 1948.)
7. 0. Rtidenberg, "Die Ausbreitung der Luft und Erdfelder um Hochspannungs-
leitungen besonders hei Erd-und Kurzschltissen," Electrotuh. Z., Vol. 46 (1925), pp.
1342-1346.
8. I. Langmuir, E. Q. Adams, and F. S. Meikle, "Flow of Heat through Furnace
Walls," Tram. Am. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 24 (1913), pp. 53-84.
9. L. l\1. K. Boelter, V. M. Cherry, and H. A. Johnson, Heal Tramfer. (Berkelt'.v,
Calif.: University of California Press, 1942.)
10. A. D. Moore, "Fields from Fluid Flow 1\lappers," J. Appl. Physics, Vol. 20
(1949), pp. 790-804.
11. P. J. Schneider, "The Prandtll\1embrane Analogy for Temperature Fields with
Permanent Heat Sources or Sinks," J. Aeronautical Sci., Vol. 19 (1952), pp. 644~5.
12. Imtructions for Analog Field PloUer, Catalogtus 112L152G1 and G2, Geneml
Electric Company, Schenectady, New York.
13. C. F. Kayan, "An Electrical Geometrical Analogue for Complex Heat Flow,"
Tram. ASME, Vol. 67 (1945), pp. 713-716.
14. C. F. Kayan, "Heat-Transfer Temperature Patterns of a 1\lulticomponent
Structure by Comparative 1\lethods," Trans. ASME, Vol. 71 (1949), pp. 9-16.
15. H. M. EJierbrook, Jr., E. F. Schum, and A. J. Nachtigall, "Use of Electric
Analogs for Calculation of Temperature Distribution of Cooled Turbine Blades," N ACA
TN 3060, 1953.
16. D. N. de G. Allen, Relaxation Methods. (New York: 1\·l cGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., 1954.)
17. G. M. Dusinberre, Numerical Analysis of Heat Flow. (New York: 1\tlcGraw-IIill
Book Company, Inc., 1949.)
18. R. V. Southwell, Relaxation Methods in Engineering Science. (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1940.)
19. S. H. Candall, Engineering Analy81'.s. (New York: 1\lcGraw-Hill Book CoJu-
pa.ny, Inc., 1956.)
20. H. W. Emmons, "The Numerical Solution of Rent-Conduction Proh)Pm:'l ,"
Tram1. ASME, Vol. 65 (1943), pp. 607-612.
PROBLEMS
3-1. Determine the rate of heat flow per foot length from the inner to the outer
e-:urface of the molded a-14hestol-< inl-<ulation ~hown in the a('('Ompnnying Rketeh fk = 0.1
Btu/hr ft F).
Temperoture of r - l • __, This face is

This Surface , Insulated
,:/". is 450 F
.....~
~
PRuB. 3-1.

'
3-2. 1 The temperatures at nodal points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 in the comer section
of the wall shown in plan view in the accompanying sketch are 104, 101, 101, 105, 107,
107, 109, and 110 F respectively. The uni~surface conductance over the surface OA is
2.5, over the surface OB, 5.0 Btu/hr sq ft F. The distance between nodal points is 1 in.,
and the wall material is masonry brick (k =- 0.5 Btu/hr ft F). (a) Compute the residuals
at pointa 2, 3, 4, and 5 per foot thickness. (b) Relax the temperature at the point
having the largest residual to ~liminate it.
r.-90'
/i •2.51tv/hr sq. h. F
PuoH. 3--2.
3-3. The heat-conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates is
pe
aT
ae -
k (aarT + -;1 aT
1
1
1 atT CJIT) .
ar + -;:2 a~ 2 + az' + q
(a) Simplify the above equation by eliminating terms equal to zero for the case of
steady-state heat flow without sources or sinks around a right-angle comer such as the
one shown in the accompanying sketch. It may be assumed that the comer extends to
infinity in the direction perpendicular to the paper. (b) Solve the resulting equation
for the temperature distribution by substituting the boundary conditions. (c) Detennine
~he rate of heat flow from 'l't to T~. Assume k = 1 Btu/hr ft F and unit depth perpen-
dicular to the paper.
Pnos. 3-3.

3-4. How should the relaxation method be altered at an interface between two
materials of different thermal conductivitie8? Illustrate by a simple example.
3-6. A thick stainless-steel plate (k = 12 Btu/hr ft F) receives radiant heat at thP
rate q,. = 1440 Btu/hr sq ft. The temperature di~tribution at one instant of tim<-' i ~
shown in the accompanying sketch. lTsing the relaxlltion method, determine tht>
residual Q' at point 2 per foot thickness and determine the temperature change neca"Sary
to reduce the residue to zero.
q,
~
•
r,
..
1
--,
I
7 1•270 F
72•280 F
r,•m F
.. _l I
I T~·260F
I
.. --~
I
I
I
• I
I
I
I
_ j _____ JI
~
Pnun. 3-5.
3-6. A 6-in.-OD pipe is buried with its center line .10 in. below the surfuce of the
ground (k of soil is 0.20 Btu/hr ft F). An oil having a specific gravity of 0.8 and a specific
heat of 0.5 Btu/lh F flows in the pipe at 100 gallons per minute (gpm). Assuming a
ground-surface temperature of 40 F and a pipe-wall temperature of 200 F, e.~timate thr
length of pipe in which the oil temperature decrca.~eH by 10 F.
Pnon. 3-7
3-7. Compare the rate of heat flow from the top to the bottom in the aluminum
structure shown in the Aketeh with the rate of heat flow through a solid slab. The t{)p i~
at -34 F, the bottom at -32 F. The hole8 are filled with in~ulation which does not ron-
duct heat appreciably
3-8. Derive Eq. 3-7 starting with an energy balance.

3-9. By means of a flux plot, estimate the rate of heat flow through the object (k =
10 Btu/hr ft F) shown in the sketch. A~~ume that no heat i~ lost from the sides.
PROB. 3-9. PRoB. 3-10.
3-10. Determine the rate of heat transfer per foot length from a 2-in.-OD pipe
at 300 F placed eccentrically within a larger cylinder of rock wool as shown in the sketch.
The outside diameter of the larger cylinder is 6 in. and the surface temperature 100 F.
3-11. Suggest an experimental technique for simulating a convection boundary con-
dition in a model cut out of electrically conductive Teledeltos paper.
3-12. Calculate the rate of heat transfer between a 6-in.-OD pipe at 250 F and a
4-in.-OD pipe at 100 F. The two pipes are 1000 ft long; they are buried in sand (k = 0.19
Btu;hr ft F) 4 ft below the surface (T, = 80 F); they are parallel and separated by
9 in., center to center. Ans. 74,700 Btu/hr
3-13. Calculate the rate of heat loss from the hotter pipe in Prob. 3-12 to the ground
surface. Ans. 58,600 Btu/hr
3-14. Derive Eq. 3-8 starting with an energy balance.
3-16. Determine (a) the temperatures at the 16 equally-spaced points shown in
the accompanying sketch to three figure accuracy, (b) the rate of heat flow per foot
thicknes...~. Assume two-dimensional heat flow, k = 1 Btu/hr ft F, and make use of
the ~ymmetry of the system. Ans. 20.8, 41.65, 45.8
OF
OF
•
•
•
•
EB
l • • •
•
• OF 3ft
11
• •
• • • ~ •
~OF~
-3ft
PROR. 3-1.5.
3-16. A turbine blade 2! in. long, cros.~sectional area A = 0.005 HQ ft., perimeter
P of 0.40 ft is made of stainless steel (k = 15 Btu/hr ft F). The temperature of the root,
T'fC. il" 000 F. The blade is exposed to a hot gas at 1600 F, and the unit-surface condue-

tance his 80 Btu/hr sq ft F. Using the network shown in the accompanying sketch,
estimate the temperature distribution and the rate of heat transfer by the relaxati.:>n
method and compare your results with those obtained analytically in Hec. 2-5 or Prob.
2-15. Assume that the tip is insulated.
1H
~----------22----------~
Pam~. 3-16.
3-17. Hhow that for a semi-infinite plate of width L, having the boundary condi-
tion for T (x. y)
1' (0, Y) - Tt =0
1' (L, y)- T1 =0
7'(.r,oo) 1't =0
T (x. Q) 1'1 - (7'2- Td
the temperature difltribution is
1' -
-
T2
- ---
1'1
-
= -4 [ e- ( r '.1• 111 Sin
T1 1r •
. -
Lx
7r + -31 P--' ( IL) 11
Jr .
• 37r
~In - -
·- L
X + ···
J
For Tt = 0 and 1'2 = 100 F. plot i~othermR of 2.~, 50. and 75 F.
y •
PRoR. 3-17.
3-18. The temperatur~_s at points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 in a corner cross ~ction

of the wall shown in plan view are given in the sketch. The lower surface is insulated,
the left fiUI'fare i~ exposed through a unit-surface conductance of 5 Btu/hr sq ft F to a
fluid at 7'00 = 90 F. The thermal conductivit-y of the wall material is 1 Btu/hr ~'Q ft F /ft
and the difltance het\,.·een nodal points is 1 in. Using the relaxation method (a) comput('
the rPfliouul ut point .5. (h) C'ompute the reflidun.l at point 2.

•
T.=90f
1i=51tu/hr~q ft f
101f 2 IOSF 5 )----~~
PROB. 3-18.
3-19. A 6-in.-tall mild steel wedge, 1 in. on the top, 3 in. on the bottom, 5 ft long,
is used as a footing for a high temperature vessel (900 F). The wedge is insulated along
the sloping sides. Estimate the heat loss from the vessel through the wedge if the
hottom of the wedge is at 300 F.

4 Conduction of Heat
in the Unsteady State
4-1. TRANSIENT AND PERIODIC HEAT FLOW
In the preceding chapters we dealt only with problems involving steady-

:state heat conduction. However, before steady-state conditions can be
reached, some time must elapse after the heat-transfer process is initiated
to allow the transient conditions to disappear. For instance, when we
determined the rate of heat flow through the furnace wall in Sec. 2-1, we
did not consider the period during which the furnace was starting up and
the temperatures of the interior, as well as those of the walls, were slowly
increasing. '\Ve simply assumed that this period of transition had passed
and that steady-state conditions had been established. In Sec. 2-3 where
we determined the temperature distribution in an electrically heated wire,
we also neglected the warming-up period. Yet we know that when we
turn on a toaster, it takes some time before the resistance wires attain
maximum temperature, although heat generation starts instantaneously
when the current begins to flow.
Transient heat conduction is also important in the equalization of
temperatures in boiler drums during pressure-raising and reducing periods.
When the pressure is raised, the water temperature increases and the
interior surface temperature of the drum is raised. It takes a finite period
of time before the heat flow reaches the outer surface and equalizes the
temperatures. To prevent excessive thermal stresses during the transient
period it is necessary to restrict the rate at which the pressure rises in the
drum. Similarly, during pressure-reducing periods, the transient heat flow
process dictates the rate of pressure reduction in thick-walled boiler drums.
Another type of unsteady-heat-flow problem encountered in engineering
involves periodic variations of temperature and heat flow. Periodic heat
flow is of importance in internal-combustion engines, air-conditioning,
instrumentation, and process contol. For example, at the end of a hot
day the atmospheric air becomes cooler, and yet the temperatures inside
~tone buildings remain quite high for several hours after sundown. In the
morning, even though the atmosphere has already become warm, the air
in~ide the buildings will remain comfortably cool for several hours. The
116

CONDUCTION OF HEAT IN THE UNSTEADY STATE 117
n·ason for this phenomenon is the existence of a time lag before tempera-
ture equilibrium between the inside of the building and the outdoors can
be reached. Another typical example is the periodic heat flow through
the walls of engines which are heated only during a portion of their cycle
of operation. After the engine has warmed up and operates in the steady
~tate, the temperature at uny point in the wall undergoes cyclic variations
with time. \Vhile the engine is warming up, transient heat flow phenomena
are superimposed on the cyclic variations.
In this chapter we shall consider a number of heat-transfer problems
in which either periodic or transient temperature variations are of primary
concern. \Ve shall first analyze problems which can be simplified by as-
suming that the temperature is only a function of time and is uniform
throughout the system at any instant. In subsequent sections of this
chapter we shall consider various methods for solving practical problems
of unsteady heat flow when the temperature depends not only on the
time, but also varies in the interior of the system. Throughout this
chapter we shall not be concerned with the mechanisms of heat transfer by
convection or radiation. Where these modes of heat transfer affect the
boundary conditions of the system, an appropriate value for the unit-surface
conductance will simply be specified.
4-2. TRANSIENT HEAT FLOW IN SYSTEMS WITH NEGLIGIBLE INTERNAL

RESISTANCE
Even though there are no materials in nature that possess an infinite
thermal conductivity, many transient heat-flow problems can be readily
1
solved with acceptable accuracy by assuming that the internal conductive 1 •
resistance of the system is so small that the temperature within the system
is substantially uniform at any instant. This simplification is justified
when the external thermal resistance between the surface of the system
and the surrounding medium is so large compared to the internal thermal
resistance of the system that it controls the heat-transfer process.
A measure of the relative importance of the therm~l resistance within --L
a solid body is the ratio of the external to the internal resistance. This
ratio can be written in dimensionless form as hL / k,, the Biot number, .
where ii is the average unit-surface conductance, L is a significant length ·
dimension obtained by dividing the volume of the body by its surface
area, and k. is the thermal conductivity of the solid body. In bodies
whose shape resembles a plate, a cylinder, or a sphere, the error intro-
duced by the assumption that the temperature at any instant is uniform
\\;11 be less than 5 per cent when the internal resistance is less than 10 per
cent of the external surface resistance, i.e., when hL/ k. < 0.1.
A typical example of this type of transient heat flow is the cooling of
a small metal casting or a billet in a quenching bath after its removal from

118 CONDUCTION OF HEAT IN THE UNSTEADY STATE
a hot furnace. Suppose that the billet is removed from the furnace at a
unifonn temperature To and is quenched so suddenly that we can approx-
imate the environmental temperature change by a step. Designate the
time at which the cooling begins as 0 = 0, assume that the heat-transfer
coefficient ii remains constant during the process, and that the bath tem-
perature Too at a distance far removed from the billet does not vary with
time. Then, in accordance with the assumption that the temperature
within the body is substantially constant at any instant, an energy balance
for the billet over a small time interval dO is
The change in internal energy the net heat flow from the
of the billet during d8 billet. to the bath during d8
or
-cpVdT (4-1)
where c = the specific heat of the billet, in Btu/ lb F;
p = density of the billet, in lb/ cu ft;
V = volume of the billet, in cu ft;
T = average temperature of the billet, in F;
A, = surface area of the billet, in sq ft;
dT = temperature change during dO.
The minus sign in Eq. 4-1 indicates that the internal energy decreases when
T > T co· The variables T and 0 can be readily separated and, for a dif-
ferential time interval dO, Eq. 4-1 becomes
dT _ d(T - T 00 ) _ _ iiA, d
(4-2)
-7'---7'-ro - ( 1' - Too) - Cp V O
where it is noted that d(T - T aJ = dT. since Ten is constant. \Vith an

initial temperature of To and a temperature at time 0 of T as limits, inte-
gration of Eq. 4-2 yields - )
~
T - T hA s
In T -
o
T=
oo
- -- 8
Cp V
or
T-T - = e - (hA,/ cpV)B
_ _ _00_
(4-3)
To - Ten
The quantity (cp V /hA,) has the dimension of time and is called the time
constant. Its value is indicative of the rate of response of a single capacity
system to a sudden change in the environmental temperature. When
0 = (cp V /hA,) the temperature difference (To - T) reaches 62.3 per cent
of the initial potential difference (To - T co).
Equation 4-3 describes the temperature-time history of the cooling billet.
It is similar to the equation describing the voltage-time history in an

electrical system consisting of a capacitor Ce and resistance Re in series

(Fig. 4-1). When the switch Sin this system is suddenly opened, the con-
denser begins to discharge and the voltage difference E - Ec:o decreases.
Cooling Billet Discharging Condenser

s
J
·-'As
q == T - T ce = -C dT ,; = E - Eoo == _ C dE
R d8 .. R. e dfJ
T - Too - UfCR) 8 E - Ec:o - e- otc ,R,>'

To - 1'oo == t Eo- Ec:o
8- 0 when billet is immersed in 9 =- 0 when switch S is opened and the
fluid and heat begins to flow. condenser begins to discharge.
1.0 l.O
·-·-·
Bo-B.
o~------~,~------• o~------~,~-------
Thermal Circuit Electrical System

Heat Flow q (Btu/hr) Currect Flow i (amps)
Thermal Ca~acity Electrical Capacity C, (farads)
C == cpV(Btu/F)
Thennal Resistance Electrical Resistance Rt (ohms)
R =- 1/hAs(F hr/Btu)
Thermal Potential (T - T ooHF> Electrical Potential (E- Ew) (volts)
FIG. 4-1. Analogy between cooling billet and discharging condenser.
The current i flowing from the condenser through the electrical resistanec
R~ is related to the voltage difference by
i = _E_-_E_oo = _ _dQ_(' _ _ C dE (4--4)

Re d8 c d8
where C e = capacitance of the condenser, in farads;

Qe= charge of the condenser, in coulombs;
Em = ground potential.

Separating the variables in Eq. 4-4 and integrating yields

E-E
____
00
= e-(1/R,C,)I (4-6)
Eo- Eoo
where Eo is the voltage at 8 = 0, i.e., when the switch is opened. We see
that the potential in the electrical
r
system, as the potential in thermal
system, decays exponentially ,'f'ith time. In fact, if 1/C eRe is numerically
equal to hA./ cp V, both potentials will decay at the same rate and the two
systems will be analogous.
The analogy between the electrical system and the thermal system is il-
lustrated in Fig. 4-1. We note· that 1I hA, is the thermal resistance R at
the surface of the billet, cp V is equivalent to a lumped thermal capacitance
C of the billet in the sense that it indicates the amount of internal energy
which must be removed from the billet for each unit change of its tempera-
ture potential. The opening of the switch in the electrical system cor-
responds to the exposure of the billet to the colder environment, because
both processes initiate flow of energy-current from the condenser in the
electrical system, and heat from the billet in the thermal system.
Example 4-1. Determine the temperature response of a if-in.-diam copper win>
originally at 300 F when suddenly immersed in (a) water (h == 15 Btu/hr sq ft. F) at tOO F;
(b) air (h == 2 Bt.u/hr sq ft F) at 100 F.
Solution: From Table A-1 in Appendix III we obtain
k. == 216 Btu/hr ft. F

c == 0.091 Bt.u/lb F
p =- 558 lb/cu ft
The surface area A. and volume V of the wire are
A , per inch length == r D == 8.18 X 1o-a sq ft/in.

·v per inch length = 1rD 2!4 = 5.32 X 10-• cu ft
The Riot modulus is
hD (15)(1/32)/12
4 k, == (4 ) 216 << 0.1 for water
Hence, the internal resistance may be neglected and Eq. 4-3 applies. From the data and
the properties we have
C = cp l' = 2.72 X 10--.. Btu/F
R = _J_ = 61.4 F hr/Rtu, for air
hA, 8.18 F hr/Btu, for water
The temperature rc1<ponse is given by Eq. 4-3, and we get
'1'(9) = 100 + 200e-ofuc F

Th r ul ar plotted in Fig. 4-2. '\\ e note hat the time required for the temperature
diff renee between the wire and ·urrounding to reach one-half of the ini ial t mperature
difference i 42 ec in air but on ly 5.6 ec in water. An ;:; .
therm couple of -in. diameter would therefore lag con iderably if it were used to
m ure rapid change in air t-emperature and it would be advi able to u e wire of the
mallest avai lable diameter to reduce thi lag.
The re ult of the preceding analy is can b expre sed conveniently in

terms of dimensionle parameter . Let VIA II = L, where L i a ig-
nificant length dimension for the body, and multiply the numerator and
300
I\ -
...
!:>
e200
250
"'\
\ " ~'-,
t''
!
e
....• \\ """ r-- ....
~'-- ........
--
-- -
i\ ..............
150
\ 1--
-~'-- r--
100
'
war'--. t---- i---
--
0 20 <40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
9,Sec
FIG. 4-2. Cooling of wire in air and water.
the d nominator of the exponent hoj cpL by Lka. Separating there ulting
expr ion into two dimensionle s groups gives
MLkiJ = ( hL)(~ ~) = (Bi) (Fo)

Cp£ 2k 11 ka pC £2
and Eq. 4-3 becomes r
I
~ . T-T co
(4-6 )
To - Too
wh r Fo i the Fourier m,odulus aO/ L 2 and a, th thermal diffu ivity
d note the combination of phy ical propertie ks/ cp. The r ult can b t
be plotted in term of dimen ionle numb r a hown in Fig. 4- 3.
Example 4-2. Determine the time required for a mall aluminum c tin t
h in a furnace to 950 F by gase a 2200 F if the casting i put into the oven at 60 F.
The ignifi nt length of the casting V /A , is i ft and the unit- urface on u tanc ii.
tw n the ting urfa e and the gas . i. 15 Btu / hr . q ft F.

Solution : Fir~t we determine the Biot modulus, using an average value fork. from
Tahle .\-1 ,
hl~ !k. = ( 15i (0.5/ 130) = 0.05ii
Hi nee t hil" il-l les~ t hun 0.1, \H• neglect the internal re~il'ltance and Ul"f' Fig. -l-3. The l<'rn-
perature ratio is
(1' - 'l'co l/ (1'" - 7'00 ) = (U50 - 2200 l/ WO - 2~ = 0.58-l
1.0 -- - - - ·-.------- . - - -
0.8 "
0.6
' "lo
l~
: ~
0. .. l
I'\.
0 .2
"\1'.
,o .1
0 .8
...
"'"' "'
"
'-o
I.
~
""'\
""\
i
...
I
.2
i
I" ' I
0.01
0.008
0.006
I i
I
""
I 1'.
-"'
"' ~
_"'-.
0.00
"i
'
I
i
"
l ~
I
"'"'
"~
~
0.00 2
'\
0.00 0
,i I
2
l
3 .. .5 6 7
(BI)(Fo)=h91c p £
Fw. 4-3. Dimensionless temperature ratio (T - T co)I(To - 1'oo)
vs. product of Biot and Fourier moduli (Bi ) (Fo).
From Fig. 4-3 we get Bi Fo =- 0.5. From Table A-1, a - 3.70 sq ft/hr at an average
temperature of 500 F, and therefore
9 ... 0.5 [(0.5)(130)/(3.7)(15)] - 0.585 hr
The time required to heat the casting from 60 F to 950 F is thus roughly 0.585 hr. A ns.
For some problems the change in the internal energy of the system dur-
ing a given time interval must be determined. From Eq. 4-1 the in-
stantaneous rate of heat flow at any time (J is
dT
q = cpV dO

From Eq. 4-3 the instantaneous rate of temperature change is

dT
= (TaJ - To)
ii A, ~
e-(n.A,IcpV)
d8 cpV
and we get
(4-7)
Integrating Eq. 4-7 between 8 = 0 and 8 = 8 yields Q, the amount of heat

transferred in the time intervale, which equals the change in internal energy
of the system, or
_
hA,(TQ
aJ - To)
=
J'0
e-<TtA 1 /epV)Id8 = 1 _ e-<XA 1 /cpV)8
(4-8)
The same general method can also be used to estimate the tempera-
ture-time history and the internal energy change of a well-stirred fluid in a
metal container when the entire system is suddenly immersed in a fluid and
heated or cooled by the surrounding medium. If the walls of the container
are so thin that their heat capacity is negligible, the temperature-time
history of the fluid is
T-T
_ _ _=_ = e-<UA 1 /cpV) (4-3]
To- T aJ
where U A, is the transmittance between the fluid and the surrounding

medium and c and p are the specific heat and the density of the fluid
respectively.
The lumped capacity method of analysis can also be applied to com-
posite systems or bodies. It leads to a set of n simultaneous linear equa-
tions for n composite layers. For example, if the walls of the container
have a substantial thermal capacitance (cp V)t, the unit thermal conduc-
tance at A 1, the outer surface of the container, i~ li1, the unit thermal
conductance at A2, the inner surface of the container, is~, and the thermal
capacitance of the fluid in the container is (cp l1)2, the temperature-time
history of the fluid T(8) is obtained by solving simultaneously the equations
where Tc is the temperature of the walls of the container. The tempera-

ture time history of the fluid in the container, when the entire system, origi-
nally at To, is suddenly immersed in a medium at temperature T is 00
,
Kle-BIK• - K-!C-B!K,
K1- K,.
w~ere K1 and K2 arc obtained by solving the equations
simultaneously. The details of this derivation and the construction of the

thermal circuit are left as an exercise (see Pro b. 4-23).
4-3. PERIODIC HEAT FLOW IN SYSTEMS WITH NEGLIGIBLE INTERNAL RESISTANCEt

The preceding analysis has been limited to transient heat flo\v in
systems where the ambient temperature remains constant. There exist,
however, many problems in which the temperature of the medium sur-
rounding the system varies with time. For exan1ple, there are batch proc-
esses in the chemical industry where the temperature of a chemical compound
in a container must periodically follow a specified time schedule. The
temperature changes of the material in the container are usually induced
by heating or cooling the environment. Even if the compound is well
stirred, it cannot in1mediately respond to the variation in the environ-
mental temperature, as a result of its finite thermal capacity. To obtain
the desired temperature-time schedule it is therefore necessary to initiate
changes in the environmental temperature early enough to allow for the
time lag in the system. Other typical examples of periodic-heat-flow
problems are encountered in the design of a thermostatic temperature-
control unit for a building which is continuously exposed to cyclic tempera-
ture variations and the design of the temperature-sensing element of a
transducer used in the control and programming of high-vaccum processes
such as the purification of vitamins.
The equation describing the temperature-time history of a system
exposed to periodic temperature fluctuations is identical to the one derived
for a constant ambient temperature. For a differential time interval dO
we can write Eq. 4-1 in the form
[ 4-1]
but since Too now varies with time, i.e., Too = Too (0), we cannot simply
1 Thi:-; R('<'tion may he omitted without breaking the continuity of the prest'ntu.tion.

separate the variables. To obtain the temperature-time history of a

system subjected to a variable environmental temperature we collect the
terms containing the system temperature T on the left-hand side. This
yields
dT(8) + iiA T(8) = iiA 8 T 00(8)

II
(4-9)
d8 pcV pcV
a linear nonhomogeneous equation with constant coefficients. The gen-

eral solution of Eq. 4-9 for a specified variation of Too (8) will be composed
of the sum of two parts. The first part, called the particular integral, sat-
isfies the complet~ equation and contains no arbitrary constants. Phys-
ically, the particular integral is the temperature-time history of the system
after the transient phenomena have disappeared. In problems in dy-
namics and electric-circuit theory, this portion of the solution is often
called the steady-state solution. Steady state in periodic phenomena
means that the cyclic variations of the system will not change with time.
The steady-state response of the system temperature T is caused and sus-
tained by the environmental temperature T which acts as the driving
00
,
potential and will generally be of the same form. If the periodic steady
state is a cyclic variation of T 00 , then the temperature of the system T
will also be cyclic. For example, if Too is sinusoidal, the steady-state
response of T will also be sinusoidal.
The second part of the solution, called the complementary function,
makes the left-hand side of Eq. 4-9 equal to zero. It contains the con-
stants of integration whose values must be obtained from the initial or
boundary conditions and represents physically the transient response of
the system temperature. The transient response arises because of a lack
of initial equilibrium and will decay exponentially as when T co is constant.
In summary, the complete solution to Eq. 4-9 consists of two parts:
T = T, + T, (4-10)
where T,, means the steady-state part and T, means the transient part of
the system temperature T. It should be noted that the boundarv con-
-- - tf _ _ _ _ _ ___ ,
,di tions and the initial conditions must always be applied to the complete
solution, T = T., + T,, and never to the transient part alone.
Example 4-3. Compare the temperature-time response of a bare iron-constantan
thermocouple with that of a mercury-in-glass thermometer when these instruments are
used to measure the temperature-time history of a gas whose temperature is a sinwmidal
function of time, 8, i.e., Too = (100 + 50 sin 2~8) F. Al-11-'Ume that the over-n.ll heat-
tran~fer coefficient for both instruments is equal to 5 Btu/hr to;q ft. F. The thermocouple
i~ ! 2 in. in diameter with 2 in. of length immersed. The thermometer i~ idealized by a
mercury cylinder 1 in. long and i in. in diameter. The initial temperature of both im~tru
ments is 60 F.

Solution: The transient response is obtained by solving Eq. 4-9 for the comple-
mentary function. Setting the left-hand side of Eq. 4-9 equal to zero, we obtain the
homogeneous equation
dT + hA, T,. O
d8 cpV
After separating the variables and integrating, the solution is found to be
T, _ c1e- (hA./cpV)B ('-11)
In order to find the steady-state response we must obtain the particular integral. Since
the driving potential (i.e., the bath temperature) is sinusoidal, the response also must
be sinusoidal. In addition, the driving potential contains a constant term, and therefore
the response also must contain a constant. \Ve recall that, when the solutions to linear
differential equations are superposed (i.e., simply added), the sum also is a solution. By
means of this fact we can construct the type of equation which meets the required condi-
tions, as
T, = C, sin 2ri + Cs cos 2ri + C4
Thi~.o~
expression must satisfy Eq. 4-H if it is a solution. Hence, we take the derivative of
Eq. 4-12
d~,. = 2rC2 cos 2ri - 211Ca sin 2ri
and substitute Eqs. 4-11 and 4-12 into Eq. 4-9, the original expres.'iion forT. If we let
m • hA,fcp V, we obtain, after collecting terms,
(2rCs + mCa) cos 2ri + (mC, - 2rCa) sin 21rll + mC.
= mlOO + m50 sin 2ri
This can be an identity for all value.'! of time 8 only if the coefficients of like terms on
each side of the equation a.re equal and we have
2rCt + mCa ""' 0 from the cosine tenns
mCs - 2rCa - 50m from the sine tenns
c4
= 100 from the constant tenn
Halving these equations for C2 and C3 simultaneously, we obtain
50 (2r/m)50
Cs -= 1 + (2r/m) 2 and c.- 1 + (2r/m) 1
The steady-state temperature response is therefore
50 . (2r/m)50
T .. - 100 +1+ (2r/m)lsm 2ri - 1 + (2r/m)' cos 2ri
Terms such as Ct sin 2ri - Ca cos 2ri can be combined by using the relation
C, sin 2r6 - Ca cos 2r6 - v' C12 + C11 (- _ Ct sin 2r8 - Ca cos 2r6)
V Cz + Ca"
2
v' Ct + Ca"
2
If we now construct a right triangle with v' C11 + C11 as the hypotenuse and C1 and C a
as the sides, we get C 1/ v' C ~ + Ca1 =- cos 6 and
Ca/YC22 + Ca1 -= sin 6. But since sin (A - B) - sm
a A cos B - cos A sin B, we get C2 sin 2ri
- Ca cos 2r8 - VC 21 + Ca1 sin (2r6- 6)
where ~ is equal to the tan- 1 CCa/C2).

Combining the last two terms of Eq. 4-14 in this manner and adding r, from Eq. 4-11
pves
('-115)
where a =- tan-• (2r/m) a.nd represents the time lag in the temperature response of the
ill.8trumen ts.
The constant of integration C1 ca.n now be evaluated from the initial condition, i.e.,
T - 60 F a.t 8-0. Substituting this condition into Eq. 4-15 yields
T,_o = 60 - 100 + 50 sin (- a) + C1

V1 + (2r/m) 1
:\laking use of the trigonometric identity for sin a we obtain

lOOr/m
C, = 1 + (2r/m) 2 -
40 ('-17)
Finally, the expression for the temperature-time history of the in8tn1ment is
T = [ 100r/m - 40 e-"''
1 + (2 r/m)l
J + 50 . (2ri - a)
sm + 100
V1 + {2r/m)1
To obtain the time lag 6 in units of time we first find the time required for the system
to go through one complete cycle. In the problem under consideration, the bath or the
!'teady-state response of the instruments will complete one cycle each hour (i.e., 2.-6 in-
crea~es by 2r radians as 8 increases by one). The time lag a in hours is therefore obtained
hy dividing the lag in radians by the number of radians corresponding to a. unit increMe
of time, which is 2r radians in this case.
In order to plot the results, we determine the numerical value of m for the instru-
ments. By definition we have
liA, 1i rDL 41i
m---=-
cpV cp (r/4)D 1L
=--
cpD
For the thermometer, using physical properties of mercury
p= 849 lb/cu ft
C a 0.0325 Btu/lh F
D - 0.021 ft m == 35.2 hr- 1
For the thermocouple, using properties of iron as an approximation
p -475 lb/cu ft
c = 0.12 Btu/lb F
D - 0.0026 ft m = 135 hr- 1
The final equations for the temperature respon~ of the thermometer and thermo-
couple are respectively within slide-rule accuracy
T met.er = 100 + 49.3 ~in (21r8 - 10.3) - 31.35 e-~- 2
T couple = 100 +50 sin (21r8 - 2.7) - 37.7 e- 1361

160
I
= J I
1-40
TFiuid 1OO+ SO 5in 2tr8
~::::,
~ ~- -- ._..
-
~-
~
120
..,?/ ~ T 55 =100+50sinl27r9-2.71 ~ .......... I'
~ v< =100+49.3 sin t2tr8 -10.31
100 ~
,..,.. /
T 55
' ~
~
.....
80
""
•
z0... 60
~
Q.
E TFiuid
~ • 40 - - - - T Couple
- -----TMeter
20
- 13.59
Tt= -37.7
1 L
0
_+-- T
I(, / ~Tt= -31 .35 e- 35· 29
-20
I
2 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Time, Min.
Fw 4-4. Transient and ead '- tat r pon of the thermocouple and
the th rmom t r in Example 4- 3.
The e re ult are plotted in Fig . 4--4 and 4-5. In the graph of Fig. 4-4, the t ady-
stat and th t ran i nt repon e ar plott d epara ly. We note hat the t ransi nt
resp n. e of the th rm meter i on. id rably lower- it takes about 6 min odie u -
than that of t.he thermo ouple. Thi i n unexpected "ince t he time on tan of t he
thermometer i I .7 min , while th t ime c n. tant f the thermae upl i le t h n ne
half of a minu t.e. Th teady- tat lag of h thermom te r i 11 arly a minu te "bile
the thermocouple lag. I . han five c nd b hind the t mperature of t h ba h. The
reason f r t hi behavior i the la rge thermal cap citanc of the mercury therm me ter,
whi h mak thi y pe of in rum 11 un ui tab le when high s n i ivi ·y and f . t r -pon e
are de ired.
160
.
140
~,
~ -- .-..,
~ ~-~
-~ ~
~~
~
/
r--,
120
v,? /
~ .....
~ I'..._
/
.... 100 ~ //
f::>
0 1/ v ~
80
8.E 1/
"
~ II
60
T Fluod = 100 +SO sin 2tr6
40 - - - - T couple =
100+50 sin 12tr6-2.71 -37.7 -1359
=
- - - - - - TMeler 100 + 49.3 sin !2K()-10.31- 31.35e- 35 · 29
20
2 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30. 32
Time, Min .
Fw. - 5. l uitia l re ·pan · of th th rm ·ouple a nd Lh th rm mett>r of

Example 4- 3 wh •n imm d ud nly in a inu id all var. ing m dium.

The preceding technique can be extended to arbitrary kinds of periodic

temperature variations, since nearly any periodic function of time can be
expressed in terms of a series of sine and cosine terms of the form
Ao 27r 411"
Too(8) = -
2
+At cos-
8o
8 + A2 cos- 8 + ...
8o
.
+B 1 Sill -
21r
8o
8 +B .
2 Sill -
411"
8o
8 + ... (4-19)
Onee the temperature variation in Eq. 4-9 is expressed in this form, a solu-
tion can be obtained by algebraic addition of the solutions corresponding to
each term of the series. The type of series shown in Eq. 4-19 is called a
Fourier series. It can be written more compactly as
(4-20)
or in the equivalent form,
(4-21)
where 2Ao = mean temperature, Tav~r;
8o = period of the first harmonic or fundamental com-

ponent;
Cn = VA,. + B,.
2
= the temperature amplitude of the nth harmonic;
2
fJn = tan -t(B,./ An), the phase angle of the nth harmonic;
n = positive integers 1,2,3,etc.
The solution of Eq. 4-9 can be written compactly as
T(8) = Tavg + '(' T avg ( 27m

~-------COS - - 8 - f1n - 0,.
) + Ce-m 6
. n-• ~1 + ( 2;.n m)' Oo . (4--22)
where C is a constant whose value depends on the initial conditions and

o" is the lag of the nth harmonic in the response. It should be noted that
the coefficient Tavg/Vl + [(27rn/ 8o)m)2, often called the amplitude ratio,
decreases rapidly for higher harmonics, i.e., if n is large. Therefore, the
higher harmonics of the ambient-temperature variation have little or no

effect on the system temperature, T(8). The analogy to problems dealing

with electrical or mechanical vibrations is apparent and may assist in the
analysis of the thermal problems.
4-4. TRANSIENT HEAT FLOW IN AN INFINITE PLATE2
In Sec. 4-2 we discussed analytic methods for solving a class of transient-
heat-flow problems which could be simplified by neglecting the thermal
resistance within the system and treating the thermal capacity of the entire
system as a lumped parameter. The mathematical description of this
type of problem leads to ordinary differential equations. For simple
shapes this approach is satisfactory when the Biot modulus is less than 0.1.
Systems having a Biot modulus larger than 0.1 could be analyzed by means
of graphical or numerical methods described in Sees. 4-6 and 4-7, but,
for several cases of practical importance, solutions are available in the
form of charts which are based on exact solutions and reduce the amount
of labor and time required for the analysis. The material in this section
serves as an introduction to the mathematical methods for solving the
general heat-conduction equation and it will also foster an understanding
of the technique for using the charts presented in Sec. 4-5.
The equations describing the temperature distribution in a solid having
a finite thermal conductivity were derived in Sec. 3-2. These equations
are partial-differential equations because the temperature is a function of
time as well as location. A detailed treatment of the methods for solving
the general heat-conduction equation is beyond the scope of this book, and
for an extensive treatment reference may be made to the books by Schneider
(1), Carslaw and Jaeger (2), and Jacob (3). Only one of the simplest cases
which can be handled essentially with the tools of ordinary differential
equations will be solved here.
To illustrate the analytic method of solving transient-heat-conduction
problems, consider a large flat plate of thickness L having, under steady-
state conditions, a uniform temperature To· One side of the plate is
insulated and the other side is in contact with a fluid. At some instant,
the temperature of the fluid is suddenly raised from To toToo· Heat begins
to flow from the fluid to the plate, and we are to determine the rate of heat
flow and the temperature distribution in the plate at arbitrary values of
time.
The solution to this problem has numerous practical applications. For
example, the walls of an uncooled rocket motor are suddenly exposed to
hot gases when the propellants are ignited, and the operating time of the
motor is limited by the resulting thermal stresses and the temperature
rise at the inner wall. To predict the permissible time of operation it is
necessary to know the temperature-time history in the shell of the rocket.
2 Tins section may be omitted without breaking the continuity of the presentation.

Since heat losses from the outer surface are generally so small that one
may assume the surface is insulated, the boundary conditions conform ap-
proximately to the problem under consideration if the wall thickness is
small compared to the motor diameter. Another example is the vulcaniza-
tion of tires. The tire is placed in a mold, steam is admitted to both sides,
and the surfaces are maintained at an elevated temperature until the central
layer has been heated to a specified temperature. This system also meets
the specifications of the problem at hand if it is recognized that uniform and
equal temperatures on both sides of a wall (or a geometry which approxi-
mates it) result in a temperature profile which is symmetrical about the
center plane. Thus the temperature gradient at the center must be zero,
and this is exactly the boundary condition for the insulated face.
I
I
I
I
I
•I ,.., , J.--------
I
I
t+--L
FIG. 4-6. Nomenclature for transient

heat flow in an infinite plate.
Figure 4-6 is a schematic diagram of the system to be analyzed. For

simplicity we shall choose as a datum the temperature of the fluid to which
the surface of the slab is exposed at () = 0. This simply means that we
measure all temperatures in degrees above (or below) the temperature of
the fluid, and Too = 0. Since the slab is assumed very long in the y and z
direction, the temperature will be uniform in any yz plane at a specified
value of x. Then, the general heat-conduction equation, in the absence
of heat sources and sinks, reduces to
1 iJT iJ 2 T
--=- (4-23)
a iJ8
The thermal diffusivity a, which appears in all unsteady-heat-conduction
problems is a property of the material, and the time rate of temperature
change depends on its numerical value. Qualitatively we observe that, in a
material that combines a low thermal conductivity with a large specific heat

per unit volume, the rate of temperature change will be slower than in a
material that possesses a large thermal diffusivity.
Since the temperature T must be a. function of time 8 and distance x,
we begin by assuming a product solution, i.e., multiply one function which
only depends on time, 9 (8), by another function which only depends on
distance, X(x). The nature of these functions is not known at this point,
but will be determined as we proceed.
Thus, if
T(x,8) = X(x)8(8) (4-24)
it follows that
aT= x ae and
a8 a8
Substituting these partial derivatives into Eq. 4-23, yields
1 ae a 2
- X - = 8 -2
X
(4-26)
a o8 ox
We can now separate the variables, i.e., bring all functions which depend
on x to one side of the equation and all functions which depend on 8 to
the other. By dividing both sides of Eq. 4-25 by X9, we obtain
1 ae 1 a2X
- - = - - -2 (4-26)
ae o8 X ox
Now observe that the left-hand side is a function of 8 only and, the ref ore, is
independent of x. Similarly, the right-hand side is a function of.x only and
will not change as 8 varies. Since neither side can change as 8 and x vary,
both sides are equal to a constant which we shall call JJ.. Hence, we have
two ordinary and linear differential equations with constant coefficients
d9(8) = aJJ.8(8) (4-27)

d8
and (4-28)
The general solution for Eq. 4-27 is

9(8) = Ctl!"" 9
If JJ. were a positive number, the temperature of the slab would become
infinitely high as 8 increased, which is absurd. Therefore, we must reject
the possibility that IJ. > 0. If JJ. were zero, then we would find that the
function expressing the time dependence of the temperature in the slab
would be a constant. Again, this possibility must be rejected be{'ause it

. CONDUCTION OF HEAT IN THE UNSTEADY STATE 133
would not be consistent with the physical conditions of the problem. We

therefore conclude that J.L must be a negative number, and for convenience
we let JJ = -~V. The time-dependent function, then, becomes
(4-29)
Next we direct attention to the equation involving x (Eq. 4-28). Its

general solution can be written in terms of a sinusoidal function. Since
this is a second-order equation, there must be two constants of integration
in the solution. In convenient form, the solution to the equation
a2X(x)
-ax2- = -~ 2 X(x)
can be written as
X(x) = C2 cos~ + Ca sin~ (4--30)
Returning now to the original product solution as expressed by Eq.

4-24, the temperature, as a function of distance and time in the slab, is
given by
T(x,8) = Cte-a).2 '(C2 cos ~x + Ca sin ~x)
= e-a).
21
(A cos ~x + B sin~) (4--31)
where A = C1C2 and B = CtC3, both A and B being constants which must
be evaluated from the boundary and initial conditions. In addition we
mtL"t also determine the value of the constant ~ in order to complete the
solution.
The boundary and initial conditions, stated in symbolic form, are:
1. At x = o, aT ;ax = o.
2. At x = L, -(aT ;ax) = (h/k,)(T z = L - 0).
3. At 8 = 0, T = To (initial condition).
In order to meet boundary condition 1, we take the partial derivative
of T(x,8) with respect to x and set the resulting expression equal to zero,
which gives
aT
ax
= e-aX
2
' (-A~ sin ~ + B~ cos ~x) =0
Z""O .r=O
Now sin 0 = 0, but the second term in the bracket, involving the cos 0
ran be zero only if B = 0. The solution for T(x,8) becomes, therefore,
T(x,8) = e-ax21A cos ~X (4-32)
In order to satisfy the second boundary condition, namely that the heat

flow by conduction at the interface must be equal to the heat flow by con-
vection, the equality
aT
- e-a~
2
8
•
A X Sln XL = -
ii (T z-L - 0) = - ii 2
e-a~ B A cos XL
ax z =L
k, k,
must hold for all values of 0, which gives
:. cos XL = X sin XL
k,
or rot XL = --- XL = Bi XL (4--33)
hL
Equation 4-33 is transcendental, and there are an infinite number of
values of X which will satisfy it. l\1athematicians refer to these values of
or
'2
.lL--
Fw. 4-7. Graphical solution of tranf;cendental equation.
X as characteristic values or Eigenwerte. The simplest way to determine

the numerical values of X is to plot cot XL and Bi XL against XL. The
values of X at the points of intersection of these curves are the charac-
teristic values and will satisfy the second boundary condition. Figure
4-7 is a plot of these curves, and if L = 1 we read off the first few charac-
teristic values as X1 = 0.86Bi, X2 = 3.43Bi, Xa = 6.44Bi, etc. The value
X = 0 is disregarded because it leads to the trivial solution T = 0 (see Eq.
4-32).
A particular solution of Eq. 4-32 corresponds to each value of X. Of
course, the constant A must be evaluated for each value of X. Therefore,
we shall adopt a subscript notation to identify the correspondence between
A and X. For instance, A 1 corresponds to X1 or, in general, A" to X". The

complete solution is formed as the sum of the solutions corresponding to

each characteristic value, or
c:o
T(x,9) = ~ e--..~.••A.cos X.x (4-34)

n•l
Each term of this infinite series contains a constant. These constants are
evaluated by substituting the initial condition, i.e., the initial tempera-
ture distribution, into Eq. 4-34. For our problem, we have
c:o
T(x,O) = T. = ~A. cos x.x (4-36)

n•l
It can be shown that the characteristic functions, cos ~nx, are orthogonal
bet ween x = 0 and x = L and the ref ore3
f. L COS ~nX COS ~m xdx = 0 if m ~ n

0 ~ 0 if m = n (4-36)
where ~ .. may be any characteristic value of ~. To obtain a particular
value of A.,., we multiply both sides of Eq. 4-35 by cos ~mx and integrate
between 0 and L. In accordance with Eq. 4-36, all terms on the right-
hand side disappear except the one involving the square of the character-
istic function, cos ~,.x, and we obtain
From standard integral tables (12) we get

Lcos 1
' (,_
+.I'/-21Xn sin ~nX cos ~nX JL : ·.

L 1
J o
2
~"xdx =~X
~
.c
L 1
e
= - + - s i n ~nL cos ~"L
2 2~n
and
J 0
cos Xnxdx = -
~n
sin ~,.L
~This can be verified by performing the integration which yields
d _ X,. sin L:\,.. co~ L:\,. - :\,.. sin LX,. cos LX,.
f 0
L :\
cos ,...x cos
:\
,.X X - 2L(X,.'J - X,..2)
when m ~ n. However, from Eq. 4-33 we have

cot X~ k cot X~
:\,.. - fi. = X,.
or A,. cos X,. L sin >..~ = >..,.. cos X~ sin :\,.L

Therefore, the integral is zero when m # n.

whence the constant A.,. is

2X.,. To sin XnL
An = - - - - - - - - - - - - -
LXn + sin XnL cos X.,.L X,.
2To sin X.,.L

- ---------------
LX,. +
sin X,.L cos X.,.L
(4-37)
As an illustration of the general procedure outlined above, let us de-

termine A1 when ii = 1, k, = 1, and L = 1. From the graph of Fig. 4-7,
the value of At is 0.86 radians or 49.2 deg. Then \Ve have
. = T 2 sin 49.2 _ T 2 X 0. 757 T
A1 1.12
0.86 + 0.757 X 0.653
0 0 0
1 X 0.8o +sin 49.2 cos 49.2
Similarly, we obtain
A2 = -0.1.52To and Aa = 0.046To
\Ve note that the series converges rapidly and, for Ri = 1, three terms
represent a fairly good approximation for practical purposes.
To express the temperature in the slab in terms of conventional dimen-
sionless moduli, we let X.,. = {)n / L. The final form of the solution, obtained
by substituting Eq. 4-37 into Eq. 4-32, is then
T(~,8) = ~ e- 6.,.2<Ba! L'> 2 sin {).,. ~os({).,.x/L) (4-38)
1o L-i {)n + Sln {),. COS {),.
rt•l
\Ve note that the time dependence is now contained in the dimensionless
Fourier modulus, Fo = 8a/ L 2 • Furthermore, if we write the second
boundary condition in terms of {).,., we obtain from Eq. 4-33
k.
cot {).,. = --- {)" (4-39)
hL
iiL
or o.,. tan {)" = -
k,
= Bi
\Ve observe that {)" is a function only of the dimensionless Biot modulus,
Bi = hL/k.. Hence the temperature T(x,8) can be fully expressed in
term~ of the three dimensionless quantities, Fo = 8a/ L'-, Bi = hL/k~,
and x/L.
It is not difficult to determine also the internal energy change of the
slab. At any instant 8, the rate of heat flow per unit area from the fluid
to th<· surfaee of the slab is given by
q _ -k aT
A • ax

If we let dQ represent the heat flow per unit area during a time interval
dO, we can write
dQ dO (4-40)
The temperature gradient can be obtained by differentiating Eq. 4-38

with respect to x for a given value of 8, or
aT
(4--41)
ax
z=L
Substituting Eq. 4-41 into Eq. 4-40 and integrating between the limits of
8 = 0 and 8 gives the change in internal energy of the slab during the time
8, which is equal to the amount of heat Q absorbed by (or removed from)
the slab. After some algebraic simplification, we obtain
Q - 2T L Cp ~co (
1 -
e-a n 2Fo) -
sin2«5"
----.---- ( 4--42)
- 0
n•l
0" +
2
«5n Sln «5n COS On
In order to make Eq. 4-42 dimensionless, we note that cpLTo represents

the initial internal energy per square foot of the slab relative to the datum,
Too = 0. If we denote cpLTo by Qo, we get
(4-43)
The temperature distribution and the amount of heat transferred at

any time may be determined from Eqs. 4-38 and 4-43 respectively. The
final expressions are in the form of infinite series. These series have been
evaluated, and the results are available in the form of charts. The use
of the charts for the problem treated in this section as well as for other cases
of practical interest will be taken up in the following section. A complete
understanding of the methods by which the mathematical solutions have
been obtained, although helpful, is not necessary for using the charts.
4-5. CHARTS FOR TRANSIENT ·HEAT CONDUCTION
For transient heat conduction in several simple shapes, subject to

boundary conditions of practical importance, the temperature distribution
and the heat flow have been calculated and the results are available in
the form of charts or tables (1,2,3,9,10,11). In this section we shall illus-
trate the application of some of these charts to typical problems of transient
heat conduction in solids having Biot moduli larger than 0.1. The charts

Slob
1.0 .....
~~5.......
0.8
..
4,0
lOO
'"""''" !""--~-..... - ----- -........r- 40 !==
25:
w
-- ---- --
~ .-......;;; ~ r-- :--- :::::;;;::: :::-- /
(X)
........
r-.. i"'::-...:: c--
06 ~~ ............
~...... , ...........
"'-- ~- ~
~
L
1.5 ..._ 210- ~......
b,
r--..... ...............
~
r-- r-- ~
~/
- 2,_
0-
'
~......,_ ................
~
-........
~
r--- t:::::- 1I0

~
~ ....... ['..., ~ t--- --
~
·- 1-7 ~
0 ............... 1is -
0 ... ~ r-...........
<C ...... ....... ...... ""'"
;:::;:
N.
m
["'--....
~ ~ /
~
.........
~
~
rs
...... ~
............ ............ [............
1'--..
l'>o..:
~
-- r-.. -
t----.-10 -
i - n
o._
o- ""' r-....
.......
~ i"'--... r-..... 0
""'
~
~
~
," ""-
..-" ...............
-.....
r---- OJ5- 0
z
~
""'
'< 050...._ .........
0.2 r-...
(') /')(,
~'-.........
............
~ I ...........
~/ I'....... ...........
r--......
~
o5o_ 0
0 .._ i. =o.oo ~
....... I
%
r =o.6o- - ks / .......
c:
n
}__!!J...L ""'-...
f5 . . . _ F-- - 0.00....... ............0 10 ""o 25 ....... t-.....
~,.......
- . 0.00' 0 10 .......... o
0-
~-- -4
B -Il L IlL ......
0 25.
100
rv 08 ~ ~ t--.
........ , ............ ~~
,.....__
,.._ -r--
L 4o ~ ~ t-
......... t--:::- t----.. - r---
~ ~
,
.
....
z
06
............ '-....
!":~~ r--r=::r-=:.r--
!'-..
7""'- r--u
I I '.._\ ' ...,_
-.....I'- --r-=:: -r---r-- ~ .,
0
t- r-- ~r--- r- 5--r-- "'
2 o_ \ ' ......_......_
r--r-- F::::J:::
-20_
!"'--.. ~""-.. r--~ / j-- I
--
--
~
04 ......,_ ......,_ ~ 1;5=-
!"-... ~
........._ 1:--., 1.0_ ' ~ .......... ~ -~~oo.' :I:
!'.. .:---., ....... ~ -- l\ ~ .............. ./ r--. ~ m
........ ~ ........ --r--.. \Oooc::::::;
........ b-. ,.....-.....t-..... 0{5- '-.. r---... -t--...
>
""
~ ......
r-- ...........
*
............_ / ')(i'...,_ .......
.............. 050 ~ ·:><:..r--.. 075- -4
02
.............. ~ I % "
-- ~
.,..
nk s ~,.-/'-t-- ~'-....... z
x I r =o.8ol " ' - .... 1
.............. ['-.. r--r-.0 50 -
~'o I25' ~.::-~ooo
r - r=o2o ......
~o.oo"'- ......0 10 'o1o........._ 'o25..... -4
01
............ L . !'-. ~ I
:I:
c ....._~ 100 25 m
z 08 ~~-=- . our-=
,.. . . . ._. . . r-.... ~t:--: - .., 4.0
<
!--= ... .o c:
- --
. . . ["'--.. "" r-...-r- t--- I" I I . '\ !'-....--r--- -r---
m
::0
06
~~"'r---...... . . . . ._ ~- -:::::;:.r--_ t?'- t:::::: r 2 10 - ~t--- ---....,. z
r-- 1.5 r -
(/)
'-'r-..........1'....... . . . . . . . --r--- Zr--- I\ . . . . r--...
(./)Q
-........ . . . . . . r--~ ~
20==
I -4
~~: o.. ::::::-- -1 o::- 1 ........._ .._ 15~ m
0~
:::J
.,...., r--. "' ......,_ ~

............ ""'""'
..... r--....... ~ 1
J. ..... -- t---,., >
- ·-
-...0 75 ........._ t-- -
~~~
~ --~ 0
:s;a
"'hi i - \ ~
!'-... -t--1 'o
-3
r---o 1
~
........... -<
"' t-......
~/~l75::r--
n .............. r-..
02 5o \
:r:
~ ~"' ~=1.~"' --~-:::- (/)
G) x ks lL"' ..... -, - 0\0 -4
)>
z
01
f - r =o ... o
I I
- r-- !::'.
t-o .~
. . . f'.
0. 1~
. . . . . . r-..-.. J
0 ~~ 1..
0.00 '
['_,
I t ~
0 ?5 . . . . it "~
---r-- 1
?SO,t--...
>
-4
m
o 0.2 o.~ o6 o.8 1.0 1.2 14 o' 0.2 0 .4 o6 o.8 1.o 1.2 14
fo = a 8
L2
Fro. 4- 8. Dimensionless te mperature distribution in a wall subjected to a. sudden change in environmental
temperature.
I • ""
presented here have been taken from Refs. 9 and 10, and for details of the
mathematical solutions, the original references should be consulted.
Flat plate. The first series of charts (Figs. 4-8 and 4-9) apply to a
Jarge flat plate of thickness 2L. Initially the temperature of the plate is
uniform at To· At some instant of time which will be designated as
8 = 0, the plate is immersed in a fluid at T oo• If T is larger than To, CD
heat begins to flow from the fluid to the plate. The rate of heat flow de-
pends on the temperature difference T To, the unit-surface conductance CD -
h bet,veen the plate and the fluid, the physical properties of the plate, and
the plate thickness. The temperature distribution and the internal
energy in the plate at any instant are functions of the same variables.
The functional relationshipR, derived in the preceding section, are given by
1.0
I v V:::?' / v- --·-
1.0
I vv V/: 7 ..,. 7
!
!
I
fo~-'!}
L
/
/
f-- - - ~;o-;o -)o-}.o-; o- 1.0
.IV
1
/ I
V II
/ I /
1/
1
1/
7 ·r
./
- -·-
. I / / v v / /
0 .5
--
// i
.i I / / / v A' / .. --
vv
c
.2..
c
• vv v~ v /v _;'
p 0.1=--
I
o.os- -·-
~ / v v v v v [/" ..-...... __..... v...,........ ~ I
··-
0.0
~ ::::..-:::.r.:::::::- v_ ~
...... :--- - ~~
1-ooo-
0{)2-
0.0
2 2 5 2 5 2 2 , 2 5
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 Cit
etot•a Modulus li =hLjlc 1

Fw. 4-9. Dimensionless heat flow to or from a wall subjected to a sudden
change in environmental temperature.
Eqs. 4-38 and 4-43 respectively in terms of dimensionless parameters.

The numerical results are presented in Figs. 4-8 and 4-9. In Fig. 4-8 the
dimensionless temperature ratio (T :r:/L- T )/(Te-o- TaJ is plotted against 00
Fo, the Fourier modulus a8/ L2 • There are six separate graphs for depth
ratios x/ L of 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0, where x is the distance from the
central plane as shown in Fig. 4-6. The upper left-hand graph (x/L = O)
shows the temperature at the center plane where oT I ox = 0. The graph
in the lower right-hand comer applies to the surface of the slab in contact
with the fluid.
The constant parameter for each of the dimensionless temperature-
time curves is the reciprocal of the Biot modulus, i.e., k, / hL. The curves
labeled k, / hL = 0 are for an infinite surface conductance, that is, a sudden
change in the temperature at the face x = L. An inspection of the graph
for x/ L = 1 shows that the temperature at the face x = L is equal to T c:o
at 8 >. . . 0. For small values of the Biot modulus, say hL/k. < 0.1, there is
little difference between the temperatures at x = Land x = 0 at any time.

For such cases the assumption that a uniform temperature prevails through-
out the body does not introduce a serious error, and the simplified analysis
presented in Sec. 4-2 may be used. The justification for this assumption
i~ now substantiated for one system by the results of an exact analysis.
Figure 4-9 is a plot of Q/ Qo vs. the Biot modulus for various values
of Fo. Here Q represents the total change in internal energy per unit area,
i.e., the amount of heat transferred per unit area in the time interval be-
tween 0 = 0 and 0 = 0 in Btu per square foot; Qo represents the initial
internal-energy per unit area relative to the fluid temperature T i.e., 00 ,
cpL( To - T A positive value of Q indicates, therefore, that heat is

00
).
transferred from the wall to the fluid, while a negative value of Q shows that.
the direction of heat flow is into the slab.
Example 4-4. A concrete wall, 1ft thick and originally at 100 F, is suddenly expo~l
on one side to a hot gas at 1600 F. If the heat-tran~fer coefficient on the hot side is
5 Btu/hr sq ft F and the other side is insulated, determine (a) the time required to ra.il"e
the temperature at the insulated face of the slab to 500 F, (b) the temperature di~tri
bution in the wall at that instant, and (c) the heat transferred to the wall per square foot
of surface area.
Solution: (a) From Table A-1 of properties we get
k. = 0.54 Btu/hr ft F
c = 0.20 Btu/lb F
p = 144 lb/cu ft
)
a = 0.0 18i sq ft/hr
\Ve note that the into~ulated face corresponds to the center plane in a slab of thickness
2L, since aT ;ax = 0 for both at x = 0. The temperature ratio at the insulated face is
T - T 00
To - Too
Iat z 500 F 1600 F
= o = -100--F--1-600--F =- O. 733
and the reciprocal of the Biot modulm~ ia
k. 0.54 I
ii.L = ( )( 1). = 0.108
5
From the chart of Fig. 4-8, a8/ L 2 I at z = L = 0.25 under these conditions, and there-
fore 8 = 0.25 X 1/0.0181 = 13.3 hr. An~.
b) The temperature distribution in the Blab at this instant is determined from the
~raphs for the various depth ratios as shown below.
xjL 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

T- Too 0.5 0.32 0.12
0.7 0.6.5
To - Too
Tro- T 1050 975 7;)0 480 265
-

The temperatures at various distances from the insulated face are tabulated below.
X (ft) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 I 0.8 1.0

Temp (F) 500 .550 625 850 I 1120 1335
Ans.
c) The heat transferred to the wall during the process can be obtained from Fig. 4-!l.
For hL / k. equal to 9.25, Q/Qo at a8/ L 2 = 0.25 is about 0.5. Thus, we find that
• Q = cpL (To- T aJ) (0.5) = (0.2) (144) (1) (100- 1600) (0.5) = - 21,600 Btu Ans.
The minus sign indicates that the heat flow is into the wall and that the internal energy
of the wall increased during the process. A positive answer would of course indicate
the opposite conditions.
Long cylinder and sphere. In addition to the plane wall, solutions

are also available in chart form for the infinitely long cylinder and the
sphere. The mathematical solutions may be obtained by the same method
of approach that was used in Sec. 4-4 for the slab, namely by assuming a
produet solution and separating the variables. The basic differential
equations to he Rolverl are
aT a2 T + -1 aT) .
- for a long eyhnder
- a ( -., (4 44)
iJ() iJr- r ar
aT (a 2
T 2 aT)
- = a - 2 +- -- fora sphere (4-46)
iJ() iJr r ar 2
The initial and the boundary conditions for which the sohtt.ions to Eqs.
4-4-t and 4-45 have been evaluated are described as follows:
1. The initial temperature distribution in the cylinder or the splwre
is uniform and equal to To, i.e., at () = 0, T = To.
2. At time 8 = 0, the cylinder or the sphere is exposed to a fluid whose
temperature is T aJ' This temperature is used as the datum above
or below which changes in temperature are measured.
3. The unit-surface conductance, ii, between the surface of the body
and the fluid is uniform and does not change with time.
The charts of Figs. 4-10 and 4-12 show the dimensionless temperature
ratios ( TTj To - TaJ I ( TB-0 - T00) as a function of the Fourier modulus a8; ro'!
for various values of k, j hro, the reciprocal of the Biot modulus; T Tf To is tlw
temperature at time 8 at the location r/ro. As for the slab, there are six
~eparate graphs for depth ratios r/ro of 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0, when~
ro is the outside radius and r the radial distance from the center.
The ratios of the total amount of heat transferred during the proress to
the. initial internal energy are plotted in Fig. 4-11 for the cylinder and in

10
'"'
i\. "'f',.
1- .:-:..:-;:·
~ -
~
I
100
Cylinder
\ ' ~~
'-'t--...."""r-::::-,_ -.--..: -
T 1--:
_E.=
-
~
tl.)
1-----
0 .8 ""-'t---..;;::::;; :::::-- - - - I \ .......... ::---:.b ,_ ,
\ t\.. ""'-.., ~ . . ._ ._-........--- r--- ~ - ~6 0 I \ "- '"""'r--... r---:: :::::- r---:.r-- ---.~ - 6 .0 ( - -
06 \ "\."""' ........_........ ......., -- -r-- "'o- \ "- """"""' b.. """'-.....6:-r--- -r--.,.k...- r--4 .0 -
0
o•l,_L =oo
I
i\ r\. "' ~ ~ "'r><t'
- . . . ~"'--........ -- ~ 20- --- !. =0,6 ,
-r--............ 3.0:-t::-- 1\ [\.. ~"-... ~............... -- ~ · C'""<.r--
' "\. ~ ").K..'>............._
- -
- 30 :::+==:
-~
lO
a-: \ '-, ~-~ '-...i'....... --i--... --r--20 n
---~ I ~ -- """'
N 0
ID
c..
ro "- ""- "'-.... .............. I ""......_ -............._ --.. I ......::;; 0
0"" 0 . 2 ~ .!!. ~ .. \ '-. "~ "'-.... ............... ~ s::::::- ks .c:.:X' I\_ ""'-. "~ .........._~ ;-1 5 ~ z
........,~ '{a \, \ '\,~ '~ '-. . ,. ~
'<
hr? ' ,\ "- "'-"-. ""'-i'-......_ J 0
CJ c
n
0 'd.oo\ ~.2.5"' "o5o t.ol.. . . . . . . j 'o.cili ~.2.5 o.5o 'o1s
a
r---.07.5 ~
I -, I ........... I \ 1'- I I .......
01
0
,......... 08 z
(\)
06
\ -~~ .._I'-__ ---r-- r- .-6 0 1 1\ \ f'.........._::--....... """-..=--!'-- r---:..:::::=~ 1-- 6 0-
\ "- !""'-.., 1"--.......... L:::::::, --r-- ~t:::::::::, 4.0- \ ' ......._, ~ --r--.. .__,__ ~!=;.... -r--- 4.o..L___ 0..,
~·
~ ~ o... "' ~ ["-... ~..... ~ """'b:--5 .:=:-<t:-:- 30 t-- .\ \. """ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ --.. . . . t--< ;:-<-~ --r-- t:::::::=f~
I ..!.... = 0 .2 \ -" ~ _::-. r-- ~. - ~...!.... :. 0 8 '........ ..... - f""'-.... --~ ..1 ::I:
~-......... ~ ~
=
0 ro \ D.. t.:::::, -20..., ro . 1'. ' _..,-::[S .........., 26 - m
~
II
0
----t """...-~ ~ """- ~ r--...b. I ,- t- ' \ . - - '-.. !'-. .........._~ -......r--. ., ~ )>
~ s <._-;: l~ ~[\. ....
. . . . . . . . !'-- ~ ~\c. .. '- "' "' 't---.., .....~ """-.. r-
~
z-
1.5-. 1 .5
·--~
0 .2
r-+ hr0 \---'\ '- ........_ ..... r--........ hr0 \ r-.... f'...., r---........._r--.. 1 -.
L_J 1 - - ~ ~ ,o ~- - ~
O. l ~ _
b~oo 6.25 -"~.so..~
I \ ~ 1 ...;;:;
ro 75
j ........_
. 1'---- 0.00
I \
~2.5 -. '6so
1'\ 1 r--
'o.75...._
l ~
1 '·0.,.,__
.........
~ OO•
~
::I:
~~~ ~ ....__ \~ ....,., 1 m
c v .or ~~~~-t--:-, J::::::::::-~ -t::::::::::, 10.0 11\~::---...--r-. r-- - ' 10.0.::+==1
z ~ '~'~ =:::-:.. :::--r--.-r:-:--r--- ~!:::= ~"""- r-- -~-- r-- c
<
m
:::0
!flO
0 .6
o..t ·
1~
~
l"
"
l"." :--....... -. ~ --...t--
' '~"b-. ---~f---t::---.
r-t:>--==
6 .0 r--1\ \.
-
r- \ "' ~...............
30
.
4 .o\ " "l""'.......
...........r- ;~' -r--r-- . 3 o-
"""'r--.. r-~"--
-t---J.
r---t--,....:1--.-.- r--- r-- 4 o+=
6 .0 -
z
CJ)
~
~~: 1\ "-" ""' l"o. ""--K ~r--...._ ~r--t-- "r.......- ~- r--.,.__ -..r--r-....._ ~ - ·~
1
:::J
r _
- 0 .4 ~ ~ I -.
:.
_ 7.0-r- o
=1.0 !'...
l ........
............_
t:-- ~ f - l """t--....._ . 1 -.~ t-
0~
ro ~ -~- " L'--... . . . ~ -~ I ~- r . . . . ........ I """'r- --r-- 2 0 c
"Tl--.,
:so
n3
f-
0 .2 f - Ti.ro
ks .::-~
1\--- l"-
'\ ~
. . . . ._
~
.........._
['....
.........._
1 ~ ::::t-hro
~s ~·-
t\....... ~
I
'r--
'-
"r--., .........._b-,
'r--.... ""-
1-r---..
r--15
J. r;;;:: -<
CJ)
I l~ . -~ ' . . . ['--.. r--...... I '. - "t-, I ' I ......_ ~ ' .__ ~
G) )>
A\ ~ - •~ , ~ I' ..... 1.0 •... - ~ ,.......... ........~.
)> 0 .00 0 .25 0.75 , ....... o.oo 0 .2.5 0 .50 0 75...._ 1.0-....... ~
z n. ~ ~ ~ ~ .1~ ~ .1.
0 .1 J. I , I ' I ......._ _1. .1. .J m
0 0 .2 0.4 0 .6 0 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0 0 .2 0.4 0 .6 0 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 I •
I > 1._
o Q_
'iJ
Fw . 4- 10. Dimensionless temperature distribut.ion in a long circular cyli nder subj ected to a sudden change
in cnvironmentH.l t emperature. ( By permission from L . .1\tL K. Boelter, V. H . Cherry, and H. A. Johnson,
Ilea l T ransf er, 3d ed., 1942)
Fig. 4-13 for the sphere against the Biot modulus at various values of the
Fourier modulus. The initial energy stored is measured with respect to
T and is defined as Qo = cp-rrro2 (To - T CD) per unit length of the cylinder
aJ
and as Qo = cp! 7rTo3 (To - T CD) for the sphere.

·The use of these charts is illustrated in the following example.
Eumple 4-6. In California the problem of preventing the freezing of oranges
during cold nights is of considerable economic importance. Heat is transferred from
the oranges by radiation and convection to the cold environment. To reduce the heat
transfer by radiation to the cold sky and to warm the surrounding air, oil heaters, or
smudge pots, are used. These devices generate a emoky haze which reduces the radiant
1.0
I ~~ v v" v 17 ~
~
~· -
1.0
i / 1/ / / / v v -
---
I
/
I I
'
I / j J
v v / - ~ -.::
-
~ 1.0 ·'
!
I 2s
;; I ~ .0 2.5 0.5 o.2s _0.10~
I f/ 7 I
/
v !I v ~
~ ~ -- ,-
I I I J v J
0.5
. /_ ~-05,. j
l,.o"'
-
.i f-- -
!
v / / f/ / / / / """ ,.
-1c:
v v.....,..., - v ~v /
f-·
--·-=
.
•
I
./ / ,. 7 ./ ~
-~
~ · --
I
f--. /
v~ v~ v
~
. . . V~ v 7 ;iii' -
Q
t----· ~ " 0.01
-
0.0 I
2
J--:: ::::::- ~ ~-::: f.--
5 2 5 2
~
....
5
v--
- ~ ~---:: ~
2 5
~
2 5 2 5
0.0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0. 1 1 10
liot'a Modulus li =~
Fxo. 4-11. Dimensionless heat flow to or from a long circular cylinder sub-
jected to a sudden change in environmental temperature. (By permission from
U. Grigull, "Die Grundgesetze der Warmelibertragung," Springer Verlag,
3d ed., Berlin: 1955)
heat loss and also heats the air. To specify the heating requirements, it is necessary
to estimate the temperature at the center of a 4-in.-diam orange originally at 65 F when
exposed to an environment at an effective temperature of 25 F for a period of 6 hr. The
over-all surface conductance is estimated to be 2 Btu/hr sq ft F. Since the juice of an
orange consists largely of water, the physical properties of water given in Table A-3
may be used.
Solution: We shall assume that the exposure to the cold air is quite sudden and
' use Fig. 4-12. The Biot modulus is
li.ro (2 Btu/hr sq ft F) (2 in.)
-k- - (0.33 Btu/hr ft J:4")(12 in./ft) .. 1.0
and hence we cannot neglect the internal resistance. The Fourier modulus is,
a8 _ (0.005 sq ft/hr)(6 hr)(l44 sq in. /sq ft) _
1 08
ro 1 2 1 sq in. ·
In Fig. 4-12 we obtain from the graph for r/ro - 0 the temperature ratio
T - TaJ - 0.10
To - Ta:J
Dig it ized by Coogle Original from

1.0 ,-..::
08
•
.......
\~\.""' t-...~ ......-..;;;;. ~ ..._ 10 0
Sphere
1 \~~~t=;::
\~'~ ~t--- - ~::,_
,
p-1 0 0 __, . _J
-
~
~
~
0.6 ~ \ "\.'~ ~ ............. -r-- -r--,_
,\\ :'-...."-,'"""' !'-., - - - : - - - -r---
~6 oo:::..r--- -~ .
I :-;,
~~'~;:::~~
..........
r--_ - --- --
l--r~ oo_ ' -,
I \ V\ '\ "' "-. ""'-.. --.........~ 1::::-~ - r -.. oo \' .\ '\. "~~ ~:----...... k s :;::-~~-=:::-t-. 00 _ r--i
0
lO
0 .<4 ks
\ \ "\. -~~ hr0 .' \ \ -~ '\1- ~ """""~ ::: hr; I '..;;;;;.~
rT
N ::::::-,..._ I _ - I .
Ill
Q_ \ 1\ \ '\. " "-, I ........_ ~............. 3.00....._ L\.l.\ ~ , _ ......., 5 --31)() n
CJ
r \ ~ '\.. r--..._ i"'-... --......... I _::: I \).]\~ '-.. _ __::::..:--...,. ~
- - r 1 -~ '"'}..... 0
CJ
'<
r
021 0 =0.0 [\ \ \ '\. " "r-.._ ~ """""!'--- I ~=06 ~ '-.. " I "-......_ -~ r z
0
. . _lo.~o \ '\. "'- 'I'... \ I ........_.........._ 2.1oo-.... ............. o \o' IO 1\ '\ '~ ~ ~- I -2100--.......J. 0
c
\ 1,\ 1'\ "\. ~ r-..., • I I"- I ' \ .. - ' r-.... . . . . .. I ~ n
~,_
I
o.
1
o~ \ 0.2~ o~{ o.7st'... 1.~ ?o-...... o. ~
1 o 2~ o ~~ 0.1~ 1 '-1~ 1 so~ -t
-- - - -1--· 0
('V 08
. ~ 0-..·~~ -~ -
I
10.0
~\~ ;s;:::::5 ~
~~~-~r=. -~
.........._
100-= - z
~\'\ "'"" ~r--... r-- -t:-- ' :\'f"-...'-..R'r--... ~ - - -~
0.6 \\\ '\. "~ .......... r---...... r-- --- __ r::-6.00 __ ,\\ '\. '~ r-....... I'-.... r-- -~~ -:::~600_
1
,0
EJ ~ 0•,. \\ \ '\ "'- "' r--....... --.........~ k s >-<:... - -.c.oo
~-'
,\ \ '\ "" ~ j',.J . . . . ._ . . . _ .!.!.
._,.hr.
"'"":--k.- ?"""-~ 00 _-L-1
1
r-- I ~ -k.....l
\ \ 1"\. ' ........_ 1--. I - _l\ "\. "'- "- ::I:
l.!'lo \\\ '\."'-........_ ........._orr---...., 3.00..., \~\ '\. "........_ ........._ ~ ~300 1 m
~ ~ \ r>-.. ~ i"---.. -........ I - \ ~ \ ' r-.... .......... 1 r---...... I I -r-. >
f.-=0 .2 i\ \ ~ ~ ~ '--....,. b., ........._......_ I ~=08 \ '\. " ' "- '..~.. ........_........_ I l -t
o.2 o 1 \o\o \
_,
r'\.. ~ "~ '
~\ \ ~ ~ ~-I
"~
'
2.r. . . . . . . . _
I
\o\.o \
I\ ~ \
\i\. ""-
1'\ ~
'r--... _L . . . . . . . . . . .
....... ' "
~2'oo ..
I
---
f"'...
z
o.~ \ 0.2{ o.s~ o~ 1\ o 12~ os ~
1
o. o.75r>-.. LOQ. 1.so........_ o.7; '\,oo 1 so........._ -t
1
1 ::I:
c m
z ~~ ~ I ~ ~ :::--+--.
< 0.8 \'\: ~' ~-......:: ::--- - - ,1'\ ~ r--....---- r---- c
m 06 \ ~\ "\: ~ " " ' -1'--- - - 1~.0 ,, -.........:::::---.... ~r-- ~ .:..._ t- 10 0-
::0
l/)Q
. l\ \ ~-.....::::' . . . . ~-r--.... ---- -~--- :::"'6 00- \ '............ ............ -........ r--- --- -r----6 6 00 z
(/)
~~: O..t
[\\\ '\. "'-....... 1'--. . . . . . . _ k s - ::;--..,; ~ _. : - - - I \ ~"' ."... "- ~--....~'-..., r- k s...,. ...-"::'1>-<r:::..... l I - -t
m
~ ~;.. "'- ~\ ""~ "'!'...... -........~-...~ ' -r--r-.... .c joo: ~
::::l
0~
-n...,
:s::o
\\ \ '\." 't'-.... ............_' - - - : ·,: - '\ >
0
n3 \ i\ \ "' " '- t--...... \ 1-... j -- r 1'\. ~ . . . . . . "' ........._ \ -3 oo .. ~
I 02 I~ =0.<4' \ \ ['\. ""- ............ ~ ................... I r=o=l.O "' ", ~ ........... ~ \['........ I -....
~o. to '~ I'-. """~ \ "'-...... r\. "'- '-...._ .......,~~oo
(/)
Cl
)> • o I \ 2ioo ... ........_ o.'{l> \ '!'...... \ -t
z ~ ~. . . . . I ~ f J )..t-1
O.l L
·o
l
\l
10.~ I\ Oj2{ 0. 5~
0.6
p.75, (~
I
1.50_e-....... o.r \
0/~ Oi5~
'-
0 7l\ 001'-., ~0""-
1
_l ~
)>
-t
m
0.2 O•.t 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0 0.2 0.<4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.
~
Fw. 4- 12. Dimensionless te mperature distribu tion in a sphere sub jected to sudden change in environ-
mental temperature. (B y per m ision from L. l\1. I<. Boelter, V. H . C herry, a nd H . A. J ohnson, H eat Trans-
~ r, 3d ('d., 1042)
whcnc·c the temperature at the center iR

1' = (0.10) (65-25) + 25 = 28 F
It appc.•ar:-o, thcn•fore, that the frost will penetrate the fruit.
An in~pection of Figs. 4- 8, -l-10, and 4-12 shows that a change in the

surface of environmental temperature may not affect the interior of the
body for some time after the temperature change originally occurred.
There are numerous practical problems where one is only interested in the
temperature distribution and the heat flow during the initial stages of a
process or where the body is so large that the temperature at the interior
is not affected by the temperature changes at the surface. In such cases
it i~ often found that the charts of Figs. 4-8 to 4-13 cannot be read to a
1.0
.k::': v / ...... / / v-- t-"'
---- 1.0
v
. .
/ I / // / ...-
I / / I / v /
.....--
~ I 25~ 10~ 5.0 2.5 1.0 9.5 o.2r ,•-::
/ / I I J / v v-·
-
.ci
v I vv / /
v
/ v 0.10
I-"'" - ----
0.5
. / / / / /L_ ./ L 0.05
/ v /
.2
/v ........
/ / / /
1
-- --
./ •• ·--=
/ / ./: / ~ / / .L
v ....... v .- ~ . 01
~
0 .0
2
f--" ~ ~
2 5
~
... ::::::.. ....:::::::
_...-::
2 5
- :.---:::.-::::::
2
~
2 5 2
0.0
0 .0001 0.0()1 0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 ,J
liot Modulus,li • t:o I .
FIG. 4-13. Dimensionless heat flow to or from a sphere subjected to a sud-

den change in environmental temperature. (By permission from U. Grigull,
"Die Grundgestezc der \VarmeUbertragung," Springer Verlag, 3d ed., Berlin:
1B55)
sufficient degree of accuracy. However, Boelter (9) and Heisler (11) have
prepared special charts for short-time heating or cooling to supplement
Figs. 4-8 to 4-13.
Semi-infinite body. If the temperature in the interior of a slab does
not change during a process, the temperature distribution near the surface
is identical to that in an infinitely thick slab and we have a so-called semi-
infinite solid. For transient heat conduction in a semi-infinite solid
(Fig. 4-14), solutions are available in the form of charts subject to the fol-
low·ing initial and boundary conditions.
1. The temperature distribution in the body is originally uniform at To.
2. At time 8 = 0, the face of the semi-infinite solid is brought in con-
tact with a fluid at Too·
3. The unit-surface conductance ii over the face x = 0 is constant and
uniform.
Digiti zed by Coogle Orig inal from

These boundary conditions are also valid for a wall of finite thickness, or for
a long rod which is insulated around its circumference when L/2Wa is
larger than 0.5; they are approximately correct for cylinders and spheres
as long as the depth to which the heat conduction has penetrated is small
compared with the radius of curvature.
We shall first consider the special case of one-dimensional transient
heat conduction in a semi-infinite solid with no thermal resistance at the
surface. This assumption simplifies the problem because, at 8 = 0, the
-+--••
•
Fm. 4-14. Sketch illustrating no-
menclature for semi-infinite slab.
temperature change occurs directly at the surfaee, i.e., T z-o - Ten for
8~ 0.
For this case4 the solution to Eq. 4-2:3 h('comes
T-T T ,
(4-46)
where G(x/2v;;B) is the Gt ussia 1 ~ rror tegral defined as
G( Z~
X )
= --;
2
J
0
%/2va8 -82
r df' ( 4-47)
In Fig. 4-15, G(xj2Va8) is plotted against x/2v;;B, and the curve may lw
used for convenience in computation. The variable xj2v;;8 is a dimen-
sionless quantity. If a is in sq ft/hr, 8 must be expressed in hours and I
in feet.
The instantaneous rate of heat flow at the surface can be readily oh-
4
For details of the solution, see Refs. 1, 2, or 3.

tained from Eq. 4-46 by evaluating the temperature gradient at the sur-
face, or
q = - k A iJT
• ax
~-o
= k,A Too - To ( 4 48)

~
The total change in internal energy of the slab during the process from
8 = 0 to 8 = 8 is
Q=
! ' J' qdO = k,A T -T
~
<XI
0
lrid8=2k,A(T00 - /e
To)\}-;;;-
7ra
(4-49)
0 0
1.0
~
L
~
0.8
v
/
v
v
0.2
0.0 v
0.0 0.2 o..c 0.6 0.8 1.0
z
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
2VnT
FIG. 4-15. Gaussian error integral.
Example 4-8. In the installation of underground water pipes, it is important to

determine the depth to which a change in surface temperature is felt during a 12-hr
period. If the original ROil temperature is 40 F and the ~urface temperature suddenly
drops to 25 F, determine the depth to which the freezing temperature penetrates.
Amune that the soil is dry and a ,... 0.012 sq ft/hr.
Solution: For the dimensionless temperature ratio we have
T - Too = 32 F 25 F """ 467

0
To- Too 40 F - 25 F .
From Fig. 4-15 we find that
G( z -) = 0.467
2ya8
z == 0.44
2vaB

Solving for x, we get
X = 2V (0.012) (12) 0.44 == 0.334 ft
Thm~, freezing will not occur if the pipe is more than 4 in. below the surface. A ns.
For a finite value of the surface conductance at the face of a semi-

infinite slab, the solution to Eq. 4-23 is shown in Fig. 4-16 where the
temperature ratio (T - TaJ!(Ta - TaJ is plotted against a local Biot
modulus hxjk,, where xis the distance frotn the face. The constant param-
eter for each of the curves is e, the dimensionless time parameter (h/ k,) 2 a8,
often called the boundary Fourier 1nodulus. The use of this chart is
illustrated by the following example.
Example 4-7. A cylindrical combustion chamber (10 in. ID) has a refractory lining
of l-in. thickness on the inside to protect the exterior shell. In order to determiue
the thermal stress, it is necessary to obtain the temperature distribution in the lining
1 min after initiation of combustion. The following data are given:
Too = 3000 F
ii = 40 Btu/hr sq ft F
a =- 0.020 sq ft/hr
k - 0.6 Btu/hr ft F
To""" lOOF
Solution: The time period of interest is short and the radius of curvature of the
refractory wall is large compared to the wall thickness. We therefore treat the system as
a semi-infinite slab. For 8 = 1/60, the boundary Fourier modulus is
hla/J (40)!(0.02)
k;Z = (0.6) 2 (60) = 1.4 8
For this value of the time parameter, the temperature at various values of x can be
found from Fig. 4-16. The results are tabulated below.
x (in.) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

hx/k, 0.0 1.11 2.22 3.33 4.44 5.55
T - Too
0.38 0.7 0.9 0.97 1.0 1.0
To - Too
7' - Too 1100 2040 2610 2810 2900 2000
T (F) 1900 noo 390 190 100 100
The temperature distribution permits an analysis of the thermal stress due to the dif-
ferential expansion of the lining.
Two- and three-dimensional bodies. The problems considered in this

section have so far been limited to one-dimensional heat flow. Since
many practical problems involve heat flow in two- and three-dimensional
systems, we shall now show how solutions for. one-dimensional problems
can be combined to yield solutions of certain two- and three-dimensional
transient systems. As an example, consider the heating of a long rec-
tangular bar (Fig. 4-17a) initially at a uniform temperature To. At

- 2
Boundary-Fourier Modulus 9= ( ~) a8
-----
----
----
----
0.10 0.20
Local Biot Modulus ¥

(a)
i?ao
= - 2-
k,
.2
0
"'
100~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;;~~
8. 9 10 11 12 13 ).( 15 16 17 18
Local 8iot Modulus ~:
(b)
FI . 4-16. Dimen ionle temperature di tribution in a mi-infinit l b
ubj ted to a udden change in nvironmental temp ra ur . (B) p rmi i n
from L. M. K. B elter, V. H. Ch rry, a.nd H. . John n, H at T ran f r, 3
ed., 1942)
149
Original from
Digitized by Google UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
~~4---- 2a ----~
_,_. -: A - - - - - t - - - - - - - - - - , 1
\) / I
...,_-26--~
h~ :
(a} (b)
1
X
CIO
(c) {d)
CIO
i .. /CIO
-·
---•x ---•x
(e) (f)
(a) Co-ordinate system for infinitely long rectangular bar.

(b) Co-ardinat<• s.vstem for brick-shaped body.
(c) Co-ardinate sv~tcm for finite cvlinder.
(d) Co-ordinate s~vstem for quarter-infinite body.
(e) Co-ordinate system for eighth-infinite body.
(j) Co-ordinate system for semi-infinite cylinder.
FIG. 4-17. Sketches illustrating two- and three-dimen~ional systems
amenable to product solutions.

time 8 = 0, the rod is placed into an environment at a temperature Ten·

The unit-surface conductance over both of the longer sides is ha, over
both of the shorter sides, hb.
If we compare this problem with the heating of a large plate of width
2b, it is physically obvious that the heat flow from the shorter sides ac-
celerates the heating. It can be shown (see, for example, Refs. 1 and 2)
that the effect of the shorter sides on the solution for an infinitely long
plate of width 2b can also be expressed in the form of a product solution.
In other words, to obtain the temperature-time history of the rectangular
bar we need only multiply the dimensionless temperature ratios for two in-
finite plates, one 2b, the other 2a wide. Symbolically we write
(T- T)
To - T: bar = (T - T)
To - T: 2o plate
(TTo -- T)
T: 26 plate
(4-50)
where the temperature ratios at the respective locations for any point in
the system may be taken from Fig. 4-8 at con·espond1"ng time parameters.
The Biot moduli are of course different for the two infinite plates from
which the solution to the rectangular bar is formed.
E:umple 4-8. In the design of fire-fighting equipment it is neceASary to know how

long wooden beams can be exposed to fire before they ignite. The beams are long,
2 by 4 in. in cross section, and initially at a uniform temperature of 60 F. The physical
properties of the wood are as follows:
p = 50 lb/cu ft
c == 0.6 Btu/lb F
k = 0.2 Btu/hr ft F
At the instant the fire breaks out, the beams are exposed to gases at 1200 F and the
uni~urface conductance is 3.0 Btu/hr sq ft. F over all of the faces. Estimate the time
ela~ before the wood reaches the ignition temperature of 800 F.
Solution: The dimensionleHS temperature ratio when 1' = 800 F is

T - Too 800 F - 1200 F
To - T CD = 60 F - 1200 F = O.aS
According to Eq. 4-50, the temperature ratio for this rectangular beam equals the product
of the tem~rature ratioR for two large plate~. one of them 4 in., the other, 2 in. thick, or
T - Too =- O 35 = ( T - T CD) . ( T - Too)

T • - T CD • To - T CD t-In. plate T0 - T 00 2-ln. plate
To obtain the time required for the temperature to reach 800 F we use the charts of
Fig. 4-8. The ~urface will reach 800 F first and therefore the graphs for x/ L = 1
apply. The solution, however, cannot be obtained directly, but requires some trial
and error. We assume various values of time, use Fig. 4-8 to determine the tempera-
hare ratios for each of the plates. and multiply theRe ratios. The value of 8 at which
t hf• product equals 0.35 is the desired answer.

- --------- -------------------
Assuming 8 == 0.5 hr, a8 I L2 of the wider plate is
a8 =- ~ == (0.2 Btu/hr ft F)(0.5 hr)(l2 1 sq in./sq ft) ==
0 12
L1 cpL 1 (0.6 Btu/lb F)(50 lb/cu ft)(2 1 sq in.) ·
and since k/hL is equal to 0.4, we have
T - TCZ)) 0 48
( To - T aJ ~n. pla&e- •
from the graph for x/ L = 1.0 in Fig. 4-8. Similarly, for the other plate (L == 1 in.)
we find at 8 = 0.5
T - TCZ))
( 7' == 0.27
0 - T aJ 2-ln. plate
Then the temperature ratio for the wooden beam at 8 == 0.5 is

T - TCZ)
== (0.27)(0.48) == 0.13
To - T aJ
Since this is less than 0.35, the assumed value of 8 is too large. Repeating the calcula-
tions for 8 == 0.10, we find that the surface temperature reaches 800 F during this
time. An.s.
It is suggested that the reader fill in the re~ining steps and verify the answer.
The extension of the product solution to a brick-shaped solid (Fig.
4-17b) leads to
T - T )
( To - T:
brick=
(T - T )
To - 2a plate
(T - T )
To - T:
2b plate
(T - T )
To - 2c plate T: T: (4-61)
For a cylinder of finite length (Fig. 4-17c) the dimensionless tempera-
ture ratio is obtained by forming the product of the temperature ratios
for an infinite cylinder and an infinite plate of a width equal to the length
of the cylinder, or
(T - Teo)
To ~ T co oyl 2a lone
(T
= To -
Too)
Tco infinite cyl
(TTo - Teo)
Tco 2a plate
(4-62)
'\Vhen using the above product solutions, it should be noted that, to

satisfy the boundary conditions of the one-dimensional problems to which
the charts apply, the coordinates of a two- or three-dimensional system
. must lie along the axes of symmetry and intersect at the center of the body.
In a similar manner the solution for the semi-infinite body can be used
to build up solutions for a quarter-infinite body (Fig. 4-17d), an eighth-
infinite body (Fig. 4-17e) and a semi-infinite cylinder (Fig. 4-17f). Using
the notation of Fig. 4-17 the respective solutions are
(T - T) _
To - T: x, 11
(4-63)
for a quarter-infinite body (an edge bounded by two planes),

for an eighth-infinite body (a corner bounded by three planes), and

T) _(T - T) (T - T)
T -
( To- T: r.x To - T: To - T:
r :r
(4-55)
for a semi-infinite cylinder of outer radius ro.

4-6. GRAPHICAL METHOD
In this section we shall take up a graphical method for solving unsteady-
heat-conduction problems. This technique, known as the Schrnidt plot,
requires only the simplest mathematics, but its accuracy depends on the
number of approximations used in the solution. The Schmidt method is
very flexible and yields practical solutions to problems which have such
complicated boundary conditions that they could not be handled conven-
iently by analytical methods.
Plane wall. As an illustration of this method, consider an infinitely
thick wall having a plane face whose temperature is constant at T,. The
temperature distribution at a certain time 0 = 0 is represented by the heavy
dashed line in Fig. 4-18. We shall find the temperature distribution and
the heat-flow rate into the wall as a function of time by means of the
Schmidt plot.
First, we divide the wall into layers, each of them ~thick, and label
the cross-sectional planes between layers by integers as shown in Fig.
4:-18. Then we replace the continuous curve representing the tempera-
ture distribution at 0 = 0 by short straight lines between sectional planes
1, 2, 3, etc., each line having a slope closely approximating the tempera-
ture gradient at the center of the layer. It is obvious from an inspection
of Fig. 4-18 that the representation of the temperature curve can be made
more exact by using smaller ~x subdivisions. Since a temperature
difference exists, heat will flow from the higher to the lower temperature
at a rate proportional to the temperature gradient. In the first layer the
average initial temperature gradient is (T,o - Tt) / llx and in the second
layer it is (Tt - T2°) / llx. During a time interval flO, heat is therefore
conducted from the surface to cross-sectional plane 1 and also from plane
I to plane 2. The amount of heat flowing toward plane 1 is greater than the
amount of heat flowing from the same plane, as seen from an inspection of
the respective temperature gradients. The difference between the heat
fto,v to and the heat flow from cross-sectional plane 1 changes the internal
energy in a layer ab extending ~/2 to the left and to the right of plane 1.
\Vriting an energy balance for the time interval ~0 on the basis of a unit
area, the semantic expression is

Heat flow toward heat flow from change in internal

sectional plane 1 sectional plane 1 energy in layer ab
during ~8 during ~8 during ~8
ana the a}gebrair (~XprPssion is
To- To
k ' J ~8
ox (4-66)
- - -Original T~e-8=o
Tempetature 14t later

- - - - - - - - T~2M~otet
lI
'
I ;
l
I I I
I l I
I I
I I I
f I
I I
I I I
I
•
'
'
'
I
.
~ ~~~t 4~ _;
,
I
'
'I
{--
I
I
/
2 3 5 6
FIG. 4-18. Schmidt plot in an infinit~ly thick wall.
where the superscript indicates the time and the subscrip_t _ ~~~__lp~ation
(e.g., T1 1 is the temperature at the plane 1 after a time interval equal to
one ~8 has elapsed). Dividing each term of Eq. 4-56 by kli8/21ix yield~
T •o - T 2 o - Tt o = ( T I - T o) cp~x'l
1 (4-67)
2k~8
1
2

\Ve now select for convenience Ax and A8 so that

Ax2 cpAx2
2aA8 - -2-kA_O_ = 1 (4-58)
\Vith this relationship, Ax is fixed by the choice of A8, and vice versa.
\\tnen Eq. 4-57 is now solved for T1 1, the temperature at plane 1 after a
time interval A8 has elapsed, T 1°disappears and we have
t - T.o- T2o
T1 - (4-59)
2
\Ve see that the choice of llx and A8 in accordance with Eq. 4-58 has
eliminated T1° in Eq. 4-57, and the new temperature T 11 is simply equal to
the arithmetic mean of the temperatures in the planes on each side of
section 1. Consequently, if we draw a straight line connecting T. 0 and
T% 0 , its intersection with section 1 is the temperature T11 at sectional
plane 1 after a time interval A8 has elapsed.
In the same manner it can be shown that the temperature in any plane
at a time (t + 1)A8 is the arithmetic mean of the temperatures in the
planes on each side-of it at t A8, or
(4-60)
where the superscript t refers to the number of time intervals A8 and the
subscript n to location. Figure 4-18 illustrates the graphical construction
by which the approximate temperature distributions at times lAO and 2AO
are obtained. It is interesting to note that the effect of the higher surface
temperature is not felt at section 6 until 3A8's have elapsed.
The rate of heat flow per unit area into the slab at any instant (q/ A)l
can be obtained from the slope of the temperature gradient between the
surface and section 1, that is
_q )' = k _T_.'_-_T_l' (4-61)
( A I AX
From a mathematical point of view, the Schmidt plot is a step-by-
step solution of the unsteady conduction equation in one dimension,
1 iJT iJ 2T
- -=-
a iJ8
[ 4-23]
Equation 4-60 can be obtained from Eq. 4-23 by writing the latter as
a finite difference equation (i.e., for finite A8 and Ax), or
1 AsT
(4-62)
a :18

where the subscripts 8 and x indicate whether the time 8 or the location x
is the variable effecting the change in T. If we again adopt the subscript
and superscript notation to indicate time and location, we can write the
left-hand side of Eq. 4-62 as
--- = ------ (4-63)

a A8 a A8
Temperature gradient at
timet between n and n -1 =
T,.' - T,._ 11
~X
Temperature gradient at.

T time t between n + 1 and
t
Tn-1 n-
I T,.+t' - T"'
I
~X
I
I Temperature at time
I t+ 1 at section n ==
I
~14----4S-----*------4s-----~~t
T,._tc + T,.+J'
I I 2
Sectional n-1 n n+1

Plcme
---------,s
FIG. 4-19. Second derivative by finite difference method.
The second derivative of T with respect to xis actually the change of the
slope ATI Ax with distance x at a given time. This can be expressed in
finite difference form (Fig. 4-19) as
~.(:) T "+t' - T "'

Ax
T "' - T "-1'
~X
- - - - - - ---------------------- (4--64)6
~X Ax
Substituting Eqs. 4--63 and 4--64 into Eq. 4--62 yields

T"+t' - 2T"' + T"-1' (4-65)
2
Ax
If we now select the time interval A8 or the distance Ax in accordance with

Eq. 4-58, the above expression reduces to Eq. 4-60.
Example '-9. Determine the thickness of asbestos required to protect a large safe
against fire. For an initial temperature of 100 F, the temperature at the inner surface
• For a discussion of the errors incurred in the solution of Eq. 4-23 by graphical or
numerical methods, see Ref. 1.

should remain below 300 F for 1 hr after the exterior temperature is suddenly raised
to 1500 F. The asbestos is to be placed between two steel plates of -h-in. thickness.
The effecta of comers may be neglected. Average physical properties pertinent to the . .
system are listed below (see Tables A-1 and A-2).
Asbestos Steel
k - 0.087 Btu/hr ft F k - 26 Btu/hr ft F
c - 0.25 Btu/lb F
p == 36 lb/cu ft
Solution: Since the steel plate has a thermal conductivity about 300 times greater
than that of the asbestos and is also relatively thin, it offers no appreciable resistance
to the heat flow and has only a small thermal capacity. Therefore, we need only to
analyze the temperature-time history in the asbestos. We first divide the asbestos
wall into five equal layers, the number of layers being arbitrarily ~~elected. The layer
thickness will be evaluated from Eq. 4-58 after the number of time intervals required
for the inner surface to reach 300 F has been found .
.I
l
., F10. 4-20. Schmidt plot for Example 4-9.
The graphical construction of the Schmidt plot is shown in Fig. 4-20. A straight
line between section 0 and 2 yields the approximate temperature at plane 1 after M
has elasped. The next step consist8 of connecting T1• and Ta• by a straight line which
yields Tr'. It should be noted that in this problem, as in any other problem in which
the initial temperature throughout the body is constant, the temperature at any plane
8eparating two adjacent layers changes only during alternate periods.
After four periods have elapsed, the temperature at the inner surface begins to rise.
The temperature in the interior of the safe will be assumed to be equal to the temperature
at the inner wall surface. This boundary condition demands that the temperature
gradient at the inner surface be zero. Accordingly, we find the temperature at the
inner surface at the end of the fifth time interval by constructing a horizontal line
from T.•.
If the construction is continued in this manner, after the end of the seventh time

interval the temperature at the inner surface is seen to reach almost 300 F. To meet
the specifications seven M's must therefore equal 1 hr, or
Ao-lhr
7
Substituting this value for AO and the numerical constants for the asbestos properties
c, p, and k in Eq. 4-58 yields
2
Ax' - kM
cp
= (2) (0.087 /7) (0.25) (36) = 0.00276 sq ft
Hence, the thickness of one layer is 0.0475 ft and the total thickness of asbestos requireJ
for 1-hr protection is five times that value, or about 2i in. A ns.
In the foregoing example it was assumed that the surface ten1perature

does not vary with time. The more usual condition, however, is one
where the surface of a wall is in contact with a fluid whose temperature i:;
either constant or a known function of time. The graphical method can
easily be extended to permit solution of these cases. The boundary con-
dition for this type of problem can be stated as fol1ows. At any insl.anc-e,
the heat jlouing by convection from the fluid to the surface 1nust be equal to the
heat flowing by conduction front the surface toward plane 1. We can express
this boundary condition symbolically as
~~
q
A
= ii(Tm - T.) = -k, (4-66)
at z- 0 at z- 0
'vhere q/ A is the rate of heat flow per unit area; fi, the unit-surface con-
ductance; k,, the thermal conductivity of the solid; T the fluid tenl- 00 ,
perature far away from the surface; To, the surface temperature anJ
(aT ;ax)lat z _ o, the temperature gradient at the surface.
In the graphical solution, the boundary condition expressed by Eq.
4-66 can be handled very simply by writing it in the form of a difference
equation as
(4--67)
Equation 4-67 states that, at any time tA-8, the temperature gradient at
the surface (aT jax)o', must be equal to the temperature difference between
the surface and the fluid, To' - Too', divided by k,/h. The fraction
ks/h has the dimensions of length and (To' - T oo')/(k,/h) is therefore
equivalent to a temperature gradient. In the graphical construction we
simply extend the solid by the distance k,jh and draw the temperature
curve as a continuous straight line between the temperature at plane 1
through the surface of the solid to the temperature of the fluid Too' ut a
distance k,/h from the surface. The extension of the wall represents
physically the thermal resistance between the surface and the fluid. It

---=========~--=-----:----- -- -- -
CONDUCTION OF HEAT IN THE UNSTEADY STATE • 159
should be noted that this resistance is not combined 'vith a thermal ca-
pacity. The fictitious distance k,/h is therefore not subdivided in the con-
struction of the temperature lines. 8
To clarify this point we shall draw an electrical circuit analogous to the
thermal circuit under consideration. In Fig. 4-_21 each layer of the slab
is represented by a capacity C e and resistances Re/ 2 on each side of it.
The resistance R, between the first layer and the voltage supply corre-
sponds to the thermal resistance between the fluid and the solid surface.
The voltage potential ECD is analogous to the difference between the fluid
and the original slab-temperature. Closing the switch in the electrical
system is analogous to exposing the slab to a fluid at temperature Too·
Section: 0 2 3
~-4%-~
!lJ Re
~ T
_[
E.,_,
Fw. 4-21. Analogous electrical circuit for a wall subdivided into finite sections.
The flow of current is analogous to the flow of heat, and the charging of
the condensers corresponds to increasing the internal energy stored in the
finite layers of the slab. Electrical networks similar to the one shown in
Fig. 4-21 have been used in practice to obtain solutions to a variety of
transient-heat-transfer problems. For a detailed description of the con-
struction and application of these so-called thermal analyzers see Refs. 4, 5,
6, and 15.
Example '-10. A steel casting (k, = 10 Btu/hr ft F, a =- 0.48 sq ft/hr) having
the shape of a large plate 12 in. thick is to be heat-treated in an air furnace. The
rasting, originally at 100 F, is suddenly put into the furnace where the temperature
is 3000 F. If the unit-surface conductance is 25 Btu/hr sq ft F, determine the time
required for the center to reach 700 F. Neglect end effects.
Solution: The plate is first divided into 12 layers, each having n. thickness of
1 in. The thermal resistance at the surface is then repre!'lentcd by an extension of the
plate thickness by a distance of
k 10 Btu/hr ft F in. = .
12 48
~ = 25 Btu/hr sq ft F ft · m.
The steps of the graphical solution are shown in Fig. 4-22. To start the construction,
a ~traight line is drawn between the fluid temperature at a plane 4.8 in. from the ~ur
f:we and the temperature of the ca.~ting at plane 1. This line is taken as the tempera-
• Some refinements for handling the conditions at the solid-fluid interface have hPPn
suggested hy Jakob (3). However, if the solid is divided into sufficiently thin sections,
the ffi(•t hod preRE~ntNl here is satisfactory in practice.

2200
2000
i
I
....
1200
1000
'1 3
OUtonce ,lio..l
FIG. 4- 22. hmid pl t f r Example 4- 10.
ture di tribution at time !19 after the cMting has been put into the furnabe. Because
of the symmetry, only the left half of the plate i con idered, and th temperature
plane 5 and 7 are identical. Accordingl), the temperature in the center i.e., plane 6,
are determined by connecting corre ponding points in plane 5 and 7. For example,
the temperature in the center after 11 M's have elap ed i found by connecting h
points representing the temperatures in planes 5 and 7 after 10 !1fJ's have elap d.

.,. _
In accordance with Eq. 4-58, the time increment between tep is

MJ = ~x 2 = 12 sq in. _1_ sq ft ,... 0 00724 hr
2a (2) (0.48 sq ft/hr) 144 sq in. ·
The integers on the individual line in Fig. 4-22 indicate the number of ~8's which have
elapsed. The time required for the center to reach 700 F i about 28~8' s or 12 min. Ans.
As another illu tration of the Schmidt method we shall apply the

technique to a problem where the boundary condition varies with time.
The general approach u ed in this case can be extended to problems in-
volving periodic variation of the environmental temperature .
...._- - - - - - 8'''- - - ----+i
500
''
&. 300
100 --------
' -
2.i'!.... -4--- - - - - - -
~----- 3.48'' ' -- ......
3 . 88!!-----~
10
-4 .2•::..."----~
FIG. 4- 23. chmidt plot for time dependent boundary condition-Example 4-11.
Example '-11. A large pl tic plate, 8 in. thick, i exposed to a hot environment on
one id and a cold environment on the other. The temperature distribution under
tead tate condition i a straight line, as hown in Fig. 4-23 by heavy dashes. The
mperature on the hot ide i uddenly reduced to 100 F and the heat-transfer coef-
6 ient on this ide depend upon the temperature difference between the surface and
th fluid as given by the expre ion
h = 2.0 + 0.02 (1'. - T CD)

D termine the temperature-time hi tory in the plate if k, = 2.0 Btu/hr ft F and a =-
.003 q ft/ hr.
olution: In thi problem the boundary ondition varie with time. Therefore,
we . hall change the r i tance at the urface wi h time. Thi can be done conveniently

by preparing a table which can be completed a.s the construction of the Schmidt plot
progresses. In this table we shall record the time in terms of .:ltfs elapsed, the surface
temperature (read from the plot), the heat-transfer coefficient, and the effective sur-
face resistance. By dividing the wall into eight layers, .:l.x = 1 in. = 0.0833 ft and.
from Eq. 4-58, ~8 =- 1.16 hr. The fictitious surface resistance is k/h as in the previou~
example. The first six steps of the solution are shown in Fig. 4-23 and the following
table.
- - --
AfJ
i
T~(Fl T.- Too ('F) (Btu )
h hr ~~~ -It F
I
I
I k
~ X 12 fin.)
'
I
-- -- - - --
0 500 400 10 2.4

2 345 24S 6.9 3.48
4 310 210 6.2 3.88
6 285 185 5.7 4.2
I
Composite walls. 7 The graphical method can also be extended to

problems in transient heat flow through composite walls. This type of
problem is rather difficult to solve analytically, and we shall therefore
develop the graphical technique in detail.
In the basic equation for unidimensional transient heat flow
aT
ao
the variable x can be replaced by t where
X ~X
r =-
k
and
k
Using r instead of x, the heat-conduction equation becomes

aT
ao
In finite-difference form, which is suitable for the graphical method, this
equation is
Using the subscript notation and repeating the development of Eq. 4-65
we obtain
(4--68)
7 The rest of this section ma.y be omitted without breaking the continuity of the
pr<.'s('ntat ion.

s
The reason for changing the variable X to is to avoid any disconti-
nuity in the graphical construction at the interface between the slabs I
and II. At this interface, we must have continuity of heat flow, that is,
(-k AT) = (-k A7')

AXI AXIl
(4-69)
Clearly, if k~ , is not equal to ku, there will be a discontinuity in the tempera-

ture gradient. This inconvenience has been overcome by changing the
s
variables. If we use instead of X in Eq. 4-69, the boundary condition
at the interface becomes
(4-70)
Hence, we simply divide each slab into equal increments of As and then
use the Schmidt technique in the same manner as before. That is, w~
select A8 so that
2A8
---
2
= 1 (4-71)
kpcAs
In order that the A8 increments in both materials be the same, we must abo
satisfy the requirement that
A(} I kpc(As)l21
- 1 - (4-72)
A811 kpc(AsPI
or
As,
- ~(kpe)ll
As11 (kpe)I
In tenns of Ax, the above relation is
(4-73)
Example 4-12. A special type of combustion chamber intended for repeated short-
time operation~ consiRts of an interior layer of alumina refractory i in. thick and an
outer layer of stainless steel 1.0 in. thick. The following properties are given.
Refractory (r) Steel (1)
kr =- 2 Btu/hr ft F k. = 10 Btu/hr ft F
a,. - 0.05 sq ft/hr a. """ 0.20 sq ft/hr
There is no external cooling, and the walls will fail if the refractory reaches a temperature
of 3000 For the steel a temperature of WOO F. If the beRt-transfer coefficient between
the hot gases and the inner lining is 15 Btu/hr ft F. determine the total time of opera-
Di giti zed by Coogle Original from

tion p sible if the initial temperatur i 100 F and the combu tion g reach 5000 F
almo tin tantaneou ly after ignition.
Solution: From Eq. 4-73 we have
ru:. = ~ = v'4 = 2
f1Ir '\) ~
If we arbitrarily divide the refractor \-\all into fiv · qual. parts (!1x = O.Ofl in. /(12 in. / ft)
= 0.00417 ft), the Ax for th l will be 0':00417 X ~0 = 0.00834 ft and ther will
be 10 layers in 1.0 in. However the actual width of each layer in the plo will b ~x /k,
5000
t..--- - - - Refractory _ _ __ .,.___ _ _ St el - ----..1
4000 2 3 5 ( ~..(')=
k s
0.01
0 .025
3000
2000
1000
Surface
Resista nce
(; HL - 24. , 'ehmidt l t f r omp ite lal - Exampl 4- 12.

and a convenient way to lay out the slices is to begin with a slab of refractory Lr/kr =
0.25/2 = 0.125 units thick and a steel slab 1-J./k. = 1.0/10 = 0.10 units thick and
divide these into 5 and 10 layer~ reApectively a.~ shown in Fig. 4-24. Now the problem
is to describe the boundary condition between the gas and the refractory. Neglecting
contact ~istance this boundary condition can be written as
q =k-
AT
Ax
at z = 0
-- AT
Thus, using the r coordinate system, the surface resistance is represented by an exten-
sion of the refractory equal to 1/h units. Then, if the temperature curve is continued
at the slope equal t.o that at the SUrface, (i.e., at r :. 0) 1 it will reach the gas tempera-
ture a distance 1/h from the surface. The details of the solution are illustrated in
Fig. 4-24.
We begin the construction at time 0 by drawing a straight line between the edge of
the extended refractory at 5000 F and plane 1 at 100 F. Then we find the new tempera-
tures and continue in the usual manner. The numbers on the lines indicate the time
in terms of AIJ'A elapsed. \Ve note that the surface temperature will reach 3000 F
after 16 AD's. At this time the steel has only reached a temperature of 600 F, from
which we conclude that the critical design parameter is the refractory.
To determine AIJ we use Eq. 4-71
A.8 = kpeAtt = Az2 (3600 sec) = 0.625 sec

2 2~ hr
Hence, the safe operating time for the liner will be 16 A8's == 10 sec. Ans.
If the liner were replaced by a material of similar conductivity, Rpecific heat, and
density, but capable of withstanding 3500 F, the operating time could be more than
doubled. If the refractory could withstand 3800 F, the steel would reach a tempera-
ture of 1600 F before the liner would fail.
Long cylinder. The Schmidt method can also be applied to long solid
or hollow cylinders. If the wall of a hollow cylinder is thin, it is usually
satisfactory to treat it as a plate, hut for long solid circular cylinders or
thick-walled hollow cylinders, Eq. 4-44 must he used. The equation
aT
o8
= a (oor 2
T
2
+ ~ aT)
r or
[4 44 1
can be transformed into a finite-difference equation, similar to Eq. 4-60,

if we let
11 = In r (4-74)
d.,., 1
so that (4-76)
dr r
Using Eq. 4-75, the temperature gradient is then written as

ar ar a.,., 1 aT
ar a.,., dr

and the second derivative of T with respect tor as

2
a T a (aT) a aT)
ar = or ar = ar -; a11
2
(1 a
= 071 ;
(t ar)a11
u71 dr
Differentiating the last term yields
(4-76)
If we now use Eq. 4-7 4 to writ('

1
r = c" or - = e-.,
r
1
and
r
and then replace -l ,.~ r in Eq. 4-76 by (a .'a71) (1 1 r), we obtain
1 aT (4-77)
Substituting Eq. 4-77 for a T/ ar

2 2
in Eq. 4-44 yields
:~=ac::n (4-78)
since the terms (1 1r 2 ) (aT ,~ a71) can('el. Finally, Eq. 4-78 is written in finite-
difference form as
or T t+ I - T t -
2a~() (T,-r1
--
1
+ Tn-1 + T 1
t
)
(4-79)
" n - (r-171)2 2 n
Selecting .10 or r.177 so that
- 1 (4-80)
yieldH the Pquation
(4--81)
which is identical to thP expn•ssion dPrin"'d prPviously for a slab (Eq.

4-GO). The graphical construction for the cylinder is therefore the same
as that for a wall or a slab. However, instead of layers of equal Llx thick-
nes...o;;, Eq. 4-80, the Schmidt rule for the cylinder, prescribes constant incre-
ments of rdfl. Since according to Eq. 4-75 dfl = Llr/r, we see that each
partition of a cylinder for a Schmidt plot has to he Llr /r thick. A mean
radius for each section is sufficiently accurate in practice. If the initial
temperature is not uniform, it must be plotted on a scale corresponding
to the dfl increment, that is, on a logarithmic scale, in accordance with
Eq. 4-74.
Example 4-13. A fluid at 300 F bulk U!mperature is flowing through an 18-8 stain-
less-steel, type 347, pipe of 1 in. ID and 2 ~ in. OD. Initially the temperature at the
outer surface of the pipe is 100 F and steady-state condition~ prevail. The unit-surface
conductance at the inner pipe surface is 250 Btu j hr sq ft F.
If the fluid is suddenly heated, and itH tempem.ture increa:;jeH linearly u.t the rate of
100 F / ~ec, determine the remperature distribution in the pipe 6 sec after the heating
of t.he fluid is initiated .
.-\ veragc physical properties for the stu.inlt•S8-~tct•l pipe are
k, = 10.5 Btu / hr ft F
a, = 0.1H7 sq ft / hr
Solution: The pipe is first divided into Rix annular ~ctionH of tl.r - i in. The
corre~ponding value~ of .177 and their calculat.ionR are shown in Table 4-1.
TABLE 4- 1
Set>tion Inner Radius Outer Hadi11s Mean Radiu!l .L\71 - 4.\r/r

No. (iu.) (in.) ( iu. ~ (ft.)
1 0.500 0 .625 0 .563 0 .0494 0.222

2 0 .625 0.750 0.688 0.0573 0.182
3 0.750 0.875 0.813 0.0678 0.154
4 0.875 1.000 0.938 0.0782 0.133
5 1. ()()() 1.125 1.063 0.0886 0.118
6 1 . 125 1.250 1 . 188 0 .0990 0.105
0.914
The equivalent resistance at the inner boundary i~ calculated from the boundary
condi t.ions
q = h(2rr,) (T co - To) = (k aT)

2rr,
ar r- ri
k, aT
or
q = h(T
-
- co - To) = k, (aT
-- a11) = ---
A a'l or r - ri
Following the procedure used previously for t he slab, we get at r = r,

aT
-=
071

The distance corresponding to kjhr, i~

(10.5 Btu/hr ft F) (12 in./ft) = l.O
(250 Btu/hr sq ft F) (0.5 in.)
The time increment is calculated from Eq. 4-80, or

~rz (0.125/12)12 sq ft /h
~6 = - = 3600 sec r = 1.0 sec
2a (2)(0.197 sq ft/hr)
The solution of the problem is the Schmidt plot shown in Fig. 4-25. The accuracy
could be improved by selecting smaller time increments. A ns.
900
dtfa
1------ ~ -------+--~--.------+-o.....-++---1............
800
,.ri
700
600
II.
z•e soo
!
400
300
200
,,
0 0.5 1.0
Fw. 4-25. Schmidt plot for hollow cylinder-Example 4-13.
4-7. NUMERICAL METHOD

The graphical method for solving unsteady heat conduction problems
if~ widely used in industry because it gives a running picture of the changing
temperature distribution; its details can be delegated to relatively untrained

personnel, and mistakes-if they occur-are quickly discovered. How-

ever, for precise computations, especially when variations of physical
properties 'vith temperature are important, a numerical method should be
used instead of the graphical method. Numerical methods for solving
transient heat conduction problems are treated in detail by Dusinberre (8)
and Schneider ( 1). \Ve shall consider only the basic elements of the
simplest method. For a detailed discussion of the stability, convergence,
and accuracy of numerical methods, the reader should consult Refs. 1, 13,
and 14.
As shown in the preceding section, Eq. 4-65 is the one-dimensional
transient-heat-conduction equation in finite-difference form. It can also
be written in the form
T.•+~ = 9 [ T.+t' + T._,• + (~ - 2)r.•J (4-82)
where e == k~O I cptJ.x2 -- I •'
Equation 4-82 can be used to predict the temperature at section n at time

(t + 1)~8 from the temperatures at sections n - 1, n, and n + 1 at time
t~8.
Theoretically, any value of f) between 0 and ! could be selected for /) ;
this calculation, but values larger than ! violate the first law of thermo-~ · · · ~u- c ,, ~· r
dynamics, as can be seen from Eq. 4-82. In practice, although smaller ., _~, , . .
values of 8 improve the accuracy, 9 is usually set equal to ~ because this ~
choice reduces the amount of labor in the computations. With 8 equal ,... -
to!, the numerical method is equivalent to the graphical method, so that
the techniques for handling convection boundary conditions, composite
structures, and cylindrical systems are identical to those described in
Sec. 4-6. However, as shown in Example 4-14, selection of half volumes
at surfaces is necessary for a complete correspondence between the results
of the numerical and graphical methods.
Example 4-lol. Determine numerically the temperature distribution in the asbestos

insulation of the safe described in Example 4-9 one hour after the surface temperature
baa been raised suddenly from 100 to 1500 F.
Solution: We begin the solution by dividing the asbestos into five equal slices of
thickness .::U - 0.0475 ft, with half slices at the two surfaces. Selecting 9 = !, the
time increment in each step of the calculation is
M-= LU1 S/a = (0.0475) 1 (~)/0.0079 = 0.143 hr
The details of numerical solution are illustrated in Table 4-2. The reader should
verify the individual ~t~ps and compare his intermediate results with those obtained
previously by the graphical method, whose final result-a are listed in the last line of the

TABLE 4-2
NuMERICAL SoLUTION FOR ExAMPLE 4-14
fJ (hr) 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1500 100 100 100 100 100

0.143 1500 800 100 100-. 100 100
0.286 1500 800 ' 450 - 100 100 100
0.429 1500 975 450 275 100 100
0.572 1500 975 625 275 187.5 100
0.715 1500 1062.5 625 406.25 187.5 187.5
0 .858 1500 1062.5 734.375 406.25 286.375 187.5
1.00 1500 1117.1725 734.375 510.00 286.375 286.375
Graphical
results 1500 1110 730 508 290 290
- .
table. The accuracy of the graphical solution was obviously limited by the small scale
U8ed in the construction of the temperature curves.
REFERENCES
1. P. J. Schneider, Conduction Heat Tramfer. (Cambridge, M&SS.: Addison-Wesley
2. H. S. Carslaw, and J. C. Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in Solids. (Oxford: Cla.ren-
don Press, 1947.)
3. ~1. Jakob, Heat Transfer, Vol. I. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1949.)
4. V. Paschkis and ~1. D. Baker, "A Method for Determining Unsteady State Heat
Transfer by Means of an Electrical Analogy," TraM. ASME, Vol. 64 (1942), pp. 105-
112.
5. C. B. Ncel, Jr., "An Investigation Utilizing a.n Electrical Analogue of Cyelir
De-Icing of a Hollow Steel Propeller with an External Blade Shoe," N ACA T.V 28.12,
1!)52.
6. D. I. Lawson and J. H. McGuire, "The Solution of Transient Heat Flow Prolr
lems by Analogous Electrical Networks," Proc. (A) Inst. Mech. Engra., Vol. 167, ~o. 3
(1953), pp. 275-287.
7. G. A. Hawkins and .J. T. Agnew, "The Solution of Trn.nsient Heat Conductio11
Problems b~, Finite Differences," Eng. Bull. Res. Series 98, Purdue Univ., 1947.
8. G. M. Dusinberre, Numerical Analys-is of Heat Flow. (New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., 1949.)
9. L. 1\l. K. Boelter, V. H. Cherry, and H. A. Johnson, Heat Tran&fer, 3d ed.
(Berkele~·: Universit.v of California Press, 1942.)
10. H. Grober, S. Erk, and U. GrigulJ, Grundgesetze tkr Wlirmeii.bertragung, 3d Pd.
(Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1955.)
11. l\1. P. Heisler, "Temperature Charts for Induction and Constant Temperature
Heating," Trans. ASME, Vol. 69 (1947), pp. 227-236.
12. B. 0. Peirce, A Short Table of Integrals. (Boston: Ginn & C-ompany, 1929.)
13. G. Leppert, "A Stable Xumeriral Solution for Transient Heat Flow," J. Am.
Soc. Naval Engrs., Vol. 65 (19.53), pp. 741-752.
14. C'. l\1. Fowler, ''Anal.vsi~ of ~umerical Solutions of Transient Heat Flm•; Prob-
lems," Quart. Appl. Math., Vol. 3 (194!>), pp. 361-376.
15. .M. Jakob and G .. A. Hawkin~. Flenu.>11ls of Rent Tra11sjPr, 3d ed. (!\ew York:
John \Vile.v & l-\onfol, Inc .. 1B57. '!

PROBLEMS
4-1. Derive the conduction equation for an infinitely long cylinder in the uru;teady
~tate without heat generation in cylindrical coordinates starting with an energy balance.
'-2. A copper wire, -h in. OD, 2 in. long, is placed in an air stream whose tempera-
ture rises as TaJr == .(50 + 258) F, where 0 is the time in seconds. If the initial tem-
perature of the wire is 50 F, determine its temperature after 2 sec, 10 sec, and 1 min.
The unit-surface conductance between the air and the wire is 7 Btu/hr sq ft F.
H. In the vulcanization of tires, the carcass is placed into a jig, and steam at
300 F is admitted suddenly to both sides. If the tire thickness is 1 in. and the initial
temperature 70 F, estimate the time required for the central layer to reach 270 F.
H. The temperature distribution in a 6-in.-t.hick magnesite wall (k == 2.2 Btu/hr
ft F, a =- 0.06 sq ft/hr) is linear, 500 F on the hot side and 100 F on the cold side. At
time zero the air temperature on the hot side is suddenly reduced to 100 F. The heat-
transfer coefficient between the r;zlab and the air is a function of the temperature difference
given by
ii =- 2.0 + 0.01 ( Trrurrace - 1'alr) Btu/hr sq ft F
Determine by means of the numerical method and the Schmidt method the time required
to cool the hot side to 200 F. Ans. '"" 1 hr
100
z•
e
80
t 60
i
1-
1 .co
-•
li:
0
c
20
u 0
...
l.
-20
~1 ~2
Time-Minut.s
PROB. 4-5.
H. The metal bulb of a mercury-filled expansion thermometer is suddenly dipped

into a hot fluid. The resulting temperature record is shown in the accompanying
sketeh. Explain the initial dip with reference to the heat-transfer characteristics of
the SJMtem as well as the physical properties of the materials involved.
'-6. A large steel plate (thermal diffusivity of 0.5 RQ ft/hr and thermal conductivity
of 25 Btu/hr ft F) is 1 in. thick. At zero time it begin!:l to receive heat on one side at.
the rate of 30,000 Btu/hr sq ft while the other side is exposed to a fluid at 0 F through
a unit-surface conductance of 1000 Btu/hr sq ft F. If the initial temperature of the
entire plate is 100 F, determine by the numerical method the temperature at the mid-
plane after 5 sec.
'-7. A thin-wall cylindrical vessel (3ft in diam) is filled to a depth of 4ft with water
at an initial temperature of 60 F. The water is well stirred by a mechanical agitator.
Estimate the time required to heat the water to 120 F if the tank is suddenly immer~ed
into oil at 220 F. The over-all heat-transfer coefficient between the oil and the water
is 50 Btu/hr sq ft F, and the effective heat-transfer-surface area is 4.5 sq ft.
t-8. A cylindrical mild-steel billet, 1 in. OD, 3 in. lohg, initially at 1000 F i~
rooted in a large va.el filled with oil at 200 F. The average unit-surface conductanC'e
between the oil and the steel during cooling is 100 Btu/hr sq ft. F. Determine the

time required to cool (a) the center of the billet and (b) the surface of the billet to
500 F.
4-9. Estimate the time required to heat the center of a 5-Jb roast in a 400 F oven to
300 F. State your assumptions carefully and compare your results with cooking instruc-
tions in a standard cookbook.
4-10. To determine the heat-tram~fer coefficient between a heated steel ball and
cooler ground or crushed mineral solids experimentally, a serieR of SAE 1040 steel balls
were heated to a temperature of 700 C and the center temperature-time history of
each was measured with a thermocouple while it was cooling in a bed of crushed iron
ore which was placed in a steel drum, rotating horizontally at about 30 rpm. For a
2-in.-diam ball, the time required for the temperature difference between the ball center
and the surrounding ore to decrease from 500 to 250 C was found to be 64, 67, and 72 sec
respectively in three different test run~. Determine the average unit-surface conduc-
tance between the ball and the ore. Compare the results obtained by assuming the
thermal conductivity to be infinite with those obtained by taking the internal thermal
resistance of the ball into account. Ans. ""'54 Btu/hr sq ft F
4-11. A fireproof safe is to be constructed. Its walls consist of two rrin. steel
sheets with a layer of asbestos board between them. Using the chart for a slab, estimate
the thickness of asbestos required to give 1 hr of fire protection on the basis that, for
an outside temperature of 1500 F, the inside temperature is not to rise above 250 F
during this period. The heat-transfer coefficient at the exterior surface is 5 Btu/hr sq
ft F.
4-12. A large slab of 1-ft-thick steel armor plate (k = 10 Btu/hr ft F, a == 0.12
sq ft/hr) is initially at a uniform temperature of 1300 F. One surface is maintained at
1300 F while air is blown over the other surface at a velocity which gives rise to an
average heat-transfer coefficient of 20 Btu/hr sq ft F. The temperature of the air
varies with time as Too =- (600 - 106) F, where 8 is in minutes. Determine the surface
temperature at the distribution after 1 hr has elapsed.
4-13. A long 2-ft-OD solid steel (k = 12 Btu/hr ft F) cylindrical billet at 60 F room
temperature is placed in an oven where the temperature is 500 F. If the average
unit-surface conductance is 3 Btu/hr sq ft F, estimate the time required for the center
temperature to increase to 450 F by (a) using the appropriate chart, (b) dividing the
solid into two equal lumped thermal capacities with appropriate thermal resistances
between them. Also (c) determine the instantaneous surface heat fluxes when the
center temperature is 450 F.
4-1'- Repeat Prob. 4-13a, but assume that the billet is only 4 ft long with the
average unit-surface conductance at both ends equal to 6 Btu/hr sq ft F.
4-16. A large billet of steel originally at a temperature of 500 F is placed in a
• ••
eo
PRoH. 4-·15.

radiant furnace where the surface temperature is held at 2200 F. Assuming the billet
infinite in extent, compute the temperature at point P shown in the accompanying
sketch after 25 min has elapsed. The average steel properties are: k - 23 Btu/hr ft F,
p =- 460 lbm/cu ft, and c = 0.12 Btu/Ibm Ji'. Ans. 1904 F
t-18. Estimate the depth in moist soil at which the annual temperature variation
will be 10 per cent of that at the surface.
t-1'1. A slab of material having a thermal diflusivity of 0.05 sq ft/hr is 2 in. thick
and of relatively large breadth and width. The slab is being held at a mean tempera-
ture of 1000 Fin a gas stream having a mean temperature of 1000 F. The gas tempera-
ture is controlled by an on-off controller which produces an essentially triangular
gas-temperature variation of 25 F amplitude and 10-min period. Presuming the film
ronductance to be 20 Btu/hr ttq ft and the heat transfer to be convective only, comment
on the adequacy of the control system if the slab temperature should not depart from
the mean value of 1000 F by more than 5.0 F at any point in the slab.
t-18. It is desired to anneal a disk of plate glass 8 in. in diam by 1 in. thick to
remove stresses in the disk in preparation for optical grinding. If the disk was originally
at 75 F throughout, how long must it remain in an oven so that every part of the disk
is at least 750 F? The air temperature in the oven is 770 F and li =- 1.6 Btu/sq ft F.
t-19. A 6-in.-diam pipe projects vertically into the earth. For a point sufficiently
deep so that the heat flow is e..qsent.ially two-dimensional, determine the time required,
after a sudden rise of pipe temperature from the 50 F ground temperature to a value of
100 F, for the temperature of the ground 1 ft from the surface of the pipe to increase
to 55 F. Plot the rate of heat flow from the pipe surface aa a function of the time.
t-10. The thermometer well, described in Example 2-11, is subjected to a sudden
temperature rise of 100 F. Derive the equation describing the response of the ther-
mometer, lumping the heat capacity of the well and the thermometer separately. For
a unit-surface conductance at the outer surface of the well of 12 Btu/hr sq ft F and a ·
thermal resistance between the inner sutface of the well and the mercury thermometer
of 0.01 hr sq ft F /Btu, plot the response of the thermometer as a function of time.
t-2L The heat-transfer coefficients for the flow of 80 Fair over a !-in.-diam sphere
are measured by observing the temperature-time history of a copper ball of the samf'
dimen-ction. The temperature of the copper ball (c - 0.09 Btu/lb F, p - 558 lb/cu ft)
was measured by two thermocouples, one located in the center, the other near the sur-
face. Both of the thermocouples regiHtered, within the accuracy of the recording instru-
ments, the same temperature at a given instant. In one test run the initial temperature
of the ball was 150 F and in 1.15 min the temperature decreased by 20 F. Calculate
the heat-transfer coefficient for this case.
t-22. You are asked to heat and cool a glass bar 1 by 1 by 3 in. The bar is first
to be placed in a deep freeze where the temperature is - 100 F, and the heat-traDHfer
coefficient is 2 Btu/hr sq ft F. Then the bar is to be placed in a hot box where the tem-
perature is 165 F and the heat-transfer coefficient is 2 Btu/hr sq ft F. The bar is to be
removed whenever the temperature at the center reaches - 65 For 120 F respectively.
If the cycling is to be repeated 100 times, how long will the test take'?
o&-23. Derive in detail the equation for the temperature-time history of a fluid in
a container whose walls have a substantial thermal capacity when the entire system is
suddenly immersed in a fluid at T 00 •
o&-2'- A spherical stainless steel vessel at 200 F contains 100 Ibm of water at thP-
same temperature. If the entire system is suddenly immersed in ice water, determine
(a) the time required for the water in the vessel to cool to 60 F, and (b) the temperature
of the walls of the vessel at that time. Assume that:
1. The unit-surface conductance at the inner surface is 3 Btu/hr sq ft F.

2. The unit-surface conductance at the outer surface is 4 Btu/hr sq ft F.
3. The wall of the vessel is 1 in. thick.
4-26. Water, while flowing through a pipe, is heated by steam condensing on the
outside of the pipe. (a) Assuming the over-all conductance is cQnstant along the pipe,
derive an expression for the temperature as a function of pipe length. (b) For a unit
conductance of 100 Btu/hr sq ft F based on the iu~de diam of 2 in., steam temperature
of 220 F, and a water flow rate of 500 Ibm/min, what length will be required to raise the
temperature of the water from 60 F to 150 F? (c) What will be the final water tempera-
ture if the pipe length is made twice that calculated in (b)?
Ans. (b) L .... 7.91 ft, (c) 189.4 F
4-26. A thin-wall jacketed tank, heated by condensing steam at 14.7 psia, contains
200 lb of agitated water (assume unifonn water temperature). The heat-transfer area
of the jacket is 10 sq ft and the over-all conductance U - Btu/hr sq ft F based on
that area. Determine the heating time required for an increase in temperature from
60 to 140 F. A ns. 18 min
4-2'1. A 3-lb aluminum household iron has a 20 watt heating element. The
surface area is 0.5 sq ft. The ambient temperature is 70 F and the surface heat-
transfer coefficient is 2.0 Btu/hr sq ft F (assumed constant). How long after the iron
is plugged in will its temperature reach 220 F?
4-28. A long, slender metal rod of length Lis attached at its base to a wall at 0 F.
The curved surface of the rod is insulated. The end of the rod is in contact with a
fluid at 0 F, where the unit-surface conductance at the interface h is constant and
uniform. If the initial temperature in the rod is given by T(x,8) - j(x), show that.
the temperature distribution after time 8 is
CXI
T (z, 9) = ~ C.e-<>•' ""' sin :>..z
where C. - ("A~
2"A,.L
• "A n L "A " L) L
fL J (x) sin >..,.xdx
- SID COS o
Calculate the temperature at the end (x - L) of a 0.1 in. diam, 2-in.-long stainleM-steel
rod as a function of time, if the initial temperature distribution is linear, with 100 F
at the end, and h. = 10 Btu/hr sq ft F at the end.
4-29. A turnip (assume spherical) weighing 1 lb is dropped into water boiling at
atmospheric pressure. If the initial temperature of the turnip is 62 F, how long does
it take to reach 197 Fat the center? Assume that:
hr = 300 Btu/hr sq ft F Cp == 0.95 Btu/lb F
k = 0.3 Btu/hr ft F p - 65 lb/cu ft
4-30. Two gas streams are passed alternately for a duration of 5 min each over
the surface of a steel plate. The one stream is hot (1000 F), the other cold (100 F).
but for both streams li = 5 Btu/hr sq ft F. Determine the temperature variation with
time of the plate surface if the imposed free stream temper!lture variation is approxi-
mated by the Fourier series {8 is in min).
T= - 100 + ~ [ (11)2) + 2 (sin ~ +~sin

3 8
; +}sin ~ + ... )
5
J
4-31. A long wooden rod 1 in. OD is placed at 100 F into an airstream at 1500 F.
The unit-surface conductance between the rod and air is 5 Btu/hr sq ft F. If the
ignition temperature of the wood is 800 F, p = 50 lh/cu ft, k = 0.1 Btu/hr ft F, and
c = 0.6 Btu/lb F, dctennine the time between initial expo~ure and ignition of the wood.

5 Heat Trans!er
by Radiation
5-1. THERMAL RADIAnON
The transfer of heat by radiation is only one of numerous electro-

magnetic phenomena. The term "radiation" is applied generally to all
kinds of processes which transmit energy by means of e1ectromagnetic
waves. The entire gamut of such waves is subdivided into classes according
to wavelength or frequency and also according to application. Figure 5-1
illustrates the electromagnetic spectrum, which ranges from electric wave~
of long wavelength and low frequency to cosmic rays of extremely short
wavelength and high frequency.
The true nature of radiation and its transport mechanism have not
been completely established to date. Some radiation phenomena can be
described in terms of the wave theory and others by the quantum theory,
but neither theory completely explains all of the experimental observations.
It is kno,vn, however, that radiation travels in free space with ~e speed of
light, V ,, and does not require an intervening medium for its propagation.
The transfer of energy takes place in the form of small but finite energy
l_!:Dits known as quanta. The frequency of radiation vr depends entirely on
the nature of its source; i.e., a metal bombarded by high-frequency elec-
trons emits X-rays, a metal conductor emits electric waves when a high-
frequency current passes through it, and a body of any kind at any tem-
perature emits thermal radiation. The wavelength of radiation ~ 1s
defined ~ the ratio of the propagation velocity to the frequency, i.e.,
.- ----- -
(6-1)
The unit of wavelength which will be used in this chapter is the __ micron.
One
----- -micron,
- -- - -- - or J.&, is 10-e m or 3.94 X lQ-6 in.
- - --- - ---
A qualitative explanation of the mechanism by which radiant energy
is transferred may be given in terms of the wave theory. In the process
of emitting radiation, a body converts a. part of its internal energy into
electromagnetic waves, which are a form of energy. These waves move
175

176 HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
through space until they strike another body, where a part of their energy
is absorbed and reconverted into internal energy. The emission of radia-
tion causes a decrease of the internal energy in the emitting body and,
unless heat is generated within that body, as for example in the sun, or the
body receives heat from another source, its temperature . will decrease.
Only when the rate at which a body generates or receives heat equals the
rate of energy emission will its temperature remain constant.
All bodies continuously emit radiation to which we are exposed at all
times. Our senses, however, are able to detect radiation only if its
wavelength falls within the spectrum region between 0.1 to 100~-&. Radia-
tion in this wavelength range causes appreciable heating of the receiving
body, and within the narrow band from 0.38 to 0.76~-&, it also affects the
optical nerve as light.
1 ...... lml r':&;;:'.."I, p 1 .1 ""•"- "" 1 • ,.,.

1 Kilometer Ikml 1 Millimeter lmml 1 Millemecron Units of
I I lmpl I Wcn•ngth
A to' 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 o -1 -2 -3-4 -5-6 -7 -a -9 -1o-u-12-13meten
y
101 2 3 I" 5 , 1 s 9 10
Uhrosonic t
Slow 0Killations
Radio
Hertzian Waves-~
I
1 Kilocycle 1 Megacycle
I 1 fresnel
(!tel Imel lfl
Fm. 5-l. Electromagnetic-wave spectrum.
In this chapter we shall only be concerned with 1._~al r~di~tiQ11., that

is, radiation emitted by bodies by virtue of their temperature. For
practical purposes the radiation of importance in heat-transfer calculations
is limited to wavelengths ranging from 0.1 to 100~-&. The total amount
of radiation emitted by a body per unit area and time, called the _t~~a~
emissiJ!.e pow_e_r _~ depends on the temperature and the characteristics of
-the surface of the body. At any particular temperature the quantity of
radiation emitted per unit wavelength is different at the various "·ave-
lengths. For an ideal radiator, i.e., one which emits the maximum possible
radiation at a given temperature, the distribution of emissive power with
wavelength is shown in Fig. 5-2 for different temperatures. These curves
are called spectroradiometric curves: the height determines the amount of
radiation emitted per unit time and area at a particular wavelength, and
the area under the curve is the total amount of radiation emitted over all
of the wavelengths. We can see from these curves that the major portion
of radiation is emitted within a relatively narrow band to both sides of the

HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION 177
wavelength at which the emissive power is a maximum. One can therefore
characterize the quality of the radiation in terms of the wavelength at
which maximum emission occurs. For instance, the sun, whose effective
surface temperature 1s approximately 10,000 F, emits over 90 per cent of
its total radiation between 0.1 and 3~, while a body at 2000 F emits most
of its radiation between 1 and 20~. This explains in part why a greenhouse'1 1
is warm inside even when the outside air is cool. Glass permits radiation :
at the wavelength of the sun to pass, but it is opaque to radiation in the .
'_'·avelength range emitted by the interior of the greenhouse. Thus solar 1
radiation may enter, but once it has been absorbed, it cannot leave th~_ .
greenhouse.
Wo ,.length, )I
FIG. 5-2. Speetral distribution of

monochromatic emis..;;ive power for an
ideal radiator or black body at various
temperatures.
S-2. ABSORPTION, REFLECTION, AND TRANSMISSION OF RADIATION
When radiation impinges on a body, it is partially absorbed, partially

reflected, and partially transmitted, as indicated in Fig. 5-3. The relation
between the absorbed, reflected, and transmitted energy is
(6--2)
where a - absorptivity, i.e., the fraction of the incident radiation ab-

sorbed by the body;

p _ ~eflectivity 7 i.e., the fraction of the incident radiation reflected

-- from the surface of the body;
T = transmissivi!~, i.e., the fraction of the incident radiation trans-
mitted through the body.
The majority of solid materials encountered in practice absorb practically
all of the radiation in a very thin surface layer, less than 0.05 in. in depth.
Bod!es which do not transmit radiation are called opa,que, and for these
Eq. 5-2 reduces to
(6-3)
Glass and rock salt and other inorganic crystals are examples of exceptions
among the solids because, unless very thick, they are to a certain degree
Incident Radiation
\
\
\ \
\ \
\ Reflected Radiation
\
\
I I I
\ 1/ 1
\ \ I I I
\ \ I I
\ \ I I
\ v.
I\ I
\
\ \ ~'- Absorbed Radiation
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\
\ \ \
\,\\
Tronwni"ed Racf10tion
Fw. 5-3. Reflection, absorption, and trans-

mis~ion of radiation.
transparent to radiation of certain wavelengths. l\Iany liquids and all

gases are also transparent.
The reflection of radiation may either be regular or diffuse. If a surface
is highly polished and smooth, the reflection of radiation will be similar
to the reflection of a light beam, that is, the angle of incidence \vill be
equal to the angle of reflection. This is called a regular reflection. l\Iost ·
materials used in industrial practice are "rough" because their surfaces
have asperities which are large compared with one wavelength. The
reflection of radiation from a rough surface occurs practically indiscrimi-
nately in all directions and is called diffuHe. A diffuse-reflecting surfac()
ean he defined as one which reflects with the same spatial energy distrihu-

tion as a black body (Sec. 5-3). For most practic~,l situations the reflection
may be treated as though it were completely diffuse.
The relative magnitudes of a, p, and T depend not only on the material,
its thickness, and its surface finish, but vary also with the wavelength of
the radiation. The numerical evaluation of these properties will be taken
up in Sec. 5-5 for opaque bodies and in Sec. 5-10 for gases.
5-3. KIRCHHOFF'S LAW AND THE BLACK BODY
Like the ideal gas, the black body is a theoretical concept which can
only be approximated in practice. A black body, or ideal radiator, may
be defined either as a body which absorbs all radiation incident upon it
and reflects or transmits none or as a radiator which emits at any specified
temperature the maximum possible amount of thermal radiation at all
wavelengths. The black body is used as a standard with which the radia-
tion characteristics of other bodies are compared.
The concept of a black body can be clarified by considering a simple
experiment. Suppose that two small bodies Bt and B2 of surface areas At
and A2 are placed in a large evacuated enclosure which is perfectly insulated
from its surroundings. Radiation will be exchanged between the bodies
and the walls of the enclosure until equilibrium is attained and both bodies
and the walls have reached the same temperature. Then the rate at which
each body emits radiation must equal the rate at which it absorbs radiation.
If G is the rate at which radiant energy from the walls falls on each of the
bodies, at and a2 are the absorptivities, and Et and E2 the emissive powers
of Bt and B2 respectively, ~n ene~gy b~l~nce y_i_eld~
A1 G a1 = At E1 and A2 G a2 = A2 E2
from which
E
a
for any body.

This relation is known as Kirchhoff's law. It states that, at thermal
equilibrium, _t,_he-ratio of the emissive power of a ~urface to its absorptivity
)8- the Sa.me for -~fl bodies. Since according to Eq. 5-2 the absorptivity is
limited to values between 0 and 1, Kirchhoff's law places an upper limit
on the emissive power of a body. The maximum emissive power occurs
when a has its maximum value of unity, a condition which applies precisely
to a black body. Thus, a black body is also an ideal radiator and its emis-
sive power will be designated by the subscript b, as Eb. The emissive
po\ver of other bodies is less than that of the black body, and the ratio
E / E 6 is called the emissivity E of the body. From l{irchhoff's law, the
-r~tio E ?Eb is -also equal -to the absoq}tivity, since ab = 1. Hence we see

that, Ei.(hennal equilibrium, th~abs_o!Ptivf_fJJ...E_nd the en!_i§~vity of a JxxlU are

equal,_ For the black body both are equal to unity. ·~ - -
A black body can be approached in practice by a cavity such as a hollow
sphere whose interior surface is maintained at a uniform temperature. If
a small hole is provided in the wall of the sphere, any radiation entering
through it is partly absorbed and partly reflected diffusely at the interior
surface. The reflected radiation, as shown schematically in Fig. 5-t, \Vill
not immediately escape from the cavity but will first strike repeatedly the
interior surface. Each time it strikes, a part of it is absorbed; when the
original radiation beam finally reaches the hole again and escapes, it has
been so weakened by repeated reflection that the energy leaving the cavity
is negligible. This is true regardless of the surface and composition of the
wall of the cavity. Thus, a...__small
- -
hole in the walls surrounding a large
FIG. 5-4. Reflection of radiation in a cavity.
_cavity acts like a hlack body because practically all the radiation incident
upon it is absorbed.
- In a similar manner, the radiation emitted by the interior surface of a
cavity is absorbed and reflected many times and eventually fills the cavity
uniformly. If a black body at the same temperature as the interior surface
is placed into the cavity, it receives radiation uniformly, i.e., it is irradiated
isotropically. The black body absorbs all of the incident radiation and,
since the system consisting of the black body and the cavity is at a uniform
temperature, the rate of emission of radiation by the body must equal its
rate of irradiation. Otherwise there \vould he a net transfer of energy as
heat between two bodies at the same temperature in an isolated system,
an obvious violation of the second law of thermodynamics. Denoting the
rate at which radiant energy from the walls of the cavity is absorbed by
- black-body irradiation, by Gb and the rate
the black body, i.e., the -- -
at which
. --- - - ~

~he black body emits energy by Eb0~·e _thus obtain G, = E 6• This means
that the irradiation in a cavity whose walls are at a temperature Tis equal
to the emissive power of a black body at the same temperature. A small
hole in the wall of a cavity will not disturb this condition appreciably, and
the radiation escaping from it will therefore have black-body characteristics.
Since this radiation is independent of the nature of the surface, it follows
that the emissive power of a black body depends only on its temperature.
A quantitative relationship between the temperature and the total
emissive power of a black body was obtained by the Austrian physicist,
Stefan, in 1879. He deduced empirically from experimental data obtained
earlier by the scientist, Tyndall, that ~e~ergy_ radia~ l?Y a black body
is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature, o~
I ~ ' fEb= ~- T 4 i (6-4)

~Ieasurements obtained by different observers (1} give !!!__&~~!age_ of
0.1714 X to-a for the constant
-
of propo~ionality a if Eb is in Btu per hour
...... - -
per square foot and T in degrees Fahrenheit absolute (i.e., degrees Ran-
~~).!- The fourth-power law was later also derived from thermodynamical
considerations by Boltzmann, and Eq. 5-4 is commonly known as the
Stefan-Boltzmann law.
The emissive power determined from the Stefan-Boltzmann equation
represents the total radiant energy emitted by a black body in aH directions
of a half space per unit area and time over the entire wavelength spectrum.
It does not reveal the distribution of energy in the spectrum. A relation-
ship which shows how the emissive power is distributed among the different
wavelengths was derived by Max Planck, in 1900, by means of his quantum
theory. If Eb>. is the emissive power of a black body at the wavelength X,
so tha~ E,~ (A ~s th~. radiant power emitted from a black surfaee peru~!t
-
area ID the wavelength interval dX, Planck's law can be expressed ~
·--
(6-6)
where Eb>. = monochromatic emissive power of a black body in Btul hr

sq ft "';
~ = wavelength, in "';
T = temperature of the body, in deg 1\~bs)
e = Napierian base of logarithms;
Ct = 1.1870 X 10 8 Btu JJ 4/sq ft hr;
C2 = 2.5896 X 10 4 RJJ.
The monochromatic emissive power for various temperatures of black
bodies is plotted in Fig. 5-2 as a function of wavelength. At temperatures
of engineering interest, the emissive power is appreciable over wavelength8

from 0.3 to at least 501-'. The wavelength at which the monochromatic

emissive power is a maximum shifts with increasing temperature to shorter
wavelengths. The relationship between the wavelength Xmax at which
E,). is a -~aximum and the absolute temperature is_gjven by Wien's displace-
ment law (I) as
Xmax T = 5215.6~_J (frG)
( ,· ..,;' '' .l.· '··
The visible range of wavelengths extends only over a narrow region from
about 0.4 to 0. 71-', shown as a shaded band in Fig. 5-2. Only · a very
small amount of the total energy falls into this range of wavelengths at
temperatures below 1200 F. At higher temperatures, the amount of
radiant energy within the visible range increases and the human eye begins
to detect the radiation. The sensation produced on the retina and trans-
mitted to the optical nerve depends on the temperature, a phenomenon
which is still used to estimate the temperatures of metals during heat
treatment. At about 1300 F an amount of radiant energy sufficient to
he observed is emitted at wavelengths between 0.6 to 0.71-', and an object
at that temperature glows with a dull-red color. As the temperature is
further increased, the color changes to bright red and yellow, becoming
nearly white at about 2400 F. At the same time also, the brightness
increases because more and more of the total radiation falls within the
visible range.
To obtain the Stefan-Boltzmann equation from Planck's law it is
necessary to multiply the right-hand side of Eq. 5-5 by a differential
wavelength dX and integrate it between the limits X = 0 and X = The
CX).
total area under any one of the curves of Fig. 5-2 represents the .... - total
energy radiated by a black body at the indicated temperature and is
i1umerically equal to uT", or
!.wE.~ dX = aT' (0-7)
There are, however, many problems which require an estimate of the

energy radiated at a specified wavelength or within a finite band of wave-
lengths. Numerical computations for such cases are facilitated by the
auxiliary curves shown in Figs. 5-5, 5-6, and 5-7 (2). If we divide the
monochromatic emissive power of a black body E b). by its maximum mono-
chromatic emissive power at the same temperature E,'A max• we obtain

in e the right-hand ide is now a unique function of 'AT " can pl t

Eb>./ Eb).. max v . 'AT as shown in Fig. 5-5. We obtain Eb).. max by combining
Eq . 5-5 ~l!.d 5- 6, or - --- --- ---
- -- ·
E - tT6
b>.. max- . (ec, 1r,21 u _ ) = 2.161 X 10- 13 T 6 Btufhrsqft,u (6-9)
5215 66 1
A plot of Ebx max vs. T is shown in Fig. 5-6. To determine Eb).. at a

given temperature T, we calculate Eb'J... max from Eq. 5- 9 or read Eb).. max
from Fig. 5-6, calculate 'AT for the desired wavelength, read Ebx/ Ebx ma
from Fig. 5-5, and multiply there ult by Eb).. max·
r1\
1.0
~ V T
b>.mox
l
mox
ond A.T foro bloc body
0.9
0 .8 I \
0.7 \ A mox T = 3215 .6}1 R
I
0.6 \
b>. mox _
0 5 \
\
I
0 .~
03
i\
0 .2
I ~ ·r -
I
0.1
) """ ----r-
........
I I
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
A.
T max
15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000

A.T <Microns- Rankine)
Fw. 5-5. Ratio of monochroma ic emi iv pow r to maxim um mon -

chromatic mi. ive power at >-max as a function of XT.
Tl!_e 9la k-body emi ive power over a pecified wavelength range can
be obtain d ith r from Fig. 5- 7 where the ratio of
i plotted v . 'AT or from Table A-4 where thi ·ratio i tabulated a a fun -
ti n on T. "The procedure is illu trated in the following example.
..... ·--- - -
Example 6-1. ilica glas transmi 92 per cent of t he incident radiation in tb
wavelength range between 0.35 and 2. 7,.,. and is opaque at longer and hort r w ve-
l ng h . ' timate the per cent of ola.r radiation which t he glas will tran mi . Th
, m may be umed to radiate as a black body at 10,000 R.

rt - 1- -
- 1-- - f---
~
5 - - f---- -- -- t--- -- ~ - -- ··- - f-- ~-
- - - - - •- - - ~ -
II
-1
r-=-
~ E~IIIG· VL T -~ -- -- f-- -
2
- -- - ~ -
1- ~~~~aa •C3T 5 Btu/hrsqft Micron
0 -l II I I I J 106
-- C3•,216.018-U1o--
r--
1 1
Btu/hr sq ft
r
5
'- I Mti:ron(Jtl
~-
1 7
I I
:::t.l.0
.-.
2
~- I
I
I
i
I
'
.il
-- -7-c
.
lJ
•
; t-
I
-·- -l
- 1--
- -
1--
I-
I
j
t-+- r
5~-~ ---
I
t-- -1-·l - !
!, - - --
~t
1-- ·- - - -
t, · · ~-~ -
I -- -- f -
I
'
2
~ t-
I 1- -
0.1
- ·- t--
i/
1---- f-
-- - f-----j -- t-- -- - --
- ~ - - ~----I -- -
5 --
I I f---
~~- r 1--
I/
I
2
·-- i- t- 1
0.01
H
j
t--- - · r- I
I
--- -
~
-j I
I -
I I
~ 1/
2
0.00 2
100 1000
T~T,I
FIG. 5-6. Maximum monochromatic

emissive power as a function of abso-
lute temperature.
Solution: For the wavelength range within which the gl888 is transparent, >.T- 3500
at the lower limit and 27,000 at the upper limit. From Fig. 5-7 or Table A-4 we find
('··
Jo E,.,.d>.
= Q.6 per cent
Digiti zed by Google UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

Original from
1... I
0. 9 ~ I I
/ I
0. 8
v . I
l
I
'
0:1
/ ~
-
-•
Y1. f mox
and A.T fof ~ black body
1
~0.6
I
J0-;0. 5 I A. max r- 521S.6p R I I

!
I
, I
0.
"'
L i ! I
o.3 I I
I
I
I
I
I
i
!
0. 2 I I I i
0. 1 I I I
0.0
/
0.4 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
I
5.0 6.0
I
I I
7.0
l
_l
~~~j_ _ .____._______._,..-J_ . .J ----4----4.- ..L L---......1,._ ;__j ___ l __ _ _ ____ ; _.L__,ol,._.! _ _ :_ =-::-----~~! ~
0 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000
A.T IMicton- Rankine I
.Fm. 5-7. Fraction of total emissive power in spectral region be-
tween A = 0 and A as a function of AT.
t .7
and
f o EbxdX
- - - - = 96.9 per cent
:r~'"' .1
Thu8 .96;3. per cent of the total radiant energy inri(~,upon the gl&BB from the sun i~
in the wavelength range between 0.35 and 2.7/A and per cent of the solar radiation
i~ transmitted through the glws. Ans.
5~. RADIATION INTENSITY AND TOTAL EMISSIVE POWER
In the preceding sections we have only considered the total radiation

emitted by a black body in all directions. This condition may be visualized
by placing a hemispherical surface over a surface element dA 1, as shown in
Fig. 5-8. The hemisphere will then intercept all of the radiation beams
FIG . 5-8. Xomenclature for intensity of radiation.

emitted from the surface element, but only from directly above it will
dA 1 be seen without distortion. When viewed from a point on the hemi-
sphere displaced by the angle cp from the normal to the surface, the element
dA1 will appear as the projected area dA1 cos cp.
To determine the radiant heat per unit time emitted by dAt which
reaches an area dA2 on the surrounding hemisphere of radius r, we introduce
a term called intensity. The i!:ltensity of radiation I from dA1 in space is
defined as the radiant energy propagated in a particular direction area pe~
unit solid angle and per unit of area dAt as projected on a plane perpendicu-
lar to the direction of propagation. Referring to Fig. 5-8, the intensity
is so defined that the rate of radiant heat flow from dAt to dAt is
(6-10)
Noting that dA2/r'l is the sol1:d angle d"'1 subtended by dA2 at dAt and that
dAt cos q, is the effective area seen from dAt, i.e., the projected area dAtp
in the direction cp, we see that
Btu/hr sq ft steradian
For a diffuse surface the intensity is constant and does not vary with the
emission angle cp. Such a surface therefore obeys Lambert's cosine. law, and
.
we can relate the intensity to the emissive power by integrating the radia-
tion intercepted by an elemental area dA2 over the half space represented by
the surface of the hemisphere, or
(5-11)
where dA2/r 2 is the solid angle d<.J1 subtended by dA2 at dAt, since a solid
angle is by definition numerically the area subtended on. a sphere of uni.t
radius, or, for a sphere of radius r, the intercepted area divided by r.
From Fig. 5-8 we see that
.J __ (r sin q,)dt/;(rdcp) . d ~A.
uw 1 = r2 = Sin cp tYl«P
Substituting this relation for dvJ1 in Eq. 5-11 we obtain
E = I f. d>/t f.
2r r/2
sin q, cos q, dq,
which yields on integration

E = 1rl (6-12)
Thus, the total emissive power of a diffuse surface is 1r times its intensity.

5-5. RADIATION FROM REAL SURFACES
Radiation from real surfaces differs in several aspects from black-body
radiation. According to Kirchhoff's law, a real surface always radiates
less than a black body at the same temperature. If the ratio of the mono-
chromatic emissive power of a body to the emissive power of a black body
at the same wavelength, i.e., if it is constant over the entire wavelength
spectrum, the body is said to be gray and its emissive power E a is given by
Btu/hr sq ft (6-13)
The shape of a spectroradiometric curve for a gray surface is similar to
that of a black surface at the same temperature, but the height is reduced
100
AI 1.
umtnum
80
a.Polished
b.AnodiMd
e .Polished Copper
r:
60
b
~ I
I
40
I ~~/
J
20 I" .............._
~,cO .._/
I "-../'
r\ ~
J c
'
0.5 1 2 3 .. 5 6 7 8 9Jl
Wavelength l
Fw. 5-9. Variation of monochromatic absorptivity or
emis."ivity with wavelength for an electrical conductor.
(According to \V. Sieber, Ref. 3)
by the numerical value of the emissivity. For the purpose of heat-transfer

calculations, surfaces are usually regarded as gray even though the charac-
teristics of most surfaces deviate from gray-body specifications. Sieber (3)
measured the reflectivity of several materials over a range of wavelengths
and found that their values change with wavelength. From these meas-
urements the absorptivity and the emissivity can be calculated from Eq. 5-3
and Kirchhoff's law. The results are shown in Figs. 5-9 and 5-10, which
illustrate the variation of the monochromatic absorptivity a" with wave-
length. The curve for polished aluminum is characteristic of good electrical
conductors and shows that the emissivity decreases with increasing wave-
length. Electric nonconductors generally exhibit the opposite trend, as
illustrated by the emissivity curves for white clay and white tiles. The
emissivity of nonconductors generally increases in a more or less irregular
manner with increasing wavelength.

In addition to its variation with wavelength, the emissivity of many

bodies also has directional properties which do not conform to Lambert's
cosine law. This is illustrated in Figs. 5-11 and 5-12, where the direetional
cmissivities E~ of several substances are plotted in polar diagrams. For
surfaces whose radiation intensity follows Lambert's cosine law and depends
only on the projected area, the emissivity curves would be semicircles.
The measurements of Schmidt and Eckert(~) show that, for nonconductors
such as wood, paper, and oxide films, the emissivity decreases at large
values of the emission angle cp, whereas for polished metals, the opposite
trend is observed. For example, the emissivity of polished chromium,
which is widely used as a radiation shield, is as low as 0.06 in the normal
1001
~. I
80~1
1---4--J~~~~-U----l
~~~--~~~~----~--~----+---
~~=a~
20~~~~7-7-~~--- I
fire-Cloy, White
0
0.5 1
___~.__l
2 3
l
.. 5
· - - _ _ _ __ _ j_ _ ___l__
6 7 8
___J
9p
Wavelength A.
Fig. ,j - 10. Variation of monochromatic absorptivity or
cmi:-;sivit ~· with wavdength for an electrical noneonduetor.
(.\e<'ording to \V. Sieber, Hef. 3)
direction hut increasPs to 0.14 when viewed fron1 an angle cp of 80 deg.

Experimental data on the directional variation of emissivity are scant.
and until more information becomes available a satisfactory approximation
for engineering calculations is to assume for polished metallic surfaces a
mean value of E/ En = 1.2 and for nonmetallic surfaces E/ En = 0.96, where E is
the average emissivity through a hemispherical solid angle of 21r steradians
and En is the emissivity in the direction of the normal to the surface.
For heat-transfer calculations an average emissivity or absorptivity for
the wavelength band in which the bulk of the radiation is emitted or ab-
sorbed is required. The wavelength band of interest depends on the
temperature of the body from which the radiation originates, as pointed
out in Sec. 5-1. If the distribution of the monochromatic emissivity is
known, the emissive power of the body can be obtained by plotting the
product Ex E\x v~. A OV(\r the wuvel~ngth range in which appreciable emis-
Digitized by Google • Original from

a wet ice b wood c glass d paper

e clay f copper oxide g aluminum oxide
Fm. 5-11 Direcuonal variation of emtssivity for
several electrical nonconductors. (By permission from
E. Schmidt and E. Eckert, "'Uber die Richtungsvertei-
lung der Warmestrahlung," Forsch. Gebiete /ngenieur-
wesen, Vol. 6, 1935)
sion occurs at a given temperature and measuring the area under the curve.
An average emissivity for each temperature can be obtained by dividing
this area by the area under the spectroradiometric curve of a black body
at the same temperature. The total average emissivity at a given tempera-
ture is thus given by
0.12 o.u
FIG. 5-12. Directional variation of emissivity for several metals. (By

permission from E. Schmidt and E. Eckert, "tlber die Richtungsverteilung
der Wii.rmestrahlung," Forsch. Gebiete lngenieurwesen, Vol. 6, 1935)
The total average absorptivity a for a surface receiving radiation can

be obtained similarly by evaluating the fraction

a= f.ma,E.,dx/ fmE.,d>.
The numerical evaluation of this integral may be simplified by noting
that the denominator i~ equal to u T 4 • Changing the variable of integration
from X to XT yields
a =
! 0
co
a,. -
Eb>.
(1 7
l& d (XT)
The quantity (E,>./uT6 ) is tabulated as a function of XT in Table A-4 of

the Appendix. As shown by Dunkle (2), if a curve of a,. vs. X is available,
a can be evaluated numerically by taking suitable increments of XT,
tabulating the individual products a,.
(Eb.,./ uT&)A(X T), and finally summing
them.
Sieber (3) evaluated the total average absorptivity for several materials
at 70 F, and his results are shown graphically in Fig. 5-13. \Ve observe
that the absorptivity of aluminum, representative of all electrical conduc-
tors, increases with increasing temperature, whereas the absorptivity of
nonconductors has the opposite trend.
According to l(irchhoff's law, the ab~orptivity of fl. ~urf~~~-equals its emis-
~ivity at thermal equilibrium. For gray bodies a,. and E,. are constant over
-ihe entire wave spectrum; consequently a = E irrespective of the tempera-
%
100
~~
~
-- - r?- - -·-
80
~ to..
~
r" ~~
~
......
f': ~ !. 1--'" -
~~ ~ ~ ~~ i'.
i-"""'
r-. 'r--
I'- ~
~ .............
60 -~
~\
\ ..........
.....
~ '- ~ ~
a
~ ~
,-""
40
\ r-- ...
~ ' ~ ~..... r<~ -t ~
...,...... ~
~ ......
-----
20
..... .... r-- ...

~
... r---r--,!"o
0
600 1000 2000 4000 I 0,000 I
Temperatvre
(1) White fire clay (·i) Wood

(7) Roof shingles
(2) Asbestos (5) Porcelain (8) Aluminum
{3) Cork (6) Concrete (9) Graphite
FIG. 5-13. Variation of average absorptivity with temperature
for several materials. (According to \V. Sieber, Ref. 3)

tures of the emitter and receiver. It is important to note, however, that,

when E varies with wavelength, this relation only holds at a given tempera-
ture or at a given wavelength. In practice a body usually emits the bulk of
its radiation at wavelengths which are different from those at which it re-
ceives radiation. Therefore the average values of E and a are not necessarily
the same, and to evaluate E and a for a real body correctly one should
choose a corresponding to the wavelength or the temperature at which the
radiation striking the body was emitted and E corresponding to the actual
temperature of the body.
Enmple 6-2. A small body at 100 F is placed in a large heating oven whose walls
ure maintained uniformly at 2000 F. The average absorptivity of the body at 100 F
varies with the temperature of the emitter as shown in the table below.
Temperature (F) 100 F 1000 F 2000 F

Absorptivity, a 0.8 0.6 0.5
Estimate the rate at which radiant energy is (a) absorbed by and (b) emitted from the
body per unit surface area.
&lutwn: (a) The radiation incident upon the borly is characterized by the tem-
perature of the oven walls, and the absorptivity of the body for this radiation is 0.5.
Thus 50 per cent of the incident black-body radiation is absorbed, and the rate of
energy absorption G is
G = 0.5 X 0.173 X to-a X 24604 = 3.16 X 101 Btu/hr sq ft Ans.

b) Emission occurs at a temperature of 100 F and the average emissivity of the
body is therefore equal to 0.8, the absorptivity at 100 F. The emissive power is equal to
E =- 0.8 X 0.173 X to-a X 5604 = 13.7 Btu/hr sq ft Ans.

The net rate of heat transfer by radiation equals the rate at which energy is absorbed
by the body minus the rate at which it emits energy. In this problem the rate of emis-
sion is negligible compared to the rate of absorption because the temperature of the
body is very low. However, as the body becomes warmer it will emit more and more
radiation. Its temperature will approach that of the oven walls and eventually ita
rate of emission will be the same as its rate of absorption of energy, so that the absorp-
tivity will equal the emissivity at the equilibrium temperature.
Table 5-llists average values for the emissivity of several materials at

specified temperatures. 1 It will be noted that clean and polished metal
surfaces usually have low values of emissivity, whereas many other surfaces
which find application in engineering have emissivities in excess of 0.85
1 A survey of the literature reveals wide variance~ in the reported results. The values
li.~ted in Table 5-1 were selected from several references and deviations from these values
can be expected in practice since many factors influence the emissivity and absorptivity
of a surface. An experimental technique for the accurate measurement of the spectral
emis.-;ivity has been developed recently and is described in Ref. 29.

TABLE 5-1
EMISSIVITIE:-; OF vARIOUS StillFACES ..
- - - - - - -- - -·- - - - - - - - -- - --
i
9.=~#1 I. .'l.-1~ :i.6#£ l.Sp
100 F ;j()() F 1000 F 2500 F
l\letals
Aluminum
Polished ... . . .... . ....... . . .. . . 0.04 0.05 0 .08 0.19 ---<l . 3
Oxidized ... . . .. . . . . ..... . . .. . . 0.11 0 . 12 0.18
24-ST weathered. . . . . . . . .. . . . . 0.4 0.32 0.27
Surface roofing . ... .. .. .. . . . . . . . 0 .22
Anodized (at 1000 F) . . . . .. .. . O.H4 0.42 0 .60 0 .34
Brass
Polished .................... . . . 0.10 0.10
Oxidized ... ....... . ...... ... . . . 0.61
Chromium
Polished . ................ ..... . 0 .08 0 .17 0.26 0.40 0 .49
Copper
Polished . . ................... . . 0.04 0.05 0.18 0.17
Oxidized . . .... .... ......... .. . . 0 .87 0.83 0 . 77
Iron
Polished .. . ... . . . ........... . . . 0.06 0 .08 0.13 0.25 0.45
Cast, oxidized .. .... . . ....... . . . 0.63 0 .66 0.76
Galvanized, new .... .. ... . ..... . 0.23 0.42 0.66
Galvanized, dirty . . . ..... . . . ... . 0.28 0.00 0.89
Steel plate, rough . . ........... . . 0.94 0 .97 0 .98
Oxide .................. . ..... . 0.96 0.85 0.74
1\rlolten . . .... . ................ . 0.3-Q.4
Magnesium ... . .............. . .. . 0.07 0 . 13 0.18 0.24 0.30
1\rlolybdenum filament . . .......... . "-'0.09 "-'0. 15 --<1.2•
Silver
Polished... . .. . . . ........... . 0 .01 0 .02 0 .03 0.11
Stainless steel
18-8, polished .............. . .. . 0.15 0.18 0 .22
18-8, weathered .. .. . . ..... . ... . 0 .85 0.85 0 .85
Steel tube
Oxidized .... . ........ . .. . .... . 0 .80
Tungsten filament . ............. . . 0 .03 "-'0. 18 0.35t
Zinc
Polished . ..................... . 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.46
Galvanized shPct ......... . . . . . "-'0.25
Building and Insulating .M aterials
Asbestos paper . ..... .. ... .. . .... . 0.93 0.93
Asphalt . . ..................... . . 0.93 0 .9 0.93
Brick
Red .. . . . . . ............... . . . . . 0 .93 0 .7
Fire clay . ....... .. .. . . .. . . . .. . 0 .9 "-'0.7 "-'0.75
~-~·
.." 1 tea ..... . .. . .. . .......... ... . 0 .9 "-'0.75 0 .84
l\lagnesit.e refractory ....... ... . . o.n "-'0 .4
Enamel, white ... . . .... .. . ..... .. . 0 .9
:Marble, whitl' . . .. ... .. ..... . .. .. . O.H5 0.93 0.47
Paper, white . . .. . ... . . . .... .... . . O.H5 0.82 0.25 0 .28
Plaster ........... . .. . ..... . .. .. . O.Hl

TABLE 5-l (Continued)
W AVELENOTB AND A vi!RAOE TllMPEBATnRE
MATERJAL
9.3,. 3.6,. 1.8,. 0.6,.
100 F 1000 F 2!'.00 F Solar
Roofing board .. . ................ . 0.93

Enameled st-eel, white ........... . . 0.65 0.47
Asbestos cement, red ............. . 0.67 0.66
Paints
Aluminized lacquer .............. . 0.65 0 .65
Cream paints ............... . ... . 0.95 0.88 0.70 0.42 0.35
Lacquer, black .................. . 0.96 0.98
Lampblack paint . . .............. . 0 .96 0. ~J7 . . .. 0.97 0 .97
Red paint . . .......... . ........ . 0.96 • • • 0 .... .... 0.74
Yellow paint . . . . .. ... ... . ....... . 0.95 . . .. 0.5 . ... 0 .30
Oil paints (all colors) ....... . ..... . ~ . 94 ~.9
White (ZnO) .. .................. . 0.95 .... 0.91 . ... 0 .18
MiSC'-ellaneous
Ice . . .. . ...................... . . . ,_,() _n7t
Water . . .. . .... . ............ . ... . "'0 . 06
Carbon
T-carbon, 0.9 per cent ash . . . . . 0.82 0.80 0 .7B
Filament .. . .. .. . . .. . ........ . ~.72 ... ... . 0 .53
WOO<! ......... . .... . ......... . . . ~ . 93
Glass ... ... . ....... ... . . .. . . . ... . 0.90 . . . . .. . . • • • 0
(Low)
• At 5000 F.
tAt 6000 F.
tAt 32 F.
SOURCE : Refs. 11, 15-18.
and are therefore excellent absorbers as well as emitters of radiation. It

is also apparent that the visual color hears no resemblance to the definition
of a black body. For example ice, which appears white to , our eyes, absorb:-;
nearly all radiation in the long-wavelength range.
5-6. HEAT EXCHANGE BY RADIATION BETWEEN BLACK SURFACES
So far we have examined the emission and absorption of radiation by

various surfaces without considering the net heat flow between them. To
evaluate the net exchange of radiation or net heat flow between two or
more bodies it is necessary to determine the fraction of the total emission
from each of the radiating surfaces which reaches, and is absorbed by, the
others. If only black surfaces are involved, all of the incident radiation
is absorbed and we only need to consider the geometric relation between
the surfaces.
Figure 5-14 shows the surfaces of two black bodies separated by a
medium which does not absorb radiation appreciably (e.g., air). To
determine the fraction of the energy leaving surface A 1 that strikes surface
A~. consider first the two differential surfaces dA 1 and d A 2· If the dista.nee

between them is r, then dq 1.....2, the rate at which radiation from dA 1 is

received by d.A2, is, from Eq. 5-10, given by
dq 1..... 2 = I 1 cos cl>1 dA 1 dwt-2 (6-14)
where / 1 = intensity of radiation from dA1;
dA 1 cos cp 1 = projection of area element dA1 as seen from dA2;
dw1.2 = solid angle subtended by receiving area dA2 with
respect to center point of dA 1·
The sub tended angle dw1-2 is equal to the projected area of the receiving
FIG. 5-14. Geometrical shape-factor notation.
surface in the direction of the incident radiation divided by the square of

the distance between dA1 and dA2, or, using the nomenclature of Fig. 5-14,
(5-15)
Substituting Eqs. 5-10 and 5-15 for dw1.2 and /1 respectively in Eq. 5-14
yields
dQ1-2 -_ E b1 dA
. 1
(cos c/>1 cos t/>2 d. .4 2) (6-16)
7rr2
where the term in parentheses is equal to the fraction of the total radiation
emitted from dAt that is intercepted by dA 2 • By analogy, the fraction of
the total radiation emitted from dA 2 that strikes dA 1 is
d q2-1 _
-
E d 4 (cos 4>2 cos cl>t dA
l;2 .. 2 2
1r1'
1) (6-17)

so that the net rate of radiant
-- -
heat transfer between dAt and dA2 is
- - -- - -
_ (E E ) cos cl>t cos 4>2 dAtdAt

dQt-=t2 - bl - b2
rr2 (5-18)
To determine Q1-=t2, the net rate of radiation between the entire surfaces
A 1 a~_d A11 wesimply integrate the fraction in the preceding equ;tiori over
·b()th surfaces and obtain
_ (E bl
ql;::t.2 - -
E b2 ) 11
AI At
cos cl>t cos
711'2
c1>2 dA 1dA2 (5-19)
,-- The_ !JQ!lble integral !Lcgnveniently-- written - in sh_<?_rthand notation

_\ ei~he_~~~~!1t_-Fl4-or_d~- F2-l, ~_!1~~~ ft-2 is called the shape i~ctor -ev8Juated
-~ -on
the basis of area At and F2-1 is called the shape factore-vaTuated on the
basis of A2. Physically Ft-2 represents the frac~ion of the total radiant
energy leaving A 1 which is intercepte~ by A2 and F2-1 the fraction of
energy ~e~_g_hjn~ A1 frgm_4_::..T1l.~~-qu~Jj~_y
(6-20)
is known as the reciprocity theorem. Substituting Eq. 5-20 for the double
integral in Eq. 5-19 shows that the basic relation for the net rate of heat
flow by radiation between any two black bodies may b~ '\'~ftte"fi a.S- ·
Q1;:12 = (Ebt - Eb'l) F1-2 At = (Ebt - Eb2) F2-1 A2 (6-21)
Inspection of Eq. 5-21 reveals that the net rate of heat ~ow between two
black bodies can be determined by evaluating the radiation from either
one of the surfaces to the other surface and replacing its emissive power
by the difference of the emissive powers of the two surfaces. Since the
end result is independent of the choice of the emitting surface, one selects
that surface whose shape factor can be determined more easily. For
example, the shape factor F1.2 for any surface A 1 completely enclosed by
another surface is unity. In general, however, the determination of a
shape factor for any but the most simple geometric configuration is rather
complex. The technique is illustrated in Example 5-3.
E:umple 6-3. Determine the geometric shape factor for a very small disk A 1 and a
large parallel disk .·!2 located a distance L directly above the smaller one, as shown in
Fig. 5-15.
Solution: From Eq. 5-19 the geometric shape factor is
A .F ,_, = f f
At A2
cos cl>t cos 4>-l dA ldA,
1rr 2
but since At is very small the shape factor is given by

cos <l>t cos ~ dA
rt 2

From Fig. 5-15, cos cf»1 =- coN cf»2 - L/r, r = Vp1 + L1, and dA 1 - pd.ydp. Substituting
these relations, we obtain
AtFI-1 = ---;-
A1 fa0 Jzr
0 (pi
L1
+ £2)2 pdpd.VJ ~ ·
which can be integrated directly to yield
Ans.
~-------------------------------20--------------------------------~·,
£1
L.
JlAl
Fw. 5-15. Nomenclature for the evalua-
tion of the shape factor between a small disk
and a large disk located parallel dircetly
a hove.
The preceding example shows that the determination of a shape factor

by evaluating the double integral of Eq. 5-19 is generally very tedious. 2
Fortunately the shape factors for a large number of geometrical arrange-
ments have been evaluated and a majority of them can be found in Refs.
5, 6, 7, and 8. A selected group of practical interest is summarized in
Table 5-2 and Figs. 5-16, 5-17, 5-18, and 5-19. The data from the
graphical solutions of cases 7 and 10 can be extended by simple arithmetical
addition and subtraction of shape factors to permit the evaluation of a
shape factor for geometrical arrangements which can be built up from
these elementary cases. The technique is illustrated in the following
example.
Example 6-4. A room 12 ft on one side by 24 ft on the other has a ceiling height
of 12 ft. Determine the shape factor of the floor with re~pect to a Rmall window of
urea A 1 located in the ceiling 6 ft from two walh~.
2 l\tcehanical d(•viet•s whieh perform the double integration indi<·nted by Eq. 5-19
un• dP~crihPd in H('ff'. 6 :uul 7. \\'ith th<.>ir aid, l-ihap(' fnctor~ for odd configuration:->
can he dt>t£•rmined quih· ~imply and accurntdy.

O L-~~~~L-~~~--L-L-~~--~---L--~--~L-~
0 1.5 2.0 2 ..5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.5
D/Lt , Dimension Ratio
F10. 5- 16. hap fa tor for a surface lemeut and a

r cta.ngular urfac parallel to it. (By p rmission from
H . C. Hottel, "Radiant Heat Tran mi ion,'' M han-
ical Engineering, Vol. 52, 1 30)
I I ,
050
Iy 0.1 ·-
0.40
v '1:: Dimension Ratio, 1 =0.1
--
I l0-
I v v- 0.3
0.4
--
·-
0.30
I(J v /
06 1--
Va; ......- --
·.
A1 =Area on which heat
~
v r/ v/ ~ ~ transfer equa ion is bos.d. I
v
.f =y;~
I
0.20
/ ---
I
.,j I~ •I~
- ---
·-
~ /
~ ~
:~ I
3.0
0 .10
~~
vt ~ ~ - - ~~
--
1-- ·-
.... Asymptot
~
~
.I ~ ~ Scale changes here -

I ~,
0
0
. 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6 8 10
D'mension Ratio,Z I
FI 5-17. hap factor for adjac nt recta.ngl in p rp ndi ular planes.

(B perm ion from H. C. Hott 1, "Radiant H at Tran mi i n,' ~echan
ical Engine ring, Vol. 52, 1930)

Rodiotion betwe n poroll I

pion s, directly oppo1ed
1-2-3~ Dir cl rodiohon betwe n the pion s, F
5--0-7-8 Planes connected by _
non-conduct1ng but reradiating wolb, F
1-5 D1scs 3-7 2: I Rectangle
2-6 SquoreJ ~-8 long, narrow redongl s
1 5 6 7
Fla. 5-18. hape factor for qual and parall 1 quar , recta.ngl , and
disk . The curve lab 1 d 5, 6, 7, and 8 allow f r continuou variation in
th ide-wall mp r tur s from top to bot om. (By p rmi ion from H. C.
Hottel, "Radia nt H at Transmi ion," M hanical Engineering, Vol. 52,
1930)
.• 1.0 ~ r-----r--. ~
c ~
Non-conducting refrodofy
..2 .......... I
~
\ '
~ 0.8
"' ~
'!!to,lo 6o
.... ~,.~
'"
0
i 11>,,. "'
~
..........
i
£ 0.6
o..,.~ ~ r---
'j '-.. r. . . ..rI Ofo .~Ot!e /)
§
·c
r I lo I Sf~
- l'ese,,
~ ....__ ~
~o ..- .... Total to 2nd row -----
/ r--
0 Radiating plane - ..4t
j 0.2
/ Ordinate is fraction of heat radiated
I from the plane to on infinite number
v
of rows of tubes Ot' to a plane replacing
2 3 ~
Ra . Center-to-c•nter distance
5 6 7
the tubes
,
ho, Tube diameter
FIG. 5- 1 . hap fa t r for a plane and on or two row of tu above

and parallel to it. (By permi ion fr m H. . Hot.t 1, "R diant H at Trau -
mission," Mechani al Engine ring, Vol. 52, 1 30)
Solution: If the floor i divided into four r ctangle , two 6 by 6 ft each and wo
6 by 18 ft each, then each r ctangle me t the onditi n of th graphical s lu i n
pre ented in Fig. 5-16. The hap fa tor f the n ir fl or ar a will b he urn f
he hape factor for each of t he re tangle . The dim en ionle ra io D I L, and D I L,.
f r each of t he smaller re tangle a.r 1216 = 2.00. From Fig. 5-16 the hape fa tor

TABLE 5-2
GEoMETRIC SHAPE FACTORS FOR UsE IN EQs. 5-21 AND 5-28
Surfaces Between Which Radiation Shape Factor, F1-t
Is Being Interchanged
1. Infinite parallel planes. 1

2. Body At completely enclosed by 1
anotper body, A 2• Neither of the
bodies can see any part of it...,elf.
3. Surface element dA (At) and rec- See Fig. 5-16
tangular surface (A2) above and
parallel to it, with one corner of rec-
tangle contained in normal to dA.
4. Element dA (At) and paraJiel circu- a2l(a2 + V)
lar disk (Az) with its center directly
above dA. (See Example 5-3.)
5. Two parallel and equal squares, See Fig. 5-18
rectangles or disks of width or di-
ameter D, a distance L apart.
6. Two parallel disks of unequal diame-
ter, distance L apart with centers on ; [ L' +a'+ b"
same normal to their planes, smaller
disk A, of radius a, larger disk of _ v' (L'~ +a"+ b') _ 4atbt]
radius b.
7. Two rectangles in perpendicular See Fig. 5-17
planes with a common side.
8. Radiation between an. infinite plane See Fig. 5-19
At and one or two rows of infinite
parallel tubes in a parallel plane A 2
if the only other surface is a refrac-
tory surface behind the tubes.
for one section is about 0.06. For each of the larger rectangles DI L1 == 0.66, DI Lt ==
2.0, and, from Fig. 5-16, the shape factor between the window and one of the larger
rectangles is 0.10. The shape factor for the entire floor is therefore 0.32. Thus,
32 per cent of the total emissive power from the window will strike the floor, and
A1F1~ a~ AzFt-t == 0.32 At. Ans.
The net radiation from a surface A, in a black-body enclosure consisting

of several surfaces can be evaluated by a simple extension of Eq. 5-21.
Since the radiation exchange between A, and any one of then surrounding
surfaces is not affected by the presence of the other surfaces, the net rate
of heat flow from A, is
k•n
q, ••• = ~ A,F,,(Eb, - E,.) (5-22)

A:-1
If the surface A, is convex so that none of the radiation emitted by it can

strike it directly, all of the radiation emitted from A, is intercepted by the

n surrounding surfaces of the enclosure. The shape factors based on the
surface A, must therefore obey the relation
(~22a)
An inspection of Eq. 5-22 shows that there is also an analogy behveen

heat flow by radiation and the flow of electric current. ~~ -~h~ blac_k:·ROOY
emissive power E, is considered to act as ~otential and the shape factor
.A.F.-;-as -the -conductance between two nodes at potentials Eb, and E~>t,
then the resulting net flow of heat q i net 1s analogous to the flow of electric
current in an analogous-network. As -examples, networks for black-body
enclosures consisting of three and four heat-transfer surfaces are sho\vn in
(a)
FIG. 5-20. Equivalent networks for radiation in black-body enclosures

consisting of three and four surfaces.
Fig. 5-20. The numerical solution for cases involving four or more sur-
faces is most easily accomplished by actually constructing an equivalent
electric network and measuring the current flow. Analytic methods of
solution can be found in Refs. 9 and 10.
5-7. RADIATION BETWEEN BLACK SURFACES IN THE PRESENCE OF RERADIATING

SURFACES
A reradiating surface is a surface which diffusely reflects and emits

radiation at the same rate at which it receives radiation. Under steady-
state conditions the refractory walls of industrial furnaces can usually be
treated as reradiating surfaces. The interior surfaces of these we.lls receive
heat by convection as well as radiation and lose heat to the outside by
conduction through the walls. In practice, however, the heat flow by
radiation is so much larger than the difference between the heat flow

FIG. 5-21. Simplified sketch of a furnace.
by convection to and the heat flow by conduction from the surface that
the walls act essentially as reradiators.
A simplified sketch of a pulverized-fuel furnace is shown in Fig. 5-21.
The floor is assumed to be at a uniform temperature T 1 radiating to a nest
of oxidized-steel tubes at T 2 which fill the ceiling- <rl-th~- furnace. The side
walls are assumed to act as reradiators at a- uniform temperature T R· If
we neglect radiation between the tubes and the ceiling and assume that
the floor and the tubes are black, the equivalent network representing the
radiation exchange between the floor and the tubes in the presence of the
reradiating walls is that shown in Fig. 5-22. A part of the radiation
emitted from A 1 goes directly to ..4 2 , while the rest strikes A R and is re-
flected from there. Of the reflected radiation, a part is returned to A 1, a
part to A!, and the rest to ..4 8 for further reflection. However, since the·
refractory wall must get rid of all the incident radiation either by reflection -
or reradiation, its emissive power will act in the steady state like a floating I
potential whose actual value, i.e., its emissive power and temperature, '
depends only _<>~ the relative values of the conductances between ER and
E bt and E R and E b2· Thus,
..... the net_e!!ec_~ ~~ ~his rather co~plicated radia- _
,_____
__
- -- ~H Bt.1 R• 1 • 1 8u
Hili"". -
...1,1-Z ... z.l"z-1
F10. 5-22. Equivalent network for
radiation between two black bodi('s in
a reradiating enclosure.

tion .an be representeQ_jn_the__equivalent network by two _par-

allel heat-flow pat s -etwe~- At and A2, one having an effective con-
1iuctan-Ce-of :4-.---Fr-2",--t-he- other-having an--effective condurtance equal to
1/(1/At Ft-R + 1/A2 F2-R). The net ~~1-~-o~ by r~diation betwc(ln a
- -·-- -
h.~~ck_~~~-t s_our~e ~nd a b)ack_be~.t sinkjn ~):lch_~_§il!lple furnace is then
equ~l to
q,.,. = A,(E., - E~,) (F,_, +

1
1/Ft-R + A,/A,F._J (6-2S)
If neither of the surfaces can see any part of itself, F1-R and F2-R can be
eliminated by using Eqs. 5-20 and 5-22a. This yields after some simplifi-
cation
The details of this derivation are left as an exercise (see Pro b. 5-33).
5-8. HEAT FLOW BY RADIATION BETWEEN GRAY SURFACES
In the preceding two sections, radiation between black surfaces wa.-,

considered. The assumption that a surface is black simplifies heat-transfer
calculations because all of the incident radiation is absorbed. In practic-e
one may generally neglect reflection without introducing serious errors if
the absorptivity of the radiating surfaces is larger than 0.9. There are~
however, numerous problems involving surfaces of low absorptivity and
emissivity, especially in installations where radiation is undesirable. For
example, the inner walls of a thermos bottle are silvered in order to redue.r
the heat flow by radiation. Also, thermocouples for high-temperature
work are frequently surrounded by radiation shields to reduce the difference
between the indicated temperature and the temperature of the medium
to be measured.
If the radiating surfaces are not black, the analysis becomes exceedingly
difficult unless the surfaces are considered to be gray. The analysis in this
section is limited to gray surfaces which follow Lambert's cosine law and
reflect diffusely. The radiation from such surfaces can be treated conven-
iently in terms of the ra_dio~1·t~ which i~" defined ~--j,~~___!"~te at \vhich
radiation leaves a giverfsurface per unit area. rhe radiosity is the sum of
radiation emittro, reflected, and transmitted, but for opaque bodies 'vhich
transmit no radiation, the radiosity can be defined symbol1calTSr-a..~ ~ -~ --
.J = p G + E Eb .. (6-24)
where J = radiosity, in Btu / hr sq ft;
G = irradiation or radiation per unit time incident on unit surface
area, in Btu/ hr sq ft;

Eb = black-body emissive power, in Btu/hr sq ft;

p = reflectivity;
E = emissivity.
The net rate at which radiation is leaving a gray surface per unit area
and time is equal to the difference between the radiosity and the irradiation,
that is
dq net = J _ G (6-25)
dA
..
vy For a gray surface, p is constant a~<.! .P_-±-_ !-- __t__ The irradiation G can
"therefore be eliminated from Eq. 5-25, and we get
dq net = .!_ E L - 1 - p E (
(6-26)
dA P u P J = ; E, - J)
If the irradiation is uniformly distributed over the surface, the net

rate of radiation~~ a surface _4._ is obtained by integrating Eq. 5-=2o~
and we have--
E
V' q net = -p A (E b - J) (6-27)
· !n __t:e~s of an equivalent circuit Clnet in Eq. 5-27 can _beJnterl).feted_a.s

the rate of heat flow between two nodes E, and J connecte_d _bya__resistance
equaJ to p{EA. -- --
-- -The- effect of the system geometry on the net radiation between two
gray surfaces Ai and A~: emitting radiation at the rate J, and J~: respectively
is the same as for similar black surfaces. It can therefore be expressed in
terms of the geometric shape factor defined by Eq. 5-19 and the direct
radiation exchange between any two opaque and diffuse surfaces A, and Ak
is given by the rate equation
(6-28)
Equations 5-27 and 5-28 provide the basis for determining the net rate of
radiant heat transfer between gray bodies in a gray enclosure by means of
an equivalent network. It should be noted, however, that, according to
1
I
the condition preceding Eq. 5-27, a heat-transfer surface is that portio~
·.of an area which is not only at a constant temperature but is also uniformly
irradiated. With this stipulation the effect of the reflectivity and emissiv-
ity can be taken into account by connecting a black-body potential node Eb,
to each of the nodal points in the network by means of a finite conductance
AE/p. In the case of a black body (AE/ p) is infinite since p, = 0. In
Fig. 5-23 the equivalent networks for radiation in an enclosure consisting
of two and four gray bodies are shown. \Ve can see from these networks

that the potential nodes of the corresponding black-enclosure network

become floating potential nodes which acquire an equilibrium potential
equal to the surface radiosity J.
_~
r Some two-component gray enclosures, such as two parallel and infinite
pla~s, concentric ~yli~ders of infinite height, and concentric spheres, are of
; considerable practtealinterest. For these systems each component surface
is uniformly irradiated and the network reduces to a single line of resistances
{a) \ '\, \,..... -- - ·
..
' __ - ~ -
~
(b)
Fw. 5-23. Equivalent networks for radiation in gray
enclosures. (a) Two gray-body surfaces. (h) Four
gray-body surfaces.
in series as sho\\·n in Fig. 5-23. conduc_lance for Jl8.e __ in

Eq. 5-21 is giv(\n by ,';_, ;: -\ I. ~
. .....
, r -
A 15= t-2
1
= -------r"-------- 1·~ \ ·. , ( 6-29) . . I
../
\
~
/ p,j A lEI-f\_
1/ A 1 + P2/ .:12E2
where A 1 is the smaller surface and 5=1-2 is the gray-bo_d]L shf!-Ee factor \_\'hich
is often written F AF E' the product or
ilie-geometnc shape faetor FA and
a factor F 8 that aUows for the departure of the surface from black-body
conditions.
For radiation between two parallel flat plates, the gray-body shape far-
tor reduees to ff1-2 = 1/ (1 / Et + 1/E2 - 1) if end effects are neglecte_d. For
a small gray body in black surroundings we obtain A tfft-2 = A 1E1 according
to Eq. 5-29.
Example 6-6. Liquified oxygen (boiling temperature, - 29i F) is to be stort>d
in a spherical container of 1-ft diam. The gystem i~ insulated by an evacuated ~pnc·t•

between the inner sphere and a surrounding 1.5-ft-ID concentric sphere. Both spheres
are made of aluminum (E == 0.03), and the temperature of the outer sphere is 30 F.
l·:~timutc the rate of heat flow by radiation to the oxygen in the container.
Solulwtt: From Eq. 5-2H the equivalent ronduet.ancc iH
but since Pl = l - E! and
we get A 1~1-2 = 7r I[ 0.97

0.03 +1+
0.07
\0.3) (2.25)
J == 0.066
The absolute temperatures are
1'1 = -tHO - 2U7 = 163 R

7'2 = 460 + 30 = 400 H.
The rate of heat flow to the oxygen is then, according to Eq. 5-21,
• ' .,..- ,,
_/'- ,-.--} , I ~, ' r
-
•-"
. I
q1~2 = A1~1-t (Ebt - E112) = (0.~) (0.1714) (4.9 4 - 1.634 ) = 6.55 Btu/hr Ans.
, The radiant heat flow between a gray heat source and a gray heat sink
in an enclosure consisting of reradiating surfaces can also be solved without
FIG. 5-24. Equivalent rwtwork for radiation between

two gray bodies in a reradiating enclosure.
difficulty by means of the equivalent circuit. According to Eqs. 5-27 and

5-28, it is only necessary to replace Ebl and Eb2, the potentials used in
Sec. 5-7 for black surfaces, by J1 and J 2 and connect the new potentials by
the resistances pt/Et At and P2/E2 A2 respectively to the black-body potentials
/ Ebl and E112. The resulting network is shown in Fig. 5.-24, and from it we
see that the total conduct~nce between Et and E 2 is now
1
A1~1-2 - ---------------------------------------------------------------- (5-30)
~ + ~ + ______________1 _____________
EtAt E2A2 At [Ft-2 + } / (1/Ft-R + At/A2F2-n)]
where the denominator of the last term is the conduf'tanf'e for the blaf'k-

body network given by Eq. 5-23.. The expression for the conductance
can be recast into the more convenient form
(6-31)
\yhere Ad~\-2 is the total conductance for the black-body network, equal
to the denominator of the last term in the original expression. The
equation for the net radiant heat transfer per unit time between two gray
surfaces in the presence of reradiating surfaces at uniform temperature
can then also be writ ten
'
/ \ Ql+=t2 = _A1ff1-~. u (Tt 4 - _'!'22_/ (6-32)
Example 1-8. A muffle-type furnace has a floor 16 by 16ft made of refractory ma-
terial (e - 0.7). Two staggered rows of 3-in.-OD tubes on 6-in. centers are placed about
10ft above and parallel to the floor. The floor is at an average temperature of 1640 F,
and the tubes, made of oxidized steel, are at 540 F. The side walls and the ceiling are
made of refractory and may be assumed to act as reradiating surfaces. Detennine the
rate of radiant heat transfer from the floor to the tubes.
Solution: We usyme that the floor and the tubes behave as gray bodies h~Yi!li
emissivities o(0.7 and 0.8 -respeclively.-rrwe-J\irlher assume- that---the reradiating
surfaces are at a uniform temperature, the shape factor between the floor, acting a.~
the heat source, and the tubes, which constitute the heat sink, can be obtained from
Eq. 5--;31. However, to evaluate the shape factor it is first necessary to determine an
"effective" emissivity for the tubes. Since some of the radiatioq __reflected_ from the
first row of tubes will be absarbeq by the second row, the effective emissivity_ is _higher.
-than 0.8. \Ve can determine the etie_c_ tiv_e emissivity b_y considering the radiatif~n
between the tubes and the refractory ceiling and a parallel black surface A 1 plll('ed
just below the tubes. If A • is at the same temperature as the tubes, we have
A. ff •• , T1 4 - A, ffc-t T,"
where the subscript t refers to the tubes. From Fig. 5-19 for a ratio of center-to-center
distance to tube diameter of 2, the shape factor F•. , between A 1 and the tube-ceilin~
c·ombination is 0.9i. Substituting this value for Fa-'l in Eq. 5-31 gives
I . ol ,. 1 • i ; :
A,:;,_. - Alffl-1 .. Aa / [ (1- 1

- J • I
1 ) fl, - (16)(16)
+ (16)(3r/12)(32U~) , 0.8 - 1 +0.97
( 1 ) 1 J - O.OOAa
Thus. the tubes emit 90 per cent of black-body radiation~ and lllB.Y _be replaced hy n
plane A • having an emissivity of 0.9. The a<~tual system can then he simplified to
mdiution between two 16- by 16-ft rectangles, A 1 and A,, separated by 10ft of reradiating
walls. Equation 5-31 now applies and, using Fig. 5-18 to obtain F1• 2 , we get
A. -
A tfft-t = 1
- 0.48At
1 1
(o.i - 1
) + (o.~} - 1
) + o.65
for an cmi~sivity of 0. 7 for the floor. The net radiation rate between the floor and the
t nh('~. nrf'ording to Eq. 5-32, is therefore
Qnet = (Jfil (Wl 10.-tH) CO.I7-ll (21 4 - 104 ) = 3.H6 X 106 Htu/hr .\ns.

5-9. RADIATION COMBINED WITH CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION
In the preceding sections of this chapter we have considered radiation

as a.n isolated phenomenon. Energy exchange by radiation is the pre-
dominant heat-flow mechanism at high temperatures because the rate of
heat flow depends on the fourth power of the absolute temperature. In
most practical problems, however, convection and conduction can not be
neglected, and in this section we shall consider problems which involve two
or all three modes of heat flow simultaneously.
To include radiation in a thermal network involving convection and
conduction it is convenient to define a unit thermal radiative conductance,
or radiant-heat-transfer coefficient, hr as
- Qr [u(T1 4 - T2 4) ] (6-33)
hr = At(Tt - T2') = ff 1• 2 Tt - T2'
where A 1 = area upon which ff1.2 is based, in sq ft;
T1- T2' = a reference temperature difference, in F, in which T·z'
may be chosen equal to T2 or any other convenient
temperature in the system;
ii~ - radiant-heat-transfer coefficient, in Btu / hr sq ft F.
The reason for using a radiant-heat-transfer coefficient, similar to the

convective-heat-transfer coefficient, is that the rate of heat flow becomes then
linearly dependent on the temperature difference and can be incorporated
directly in a thermal network for which the temperature is the driving
potential. A knowledge of the value of hr is also essential in determining
the over-all conductance ii for a surface to or from which heat flows by
convection and radiation, since according to Eq. 1-25
[ 1-25]
If T2 = T2' the bracket in Eq. 5-33 is called the ternperature factor FT,
and
(5-33a)
Values of FT for ordinary Fahrenheit temperatures are given in Fig. 5-25.
The use of these curves is illustrated in the following example.
Eumple 6-7. A hot-air duct having an outside diameter of 9 in. and a surface
temperature of 200 F is located in a large room whose walls are at 70 F. The air in
the room is at 80 F and the heat-transfer coefficient for free convection between the
duct and the air is 1 Btu/hr sq ft F. Estimate the rate of heat transfer per foot of
duct if (a) the duct is bare tin (e = 0.1) and (b) the duct is painted with white lacquer
(e - 0.9).
Solution: (a) The duct may be considered as a small gray body in black surround-
ings and, from Eq. 5-29, At 5't-t = At Et. From Fig. 5-25 we have Fr = 1.5, and
Digit ized by Coogle Original from

100.0
/ / ~
v v ~ v [/
90.0
v _/ v v / v v l/
80.0
70.0 fo-1~!.,...--
~
v v v / v / v: I.-' ~
v v v l0 ~
~
60.0 ~L
~
v l / I" ~
v .J'
/ v /
_,
/ / /
v _, / / v~
1/ ~
50.0 ~'l~/ /
/
v v v
~
v V/ ' / V'/. ~
40.0 k:::l~'/ v v / / / V/ ./ ~
~ v / / / / r/ V/ //
v v/ v/ '/ Vh v
~
~ v~
30.0
F-~v / ~
v~v/ / rn v
20.0 ~v L /
v/ VJ v~ ~ /
I~ II v v '77)
~~
I lL L / I 'I
v v [/ VI. If
v 1/f
b4~
/ J I
..c-10.0
I v V!J If
9.0 r7
j / / If/
8.0 ~~
v VI v
l7 / I 1/
7.0
v vj 'I
6.0
5.0
~~ j fIj v
/ /
17 V"~
4.0
~r V7J
I IJ
I I
" 0.112~.~~-(.~)j
If
3.0
2.0
lfJtlif I r• Tl-T2
T• degrHI Ranki!M
[t;Ji
1"' {
I
I <400 800 1200 1600 2000 2<400 2800

Temperature of Radiating Surface, F
Fw. 5- 25. Temperature factor, FT, as a

function of temperature in degrees Fahren-
heit.
therefore ~ =- 1.5 e,. The thermal network is shown in Fig. 5-26. \\r e note that.
there are two hea~flow paths in parallel but the lower temperature potentials are not
equal. The total heat-flow rate is given by
qtotal - qr + q, - A, 1.5 tt (Tt - 70) + At he (7\ - 80)
For the bare duct the total hea~flow rate is found to be 326 Btu/hr ft of which 14
per cent is due to radiation. AM.
b) If the duct were painted, the total rate of heat flow would increase to 698 Btu/br ft,
of which the contribution of radiation represents 60 per cent. .·1 11~.
E:umple 6-8. A but~welded thermocouple (Fig. 5-27a ) having an emissivity of

0.8 is used to measure the temperature of a transparent gas flowing in a large duct
whose walls are at. a temperature of 440 F. The temperature indicated by the thenno-
Dig it ized by Google Original from

c-ouple is 940 F. If the convective-heat-transfer coefficient between the surface of the
rouple and the gas he is 25 Btu/hr sq ft F, estimate the true gas temperature.
Solution: The temperature of the thermocouple is below the gas temperature

because the couple loses heat by radiation to the wall. Under steady-state conditions
the rate of heat flow by radiation from the thermocouple junction to the wall equals
the rate of heat flow by convection from the gas to the couple. We can write thiH
heat balance as
q =- h, Ar (To - Tr) = Are u (Tr 4 - Twall 4)
where .4r is the surface area, Tr the temperature of thermocouple, and To the tempera-
ture of the gas. Substituting the data of the problem we obtain
4
1
]T - 0.8 X 0.1714 [ ( : ) • - ( : ) ] == 4410 Btu/hr sq ft
and the true gu..." temperature is

4410
T 0 == ?
he
+ TT =
25
+ 940 = 1116 F Ans.
In systems where heat is transferred simultaneously by convection and

radiation, it is frequently not possible to determine the radiant-heat-transfer
FIG. 5-26. Thermaluctwork for Example 5-7.
coefficient directly. Since the ten1perature factor F r contains the tem-

peratures of the radiation emitter and the receiver, it can be evaluated only
when both of these temperatures are known. If one of the temperatures
depends on the rate of heat flow, that is, if one of the potentials in the
network is "floating," one must a.l3sume a value for the floating potential
and then determine if that value will satisfy continuity of heat flow in the
ste.ady state. If the rate of heat flow to the potential node is not equal
to the rate of heat flow from the node, another temperature must be a.~
sumed. The trial-and-error process is continued until the energy balance
is satisfied. The general technique is illustrated in the next example.
ED.Dlple 6-9. Determine the correct gas temperature in Example 5-8 if the thermo-
couple had been shielded by a thin cylindrical radiation shield having an inside diameter
four times as large as the outer diameter of the thermocouple. Assume that the convcc-
tive-heat-tran."1fer coefficient of the shield is 20 Btu/hr ~'~<1 ft. F on both sides and that
the emiRSivity of the Rhield, made of stainleR!'I steel 3-lH. i~ 0.3 at 1000 F.

Solution: A sketch of the physical system is shown in Fig. 5-27a. Heat flows by
convection from the gas to the thermocouple and its shield. At the same time, heat
flows by radiation from the thermocouple to the inside surfaee of the shield, is conducted
through the shield, and flows by radiation from the outer surface of the shield to the
walls of the duct. If we assume that the temperature of the shield is uniform (that is, if
we neglect the thermal re~istance of the conduction path because the shield is very thin),
the thermal network is as shown in Fig. 5-27b. The temperature of the duct wall
T. and the temperature of t.he thermocouple Tr are known, while the temperatures of
/"~'/"////////;;////1(///////,//'l(//-;'/('l;'/////:/(////////;-{//1'(7
$
Tw <, Duct Wall
Radiation Shield
(a)
I Ts
lrn .d,
(b)
Fm. 5-27. Physical system and thermal network
for Example 5-U.
the shield T, and of the gas To must be determined. The latter two temperatures are
floating potentials. A heat balance on the shield can be written as
Rate of heat flow from rate of heat flow
=
To and Tr to T, from 7', toT.
or
he, 2A, (To - T,) + hrr Ar (Tr - T,) == hr, A, (T, - T.)
A heat balance on the thermocouple yields
her .tlr (To - Tr) = ~r Ar (Tr - T,)
where the nomenclature is given in the sketch. Taking Ar as unity, A, equals 4 and
we obtain from Eq. 5-29
1 1
Ar:Tr-• = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - = 0.547
1 - tT
+
1
- +
1 - t,
- - 0.80.2 + 1 + 0.7
ArET Ar A,t, 4 X 0.3
and A. 5,_ ... = A, E. = (4) (0.3) = 1.2

Assuming a shield temperature of 900 F, we have, according to Eq. 5-33,
hrT Ar = Ar 5"r_, Fr = (0.547) (18.1) = 9.85
and fir, A, = A 1 ff,..w Fr = (1.2) (11.4) = 12.5
Substituting these values into the first heat balance permits the evaluation of the gas
temperature and we get
Ta = hr,A,(T, - T':) - firTAr(Tr - T,) + T,
he, X 2A,
- 5750 - 581 + 900 = 932 F

(20)(2)(4)
Since the temperature of the gas can not be less than that of the thermocouple, the
assumed shield temperature was too low. Repeating the calculations with a new shield
temperature of 930 F yields 1'a = 970 F. We now substitute this value to see if it
satisfies the second heat balance and get:
Heat flow rate by convection to thermocouple = 25 AT (970 - 940) = 750 Btu/hr
Net heat flow rate by radiation from thermocouple = hrr Ar (Tr - T,) = 203 Btu/hr
Since the rate of heat flow to the thermocouple exceeds the rate of heat flow from
the thermocouple, our assumed shield temperature was too high. Repeating the calcu-
lations with an assumed shield temperature of 923 F yields a gas temperature of 966 F,
which satisfies the heat balance on the thermocouple. Ans.
The details of this calculation are left as an exercise to the reader. (See Prob. 5-34.)
A comparison of the results in Examples 5-8 and 5-9 shows that the
indicated temperature of the unshielded thermocouple differs from the true
gas temperature by 176 F, while the shielded couple reads only 26 F less
than the true gas temperature. A double shield would reduce the tempera-
ture error to less than 10 F for the conditions specified in the example.
5-10. RADIATION FROM GASES, VAPORS, AND FLAMES
In this section we shall consider some basic concepts of radiation from
gases and flames. A comprehensive treatment of this subject is beyond
the scope of this text, and the reader should consult Refs. 9, 11, and 12
for details of the theoretical background and complete calculation tech-
.
ntques.
l\:l any of the common gases and gas mixtures, such as 02, N 2, H2, dry
air, etc. have symmetrical molecules and are practically transparent to
thermal radiation: they neither emit nor absorb appreciable amounts of
radiant energy at temperatures of practical interest. On the other hand,
radiation of heteropolar gases and vapors such as C02, H20, S02, CO,
NH3 , hydrocarbons, and alcohols is of importance in heat-transfer equip-
ment. \Ve shall restrict our consideration here to H 20 and C02. Not
only are they the most important of the gases in furnaces, but they also
illustrate the basic principles of gas radiation in general.
Whereas solids radiate at all wavelengths over the entire spectrum, gases

emit and absorb radiation only between narrow regions of wavelength called
bands. Figure 5-28 shows these bands for C02 and H20. The radiation
hands for C02 lie between X = 2.36 and 3.02 J.L, X = 4.01 and 4.80 p., and
X = 12.5 and 16.5 J.l; those for H20_ lie between X = 2.24 and 3.27 p.,
X = 4.8 and 8.5 p., and X = 12 and 25 J.L. Assuming black-body radiation
within the bands, the radiation from ali three C02 bands at 200, 1000, and
2000 Cis 12, 10.5, and 6 per cent respectively of the total radiant black-body
energy emitted at corresponding temperatures. Water vapor at the same
temperatures emits 67, 46, and 24 per cent respectively of black-body
radiation. We observe that the intensity of gas radiation increases less
rapidly with temperature than the intensity of black-body radiation. The
reason for this behavior is that, at higher temperatures, the maximum
7
I
6
I
I -----
:~; Car~n Dioa~•
l
~
1500 F I /:~ Woter Vapor
~
/ ~~
I
%
~ ! I
/ l~ ~ j I
I II ~~ ~
~ ~ i
2
I ~ ;:·:;1~~./ ~ I
~
..1 ~ ~
~~ ~:
/. f f;A ·zi:?-/t ·~~411
. ·'/.' ·• · • I
'o 2 6 8 10 12 16 18p
FIG. 5-28. Emission hands of carbon dioxide and water vapor.
intensity of the spectroradiometric curve shifts toward shorter wavelengths

and thereby reduces the percentage of black-body radiant energy falling
within the radiation bands of the gases.
Gas radiation differs from solid-body radiation in another respect. The
emission and absorption of radiant energy are essentially surface phe-
nomena for a solid body, but in calculating the radiation emitted or ab-
sorbed by a gas layer, its thickness, pressure, and shape as well as its surfa.ce
area must be taken into account. When monochromatic radiation at an
intensity I xo passes through a gas layer of thickness L, the radiant-energy
absorption in a differential distance dx is governed by the relation
(6-34)
where I >.z = intensity at a distance x;
k~ = monochromatic absorption coefficient, a proportionality con-
stant whose value depends on the pressure and temperature
of the gas.
Integration between the limits x = 0 and x = L yields
(~5)

where I). L is the intensity of radiation at L. The difference between the

intensity of radiation entering the gas at x = 0 and the intensity of radiation
leaving the gas layer at x = Lis
(5-36)
the amount of energy absorbed by the gas. The quantity in the parentheses
represents the absorptivity of the gas aa). at the wavelength X, or, according
to Kirchhoff's law, also the emissivity at the wavelength X, Ea).. To obtain
effective values of the emissivity or absorptivity, a summation over all of
the radiation bands is necessary. \Ve observe that, for large values of L,
i.e., for thick layers, gas radiation approaches black-body conditions within
the wavelengths of its bands.
For gas bodies of finite dimensions, however, the effective absorptivity
or emissivity depends on the shape and the size of the gas body, since
radiation is not confined to one direction. The precise method of calcu-
lating the effective absorptivity or emissivity is quite complex (9,13,14),
but for engineering calculations an approximate method developed by
Hottel (9) yields results of satisfactory accuracy. Hottel evaluated the
emissivities of a number of gases at various temperatures and pressures
and presented the results of his calculations in graphs similar to those
sho\vn in Figs. 5-29 and 5-30. The graphs apply strictly only to a system
in which a hemispherical gas mass of radius L radiates to an element of
surface located at the center of the base of a hemisphere. However, for
shapes other than hemispheres, an effective beam length can be calculated.
Table 5-3 lists the constants by which the characteristic dimensions of
several simple shapes are to be multiplied to obtain an equivalent mean
hemispherical beam length L for Figs. 5-29 and 5-30. For rough calcula-
tions, L can be taken as 3.4 X volume/surface area.
The curves in Figs. 5-29 and 5-30 give the emissivity of water vapor
and carbon dioxide at a total pressure p r of 1 atmosphere (atm) as functions
TABLE 5-3
AvERAGE LENGTHS oF RADIANT BEAMS IN VARious GAs SHAPES
Shape L
1. Sphere ................................ . J X diameter
2. Infinite cylinder ........................ . 1 X diameter
3. Space between infinite parallel planes ..... . 1 . 8 X distance
between planes
4. Cube .................................. . J X side
5. Space outside infinite bank of tubes with
centers on equilateral triangles; tube diam-
' eter equals clearance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 8 X clearance
6. Same as (5) except tube diameter equals one-
half clearance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 8 X clearance
SOURCE: Ref. 14.

of the temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit, and the product of the partial

pressure of the gasp, in atmospheres, and the hemispherical beam length
of the body of the gas L, in feet. The effects of the actual values of total
pressures on the emissivity of C02 and both total and partial pressures on
the emissivity of water vapor are accounted for by means of the auxiliary
charts in Figs. 5-31 and 5-32 which give correction factors to the curves
in Figs. 5-29 and 5-30. 3 For carbon dioxide the emissivity obtained from
1.0
0.8
.......
-
~
0.6
.. :--
-
-- t-- r---
- ~
-r-- '--
- r--.:.: . -~
t--
~ PL::::lOFt -a,
0.<4
-
1---
r-- r-- ....
--
t-- ~
..... I--
......... ...... r--. ~ r-- r-110 r-..
0.3 r-- ...... ~
r- t-- .._-r-- r--1- t--
t-- 1--. 1--.t-- t-- ~·s
......... t--
-r--
--r-- r-- r--.._ r- r-- r-- --t--
r--
' r-- ~ r-..
--
~
0.2 3
r-- r-.. r--...
!
j I~ "' ~
r-- ~
~ i'--.
-r-..t-... r--. r---- r---- 1;- ~
...........
r-~-
1--. t-.
........
0
.,
0.1
0.08
' ......... r-.. ......... -- - --..... -
.......
""- t-.
-0.6
'-
-
~ ~
'- .... ,.......__ I--..
Oi4 ....
r----..
:f 0.06
1'-....
......
,..... !'---.. p..,
.......
........
..........
t.......
l 0.04
-....;:
!'.....
........
.......
........
f'o....
.............
i"""-..
........
......
........
......
.............
- 0.2 .... I--
~ 0.03 """" ............ .......... r--.... !'-....
"'
f':
' ' ' ["-..
I'- """"' ............
.........
i'-.. ......
['.._
r---...... ...
0.1 ......
0.02
' I'."' t'-.. ' "'~ ~ .... "' t'-..
...... ......
.............
I'-.
~
r-.......
' I" r-.....
.......
I""' t'-. t'-.. ............
.......
!'.....
I'-. "t'-..
~
""
0.106
0.01
o.ooe
0.006
"" "' """'
......... ~
ojoo~ 0.007- 1-'0.rl-
....... ~""-
~
,.
r-.....
o.T,s-roJ. "" 0.04...
I'
~
0 .400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3400

Temperature, F
F10. 5-29. Emissivity of water vapor for a hypothetical

system at 1 atmosphere total pressure and 0 partial pres-
sure. (By permission from H. C. Hottel and R. S. Egbert,
"Radiant Heat Transmission from \Vater Vapor," AIChE
Tran8., Vol. 38, 1942)
Fig. 5-30 at one atmosphere must be multiplied by the correction factor

CP from Fig. 5-32 to compensate for the broadening of the absorption bands
with total pressure. For water vapor the correction procedure is illustrated
in Example 5-10.
Example 6-10. Determine the emissivity of water vapor at 2000 F at a partial
pressure p of 0.1 atm when the total pressure pr is 2 atm and the equivalent hem-
ispherical beam length of the gas body is 5 ft.
3 Charts similar to those shown for C0 2 and H 20 are available in Ref. 9 for a num-
ber of other gas<>s.
Di gitized by Coogle UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

Original from
0.3
T 1 -r
-- -- --
-- ---
pl=4.0ft.-Atm
0.2
-- ..-- ~
2.0 1
.... 1.0 I-..
r--.. r--
~ --,"""
:- ~~ '0. 8~
f::::: ~ r---..
0.1
... -- ~~
t-"
-r-.~
0.2 ~
-........
r---...
- r-..
:---....
.......
..--
.-..
0.08 0.1 - - --..,...:,·-·
o.ci- r-- r-- ............ f-..... ....
0.06 -~
... 1..--"
-.04
.._
T
--.. I'.
r--.
.........
r-..... ~""'-...
,...._
0.02 ........... !'..... "'........... .......
-
["....
......... ......
"'..."_'- ~
--
- ~
J
T
.........
~
f".. to...
....... to..
~
............
r-...... .........
...........
r-...
"'to.. ....
- -... -... -~' [""-.... ......... .....
~- ~
~-... o.oo.s
........ !'-.... ..........
.......
·f
~~~~...... ~ ['..... """.....
r--
·::~~
j
8 0.008
0.01
- -- 0 .003~
~
0.002 ........
.........
...........
..........
...........
'" .........
............ .............
.........
~
......... to.. ......... ['.... ...........
0.006
- ~
....
......
......
.....
I'. ......
0.004
!"..._
-
0.001
...
.... ""'-
"~
to-.
~
......
.........
.......
...........
0.003
.... " ....
0.002
0.00 10 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600
Temperatvre, f
Fm. 5-30. Emissivity of carbon dioxide measured experi-

mentally at 1 atmosphere total pressure. (By permission
from H. C. Hottel and R. B. Egbert, "Radiant Heat Trans-
mission from \Vater Vapor," A/ChE Trans., Vol. 38, 1942)
Solution: From Fig. 5-29 we obtain the emissivity reduced to p = 0. For pL

equal to 0.5, eo ~ 0.125 at a temperature of 2000 F. From the curves of Fig. 5-31,
('P =- 1.45 at (p + pr)/2 = 1.05. The effective emissivity is therefore 0.181. Ans.
When both C02 and H20 are present, the emissivity can be estimated
by adding the emissivitics of the two constituents. The value obtained
by a simple addition is slightly too large because some of the absorption
bands of these two gases overlap. A correction may be applied as shown
by Hottel (9), but the error incurred by simple addition of emissivities is
not appreciable.
To calculate the rate of heat flow by radiation between a nonluminous
gas at T a and the walls of a black-body container at T w we evaluate the
absorptivity CX(} at the temperature T w and the emissivity Ea at the tempera-
ture Ta. The net rate of radiant heat flow is the difference between the
emitted and absorbed radiation, or
(6-37)
Digit ized by Coogle UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

Orig inal from
0.6t"":::;:o-'7~~~-+---+----+----+--~
o... ~~~+---+----+----+----+-----1
0.2~--+---+---+----+----+--~
0~--~~-~~---~----~---~---~
0 0.2 0.-4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
(P+J\)/ 2, atmosphem
Fw. 5-31. Factor C11 for correcting emis-
sivity of water vapor to values of p and pr
other than 0 and 1 atmosphere. (By permis-
sion from H. C. Hottel and R. B. Egbert,
"Radiant Heat Transmission from Water
Vapor," AIChE Trans., Vol. 38, 1942)
Example 5-11. Flue gas at 2000 F containing 5 per cent water vapor flows at
atmospheric pressure through a 2-ft-Rquare Bue made of refractory brick. Estimate
the rate of heat flow per foot length from the gas to the wall if the inner-wall surface
temperature is 1850 F and the average unit-surface convective conductance is 2 Btu/hr
sq ft F.
Solutwn: The rate of heat flow from the gas to the wall by convection is
qc = h~A (Tgaa - T wan)
= (2) (4) (2 X 1) (150) = 2400 Btu/ft length
To determine the rate of heat flow by radiation, we calculate fir8t the effective beam
length, or
3.4 X volume 4
L - - - - - - - - = (a.4)( ) - 1.7 ft
surface area 8
2.0
Effect of Total Pressure on - -
1.5
Carbon Dioxide Radiation .qo'l
~~~
......-- - .o
D!*2.:--'- ~
........
~1
--
1.0 L
~ I-"'
0.8 PL"" 2.5H attn ......

:;;;.-
~ v 2.5
/o 0.50
0.25
0.12 ~
r-
' )~
~ ~ ::::::..: ~ ,.,....
-:;..... ~
0.6
~
~
~--~1 ·0
f-~. 2
0-~-
~
:::.:::;: ~
..,.... ::::::v
0.5
~ 1-- ~ ..... ~ ~
~ -~ .... o~s.,... v
o... k-
I-"'
v -~ ....-lo.o~
........ v .... 1---"
0.3 ....... v
0.05 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0
Pr , Total Pressure, otm
Fw. 5-32. Factor (' P for correcting emissivity of C02 at 1 atmosphere total
prPssurc to emissivity at Pr atmo~phere.

The product of partial pressure and L is
pL """ (0.05) (1.7) - 0.085
From Fig. 5-29, for pL - 0.085 and Ta - 2000, we find eo = 0.035. Similarly, we
find aa == 0.039 at T. = 1850 F. The pressure correction is negligible since C, ~ I
according to Fig. 5-31. Assuming that the brick surface is hlack, the net rate of heat
flow from the gas to the wall by radiation is
qr - 0.172 X 8 [ 0.035 ( 24~6 ) • - 0.039 (23~1 ) •] = 2340 Btu/hr

1 1
The total heat flow from the gas to the duct is therefore 4740 Btu/hr. It i~ intere8ting
to note that the small amount of moisture in the ga." contributes about one-half of the
total heat flow. Ans.
The calculation of the radiant heat flow between a gas and its enclosure
becomes considerably more complicated when the enclosure surface is not
black and reflects a part of the incident radiation. The reader is referred
to Refs. 9, 10, and 30 for an analysis of such problems. An approximate
allS\ver may be obtained when the emissivity of the enclosure is larger than
0. 7 by multiplying the radiant heat flow calculated from Eq. 5-32 by
(E, + 1), where E, is the emissivity of the enclosure surface.
5-11. SOLAR, TERRESTRIAL, AND ATMOSPHERIC RADIATION

Nearly all sources of energy used by man for heating and power genera-
tion have been derived from the sun. However, those which are most
easily utilized, as for example, coal and oil, have undergone changes which
have substantially increased their concentration. Solar radiation is at
present not used directly for industrial purposes because its concentration
is relatively low. In recent years, however, industrial interest in the utili-
zation of solar radiation, especially for heating homes and distilling fresh
water from sea water, has increased considerably because the world demand
for food and energy has risen so rapidly that, within the near future,
available supplies are expected to become increasingly scarce and expensive.
Solar radiation is also an important factor in the evaluation of heating or
cooling requirement for aircraft, missiles, and buildings.
Calculations of solar radiation. The rate at which solar energy impinges
on a surface of unit area placed normal to the sun at the outer fringes of
the earth's atmosphere, the so-ca1led solar constant, is about 442 Btu/hr
sq ft ( 19). The rate at which solar radiation reaches the earth is, however,
substantially less than 442 Btu/hr sq ft because part of the radiation is
absorbed and scattered as it passes through the 90-mile-thick layer of air,
n·ater vapor, carbon dioxide, and dust which envelops the earth. The
amount of solar radiation received by a surface on the earth depends on
the location, the time of day, the time of year, the weather, and the tilt
of the surface.

The diminution of the solar radiation by the earth's atmosphere depends
on the length of the path, which in turn depends on the position of the
sun. The radiant energy incident upon a surface on the earth placed
normal to the rays of the sun Gn can be estimated (20) from the equation
(0-38)
where Go = solar constant;

m = relative air mass, defined as the ratio of the actual path length
to the shortest possible path;
T a = transmission coefficient for unit air mass.
The value of Ta is slightly less in the summer than in the \vinter because
the atmosphere contains more water vapor during the summer. It also
varies with the condition of the sky, ranging from 0.62 on a clear day to
0.81 on a cloudy one. A mean value of 0. 7 is generally considered ac-
ceptable for most purposes.
The value of m depends on the position of the sun given by the zenith
distance z, the angle between the zenith and the direction of the sun. As-
suming that the thickness of the atmosphere is negligible compared to the
radius of the earth, the relative air mass is equal to secant z. This relation
is sufficiently accurate for z between 0 and 80 deg, and beyond this angle
solar radiation is almost negligible.
If the receiving surface is not normal to the direction of the sun, ~he
incident radiation per unit area G, will be reduced by the cosine of i, the
angle between the sun direction and the surface normal, or
(6-39)
If the receiving surface is horizontal, as in a solar evaporator, then cos i =

cos z.
The determination of the angle between the sun direction and the sur-
face normal requires a knowledge of the sun's position in the sky relative
to an observer on the surface. The sun's position• depends on at least two
simultaneous motions because the earth revolves in the ecliptic plane once
every 365.25 days around the sun's ecliptic axis and spins at the same time
like a gyroscope around its own celestial axis, which is tilted 23.5 deg with
respect to the ecliptic axis, at the rate of (7r/l2) radians/hr.
When the sun is viewed from the earth (see Fig. 5-33), the zenith angle
varies \vith the latitude of the location, the time of day, and the solar dec-
lination. The latitude of a location, cp, can be obtained from an atlas or
4For more detailed information about celestial and terrestrial coordinates as well as
~onventional methods of measuring the azimuth and the latitude with a transit, see
Chapter 17 of Elementary Surveuing by R. C. Brinker and W. C. Taylor, International
Textbook Company, 3d ed., 1955.

a globe. The time of day is expressed in terms of the hour angle, h, which
indicates the apparent rotation of the celestial sphere about the earth's axis.
In other words, it is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring
the meridian of a particular location directly under the sun. The hour
angle is measured in degrees westward from local noon (i.e., from the south
meridian). As a result of the earth's rotation, h varies from zero at local
noon to a maximum at sunrise or sunset. The maximum value of h
depends on the latitude and the solar declination, ~.. The latter can be
,.
Fw. 5-33. Celestial sphere and sun's coordinates relative to ob-

server on earth at point C.
obtained directly for any day of the year from an ephemeris. 6 It can be
sho\vn (e.g., Ref. 21) that the equation
cos z = sin c1> sin ~. + cos q, cos o, cos h (5-40)
relates the zenith angle to the terrestrial coordinates. Combining Eqs.

5-39 and 5-40 gives the rate at which radiant energy is received at a
horizontal surface, the local insolation, as
G, = Gn (sin c1> sin o, + cos q, cos o, cos h) (6-41)
5 The American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac is published yearly and may be
obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.

The amount of solar radiation received during a 24-hr period, obtained
by integration of the equation dQ = G, dO between sunrise and sunset, is
24
Q = Go sin q, sin 8, (H - tan H) (6--42)
11"
where His the total hour angle traversed by the sun between noon (zero)
and sunrise or sunset. Its value can also be obtained from the ephemeris.
For a surface which is tilted (Fig. 5-34) at an angle 1/1 degrees to the
horizontal and whose normal faces a degrees westward (measured along the
horizon from the south meridian), the normal solar irradiation Gn can be
divided into two components respectively perpendicular to and parallel to
the tilted surface. Only the perpendicular component Gi impinges on the
surface. The ratio of the effective radiation component to the normal
intensity is given by
~: = cos i = cos jz - 1/-J - sin z sin 1/- + sin z sin 1/- cos jA - aj ( 5-43)
where A, the azimuth of the sun, is sin- 1 [cos 8, sin h/cos (9D-z)]. Brown
and l\1arco (22) have prepared the graphs shown in Fig. 5-35 from which
the values of the pertinent angles in Eq. 5-43 can be obtained for the
hours from 6 A.M. to 6 P.M. for various northern latitudes. They recom-
mend that the curves for a solar azimuth A of 30 deg be used for latitudes
from 25 to 35 deg and the curve for A of 45 deg be used for 40 to 50 deg
latitude. When local and sun times do not coincide, a correction of I hr
Vertical to Horizontal Plane (Zenith)
Sun Normal to tilted surface

Norrfl
I
Horizontal Plane
Tilted Surface
w... - L
South
Fta. 5-34. Definition of solar and surface angles for Eq. 5-43.

90
l\ ..,...25 deg.N.Iat.
80
~~ / /~0
35
I"~~~~ .. 0
-~~~ /~5 70
P.M. A.M.
'~ ~50
~ ~
..•
120-2..0
110-250
"'
~
'' k'~lfor30~
...........N. Iat
~
~~
1\~. ,,
60
0
-~
>
t
•
-E.
"i
i 100-260
~ ~~~"5dev. for .............. "' .
~ ~·'
50 ...•
i...,..
.,~ 90-270 '
- ......._N.Iot. '
~l .. .•..
"
0
""'
0
~ :--.....
80-280 .,c:
r •o ::t
c~ ~', 1',
.......... ,~
"'-· " ~- .
~' ,
..!
~ 70-290 ~
-~ -<
~
60-300 ~~ ~' .. .. ....
...... ~ .. 50 •
~
.50-310
f---
-· r--- --- -- --- ~ .....
~~
~
r\ .......
..5 K1 - ...
30
' '\"o
' t
~' I 35 .........
~0-320 '• 20
~~ ~ +
30-330 ~ ~30~
20-3~0
I
4 i'\:bl 10
~
I \
I
10-350
0-360
~
\ 0
A.M.-. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
P.M.- 6 5 . 3 2 1
Mean Sunr~
Fm. 5-35. Solar angles for the period from l\lay to August in
northern latitudes. (By permission from A. I. Brown and S. l\I.
l\larco, Introduction to Heat Transfer, 2d ed. New York: l\lcGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., 1951)
for every 15 deg of longitude by which the location departs from the
standard meridian should be applied.
Equilibrium temperature. The total amount of radiant energy received
by a body on the earth is the sum of the direct radiation from the sun and
the diffuse radiation scattered from the atmosphere. The latter may
amount to only 10 per cent of the total direct radiation reaching a hori-
zontal surface on a bright sunny day; in partly cloudy weather it may
amount to 50 per cent, while on completely overcast days it comprises the
total radiation. The diffuse radiation is relatively independent of the
geometry of the receiver.

If the body is up in the sky, as for example an airplane, or is tilted so

that it can "see" the earth's surface, it also receives terrestrial radiation.
The net rate of heat flow to or from a body, qnet' can be calculated
from the equation
qnet = qa + q + qI + q + qk -
a c qr (6-44)
where q. = portion of the direct solar radiation absorbed;

qa = portion of the atmospheric radiation absorbed;
qe = portion of the terrestrial radiation absorbed;
qr = radiation emitted;
q,. = net conduction to the body;
qc = net convection to the body.
The equilibrium temperature attained by a surface in the open can be
calculated from Eq. 5-39 by setting the right-hand side equal to zero.
The fraction of the incident radiation absorbed by a surface depends on
the value of its absorption coefficient, which is in tum a function of the
spectral distribution of the incoming energy. The spectral distribution of
solar radiation is shown in Table 5-4. While 99 per cent of the solar energy
is contained between 0.25 and 3.0 JJ., the terrestrial and emitted radiation,
on the other hand, fall largely in the long-wavelength portion of the
spectrum.
TABLE 5-4
SPECTRAL Dt!o;TRIBUTION oF SoLAR ENERGY, NORMAL SoLAR
lRRADL\TION, AND TRANSMissiON CoEFFICIENT
0 1 2 3 4 5
Ultraviolet
0.2~ . 40 #l 7.2* 4.3* 2.7* 1. 5* 1.1* 0.6*
Visible
0.4--o. 7 I' 40.8* 45 .2* 44.3* 47 .6* 40.4* 38.1*
Above 0.8J' 52.0* 50.5* 53 .0* 55 .8* 58.5* 61.3*
Norma) solar irradia-
tion, G" Btu/sq ft hr 442 310 248 203 170 143
Transmission coefficient .. .. 0.702 0 . 748 0 .771 0 .788 0 .799
• In per cent of the total radiation within the wavelength range shown in the first eolumn.
Sotmcx: Parry Moon, "Solar Ra.diation Curvee for Engineering Use," J. Franklin ln3t., Vol. 230
(1940), pp. 583-618, with correction for more recent value of the solar ooMtant from Ref. 15.
Figure 5-36 shows the results of some measurements made by Gier

and Dunkle (23). \Ve observe that surfaces having large absorptivities
in the solar-wavelength range reach substantially higher equilibrium tem-
peratures than surfaces with low absorptivities. The lowest equilibrium
temperatures are obtained by white paints which are selecti~·e emitters.

They are poor absorbers (i.e., good reflectors) for the spectral range of
solar radiation, but good absorbers, and consequently also good emitters,
in the spectral range associated with relatively low temperatures. Since
these paints emit more radiation than, for example, aluminum, an equally
~ood reflector of solar energy, their equilibrium temperatures are lower
than those attained by the metal surface. This property can be used to
advantage on roofs of houses in a sunny climate, where it is desirable to
.coo
37.5 110~-
3.50
32.5
1.50
12.5
100
7.5 .so~-~~~~~~--~~~2~~--~~~~-~2~~~-~J~.oo~--4~.oo~--~s~.oo~
Time P.M.
FIG. 5-36. Equilibrium temperatures of various surfaces.

(Courtesy of Professors R. V. Dunkle and J. T. Gier, Ref. 23)
keep the roof temperature as low as possible for the comfort of the occu-
pants.
Example ~12. Calculate the equilibrium temperature of a polished-aluminum
swface at 2 P.M. on a clear day. The surface faces southwest, is inclined 15 deg with
the horizontal, is located at 30 deg north latitude at a longitude where the local time is
1 hr ahead of sun time. The atmosphere is at 50 F and the unit convective surface
conductance is 2.0 Btu/hr sq ft F. Conduction effects may be neglected.
Solul.ion:The direct solar radiation incident on the surface is calculated from

Eqs. 5-38 and 5-43, where, for the specified conditions,
a - 45 deg (southwest direction)
1/1 =- 15 deg

A - 56 deg (from Fig. 5-35 at 1 P.M.)
z = 17 deg (from Fig. 5-35 at 1 P.M. sun time)
The irradiation on a square foot of surface placed normal to the sun is, from Eq. 5-38,
G,. == Go To"' = (442) (0.7~ 17 ) = 305 Btu/hr sq ft
From Eq. 5-43 we have
cos i - cos jl7- 151- sin 17 sin 15 +sin 17 sin 15 cosl56- 45J
= 0.999 - (0.297 X 0.259) + (0.297 X 0.259 X 0.97)
- 0.997
The irradiation is found from Eq. 5-39:
G, = G,. cos i =- (305) (0.997) = 304 Btu/hr sq ft
The absorptivity of polished aluminum for solar radiation is about 0.3 (Table 5-l).
The rate of heat absorption is thus
q. = a eolar G, = (0.3) (304) = 91.2 Btu/hr sq ft
On a sunny day the atmospheric radiation is about 10 per cent of the direct Mla.r
radiation or
qts = (0.1) (91.2) - 9.12 Btu/hr sq ft
Since the surface can not see any part of the earth, we have
q, = 0
The rate at which the surface emits radiation is given by
qr - euT. 4 = (0.04)(0.172)(T./100)4
where e is taken at a temperature of 100 F from Table 5-l. The rate of heat flow by
convection to the surrounding air is
qc """he (T,- T 00 ) = 2.0 [T.- (460 +50))
Equilibrium is established when the surface temperature ha.~ reached a value at which
the rate of heat flow to the surface equals the rate of heat flow from the surface, that
is, when q08t - 0 in Eq. 5-44. Then we have
q. ::o: qr + qc
or 103.3 = 6.88 X Io-u T , 4 + 2T, - 1020
This equation is solved by trial and error for the equilibrium surface temperature and
we get T. = 97 F. Ans.
Nocturnal radiation. "\\"hereas in the daytime, atmospheric radiation

consists largely of reflected solar energy, measurements of nocturnal radia-
tion taken on cold clear nights indicate that the effective sky temperature
is at that time of the order of 410 Rankine (-50 F) (11). This accounts
for the freezing of water during the night even when the atmospheric
temperature is above 32 F. The low sky temperature is also responsible
for the freezing of oranges in California.
Utilization of solar energy. Any direct utilization of solar radiation
for heating systems or power production requires equipment capable of

collecting and storing the energy at a sufficiently high temperature. The
equipment suggested or used can be divided into three general classes:
flat-plate collectors, concentrators, and solar thermoelectric generators.
The first two types of device use solar radiation to heat a working substance,
while the last type converts solar radiant energy into electrical energy by
photoelectric cells of the photovoltaic type, or by thermoelectric means.
A solar battery has been developed and is used by the Bell Telephone
Company (24) to furnish power to telephone lines in some rural areas where
maintenance of ordinary batteries is very expensive. A summary of
calculations and experimental results for solar thermoelectric generators
is given in Ref. 25.
The simplest type of flat-plate solar-radiation collector consists of a
metal plate above which layers of air are trapped between glass plates.
Equilibrium temperatures for various arrangements of such colJectors are
shown in Table 5-5. The trapped air acts as an insulator, reducing the
TABLE 5-5
EQUILIBRIUM TEMPERATURES FOR FLAT-PLATE AND
MIRROR ABSORBERS IN 80 F ATMOSPHERE
bTIDI!:NT RADIATIOS (BTtr/HR t\Q FT)

TYPE OF AB80RRER
200 300
Flat-plate
1 glass cover ........... . .. . 186 225
2 glass covers ............. . 207 253
3 glass covers ............. . 228 282
Mirrors
Concentration 5 times .... . 400 520
Concentration 10 times .... . 630 830
Concentration 20 times ... . . 1015 1360
convection loss from the collecting surface. The glass plates, being opaque
to the long-wavelength radiation emitted by the collecting surface, reduce
radiation losses. For efficient operation, the exposed surface is painted
black, preferably with a substance which has a high absorptivity in the
0.3- to 2.0-JJ wavelength range and a low emissivity in the 5- to 10-JJ range.
Such a surface has been produced by depositing thin black metallic films
on a copper surface (26). Below the metal plate which absorbs the solar
radiation, the medium to be heated is circulated in thermal contact with
the plate. It has been calculated (20) that, under favorable weather
conditions, steam at over 100 pounds per square inch (psi) pressure can
be produced in such a collector. According to preliminary estimates (20),
this type of collector operating in solar weather similar to that prevailing
in Texas can attain equilibrium temperatures of the order of 250 to 300 F
and yield on a yearly basis an average work output of 77 kw per acre of

collecting surface. However, the cost of power production would be

approximately three times the present pov.er co t by more conventional
means.
Where high temperatures are de ired, some form of concentrating col-
lector mu t be u ed. Many different combinations of mirrors a.nd lenses
have been propo ed, and orne arrangement have actually been used for
solar engine and furnace.. The advantage of concentration is that the
area from which heat lo e occur i le than the area receiving radiant
energy, and the heat lo es ar proportionately reduced with an increase in
equilibrium temperature. Figure 5- 37 shows a conical-mirror arrange-
olar motor. (Cour sy C. F. Holder, R f. 27)
ment u ed, in 1900, by A. G. Enea (27) to g nerate team at 150 p i.

With a mirror urfac of about 700 q ft, a team engine was driven for
which an output of 10 horsepower (hp) wa claimed.
The mo t important practical application of solar energy today is in
olar furnace (28). In the e furnace parabolic reflector concentrat the
heat flux available at the ite on a mall area. T mperature as high
6000 R can be maintained in an object placed at focal point. olar fur-
nac are therefor important tool for high-temperature re earch, e p ci-
ally in experiment where contamination by flame , combu tion produ t
electrode , and refractory fragment mu t be avoided.
The practical aspect involved in utilizing olar energy have recently
been di cu ed in d tail at two ympo ia one held in V\ i consin, in 1953
and the oth r in Arizona, in 1955. The paper pr ented at th e ympo ia

have been published (25,26), and the reader who wishes to pursue this
subject further is referred to them.
REFERENCES
1. N. W. Snyder, uA Review of Thermal Radiation Constants," Tram. ASME,
Vol. 65 (1954), pp. 537-540.
2. R. V. Dunkle, "Thermal-Radiation Tables and Applications," TraruJ. ASM E,
Vol. 65 (1954), pp. 549-552.
3. W. Sieber, "Zusammensetzung der von Werk-und Baustoffen Zuriickgeworfenen
Wirmestrahlung," Z. Tech. Physik, Vol. 22 (1941), pp. 130-135.
4. E. Schmidt and E. Eckert, "Uber die Richtungsverteilung der Wiirmestrahlung
von Oberftiichen," Forsch. Gebiete Ingenieurw., Vol. 6 (1935), pp. 175-183.
5. H. C. Hottel, "Radiant Heat Transmission Between Surfaces Separated by Non-
Absorbing ~·Iedia," Tram. ASME, FSP-53-19b, Vol. 53 (1931), pp. 265-271.
6. H. C. Hottel, "Radiant Heat Transmission," Mech. Eng., Vol. 52 (1930), pp. 699-
704.
7. D. C. Hamilton and W. R. Morgan, "Radiant-Interchange Configuration Fac-
tors," NACA TN 2836, December, 1952.
8. F. W. Hutchinson, Industrial Heat Tra1UJjer. (New York: The Industrial Press,
1952.)
9. H. C. Hottel, Chapter 2 of Heat Transmistrion (by W. C. :McAdams), 3d ed.
(New York: ~IcGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1954.)
10. A. K. Oppenheim, ''The Network Method of Radiation Analysis," ASME
Paper 54-A75, 1954.
11. ~1. Fischcnden and 0. A. Saunders, The Calculation of Heat Trarutmissum.
(London: His l\1ajesty's Stationery Office, 1932.)
12. S. Chandrasckhar, Radiative TraruJfer. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950.)
13. H. C. Hottel, "Heat Transmission by Radiation from Non-Luminous Gases,"
Tran&. Am. IruJt. Chem. Engrs., Vol. 19 (1927), pp. 173-205.
14. H. C. Hottel and R. B. Egbert, "Radiant Heat Transmission from Watt•r
Vapor," Trans. Am. In~t. Chem. Engrs., Vol. 38 (1942), pp. 531-565.
15. F. A. Brooks, "Solar Energy and Its Use for Heating Water in California,"
Bull. 602, Col. of Agric., Univ. of Calif., 1936.
16. N. W. Snyder, J. T. Gier, and R. V. Dunkle, "Total Normal Emissivity Meas-
urements on Aircraft 1\taterials Between 100 and 800 F," ASME Paper 54-A-189, 1954.
17. H. Schmidt and E. Furthman, "Veber die Gesamtstrahlung fester Koorper,"
Mill. K. W. Inst. Eisenforsch, Abh. 109, Dusseldorf, 1928.
18. W. H. McAdams, Heat Trammission, 3d ed. (New York: 1\IcGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., 1954.)
19. F. S. Johnson, "The Solar Constant," J. of Meteorology, Vol. 11 (1954), pp. 431-
439.
20. H. Heywood, "Solar Energy: Past, Present and Future Applications," Engineer-
ing, Vol. 176 (1956), pp. 377-380.
21. W. J. Humphreys, Physics of the Air. (New York: 1\'lcGrn.w-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., 194o.)
22. A. I. Brown and S. l\L 1\larco, Introduction to Heat TraruJjer, 2d ed. (New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1951.)
23. J. T. Gier and R. V. Dunkle, ''Selective Spectral Characteristics of Solar Col-
lectors," Trans. Tuscon Conference on Applied Solar Energy, Vol. 2, 1957.
24. Anonymous, "Sun Powered Telephone Lines," Mech. Eng., Vol. 77 (1955), p.
989.

25. M. Telkes, "Solar Thermoelectric Generators," Solar Energy Raearch, edited
by F. Daniels and J. A. Duffie. (l\1adison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1955.)
26. H. Tabor, "Selective Radiation," Trans. Tuacon Conference on Applied Solar
Energy, Vol. 2, 1957.
27. C. F. Holder, "Solar Motors," S~ntific American, Vol. 84 (new series) (1901),
p. 169.
28. G. Benveniste and N. K. Hiester, "The Solar Furnace," Mech. Eng., Vol. 78
(1956), pp. 915-920.
29. J. T. Gier, R. V. Dunkle, and J. T. Bevans, "Measurement of Absolute Spectral
Reflectivity from 1.0 to 15.0 l\Iicrons,'' J. Opt. Soc., Vol. 44 (1954), pp. 558-562.
30. B. Gebhart, "Unified Treatment for Thermal Radiation Processes-Gray, Dif-
fuse Radiators and Absorbers," AS.\!E Paper 57-A-34, 1957.
PROBLEMS
1-1. For an ideal radiator (hohlraum) with a 4-in.-dia.m opening, located in black
surroundings at 60 F, calculate for hohlra.um temperatures of 212 F and 1040 F, (a) the
net heat-transfer rate, in Btu/hr; (b) the wavelength at which the emission is a. maximum,
in microns; (c) the monochromatic emission at X max, in Btu/hr sq ft J.&i (d) the wavelengths
at which the monochromatic emisflion is 1 per cent of the maximum value.
Ans. (a) 19.5, 747; (b) 7.72, 3.46; (c) 30, 1652; and (d) 2.54 and 50.8, 1.14 and 22.8
'" 1-2. A tungsten filament is heated to 5000 R. At what wavelength is the maxi-
mum amount of radiation emitted? What fraction of the total energy is in the visible
range (0.4 to 0.75 microns)? Assume that the filament radiates as a gray body.
6-3. The radiant-heating ceiling of a 12- by 20-ft room is 8 ft from the floor and
is maintained at 110 F while the room air is 50 F. Assuming both surfaces are black,
estimate the net rate of heat transfer per square foot of floor surface at 80 F, located
(a) in the center of the room, (b) in the comer of the room. AM. 18.5, 7.1 Btu/hr Aq ft
6--i. Calculate the equilibrium temperature of a thermocouple in a large air duct
if the air temperature is 2000 F, the duct-wall temperature 500 F, the emissivity of
the couple 0.5, and the convective-heat-transfer coefficient, he, is 20 Btu/hr sq ft F.
6-6. Repeat Prob. 5-4 with the addition of a radiation shield (e =- 0.9, he == 20
Btu/hr sq ft F).
..41 =1 Jq. ft. ..42 •1 lq. ft . ..4 0 i1 Lorge

tl =0.5 tz•0.7 t 0 ::::1
Paoo. 5-6.
6-6. Derive an equation for the net rate of radiant heat transfer from surface 1 in
the system shown in the accompanying sketch. Assume that each surface is at a
uniform temperature.
5-7. Show that the moon would appear a.~ a disk if its surface were perfectly diffuS(>.
5-8. Two 5-ft-sqnare and parallel flat plates are I ft apart. Plate A1 is maintained
at a temperature of 1540 F and A~ at 460 F. The emissivities are 0.5 and 0.8. Con-
~idering the surroundings black at 0 Rand including multiple interreflections, determine

(a) the net radiant exchange and (b) the heat input required by surface A 1 to maintain
its temperature.
6-9. A series of surfaces, insulated to prevent heat loss from the underside, are
placed in the sunlight. Estimate the equilibrium temperature for each of several
surfaces with the sun at zenith for a clear atmosphere, an air temperature of 70 F, a
relative humidity of 100 per cent, and a convective-heat-transfer coefficient of 3 Btu/sq
ft hr F. The materialB are (a) polished aluminum, (b) polished silver, (c) white (ZnO)
painted surface, and (d) lamp-black painted surface.
6-10. Show that A 1ffr-2 for two parallel planes of equal area connected by re-
radiating walls at a constant temperature is:
«
A l\11-t -
A 1 ( 1 +2 FI-t)
Compare the results from this problem with the curves in Fig. 5-18, where allowance
is made for a continuous variation in the temperature of the reradiating walls.
6-11. Determine the steady-state temperatures of two radiation shields placed in
the evacuated space between two infinite planes at temperatures of 540 F and 40 F.
The emissivities of all surfaces are 0.8.
6-12. A rectangular flat water tank is placed on the roof of a house with its lower
portion perfectly insulated. A sheet of glass whose transmission characteristics are
tabulated below is placed i in. above the water surface. Assuming that the average
incident solar radiation is 200 Btu/hr sq ft, calculate the equilibrium water temperature
for a water depth of 6 in. if the unit-convective conductance at the top of the glMs is
1.5 Btujhr sq ft F and the surrounding air temperature is 70 F. Disregard interreflec-
tions.
TA of gl888 0 for wavelength from 0 to 0.35 ~
0.92 for wavelength from 0.35 to 2. 7 ~
0 for wavelength larger than 2.7 ~
PA of glass 0.08 for all wavelengths
6-13. Derive an expression for the geometric shape factor F1-2 for a rectangular
surface A., 1 by 20ft, placed parallel to and centered 5 ft above a 20-ft-square surface At.
6-1'- Calculate the net radiant-heat-transfer rate if the two surfaces in Prob. 5-13
are connected by a refractory surface of 500-sq-ft area and Ar is at 540 F and At is at
40 F. \Vhat is the refractory surface temperature?
, 6-16. A black sphere (1 in. diam) is placed in a large infrared heating oven whose
walls are maintained at 700 F. The temperature of the air in the oven is 200 F and
the heat-transfer coefficient for convection between the surface of the sphere and the
air is 5 Btu/hr sq ft F. Estimate the net rate of heat flow to the sphere when its surface
temperature is 100 F.
6-16. The irradiation received at a point on the earth's surface was found to be
394 Btu/hr sq ft. If the transmissibility (i.e., the per cent of the emitted radiation
which reaches the receiver) of the earth's atmosphere is about 82 per cent, the distance
from the earth to the sun is 93,000,000 miles, and the diameter of the sun is 433,000
miles, estimate the temperature of the sun. The emissivity of the sun may be taken
as unity.
6-17. Two concentric spheres, 8 and 12 in. in diam, with the space between them
evacuated, are to be used to store liquid air (- 220 F) in a room at 68 F. If the sur-
faces of the spheres have been flashed with aluminum and the liquid air has a latent
heat of vaporization of 90 Btu/lb, determine the number of pounds of liquid air evapo-
rated per hour.

6-18. A 2-ft-square section of panel heater is installed in the comer of the ceiling
of a room having a 9- by 12-ft floor area with an 8-ft ceiling. If the surface of the
heater, made from oxidized iron, is at 300 F and the walls and the air of the room are
at 68 F in the steady state, determine (a) the rate of heat transfer to the room by radia-
tion; (b) the rate of heat transfer to the room by convection (he; ~ 2 Btu/hr ~q ft F);
(c) the cost of heating the room at 1 cent per kwhr in cents per hour.
6-19. A 2-ft-radius hemisphere (1000 F surface temperature) is filled with a ga.'~
mixture at 500 F and 3-atm pressure containing 6.67 per cent C02 and water vapor at
5 per cent relative humidity. Determine the emissivity and absorptivity of the gas.
6-20. Estimate the net rate of radiant heat flow to the gas in Prob. 5--19.
6-21. A ladle of molten iron at 2600 F is 12 in. in diamat the surface of the metal.
Neglecting heat losses through the fire-clay body of the ladle, calculate the rate of
cooling due to radiation from the surface to atmospheric air at 70 F in deg Fahrenheit
per min (F /min). The ladle holds 600 lb and the heat capacity of the molten iron is
0.28 Btu/Ibm F.
6-22. A gas leaving a lime kiln contains 20 per cent COs and 80 per cent Ns and {h.
This gas flows through a square duct, 6 by 6 in. at the rate of 0.4 lb/sq ft sec. The
average temperature of the inside surface of the duct is 800 F, and the emissivity is
0.9. The gas enters the duct at 2000 F, leaves at 1000 F, and has an average specific
heat of 0.28 Btu/lb F. The heat-transfer coefficient by convection is 1.5 Btu/hr sq ft F.
(a) How long must the duct be to cool the gas to 1000 F? (b) \Vhat percentage of heat
lost is transferred by radiation? (c) If the velocity of the gas were doubled and the
average temperature and length of duct kept the same, what would be the temperature
of the gas leaving? (When the velocity is doubled, he will increase to 2.6 Btu/hr sq ft F.)
(Courtesy of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers.)
6-23. An inside room of a house, 24 ft square with a 12-ft ceiling, is to be heated
by means of a panel-heating installation located in the ceiling. The ceiling is painted
with an oil paint and heated uniformly by hot-water pipes imbedded in it. The floor
is made of oak and ift to be maintained at 80 F. To maintain comfort in the room it
is necessary to transfer radiant heat between the ceiling and the floor at the rate of
6000 Btu/hr. (a) Determine the required ceiling temperature, (1) neglecting the side
walls, and (2) assuming that the side walls are nonconducting, but reradiating. (b)
Determine the temperature of the side walls for case (2). (c) Estimate the rate of heat
flow by convection to the room for case (2) if the air temperature is 86 F and the unit-
surface conductance for free convection is 1.0 Btu/hr sq ft F. (d) Estimate the total
heat loBS from the heater per hour.
6-24:. A metal plate is placed in the sunlight. The incident radiant energy G is
250 Btujhr sq ft. The air and the surroundings are at 50 F. The heat-transfer
coefficient by free convection from the upper surface of the plate is 3 Btu/hr sq ft F.
The plate has an average emissivity of 0.9 at solar wavelengths and 0.1 at long wave-
lengths. Neglecting conduction losses on the lower surface, determine the equilibrium
temperature of the plate. Ans. ~ 121 F
6-26. Liquid nitrogen at - 321 F is stored in a spherical vacuum bottle having an
inside container diameter of 5 in. and an outer diameter of 5! in. The facing surfaces
are silvered to produce an emissivity of 0.05. Neglecting the end effects at the mouth
of the bottle, determine the rate of heat gain when the ambient temperature is 70 F.
(Assume the surfaces are at the same temperature as the adjacent fluids.)
Ans. 2.24 Btu/hr
6-26. One hundred pounds of carbon dioxide are stored in a high-pressure cylin-
der 10 in. in diam (OD), 4 ft long and ! in. thick. The cylinder is fitted with a safety
mpture diaphragm designed t.o fail at 2000 p~ia (with the specified charge, this pres.•mre

will be reached when the temperature increases to 120 F). During a fire, the cylinder
is completely exposed to the irradiation from flames at 2000 F (f == 1.0). For the
specified conditions, c. == 0.60 Btu/lb F for C02. Neglecting the convective heat
transfer, determine the time the cylinder may be exposed to this irradiation before the
diaphragm will fail if the initial temperature is 70 F and (a) the cylinder is bare oxidized
steel (E == 0.79), (b) the cylinder is painted with aluminum paint (E == 0.30).
Ans. (a) 0.47 min, (b) 1.24 min
~2'1. A large slab of steel 4 in. thick has in it a 4-in.-diam hole, with axis normal
to the surface. Considering the sides of the hole to be black, specify the rate of heat loss
from the hole. The plate is at 1000 F, the surroundings at 80 F. A.ns. 1,110 Btu/hr
~28. A thermocouple is used to measure the temperature of a flame in a combus-
tion chamber. If the flame temperature is 1400 F and the walls of the chamber are
at 800 F, what is the error in the thermocouple reading due to radiation to the walls?
~~ume all surfaces are black and the convection coefficient is 100 Btu/hr sq ft F on the
thennocouple. A ns. 168 F
~H. If the thermocouple of Prob. 5-28 is enclosed by a thin cylindrical shield
i in. in diam placed with it~ axis in the direction of the flow, what will be the error in
the thermocouple reading? Assume the shield is black and long enough to allow
neglect of end effects. Also, the thermocouple surface is negligible compared to the
shield surface. A ns. 32 F
rHIO. A small sphere (1 in. diam) is placed in a large heating oven whose walls
are at 2000 F. The emi..'lBivity of the sphere is equal to 0.4 - 0.0001 1', where T is
the surface temperature in F. When the surface temperature of the sphere is 1000 F,
determine (a) the total irradiation received by the walls of the oven from the sphere,
(b) the net heat transfer by radiation between the sphere and the walls of the oven, and
(c) the radiant-heat-transfer coefficient.
6-31. Repeat. Prob. 5-30, but assume that the ovPn cavity iH a 1-ft cube filled with
air containing 3 per cent water vapor.
6-32. A 1-in.-diam cylindrical refractory crucible for melting lead is to be built
for thermocouple calibration. An electrical heater immersed in the metal is shut off
at &Jme temperature above the melting point. The fusion-cooling curve is obtained by
observing the thermocouple emf as a function of time. Neglecting heat losses through
the wall of the crucible, estimate the cooling rate (Btu/hr) for the molten lead surface
(melting point 621.2 F, surface emissivity 0.8) if the crucible depth above the lead sur-
face is (a) 1 in., (b) 5 in. Assume that the emissivity of the refractory surface is unity
and the surroundings are at 70 F. (c) Noting that the crucible would hold about 0.2 lb
of lead for which the heat of fusion is 10 Btu/lb, comment on the suitability of the cru-
cible for the purpose intended.
6-33. Derive Eq. 5-23a from Eq. 5-23, filling in all the !:!teps in detail. Also show
that the temperature of the reradiating surface T n is
Tn == (A1 F1n T1
4
+ A2 F2n T1. )l
4
A! FIR + A2 F2R
6-34. Fill in the remaining stepM of the trial-and-error solution in Example 5-9.
5-36. The overhanging eaves on the south side of a house are designed to shade
its entire glass wall. (a) If the eaves are 10 ft. from the ground, how far should they
overhang to shade the wall on l\fay 10 at 12:00 noon? \Vhat will be the effect of these
eaves at 4:00 o'clock on the same day'? Latitude is 34 N. (b) If the solar transmi:o-
sivity of the glass wall is 0.85, how much solar energy is supplied to the room per hour
at 12:00 noon on January 10? Assume the glass wall area is 120 sq ft.
5-38. The radiant ~ction of a small thermal-cracking combu~tion chamber hn.s a

volume of 3200 cu ft and a total surface of 2000 sq ft. A single-row tube-curtain of 4 in.
schedule 40 pipes on 7-in. centers covt>rs 760 sq ft of the wall. \\' hen the furnace is
fired with gas of composition (CHt).r at a. rate of 2000 lb/hr, an Orsat analy~is shows
that 13 per cent C02 are present. Estimate the rate of heat transfer to the tubes under
these conditions, using the simplest furnace model that can be justified.
Additional data:
Tube emis~ivity = 0.9.
Fuel heating value = 250,000 Btu/lb-mole of C.
Mean molar heat capacity of combustion products = 8.2 Btu/lb-mole F.
Mean radiating gas temperature is 200 F above the bridge-wall gas-temperature.
Air and fuel enter at 60 F.
6-37. Derive an expreAsion for the net rat-e of heat trant~fer between a small gray
sphere of area A 1 , emissivitye., and temperature 7\, and a small fiat disk radiating
from both 8idcs (area A2, emissivity f!, and temperature 1't). These two bodies are
separat-ed by a di~tance, large compared to the area of either, and are enclosed in the
center of a very large, well-insulated chamber with black walls.
6-38. Show that (a) (E,-,.)d(E,>.)2 = 7'26 /1?, and (b) E,>./1'" = j(XT). Also, for
X1' = 10.000 R - JJ, (c) calculate E,.,.;r•
and check your result with Table A-4.
6-39. Compute the average emissivity of anodized aluminum at 200 F and 1200 F
from the spectral curve in Fig. 5-9. Assume t>. = 0.8 for X > 9JJ.

6 Fundamentals of Convection
~1. THE CONVECTIVE-HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
In the preceding chapters, attention has been focused on heat transfer

by conduction and radiation. In an effort to simplify the work and to
emphasize the methods for calculating heat transfer by conduction and
radiation, an effort has been made to eliminate, as much as possible,
problems relat-ed to heat transfer by convection. In spite of this effort, it is
apparent from the illustrative examples that there are hardly any practical
problems which can be solved without a knowledge of the mechanisms by
which heat is transferred between the surface of a solid conductor and the
surrounding medium. In our work so far we simply specified the unit
convective surface conductance at the solid fluid interface and did not
investigat-e the details of the transfer mechanism. '\Ve evaluat-ed the rate
of heat transfer by convection between a solid boundary and a fluid by
means of the equation
[1-13]
The convection equation in this form seems quite simple. The sim-
plicity is misleading, however, because Eq. 1-13 is a definition of the
average unit thermal convective conductance he rather than a law of heat
transfer by convection. The convective-heat-transfer coefficient is actually
a complicated function of the fluid flow, the thermal properties of the fluid
medium, and the geometry of the system. Its numerical value is in general
not uniform over a surface, and depends also on the location where the
fluid temperature Too is measured.
Although Eq. 1-13 is generally used to determine the rate of heat flow
by convection between a surface and the fluid in contact with it, this rela-
tion is inadequate to explain the convective-heat-flow mechanism. A
meaningful analysis which will eventua1ly lead to a quantitative evaluation
of the convective-beet-transfer coefficient must start with a study of the
dynamics of the fluid flow. In this and the following chapters we shaH
follow this line of approach and investigate the influence of flow conditions,
fluid properties, and boundary shapes on the convective-heat-transfer
coefficient.
233

234 FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVECTION
6-2. ENERGY TRANSPORT MECHANISM AND FLUID FLOW

The transfer of heat between a solid bounuary and a fluid takes place
by a combination of conduction and mass transport. If the boundary is
at a higher temperature than the fluid, heat flows first by conduction from
the solid to fluid particles in the neighborhood of the wall. The energy
thus transmitted increases the internal energy of the fluid and is carried
away by the motion of the fluid. \Vhen the heated fluid particles reach a
region at a lower temperature, heat is again transferred by conduction from
warmer to cooler fluid.
Since the convective mode of energy transfer is so closely linked to the
fluid motion, it is necessary to know something about the mechanism of
fluid flow before the mechanism of heat flow can be investigated. One of
the most important aspects of the hydrodynamic analysis is to establish
whether the motion of the fluid is laminar or turbulent.
In laminar, or streamline, flow, the fluid moves in layers, each fluid
particle following a smooth and continuous path. The fluid particles in
each layer remain in an orderly sequence without passing one another.
Soldiers on parade provide a somewhat crude analogy to laminar flow.
They march along well-defined lines, one behind tlie other, and maintain
their order even when they turn a corner or pass an obstacle.
In contrast to the orderly motion of laminar flow, the motion of fluid
particles in turbulent flow rather resembles a crowd of commuters in a
railroad station during the rush hour. The general trend of the motion
is from the gate toward the train, but superimposed upon this motion are
the deviations of individuals according to their instantaneous direction
and their ability to pass the less agile members of the crowd. Yet if one
C'ould obtain a statistical average of the motion of a large number of
individuals, it would be steady and regular. The same applies to fluid
particles in turbulent flow. The path of any individual particle is zigzag
and irregular, but on a statistical basis the over-all motion of the aggregate
of fluid particles is regular and predictable.
When a fluid flows in laminar motion along a surface at a temperature
different from that of the fluid, heat is transferred only by molecular con-
duction within the fluid as well as at the interface between the fluid and the
surface. There exist no turbulent mixing currents or eddies by which
energy stored in fluid particles is transported across streamlines. Heat is
transferred between fluid layers by molecular motion on a submicroscopic
scale.
In turbulent flow, on the other hand, the conduction mechanism is
modified and aided by innumerable eddies which carry lumps of fluid across
the streamlines. These fluid particles act as carriers of energy and transfer
energy by mixing with other particles of the fluid. An increase in the

FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVECTION 235
rate of mixing (or turbulence) wiH therefore also increase the rate of heat
flow by convection.
The fluid motion can be induced by two processes. The fluid may be
set in motion as a result of density differences due to a temperature varia-
tion in the fluid. This mechanism is called free, or natural, convection.
The motion observed when a pot of water is heated on a stove or the
motion of air in the desert on a calm day after sunset are examples of free
convection. When the motion is caused by some external agency, such
as a pump or a blower, we speak of forced convection. The cooling of an
automobile radiator by the air blown over it by the fan is an example of
forced convection. (The term "radiator" is obviously poorly chosen
because the heat flow is not primarily by radiation; "convector" would
be a more appropriate term.)
6-3. BOUNDARY-LAYER FUNDAMENTALS
When a fluid flows along a surface, irrespective of whether the flow is

laminar or turbulent, the particles in the vicinity of the surface are slowed
do'vn by virtue of viscous forces. The fluid particles adjacent to the
surface stick to it and have zero velocity relative to the boundary. 1 Other
fluid particles attempting to slide over them are retarded as a result of an
interaction between faster- and slower-moving fluid, a phenomenon which
gives rise to shearing forces. In laminar flow the interaction, called viscous
shear, takes place between molecules on a submicroscopic scale. In
turbulent flow an interaction between lumps of fluid on a macroscopic
scale, called turbulent shear, is superimposed on the viscous shear.
The effects of the viscous forces originating at the boundary extend
into the body of the fluid, but a short distance from the surface the velocity
of the fluid particles approaches that of the undisturbed free stream. The
fluid contained in the region of substantial velocity change is called the
hydrodynamic boundary layer. The thickness of the boundary layer has
been defined as the distance from the surface at which the local velocity
reaches 99 per cent of the external velocity U 00
•
The concept of a boundary layer was introduced by the German

scientist, Prandtl, in 1904. The boundary layer essentially divides the
flow field around a body into two domains: a thin layer covering the sur-
face of the body where the velocity gradient is great and the viscous forces
are large, and a region outside this layer where the velocity is nearly equal
to the free-stream value and the effects of viscosity are negligible. By
means of the boundary-layer concept, the equations of motion, usually
called the Navier-Stokes equations, can be reduced to a form in which
1This is strictly true only when the mean free path of the molecules is small compared
to the boundary-layer thickness. In rarefied ga.':Jes the molecules may slide or slip
along a surface.

they can be solved; the effects of viscosity on the flow can be determined;
and the frictional drag along a surface can be calculated. The boundary-
layer concept is also of great importance, as we shall see, to an understand-
ing of convective heat transfer.
The shape of the velocity profile within the boundary layer depends on
the nature of the flow. Consider, for example, the flow of air over a flat
plate, placed with its surface parallel to the stream. At the leading edge
of the plate (x = 0 in Fig. 6-1), only the fluid particles in immediate contact
with the surface are slowed down, while the remaining fluid continues at
the velocity of the undisturbed free stream in front of the plate. As the
fluid proceeds along the plate, the shearing forces cause more and more of
the fluid to be retarded, and the thickness of the boundary layer increases.
The growth of the boundary layer and typical velocity profiles at various
stations along the plate are shown in Fig. 6-1.
0'
0 LU.O
leading Edge I I
%=0 I . . . -----r--
, I
'u.o
I I
J-- I
1 I
I
/
I
/
I
I Laminar Sublayer
..l
Fm. 6-1. Velocity profiles for laminar and turbu-
lent boundary layers in flow over a flat plate. (Ver-
tical scale enlarged for clarity.)
The velocity profiles near the leading edge are representative of laminar
boundary layers. However, the flow within the boundary layer remains
laminar only for a certain distance from the leading edge and then becomes
turbulent. We do not know enough about the mechanism of transition
to predict precisely when the transition will occur, but the phenomenon
leading to the growth of disturbances in a laminar boundary layer can be
described (see Ref. 1 for detail8). There are always small disturbances
and waves in a flowing fluid, but as long as the viscous forces are large they
will prevent disturbances from growing. As the laminar boundary layer
thickens, the ratio of viscous forces to inertia forces decreases, and even-
tually a point is reached at which disturbances will no longer decay, but.
will grow with time. Then the boundary layer becomes unstable and the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow begins. Eddies and vortexes
form and destroy the laminar regularity of the boundary-layer motion.
Quasi-laminar motion persists only in a thin layer in the immediate vicinity
of the surface. This portion of a generally turbulent boundary layer is

called the laminar sublayer. The region between the laminar sublayer and
the completely turbulent portion of the boundary layer is called the buffer
layer. The structure of the flow in a turbulent boundary layer is shown
schematically on an enlarged scale in Fig. 6-2.
The distance from the leading edge at which the boundary layer becomes
turbulent is called the critical length Xc (Fig. 6-1). This distance is usually
specified in terms of a dimensionless quantity called the local critical
Reynolds number Ua:JJXc/ JJ, which is an indication of the ratio of inertial to
viscous forces at which disturbances begin to grow. Experimental results
have shown that the point of transition depends on the surface contour,
the surface roughness, the disturbance level, and even on the heat transfer.
\Vhen the flow is calm and no disturbances occur, laminar flow can persist
in the boundary layer at Reynolds numbers as high as 5 X 1011 • If the
surface is rough, or disturbances are intentionally introduced into the flow,
as for example by means of a grid, the flow may become turbulent at
(~J_j( J
J J)) ~) ) (:J ')
Turbulent Core
--- -- --- ---~ _./"' \_--- -

_/
)//////////7////////////)///////////////////////////////////////ff///////////).'.... •• 0 l
Fw. 6-2. Structure of a turbulent flow field near a solid boundary.
Reynolds numbers as low as 8 X 10 4 • Under average conditions, the flow

over a fiat plate becomes turbulent at a distance from the leading edge Xc
where the local Reynolds number upxc! JJ is approximately equal to 5 X 105.
In view of the difference in the flow characteristics, the frictional forces
as well as the heat transfer are governed by different relations in laminar
and turbulent boundary layers. Also the limiting conditions under which
the flow will follow a given contour, and the boundary-layer theory can
he applied, depends on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
Even when the contour of the surface over which the fluid flows is
curved, the flow in the boundary layer is, at least qualitatively, similar to
the flow in the boundary layer on a flat plate. The contour of the body
becomes very important, however, in the determination of the point at
which the boundary layer separates from the surface. The separation of
flow occurs mainly because the kinetic.energy of the fluid in the boundary
layer is dissipated by viscosity within the layer. As long as the main
stream is accelerating, the external pressure is decreasing along the direc-
tion of flow and the forces at the edge of the boundary layer oppose the

retardation of the fluid by the wall shear. On the other hand, when the
flow is decelerating, as for example in a low-speed diffuser, the external
pressure as well as the shearing forces tend to decelerate the fluid. A local
r~y~r.salot the w in the boundary layer will then occur when the kineti;·
enerl)' of the fluid in the boundary ayer can no longer overcome the ad:.·-
verse pre~s~re gradient. Near this point the boundary layer separates
a8shown in Fig~ 6=3~ -Beyond the point of separation, the flow near the
surface consists of highly irregular eddies and vortexes and cannot be
treated by boundary-layer theory.
yl
FIG. 6-3. Sketches illustrating separation of boundary

layer. (top) Streamlines and flow pattern near separation
point of laminar boundary layer. (bottom) Streamlines and
flow pattern near separation point of turbulent boundary
layer.
A more advanced boundary-layer theory allows us to calculate the

point at which the flow separates from the surface (1). Generally speaking,
a turbulent boundary _layer _will !l_<;>_t sep~a~e as ~as~~_r boundary _
la_yer_because .the kinetic energy of the fluid particl~~ isJarger in a turbuleDt
layer. In flow over a streamlined object, separation takes place near the
rear, if it occurs at all. In flow over bluff objects, on the other hand,
separation occurs nearer to the front. The problem of separation is too
complicated to be taken up in detail here, and the reader interested in
additional information on this subject should consult Refs. 1, 27, and 28 of
the bibliography at the end of this chapter.
• Digiti zed by Coogle Original from

6-4. THE NUSSELT MODULUS
From the description of the mechanism of convective energy transport,
we recall that both conduction and mass transport play a role. Since the
thermal conductivity of fluids, except for liquid metals, is relatively small,
the rapidity of the energy transfer depends largely on the mixing motion
of the fluid particles.
When the fluid velocity and the turbulence are small, the transport of
energy is not aided materially by mixing currents on a macroscopic scale.
On the other hand, when the velocity is large and the mixing between
warmer and colder fluid contributes substantially to the energy transfer,
the conduction mechanism becomes less important. Consequently, to
transfer heat by convection through a fluid at a given rate, a larger tem-
t----Tao--+1
z. ,
~-----------~------------·
Flo. 6-4. Temperature distribution in a turbulent
boundary layer for a fluid flowing over a heated plate.
perature gradient is required in a region of low velocity than in a region

of high velocity.
Applying these qualitative observations to heat transfer from a solid
wall to a fluid in turbulent flow, we can roughly sketch the temperature
profile. In the immediate vi_cini.ty of _the wall, heat can only flow by con-
duction because the fluidp~;ticles are stationary relative to the boundary.
We naturally expect a large temperature drop in this layer. As we move
further away from the wall, the movement of the fluid aids in the energy
transport and the temperature gradient will be less steep, eventually, level-
ing out in the main stream. For air flowing turbulently over a flat plate,
the temperature distribution shown in Fig. 6--4 illustrates these ideas
qualitatively.
The foregoing discussion suggests a method for eva]uating the rate of
heat transfer between a solid wall and a fluid. Since at the interface

(i.e., at y - 0) heat flows only by conduction, the rate of heat flow cu.n
be calculated from the ~quation
(~1)
This approach has indeed been u~cd, but for engineering purposes the
concept of the convective-heat-transfer coefficient is much more convenient.
In order not to lose sight of the physical picture, we shall relate the heat-
transfer coefficient defined by Eq. 1-13 to the temperature gradient at the
wall. Equating Eqs. 6-1 and 1-13 we obtain
aT
qaurface...:...fluid = -kl A -ay = hcA (TIJ - TaJ (6-2)
u=O
Since the magnitude of the temperature gradient in the fluid wi11 be the
same regardless of the reference temperature, we can write aT= a (T - T.) .
Introducing a significant length dimension of the Hystem L to specify the
geometry of the object from which heat flows, we can write Eq. 6-2 in
dimensionless form as
ar TIJ- T)
ay o
11 =
(
a T, - T,.v
-= (6-3)
(TIJ- Too)
L a(r) u=O
The combination of the convective-heat-transfer coefficient he, the
significant length L, and the thermal conductivity of the fluid k1 in the
form hcL/k1 is called the Nusselt modulus, or Nusselt number, Nu. The
Nusselt number is a dimensionless quantity.
Inspection of Eq. 6-3 shows that the Nusselt number could be inter-
preted physically as the ratio of the temperature gradient in the fluid
immediately in contact with the surface to a reference temperature gradi-
ent (T,- T )/ L. In practice the Nusselt number is a convenient measure
00
of the convective-heat-transfer coefficient because, once its value is known,

the convective-heat-transfer coefficient can be calculated from the relation
(6-4)
We observe that, for a given value of the Nusselt number, the convective-
heat-transfer coefficient is directly proportional to the thermal conduc-
tivity of the fluid but inversely proportional to the significant length
dimension describing the system.
The temperature distribution for a fluid flowing past a hot wall, as

FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVECTION 2.41
sketched by the solid line in Fig. 6-4, shows that the temperature gradient
in the fluid is confined to a relatively thin layer, ~,, in the vicinity of the
surface. We shall now simplify the true picture by replacing the actual
temperature distribution by the dashed straight line shown in Fig. 6-4.
The dashed line is tangent to the actual temperature curve at the wall
and physically represents the temperature distribution in a hypothetical
layer of fluid of thickness ~,' which, if completely stagnant, offers the
same thermal resistance to the flow of heat as the actual boundary layer.
In this stagnant layer, heat can flow only by conduction and the rate of
heat transfer per unit area is
q iic (T •
- = k I T. -~,' T co = -
T )
co
(6-6)
A
An inspection of Eq. 6-5 shows that he may be expressed as
- kl
h=-
c ~,'
(6-6)
and the Nusselt number as

r - L L
Nu = h - = - (6-7)
c kI tJ/
While this picture is considerably oversimplified, it does illustrate the
fact that the thinner the hypothetical boundary layer ~t', the larger will be
the convective conductance. To transfer large quantities of heat rapidly,
one attempts to reduce the boundary-layer thickness as much as possible.
This can he accomplished by increasing the velocity and/ or the turbulence
of the fluid. If insulation of the surface is the desired aim, a thick stagnant
layer is beneficial. In fact, most commercial insulating materials simply
trap air in small spaces to eliminate its mixing motion while at the same
time taking advantage of its low thermal conductivity to reduce the
transfer of heat.
6-5. EVALUATION. OF CONVECTIVE-HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
There are four 2 general methods available for the evaluation of convec-
tive-heat-transfer coefficients:
1. Dimensional analysis combined with experiments.
2. Exact mathematical solutions of the boundary-layer equations.
3. Approximate analyses of the boundary layer by integral methods.
4. The analogy between heat, mass, and momentum transfer.
1 An additional method has recently been suggested by Y. P. Chang ("A Theoretical
Anal_,·sis of Heat Transfer in Natural Convection and in Boiling," Tran8. ASME,
Vol. 79, Oct. 1957, pp. 1501-1613). Its usefulness has not yet been established because
it lacks reliable experimental verification.

All four of these techniques have contributed to our understanding of

convective heat transfer. Yet, no single method can solve all the problems
because each one has limitations which restrict its scope of application.
Dimensional analysis is mathematically simple and has found the
widest range of application. The chief limitation of this method is that
results obtained by it are incomplete and quite useless without experimental
data. It contributes little to our understanding of the transfer process,
but facilitates the interpretation and extends the range of application
of experimental data by correlating them in terms of dimensionless
groups.
There are two different methods for determining dimensionless groups
suitable to correlate experimental data. The first of. these meth~.
discussed in the following section;1requires only the listing of the variables
pertinent to a phenomenon. · This technique is simple to use, but if a
pertinent variable is omitted, erroneous results ensue. In the second
method the dimensionless groups and similarity conditions are deduced
from the differential equations describing the phenomenon. This method
is preferable when the phenomena can be described mathematically, but
the solution of the resulting equations is too involved to be practical. :An
illustration of this technique is presented in Sec. 7-1.~
Exact mathematical analyses require the simultaneous solution of the
equations describing the fluid motion and the transfer of energy in the
moving fluid. The method presupposes that the physical mechanisms are
sufficiently well understood to be described in mathematical language.
Tb~__preliminary requirement limits the scope of exact solutions because
complete
--
-
transfer mechanisms can be written only for laminar flow. Even for
----
mathematical equations describing the fluid flow _a._nd the heat-
~------ -~-- ~- -
laminar flow the equations are quite complicated, but solutions have been
obtained for a number of simple systems such as flow over a flat plate or
a circular cylinder.
Exact solutions are important because the assumptions made in the
course of the analysis can be specified accurately and their validity can be
checked by experiment. They also serve as a basis of comparison and as
a check on simpler, but approximate methods. Furthermore, the develop-
ment of electronic computers has increased the range of problems amenable
to mathematical solution, and results of computations for different systems
are continually being published in the literature.
·The details of the mathematical solution are quite complicated. They
are, however, not essential to a correct application of the results. We
shall here only derive the boundary-layer equations to introduce the
fundamental concepts, indicate how they can be solved, and finally illus-
trate the application of the results for the simple case of flow over a flat
plate.

(For details regarding the methods of solution of the boundary-layer
equations in geometrically more complex systems, the reader is referred to
the translation of Schlichting's treatise on boundary-layer theory (1).
The approximate analysis of the boundary layer avoids the detailed
mathematical description of the flow in the boundary layer. Instead, a
plausible but simple equation is used to describe the velocity and tempera-
ture distributions in the boundary layer. The problem is then analyzed
on a macroscopic basis by applying the equation of motion and the energy
equation to the aggregate of the fluid particles contained within the bound-
ary layer. This method is relatively simple; moreover, it yields solutions
to problems which can not be treated by an exact mathematical analysis.
In those instances where other solutions are available, they agree within
engineering accuracy with the solutions obtained by this approximate
method. The technique is not limited to laminar flow, but can also be
applied to turbulent flow.
The analogy between heat, mass, and momentum transfer is a useful
tool for analyzing turbulent transfer processes. Our knowledge of turbu-
lent-exchange mechanisms is insufficient to write mathematical equations
describing the temperature distribution directly, but the transfer mech-
anism can be described in terms of a simplified model. According to one
such model which has been widely accepted, a mixing motion in a direction
perpendicular to the mean flow accounts for the transfer of momentum as
well as energy. The mixing motion can be described on a statistical basis
by a method similar to that used to picture the motion of gas molecules
in the kinetic theory. There is by no means general agreement that this
model corresponds to conditions actually existing in nature, but for practical
purposes its use can be justified by the fact that experimental results are
substantially in agreement with analytical predictions based on the hypo-
thetical model.
6-6. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
The scope. as \vell as the limitations of dimensional analysis have been
summarized by Langhaar (2) who states:
"Dimensional analysis is a method by which we deduce information about a phenomenon
from the single premise that the phenomenon can be described by a dimensionally
correct equation among certain variables. The generality of the method is both its
strength and its weakness. \Vith little effort, a partial solution to nearly any problem
is obtained. On the other hand, a complete solution is not obtained nor is the inner
mechanism of a phenomenon revealed by dimensional reasoning alone."
Dimensional analysis differs from other methods of approach in that

it does not yield equations which can be solved. It does however combine
the variables into dimensionless groups, such as the N usselt number,
which facilitate the interpretation and extend the range of application of

experimental data. In practice, convective-heat-transfer coefficients are

generally calculated from empirical equations obtained by correlating
experimental data with the aid of dimensional analysis.
The most serious limitation of dimensional analysis is that it gives no
information about the nature of a phenomenon. In fact, to apply dimen-
sional analysis it is necessary to know beforehand what variable~ influence
the phenomenon, and the success or failure of the method depends on the
proper selection of these variables. It is therefore necessary to have at
least a preliminary theory or a thorough physical understanding of a
phenomenon before a dimensional analysis can be performed. However,
once the pertinent variables are known, dimensional analysis can be applied
to most problems by a routine procedure which is outlined below. 3
Primary dimensions and dimensional formulas. The first ~tep is to

select a system of primary dimensions. The choice of the primary dimen-
sions is arbitrary, but the dimensional formulas of all pertinent variables
must be expressible in terms of them. \Ve shall use the primary dimensions
of length L, time 8, temperature T, and mass 1.1.
The dimensional formula of a physical quantity follows from definitions
or physical laws. For instance, the dimensional formula for the length of
a bar is [L] by definition. 4 The average velocity of a fluid particle is equal
to a distance divided by the time interval taken to traverse it. The
dimensional formula of velocity is therefore [L / 8], or [L fr 1], i.e., a distance
or length divided by a time. The units of velocity could he expressed in
feet per second, miles per hour, or knots, since they all are a length divided
by a time.
The dimensional formulas and the symbols of physical quantities ocrur-
ring frequently in heat-transfer problems are given in Table ti-l. TlH'
primary dimensions in the J.f LOT column of Table G-1 a void the use of
dimensional constants such as Yc or J. This standardizes the method.
but conversion factors may have to be inserted in the final results (i.e., tlw
dimensionless quantities) to comply with the system of units used (sN'
Appendix II for conversion factors). For convenience the dimen~ional
formulas are also listed in the J.f LOT FQ system. In this systen1,
sometimes called the engineering system, there are six primary dimen-
sions.6
1 The algebraic theory of dimensional analysis will not be developed here. For u
rigorous and comprehensive treatment of the mathPmatical background, Chapters 3
and 4 of Ref. 2 are recommended.
4 A square bracket [] denotes that the quantity has the dimensional formula stated
within the bracket.

1 Since the number of primary quantities is increased by two, the convcr8ion constan1:--
0c and J, whose dimensional formulas can ht' derivt'd from the primary dimensions, mu~1
be included among the phy:.;ical quantities.

TABLE 6-1
SoME PnYsiCAL QuANTITIE~ WITH AsROCIATED SYMBOLS, DIMEN!:'IONs, AND UNITs
-- -
Dl\f ESSION8
USIT81N THE
Qt·A~TITY SYMBOL
ML8T ML8TFQ EsoJNEERINo SntTEM
System System
Length . . ... ... .... .. ... .. . L,x L L ft

Time . ... .. . . . ... . . ... . . .. . 0 0 0 sec or hr
!\lass . ... . . . . . ......... .. .. kl M M Ibm
1-.,orce . . ...... ......... . . . . . F ML/lJI F lb,
Temperature ... . ......... . . T T T F
Heat .... . .. . ...... .. ...... Q ML 1 /lJI Q Btu
Velocity . .. . . .. . ........ . .. v L/8 L/8 ft/sec
Acceleration ... .. . . . ... . . . .. a,g L/lJI L/lJI ft/sec 1
Dimensional conversion
factor ... . ...... . ... . . .. . . gc None ML/fiiF 32.2 Ibm ft/sec 2 lbt
Energy conver~ion factor . .. . . J None FL/Q 778 ft-lbr/Btu
Work ... .. .. . .. .. .......... w M L 1 /fll FL ft-lb,
Pressure . . . . .... .... . . . ... . p M /f!JL F/L" lbr/sq ft
Density .. . .... ... . ... . ...... p M/L 1 M/L 3 lbm/cu ft
Internal energy . .... ..... . . . u LtjfP Q/M Btu/Ibm
Enthalpy .. . .... . .......... h V/fP Q/M Btu/Ibm
Specific heat. . .... . .. . . .. .. . . c V/lJIT Q/MT Btu/Ibm F
Dynamic visco.."lity . . .. . . ... . #Jf M/L8 F8/L 1 lb,.-sec/sq ft
Absolute viscosity .. .. .. . ... . M/L8 M/L8 lbm/ft-sec
Kinematic viscosity ........ . J1 ="' I"IP V/8 V/8 sq ft/sec
Thermal eonductivity . . . . . . .. k ML/fPT Q/LTO Btu/hr ft F
Thermal diflusivity . . . ..... .. a V/8 L 1 /8 sq ft/hr
Thennal resistance . ... . . . ... R TfP/ ML1 TO/Q F hr/Btu
Coefficient of expansion .... . . {J l/T 1/T 1/F
Surface tension ... . . . . . . . ... (1' M /lJI F/L lbc/ft
Shear per unit area . . .. .. .. .. .,. M fUJI F/L 1 lbt/sq ft
{j nit surface eonduc·tnnee h M /fPT Q/OVT Btu/hr sq ft F
.\lass flow rate . . ........ . .. . m Jf/8 M/8 Ibm/sec
Buckingham 1r-theorem. To detennine the number of independent

dimensionless groups required to express the relation describing a phe-
nomenon, the Buckingham 1r (pi) theorem may be used as a rule of thumb. 8
According to this rule, the required number of independent dimensionless
groups which can be formed by combining the physical variables of a
problem is equal to the total number of these physical quantities n (for
example, density, viscosity, heat-transfer coefficient, etc.) minus the number
of primary dimensions 1n required to express the dimensional formulas of
the n physical quantities. If we call these groups 1r1, 1r2, etc., the equation
Pxpressing the relationship among the variables has a solution of the form
(6-8)
. A more rigorous rule has heen proposed by van Driest (3) and is illustrated in
1
Example 6-1.

In a problem involving five physical quantities and three primary dimen-

sions, n - m is equal to two and the solution either has the form
F (7rt,1r2) = 0 (6-9)
or the form 1r1 = I (1r2)
Experimental data for such a case can be presented conveniently by plotting

1r1 against 1r2. The resulting empirical curve reveals the functional rela-
tionship between 1r1 and 1r2 which can not be deduced from dimensional
analysis.
For a phenomenon which can be described in terms of three dimension-
less groups (i.e., if n - m = 3), Eq. 6-8 has the form
(~10)
but can also be written as
1r1 = I <1r2, 1r3)
For such a case, experimental data can be correlated by plotting 1r1 against
r2 for various values of ra. Sometimes it is possible to combine t\vo of
the 1r's in some manner and to plot this parameter against the remaining
ron a single curve.
Detenn;nation of dimensionless groups. A simple method for deter-
mining dimensionless groups will now be illustrated by applying it to the
problem of correlating experimental convective-heat-transfer data for a
fluid flowing across a heated tube. Exactly the same approach would be
used for flow through a heated tube.
From the description of the convective-heat-transfer process, it is
reasonable to expect that the physical quantities listed in Table 6-2 below
are pertinent to the problem.
TABLE 6-2
Variable Symbol Dimen'4ional Equation
T-ube diameter
. .... .. ................ .. . ..... . D [L]
Thermal conductivity of the fluid .............. k [J.f L/fJ3 TJ
Velocity of the fluid ....... ... ........... . . . .. v [L/8]
Density of the fluid ................. . ... .... . p [~\f I £2J
Viscosity of the fluid .. ..... .. . . . .... . ........ [AI-/ L8]
Specific heat at constant pressure ..... . ... .. . .. "'c,, [L 2 /fP Tl
Heat-transfer coeffieient ..... . .... . .... . . . ..... he r~u /tP TJ
There are seven physical quantities and four primary dimensions. \Ve
therefore expect that three dimensionlc~s groups will be required to cor-
relate the data. To find these dimensionless groups, we write 1r as a
product of the variables, each raised to an unknown power
(6-11)

and substitute the dimensional formulas
For 1r to be dimensionless, the exponents of each primary dimension must

separately add up to zero. Equating the sum of the exponents of each
primary dimension to zero, we obtain the set of equations
b+d+e+g=O forM
a+b+c-#3d-e+2f=O for L
- 3b - c - e - 3f - 3g = 0 for 8
.
-b-f-g=O forT
Evidently any set of values of a, b, c, d, and e that simultaneously satisfies
this set of equations will make 1r dimensionless. There are seven unknowns,
but only four equations. We can therefore choose values for three of the
exponents in each of the dimensionless groups. The only restriction on
the choice of the exponents is that each of the selected exponents be inde-
pendent of the others. An exponent is independent if the determinant
formed with the coefficients of the remaining terms does not vanish
(i.e., is not equal to zero).
Since he, the convective-heat-transfer coefficient, is the variable we
eventually want to evaluate, it is convenient to select its exponent g and
set it equal to unity. At the same time we let c = d = 0 to simplify the
algebraic manipulations. Solving the equations simultaneously, we ob-
tain a = 1, b = -1, e = f = 0, and the first dimensionless group is
he D
7rl = --
k
which we recognize as the Nusselt number, Nu.
For 1r2 we select g equal to zero, so that he will not appear again, and
let a = 1 and f = 0. Simultaneous solution of the equations with these
choices yields b = 0, c = d = 1, e = 1, and
VDp
ll
This dimensionless group is a Reynolds number, ReD, with the tube diameter
as the length parameter.
If we let e = 1 and c = g = 0, we obtain the third dimensionless group
'vhich is known as the Prandtl number. Pr.

\Ve observe that, although the heat-transfer coefficient is a function of

six .variables, with the aid of dimensional analysis, the seven original
variables have been combined into three dimensionless groups. According
to Eq. 6-10, the functional relationship can be written
Nu = f (ReD,Pr)
and experimental data can now be correlated in terms of three variables
instead of the original seven. The importance of this reduction in the
variables becomes apparent when we attempt to correlate experimental
data.
30
II.
4:
i'
I
v
~ 25
......
i~ I
,.
j15
·1=?to v
v
,)
5 /
....... ~
0.1 0.5 1.0 2.0 .5.0 10.0 20.0 .so 100
Velocity fpe
Fm. 6-5. Variation of heat-transfer coefficient with velocity for flow

of air over a 1-in.-OD pipe.
Correlation of experimental data. Suppose that, in a series of te..-;ts

with air flowing over a 1-in.-OD pipe, the heat-transfer coefficient has been
measured experimentally at velocities ranging from 0.1 to 100 fps. This
range of velocities corresponds to Reynolds numbers based on the diameter,
V Dpj p., ranging from 50 to 50,000. Since the velocity was the only
variable in these tests, the results are correlated in Fig. 6-5 by plotting the
heat-transfer coefficient he against the velocity V. The resulting curve
permits a direct determination of he at any velocity for the system used
in the tests, but it cannot be used to determine the heat-transfer coefficients
for cylinders which are larger or smaller than the one used in the tests.
Neither could the heat-transfer coefficient be evaluated if the air were
under pressure and its density were different from that used in the tests.

L"nless experimental data could be correlated more effectively, it would be
necessary to perform separate experiments for every cylinder diameter,
every density, etc. The amount of labor would obviously be enormous.
\Vith the aid of dimensional analysis, however, the results of one series
of tests can be applied to a variety of other problems. This is illustrated
hy Fig. 6-6, where the data of Fig. 6-5 are replotted in terms of pertinent
dimensionless groups. The abscissa in Fig. 6-6 is the Reynolds number
V Dpj JJ, and the ordinate is the N usselt number hcD I k . This correlation
of the data permits the evaluation of the heat-transfer coefficient for air
flowing over any size of pipe or wire as long as the Reynolds .number of
the system falls within the range covered in the experiment.
Experimental data obtained with air alone do not reveal the dependence
of the Nus.~elt number on the Prandtl number since the Prandtl number
160
I I )'
140
j 1:10
I I
I I I /
~ I .I /
z 100
.:; I
I I /
z
~60
; 80 l
l
I
~ I
I
/
~40
I
I
l I /
~J
'/
I j ___ _j ___ _ ~
20
0 I 1 :.-- r - 1
100 200 500 1000 2000 ,000 10,000 20,000 50,000 100,000
Reynolds Number- YDp/P
Fw. 6-6. Variu.tion of :\us.-;elt number with Reynolds number for flow
of air over a 1-in.-OD pipe.
is a combination of physical properties whose value does not vary ap-

preciably for gases. To determine the influence of the Prandtl number it
is necessary to use different fluids. According to the preceding analysis,
experimental data with several fluids whose physical properties yield a
wide range of Prandtl numbers are necessary to complete the correlation.
In Fig. 6-7 the experimental results of several independent investi-
gations for heat transfer between air, water, and oils in cross flow over
a tube or a wire are plotted for a wide range of temperatures, cylinder
sizes, and velocities. The ordinate in Fig. 6-7 is the dimensionless quan-
tity7 Nli/Pr0·3 and the abscissa is ReD. An inspection of the results shows
7 Combining the Kusselt number with the Prandtl number for plotting the data is
simply a matter of convenience. As mentioned previously, any combination of di-
nu'nf'ionleSR parameters is satisfuct.ory. The selection of the most convenient parameh•r
i~ usually made on the basis of experience by trial and error with the aid of experimental
re!':ultl'l. Sometimes the characteristic groups are suggested by the results of analytieal
analyses.

that all of the data follow a single line reasonably well, so that they can be
correlated empirically. For example, in the range of Reynold numbers
between 3 and 100 a straight line on the log-log plot i a ati ·r ctory
approximation to the best correlation, hown by a heavy dotted line in
Fig. 6-7. The slope of thi traight line i approximately 0.4 and i
ordinate value at Rev of unity i 0.82. The rnpirical correlation equation
within the range of Reynold numbers between 3 and 100 is therefore
Nu / Pr0·3 = 0.82 Rev 0 · 4
10.0
!_
Co rre lat ing EQua l on or I
3 <R D < 100 Ia
u/Pr O 3 -o.a2 Re 0 04 k <~;'l ~:,SI

( ...-;'/! ~; ~ v, ;..
ir"'
\ / ~..; ~ !Jsjlo
~,
... ) ~\.. ~~~.,

...-~-
I _ .......
+,.....
~......0
.-
I
~ ~- ~ ~~--
I
;'
.., t<; _.._. ~-
I -~ ~p~
- +; r- ~..-
f.'-- ):~
-A/
,.....'
~- ~~
- ....
10
z
_n ~-7-;:::_ lo_
-
.-t-"9'1 'jJ
~- ~ ... ~~
--
"r'.
~+
,:,.-
·- '~ '¥'
1+.
_ ........
I
I I
!
I
I
I
'
I
I
I
!JSYo
!Q,.SI-Q---..n: ,r4Jf t-r
_..--- r;-·
Symbol Fluid Diom CinJ Ref .
0 Waler 0.001 25
+ Oils 0.004-0.008 2~
I A
v
Air 0 .0079-5.9 26
Air 0.0011-0.006 s
Physical Prope rties at
Tt =(Ts+Tm)/2
0.1 1.0 10.0 100
eD =J-'DpjJl
FIG. 6-7. orrelation of xp rim ntal h at-tran ·fer data f r various fluids
in cro flow over cylind rs of various di meters.
Principle of similarity. The remarkable r ult of Fig. 6- 7 can be

xplained by the principle of similarity. According to thi principl often
called the model law, the behavior of two sy terns will b similar if the
ratios of their linear dimensions, forces, velociti s, tc., are th arne.
Under conditions of forced convection in geometrically similar y tern ,
the velocity fields will be similar provided the ratio of inertia force to
vi cous forces is the arne in both fluids. The Reynolds number i th
ratio of these force , and consequently we expect irnilar flow conditions
in forced convection for a given value of the R ynolds numb r. The
Prandtl number is the ratio of two mol cular-tran port properti the
kinematic visco ity v = J.L / p, which affects the v locity di tribution, and
the thermal diffusivity k/ pep, which affects the temperature profile. In

other words, it is a dimensionless group which relates the temperature

distribution to the velocity distribution. Hence, in geometrically similar
systems having the same Prandtl and Reynolds numbers, the temperature
distribution will be similar. According to its definition (see Eq. 6-3), the
Nusselt number is numerically equal to the ratio of the temperature
gradient at a fluid-to-surface interface to a reference-temperature gradient.
We expect therefore that, in systems having similar geometries and similar
temperature fields, the numerical values of the Nusselt numbers will be
equal. This fact is borne out by the experimental results in Fig. 6-7.
Limitation of the Buckingham 1r- theorem. The ?r-theorem holds as
long as the set of simultaneous equations formed by equating the exponents
of each primary dimension to zero is linearly independent. However, if
one equation in the set is a linear combination of one or more of the other
equations, i.e., if the equations are linearly dependent, then the number of
dimensionless groups is equal to the total number of variables n minus the
number of independent equations. Example 6-1 illustrates this point.
'
E:umple ~1. The temperature-time history for a billet cooling in a constant-
temperature bath was derived analytically in Sec. 4-2 under the assumption that the
temperature of the billet is uniform at any instant (i.e., for an infinite thermal con-
ductivity). Compare the analytical result with pertinent dimensionless groups relating
the temperature difference between the billet and the bath with the cooling time.
Solution: The physical quantities affecting the cooling of the billet as variables
are shown with their dimen8ional formulas in Table 6-3.
TABLE &---3
\' nrinhlE' Symbol Dinwnsion
Temperature of billet above bath temperature

at time 8 .... . ......... . .. . ........ .. .. . . . [TJ
Temperature of billet above bath tPmpera.turc
at time of immersion (8 = 0) . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . . [TJ
.
T 1me a f ter 1mmers10n
. . . . ...... ... ............. . [OJ
Surface conductance hetwet•n billet and bath ... . [ML"]
fJJT
Heat capacitance of billet . ............ . ...... . cpV [ML"]

oT 2
In this problem there are five variablef:l and four primary dimensions. Hence the
Buckingham r-theorem predicts that only one dimensionless group is required to cor-
relate the results. \Ve perform the initial steps in the usual manner by writing r a.'i
Sulustituting the dimen~ional formulaA, we get

For r to be dimensionless the following set of equations must be satisfied.

a+b-0 forT
c-3d-2e=-O for 9
d+e-0 for AI
2d+2e=O for L
At this point we note that the fourth equation is simply equal to two times the third
equation and therefore is not independent. There are only three independent equations
in the set, and thus the number of dimensionless groups required to correlate the result.s
is two instead of just one as predicted by the Buckingham r-theorem.
To obtain the pertinent dimensionless group involving the temperature we let
a - 1 and c == 0. Solving the three independent equations of the exponents simul-
taneously yields e - 0, d = 0, and b = - I, whence
T - Too
1rl m: To - Too
In the other dimensionless group we eliminate the temperature by setting the ex-
ponent a equal to zero and setting c. the exponent of time, equal to unity. The second
dimensionless group is then found to be
hA.B
rt- - -
cpV
The dimensionless groups obtained by dimensional analysis are identical to thoAE'
obtained in Sec. 4-2 by a mathematical analysis. The functional relationship from
Eq. 4-3 is
Dimensional analyl'li~ could only predict that '~~'"1 i~ a function of 11'"t, but not the nature of
the function.
Conversion of units. After the dimensionless groups of the variables

in a given problem have been determined, it is often necessary to change
the units of measurement of individual variables in order to express all of
the variables in one consistent set of units. The numerical value of any
dimensionless group is independent of the units of measurement employed,
provided a consistent set is used throughout. In practice, however, it is
often necessary to consult references using different systems of units. In
order to avoid errors in changing units, the following procedure is recom-
mended:
1. After the magnitude of the physical quantity write the names of
the units in which it is measured.
2. Replace each name by its equivalent in the engineering system of
units (e.g., 12 in. = 1ft., so in. =~ ft).
3. Combine all numbers in the new expression arithmetically and cancel
names of units a..-, though they were numbers.
Example o-2 illw.;tratC'H this technique.

Eumple 6-2. The physical properties of glycerin obtained from various sources
are listed below. The dimensionless Prandtl number is to be evaluated.
c =- 0.60 Btu/lb F
k = 0.15 Btu/hr ft F
1.1. = 10 centipoises
Solution: Replacing the word centipoise by its equivalent (i.e., 1 centipoise =

2.42 lbm/hr ft, from Table of Conversion Factors in Appendix II), the dimensionless
Prandtl number is
p c1.1. 0.6 Btu hr ft F 10 X 2.42lbm _ Am.
96 6
r - k - Ibm F X 0.15 Btu X hr ft .
The following example illustrates a case in which property values

obtained from the literature are not expressed in a consistent set of units.
The case differs from the preceding example because the same symbol is
used to denote different quantities. This is an unfortunate situation often
encountered in practice and results from the ambiguous use of the word
"pound". to stand for both force and mass. It is, however, a simple matter
in such a situation to avoid numerical errors if. the suggested method of
checking units is used to ensure that the final expression is dimensionless.
Rumple 8-3. Using the physical properties from the steam tables, 11 evaluate the
Prandtl number for steam at 400 F and 14.7 psia.
&ltdion: The pertinent physical properties of steam and their units are as read
from the tables. Viscosity (Table 6), 1.1. - 3.49 X I0-7 lb sec/sq ft; thermal conduc-
tivity (Table 5), k - 19 X IO-:-• Btu/hr ft F. The specific heat at constant pressure is
obtained from Table 3 by dividing the enthalpy difference between 380 F and 420 F
by the temperature difference, i.e., 40 F. This yields
~~~ - 1244.9 ~ 1225.2 _ 0.4g Btu/lb F
The Prandtl number is evaluated by substituting the above numerical values into it.'!
definition. We obtain
Pr - ~,,.,. _ (0.49 Btu/lb F)(3.49 X tO-Tlb sec/sq ft)
k 19 X to-a Btu/hr ft F
The Prandtl number will be dimensionle~s only if all of the physical properties are
expreseed in one consistent set of units. \Ve shall check whether or not thi~ is the case
by canceling the names or symbols. Performing the algebraic manipulation and cancel-
ing similar symbols in the numerator and denominator yields
_ X _, Btu F lb ft sec hr _ _, lb sec hr
Pr 9.0 10 Btu F lb ft 9 0
. X 10 lb ft
Since the symbols do not cancel, it is apparent that the units of measurement are not
consistent. At first glance we might be tempted to cancel the symbols of pound, lb.
• J. H. Keenan and F. G. Keyes, Thermodynamic Properties of Steam (Xew York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1937).

We recall, however, that sometimes no distinction is made in the literature between
lbr and Ibm. In this case the viscosity is evidently expressed in lb, sec/sq ft, while the
enthalpy is in Btu/Ibm. We must therefore multiply the units of pound force by the
conversion factor Uc, 32.2 Ibm ft/lbt sec 1 , and replace the symbol of hr by 3600 sec in
order to make the Prandtl number dimensionless. This yields
== _, lbr sec 3600 sec Ibm __!!__
Pr 9 ·0 X 10 lb f X 32 ·2 lb
m t t sec 1
- 1.03 (dimensionless)
Am.
~7. LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER ON A FLAT PLATE9
In the preceding section we determined dimensionless groups for cor-

relating experimental data of heat transfer by forced convection. We
found that the Nusselt number depends on the Reynolds number and the
Prandtl number, i.e.,
Nu = cJ> (Re) t/1 (Pr) (6-13)
To determine the functional relationship in this equation it is necessary
to resort either to experiments or to analytical methods.
In this and the following sections of the chapter we shall consider ana-
lytical methods of approach and apply them to the problem of heat transfer
between a fiat plate and an incompressible fluid flowing parallel to its
surface. This system has been selected primarily because it is the simplest
to analyze. However, the results obtained from this analysis have many
practical applications. They are good approximations to forced convec-
tion in flow over the surfaces of streamlined bodies or in the inlet regions
of pipes and ducts. In some cases appropriate transformations can reduce
.the equations for the flow of a compressible fluid, or the equations for the
flow over wedges and cones, to the same form as those of the boundary-
layer equations for the fiat plate. The results for this case are therefore
of considerable value; for their application to other boundary-layer prob-
lems, the reader should consult Ref. 1.
In view of the difference in the flow characteristics, the frictional force.s
as well as the heat transfer are governed by different relations for laminar
and turbulent types of boundary layers. We will first consider the laminar
boundary layer, which is amenable to both an exact mathematical treat-
ment and an approximate boundary-layer analysis. The turbulent
boundary layer is taken up in Sec. 6-9. '
Continuity. To derive the equations governing the flow in the boundary
layer, consider an elementary control volume which is fixed in the flow
field and has the shape of a parallelepiped with dimensions dx,dy, 1. The
edges of the parallelepiped are orientated in such a manner that the side
'In the remainder of this chapter the mathematical details may be omitted in an
introductory course without breaking the continuity of the presentation.

dx is parallel to the x axis, and the side dy is parallel to the y axis. The
third face has the dimension of unity and is parallel to the z axis (Fig. 6-8).
In order to simplify the analysis we will assume that:
1. The flow is two-dimensional, i.e., the velocity distribution is the
same in any plane perpendicular to the z axis (i.e., parallel to the
surface of the paper).
[pa~ + ~~ (pa~)J d%
1
~-----t-----:
pudy I
I rL_P• + flsa (pu~~ dy
1
- --=--t-1--• I •
1 I
I I
1 Control Volume 1
L_____j_____ J
I I
pvds
[.. rpv) + ~~ (up.,)dy] ds

r--- -/---:--, r--------------,
I I I I
I I : I
I I
~a2+ j.-fp•2)ds] ~~~

I I I
u(pudy) pdy I (p+*ds)dy
I Control Volume j -1 I-
I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I
~
• I I
L -----1--·---J L-------------J
• (p.,ds) r 1 x ds
Flo. 6-8. Sotation for continuity and momentum equations. (upper left)
Control volume in boundary layer. (upper right) !\lass flow through surface
of control volume. (lower left) 1\-lomentum fluxes in x direction through
surface of control volume. (lower right) Forces acting on surface of control
volume.
2. The fluid is incompressible.

3. The pressure is constant throughout the flow field.
4. The flow is steady with respect to time.
5. The physical properties of the fluid are constant.
6. The fluid flow is not affected by heat flow.
According to the principle of conservation of mass, the mass of fluid

entering the volume dxdyl during a time interval dO must be equal to the

mass of fluid leaving in the steady state. The mass of fluid entering through
the left fnce of the control volume during d8 is
(pu) (dy) d8
The mass of fluid leaving through the right face during d8 is
(pu + a~;) dx) (dy)d8

The mass of fluid entering through the lower face during d8 is
(pv) (dx) d8
and the n1ass of fluid leaving through the upper face during d8 is
(pV + a~) dy )<dx)do
Equating the mass leaving to the mass entering per unit time we obtain
o(pu) a(pv)
pudy + pVdX = pu + ox dxdy + pV + oy dydx
Simplifying the preceding equation by canceling like terms and dividing

by the constant p yields
au+ ov = 0 (6-14)
ax ay
The above expression is genera1ly known as the continuity equah~on f01
incompressible, steady, two-dimensional flow. It must be satisfied by the
flow in the boundary layer. In addition to the conservation of mass, the
flow of fluid, like any dynamic process, is governed by Newton's second
law of motion. In a form suitable for our purposes the law can be stated
in symbolic form as
"!;F = _!_d(m V)
gc d8
or in words as, The summation of forces acting on a body iB equal to the time
rate of change of its momentum (i.e., mass X velocity).
While this principle is relatively easy to visualize when it is applied to
a single solid body, its application to a fluid often causes some difficulty. 10
There is, however, no difference conceptually if we simply picture any body
as made up of a number of particles, with or without ties between them,
and consider the change of momentum taking place at the center of mass
10 An excellent discussion of the application of the momentum principle to fluids, and
n detailed discus.~ion of the use of the control volume ure presented in Ref. 29.

of the solid body or the aggregate of particles. Only external forces need
to be considered because the internal forces of action and reaction ex-
erted between the particles within the system cancel each other.
The time rate of change of momentum of the fluid particles flowing
through the control volume dxdy may be obtained by subtracting the
momentum of the particles entering from the momentum of the particles
leaving the volume per unit time. Since both force and velocity are vector
quantities, the momentum principle must be applied with due regard to
direction. In the boundary layer the velocity is nearly parallel to the wall
and the velocity component normal to the wall v is very small. Hence
we can ignore the VIscous shear in the y direction and consider only the
forces and the momentum change in the x direction. A more rigorous
argument to justify this assumption may be found in Ref. 1.
Referring to Fig. 6-8, the mass of the fluid particles entering through
the left face per unit time is pudy. The velocity of these particles is u
and therefore the x momentum per unit time entering from the left is
(pudy) u = pu2 dy
Fluid particles flow into the control volume through the lower face at the
rate pvdx. Also these particles have a velocity component in the x direc-
tion, and their contribution to the x momentum entering per unit time is
(pvdx) u = pvudx
The momentum per unit time leaving through the right face is
a(pu) ) ( au )
( pu + ax dx u + ax dx dy
Carrying out the multiplication and discarding the higher order term
(a(pu)jax](aujax) dx2dy yields
[
pu2 + pu au dx + u a(pu) dx] dy
ax ax '
Similarly, the momentum per unit time leaving through the upper face is
[
pVU + pV au dy + U a(pv) dy] dx
ay ay
Subtracting the momentum per unit time entering from that leaving, the
net increase of momentum per unit time of the fluid in the control volume
becomes
{
au au
pu-+pv-+u
ox ay
[a(pu)
ax
+ o(pv)
oy
]1d d
fxy

Since p is constant, the term u[o(pu) I ox + a(pV) jay] can be written as

pu(ou/ox + ovjoy). The bracket is identically zero from Eq. 6-14, and
thus the term drops out. The net outgoing momentum flux can therefore
be expressed as
( pU ax
au + pV OU) dxdy
ay
The increase in momentum is produced by the forces acting on th~
surface of the control volume. In general there are three types of forces
to be considered:
1. Inertia or body forces such as gravity.
2. Dynamical forces such as pressure.
3. Frictional forces such as viscous shear and wall friction.
In forced convection the forces due to gravity are usually negligible.
Furthermore, for flow over a flat plate the static pressure in the flow field
is nearly uniform and we need only consider the viscous shear.
T
:r
du
FIG. 6-9. ~hearing Htress in a laminar boundary layer.
Viscous shear is the result of a molecular interaction between faster-

and slower-moving layers of fluid. It gives rise to a frictional force T,
which is proportional to the velocity gradient normal to the direction of
flow. The factor of proportionality is a property of the fluid and is called
the dynamic viscosity llr· For flow over a flat plate (Fig. 6-9) when the
change of velocity occurs only in the y direction perpendicular to the sur-
face, the shearing stress in a plane parallel to the plate is
du p. du
TJJ: = Ill -
dy
=- -
Uc dy
(6-16)
where T 11 r = shearing stress per unit area in lb,/sq ft;

u = velocity, in ft. / sec;
y = distance, in ft;

FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVECTION 259.
p.1 = dynamic viscosity, in lb1 sec/sq ft;

p. = absolute viscosity, in Ibm/sec ft.
It should be emphatically noted that the dynamic viscosity is physically
the same property of the fluid as the absolute viscosity-the difference
between them is merely the system of units used in their evaluation. The
only reason for distinguishing between p.1 and p. is to avoid errors in nu-
merical computations by caJling attention to the fact that some references
list numerical values of viscosity in lb, sec/sq ft, whereas this book uses
the units Ibm/sec ft throughout. The subscript notation for the shearing
stress r indicates the axis to which the shear-affected area is perpendicular
by the first letter and the direction of the stress by the second letter, e.g.,
r 11 z is the shear in the x direction on a plane perpendicular to the y axis.
At the lower face the shear acting on the fluid within the control
volume is
(r.z)dx = (:. :;) dx

and at the upper face the shear is
[ T11z + aya (TJiz)dy J dX = [g:

p. au
ay ~" au)
+ aya ( g: ay dy J
dX
Since the wall is stationary, the shear on the fluid at the lower face of the
control volume (Fig. 6-8) acts in a direction opposite to that of the flow
(i.e., in the negative direction), while the shear on the upper face is caused
by fluid tending to pull in the direction of motion. The net positive shear
is thus
[( T11 z + --
ar z dy )
ay
11
J
- T11 z dx = -a ( -~"-au)
ay Yc ay
- dxdy
Equating the net force to the increase in the momentum per unit time
produced by it yields the 1nomentum equation for the boundary layer.
After dividing by pdxdy, we obtain
au au
u-
ax
+ vay
- = (6-16)
if we assume that both p and p. are constant. 11

Boundary-layer thickness and skin friction. Equation 6-16 must be
11If the surface is slightly curved or if the pressure in the ftow field is not constant,
Eq. 6-16 is modified by a pressure force term and becomes
au au ge ap atu
u-+v-=---+v-
ax ay pax ay 2
(6-16a)

solved simultaneously with the continuity equation (Eq. 6-14) in order to

determine the velocity distribution, the boundary-layer thickness, and the
friction force at the wall. These equations are solved by first defining a
stream function, .Y(x,y), which automatically satisfies the continuity
equation, or
a.y
u =- and v =
iJy
Introducing the new variable
we can let
where f('q) denotes a dimensionless stream function. In terms of f(''l),

the velocity components are
and
v = _a.y =! r;;:{d[f(17)) -!('7)}

ox \}--:- d11
Expressing iJu/iJx, iJu/iJy, and iJ 2u/iJy 2 in terms of 17 and inserting the resulting
expressions in the momentum equation yields the ordinary, nonlinear,
third-order differential equation
J(.,) d2[j{.,)] +2 d3[j(.,)] = 0
d.,2 d.,a
which can be solved subject to the three boundary conditions that
at 'I = 0, f('l) = 0, d[~~'l)) = 0
and at 11 = oo, d[f('l)] = 1

d11
The solution to this partial-differential equation was obtained numer-
ically by Blasius, in 1908 (6). The significant results are sho,vn in Figs.
6-10 and 6-11.
In Fig. 6-10 the Blasius velocity profiles in the laminar boundaty on a
flat plate are plotted in dimensionless form together with experimental data
obtained by Hansen (13). The ordinate in Fig. 6-10 is the local velocity
in the x direction u divided by the free stream velocity U and the abscissa 00 ,

is a dimensionless distance parameter, (ylx)V(pua;,X)I p.. We note that

a single curve is sufficient to correlate the velocity distributions at all
stations along the plate. The velocity u reaches 99 per cent of the free-
stream value U at (y I x) V (pu(X)x) I p. = 5.0. If we define the hydrody-
00
namic houndary-layer thickness as that distance from the surface at which
1.0
....... r-~- ~--·o-
- ·v
~. ~
jir .,,.
... ; i>
• z• 1 em
+ 2
+
2.5
·./
X
.It
•• •
~
/'j
v·o D
+ •
4.0
.5.0
:t•'
0 7 ..5
a 10.0
z:
1.. +
0 ..5
• 12.5
~ A 1.5.0
• J~lla1ius
0 17.5
0.332 • u_.8m/•
THIN PlATE INo. 11
·A +
;t;
v 2 3
.l\/ti}i.s
.. 5 6 7
s ~ p
Fw. &-10. Veloeity profile iu the laminar boundary layer twcordiug to
Bla..o;ius with ex.perimental data of Hansen (13). (Courtesy of ~ational
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, N ACA TJI 585)
local velocity u reaches 99 per cent of the free-stream value U 00 , the

boundary-layer thickness ~ becomes
5x
~ = --- (6-17)
v'Re:
where Rez = (pU X) / p., the local Reynolds number. Equation 6-17
00
satisfies the qualitative description of the boundary-layer growth, ~ being

zero at the leading edge (x = 0) and increasing with x along the plate.
At any station, i.e., a given value of x, the thickness of the boundary
layer is inversely proportional to the square root of the local Reynolds
number. Hence, an increase in velocity will result in a decrease of the
boundary-layer thickness.

100.0 .......
r-...
.............
t'-.....
.........
'--r-.
~
..........
10.0 i'--.
...........
......
. ..............
.......
0
..... '-..
'--r-.. Tro nsilton
f.J ~
..........
1.0 r.......
t'i
0.1
10
Rez
FIG. 6-ll. Varia i n f l cal fri t ion ffi ien t wit h dim n ionl
di tanc from le8.<.ling dg for la mina r A w over a fla t pla t .
The hear force at the wall an be obtain d by u tituting the v locity

gradient at y = 0 into Eq. 6- 15. From Fig. 6-10 we see that
iJ(u/ uaJ
- 0.332
v-O
and thus at any specified value of x the velocity gradient at the urf e is 0
au - 0.332 UCD ~
ay X
Substituting this velocity gradient in Eq. 6-15, the wall shear per unit
area r. becomes
Ji. iJtt
- 0.332 _j!_ Uco ~
T, = -- (6-18)
Uc iJy Uc X
)1- 0
We note that the wall hear n ar the 1 ading edge is very large and d -
with incr asing di tance from th leading dg .
For a graphical pre entation it i mor onvenient to u dim nl
coordinates. Dividing both id of Eq. 6- 18 by the velocity pr f
the free stream pU 2 / 2gc we obtain 00
(6-19 )
\\here c,% i a dim n ionl numb r call d the local drag or frictio-n c tfi · nt.

Original from
Figure 6-11 is a plot of C1 :c against Re:c and shows the variation of the
local friction coefficient graphically.
In many practical cases the average friction coefficient for a plate of
finite length L is more important than the local friction coefficient. The
average shear force is obtained by integrating Eq. 6-19 between the leading
edge, x = 0, a.nd x = L. For laminar Bow over the fiat plate we get
-
C, = L1 J L
C1 :c dx ,-;;::;;L
= 1.33/'\j---:-- (6-20)
o
Thus, the average friction coefficient C1 is equal to twice the value of the
local friction coefficient at x = L.
Energy equation. To evaluate the rate of heat transfer by convection
we must determine the temperature gradient at the surface. The equation
governing the temperature distribution in the boundary layer is obtained
with the aid of the first law of thermodynamics, the principle of conserva-
tion of energy. Since we are dealing with a moving fluid, energy stored in
fluid particles is transported by their motion. The rate of transport de-
pends on the velocity of the fluid particles, and it is therefore always neces-
sary to solve the hydrodynamic problem before the temperature distribution
can be obtained.
To derive the equation governing the temperature distribution, consider
the elementary control volume in the boundary layer shown in Fig. 6-12.
Let the surfaces ab, be, cd, and da define the boundaries of the system,
------,c
I
I
I
I
1 ( u:r+tt2 )d
I pu h+ 21gc y+
!-k~u(h+ -;J;:
I
]d.:
)dy
I
I
oL----- --- -\--"_jb
. . .__.- · u_!!_ 1M. ds
Jgc dy
P"(h + u:r+., 2 )ds

216c
Fw. 6-12. Control volume in the boundary layer illustrating
energy balance.

and make an energy balance under the same assumptions used previously
for the hydrodynamic equations. The energy equation for the system
can be expressed semantically as
Influx of rate of rate at effiuxof rate of rate at
enthalpy heat in- which enthalpy heat out- which
and + flow by + workis - and + flow by + work is
kinetic conduc- done by kinetic conduc- done as
energy tion frictional energy tion a result
shear on of
the fluid frictional
in control shear by
volume the fluid
in control
volume
or in symbolic form as
pu (h + ut2g~J
+ v') dy + pv (h + u2 gcJ
2
+ v2) dx
- k - (aT)
ay
dx 1[
+ J- u - ~-' -au dx
Yc ay
+ -aya ( uYc.J.L -au
- dx)] dy
ay
= pu ( h + u2 + til )
2gcJ dy + axa [ pu ( h + u2 + ,_.2 )
2gJ dy lh
J
+ pV ( h + u22+
gJ
v2 )
dx + aya [ p~· ( h + u2 +
gcJ
2
v2 )
dx
J
dy
-k - (aT)
ay
a
dx+-
ay
[ -k (aT) J 1(u~-'- au)
-.- dx dy+-
ay J
-
ay Uc
dx (6-21)
The frictional work terms represent the work done by shearing forces on
the surface of the control volume as faster fluid particles slide over slower
ones. At the lower surface, the fluid inside the control volume exerts a
force on the fluid outside because the former moves faster. The force
times distance per unit time (i.e., velocity) u (J.LIUc) (aulay) represents
the rate at which work is done by the fluid in the control volume. Sim-
ilarly, the last term in square brackets on the left-hand side of Eq. 6-21
represents the rate at which work is done on the fluid in the control volume.
Conduction along the x direction has been omitted because, in the
boundary layer, the term - k aTI ax is negligible compared to - k aTI ay
and the convection terms.
The term h + (u2 + v2 )12gcJ can be written c11 To for fluids having a
constant specific heat. To is the stagnation temperature, i.e., the tern-

perature reached by the fluid when it is isentropically slowed down to

zero velocity. For low-speed flow, T ~ To because the kinetic energy of
the flow is negligible. For high-speed flow, on the other hand, especially
at supersonic velocities, this simplification is not permissible.
Adding up the terms of Eq. 6-21 and dropping those of higher order
(i.e., terms involving triple products of d quantities) we obtain after
simplifying12
aTo aTo a2
T a ( p. au)
pcu-+pcv-=k -+- u - - (6-22)
P ax oy oy oyp (/c oy 2
The last tenn of Eq. 6-22 represents the net rate at which shearing forces
perfonn work on the fluid in the control volume. The mechanical energy
or frictional power increases the internal energy of the fluid in the control
volume appreciably only at high velocities, but for low subsonic flow in
the main stream the frictional power term is small compared to the other
terms and can be neglected. With these simplifications, Eq. 6-22 becomes
oT oT o2T
u-+v-=a- (~23)
ox ay ay2
where a = k1 fpcp.
The velocities in the energy equation, u and v, have the same values at
any point (x,y) as in the dynamic equation. For the case of the flat plate,
Pohlhausen (7) used the velocities calculated previously by Blasius to
obtain the solution of the heat-transfer problem. Without considering the
details of this mathematical solution, we can obtain significant results by
comparing Eq. 6-23, the heat-transfer equation for the boundary layer,
with Eq. 6-16, the momentum equation for the boundary layer. The two
equations are similar; in fact, a solution for the velocity distribution
u (x,y) is also a solution for the temperature distribution T (x,y) if v = a
and if the temperature of the plate T, is constant. We can easily verify
this by replacing the symbol T in Eq. 6-23 by the symbol u and noting
that the boundary conditions for both T and u are identical. If we use
the surface temperature as our datum and let the variable in Eq. 6-23 be
(T - T.)/(Tm - T,), then the boundary conditions are:
T- T, = O
at y = 0 and
Tm - T.
T- T. = 1 u
at y ~ oo and - = 1
T T,
CD - UOI)
where T m is the free-stream temperature.

u In this and in subsequent equations the energy convergion contant J has heen
omitted.

The condition that v - a corresponds to a Prandtl number of unity

since
Pr = CpJL =!
k a
For Pr = 1 the velocity distribution is therefore identical to the temperature
distribution. An interpretation in terms of physical processes is that the
transfer of momentum is analogous to the transfer of heat when Pr = 1.
The physicaJ properties of most gases are such that they have Prandtl
numbers ranging from 0.65 to 1.0, and the analogy is therefore satisfactory.
Liquids, on the other hand, have Prandtl numbers considerably different
from unity, and the preceding analysis cannot be applied directly.
Using the analytical results of Pohlhausen's work, the temperature
distribution in the laminar boundary layer for Pr = 1 can be modified
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 .c.o
'l·t.J¥
FIG. 6-13. Temperature distribution in a fluid flowing over
a heated plate for various Prandtl numbers.
empirically to include fluids having Prandtl numbers different from unity.

In Fig. 6-13 theoretically calculated temperature profiles in the boundary
layer are shown for values of Prof 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 3.0, 7.0, 15, and 50. \Ve
now define a thermal-boundary-layer thickness 8,!. as the distance from the
surface at which the temperature difference between the wall and the fluid
reaches 99 per cent of the free-stream value. Inspection of the temperature
profiles shows that the thermal boundary layer is larger than the hydro-
dynamic boundary layer for fluids having Pr less than unity, but smaller
when Pr is larger than one. According to Pohlhausen's calculations, the
relationship between the thermal and hydrodynamic boundary layer is
approximately
ot~a = o/Prt
Using the same correction factor, i.e., Prt, at any distance from the sur-
Digitized by Coogle Orig inal from

face, the curves of Fig. 6-13 are replotted in Fig. 6-14. The new abscissa
is Prl (y I x) ~ and the ordinate is the dimensionless temperature
(T - T,)/(T CD T,), where Tis the local fluid temperature of the fluid,
-
T. the surface temperature of the plate, and T the free-stream tempera- CD
ture. This modification of the ordinate brings the temperature profiles

for a wide range of Prandtl numbers together on the curve for Pr = 1.
Temperoture Distribution
1.0
:.-T,
.r.
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
f VRe1 Pr""'
FIG. 6-14. Dimensionless correlation of tem-
perature profiles for flow over a flat plate at
constant temperature.
Evaluation of convective-heat-transfer coefficient. The rate of heat

transfer by convection and the convective-heat-transfer coefficient can
now be determined. The dimensionless temperature gradient at the sur-
face (i.e., at y = 0) is
T- T )
a (T ~. CD -
= 0.332
a(~~Prl)
y =0
Therefore, at any specified value of x
aT
(6-26)
ay
II =- 0
and the local rate of heat transfer by convection per unit area becomes on
substituting aT I ay from Eq. 6-25 in Eq. 6-1
q -kaT
-= (&-26)
A ay
y ::::11 0

The total rate of heat transfer from a plate of width b and length L, ob-
tained by integrating q from Eq. 6-26 between x = 0 and x = L, is
q = 0.664kReLi Pri bL(T. - T co) (6-27)
where ReL = ~t,;L/v.
The local convective-heat-transfer coefficient is
q k
her = -A-(T-,--T- -) - 0.332;; ReztPri (6-28)
00
and the corresponding local N usselt number is

hrrX 1
N Uz = = 0.332 RezlPrs (6-29)
k
The average Nusselt number, hr:L/k, obtained by integrating the right-hand
side of Eq. 6-28 between x = 0 and x = Land dividing by k, is
(6-30)
The average value of the Nusselt number over a length L of the plate
is therefore twice the local value of Nuz at x = L. It can easily be verified
that the same relation between the average and local value holds also for
the heat-transfer coefficient, that is,
(6-31)
In practice, the physical properties in Eqs. 6-24 to 6-30 vary \Vith
temperature, while for the purpose of analysis it was assumed that the
physical properties are constant. Experimental data have been found to
agree satisfactorily with the results predicted analytically if the propertie~
are evaluated at a mean temperature halfway between that of the wall and
the free-stream temperature.
Example 6-4. Air at 60 F and at a pr·es~urc of 1 atm is flowing over a plate at a

velocity of 10 fps. If the plate is l ft wide and at 140 F, calculate the following quanti-
t ies at x = 1 ft and x = Xc.
a) Boundary-layer thickness.
b) Local friction coefficient.
c) Average friction coefficient.
d) Local drag or shearing streHs due to friction.
e) Thickness of thermal boundary layer.
f) Local convective-heat-transfer coefficient.
g) Average convective-heat-transfer coefficient.
h) Rate of heat transfer by convection.
Solution: Properties of air at 100 F from Table A-3 are:

p = 0.071 lbm/CU ft ·
Cp = 0.240 Btu/Ibm F
JJ. = 1.285 X 10-• lbm/ft sec
Pr = 0.72
The loeal Heynoldl-" number at x = 1 ft. is
_
Rcr - 1
= llroPX = -
(10 ft/scc) (0.071 lhm/c_u ft)(l ft)
------------ = 5.5,200
JJ. 1.285 X 10-1> lhm / lt SPC
.
A!-'1'1Uming that the critical Reynolds number is .5 X 10~ . the critical diRtance is
5 X 10~JJ. (5 X 1~)(1.285 X I0-6lbm/ft sec) f
Xc -
UooP
= (10 ft/sec) (0.0711bm/cu ft)
= 9 t
The desired quantities are determined by substituting appropriate values of the variable
into the pertinent equations. The results of the calculations are shown in Table 6-4,
and it is suggested that the reader verify them.
TABLE 6-4
Part ~yrnhol Unit _I Ect. Used I Re8ult (.r = I ft) ' Reeult (.r = H ft)
a. 6 ft 6-17 0 .0212 0.064

h (~!r ...... 6-19 0.00282 0.00094
c c, .. .. .. 6-20 0.00564 0.00188
d Ta lbr/sq ft 6-18 3.12 X 10-• 1.04 X 10~
e 6o. ft 6-24 0 .0236 0 .0715
f h~z Btu/hr sq ft F 6--28 1.03 0.36
g ii, Btu/hr sq ft F 6- 31 2.06 0.72
h q~ Btu/hr 6-27 206 648
A useful relation between the loral Nusselt number Nux and the cor-
responding friction coefficient C1 z is obtained by dividing Eq. 6-29 by
H.ezPrl, or
Nuz ) Prl = 0.322 = C1 z (6-32)

( RezPr Rezl 2
The dimensionless ration Nuz/RezPr is known as the Stanton number,

Stz. According to Eq. 6-32 the Stanton number t_imes the Prandtl raised
to the two-thirds power is equal to one-half the value of the friction co-
efficient. This relation between heat transfer and fluid friction was pro-
posed by Colburn (4) and illustrates the interrelationship of the two
processes.
6-8. APPROXIMATE BOUNDARY-LAYER ANALYSIS
In the preceding section we analyzed the flow of mass, momentum,

and heat in a laminar boundary layer mathematically. That is to say

-- . ·· - · ,___,.._,~--------------------
we derived equations describing the processes at any point in the boundary

layer and then indicated how these equations can be solved subject to the
physical boundary conditions. We saw that the momentum equation is a
partial-differential equation with variable coefficients and that a solution
is difficult to obtain even for as simple a geometry as a flat plate. The
mathematical difficulties of an exact solution can be circumvented by an
approximate analysis which simplifies the mathematical manipulations.
In cases where exact solutions are available, they agree with satisfactory
accuracy with the solutions obtained by the approximate method.
Instead of writing the equations of motion and heat transfer for a differ-
ential control volume, von Karman (8) suggested writing these equations
11
• • Direction of Row
-/s
pds J.'udy
,....,__ __,~--:---.c
I
~~pJ.'ud;r + p ~~ (J.'u:r) d:c
~-~----l'(P+ :~ ds)dy
/ // / / '' / / / d ,' / / "/

rs
FIG. 6-15. Control volume for approximate momen-
tum analysis of a boundary layer.
for the aggregate of particles in the boundary layer. For this purpose we
choose a control volume (Fig. 6-15) bounded by the two planes ab and cd
which are perpendicular to the wall and a distance dx apart, the surface
of the plate, and a parallel plane in the free stream at a distance l from the
surface. For a unit width in the z direction we can write the continuity
equation, the momentum equation, and the heat-transfer equation, follow-
ing the general procedure outlined in Sec. 6-7. Under steady-state condi-
tions for a fluid of constant mass density p, the mass flow per unit time
entering through the face ab is p f.' udy and the mass flow per unit time
leaving through the face cd is
p J.'udy + :x (J.'udy) dx
p

Therefore, since the plate is impervious to the flow of mass,
pdx ax
a Jz 0 udy
must flow into the control volume per unit time through upper boundary
surface be. The velocity at y = lis for all practical purposes equal to the
free-stream velocity uco and the x momentum per unit time entering through
face be is therefore
ucJ)(lx ax
a Jz 0
udy
The rate of momentum inflow through face ab is
p f.' u 2dy
and the rate of momentum outflow through face cd is
The increase of x momentum per unit time of the fluid in the control
volume, obtained by subtracting the rate of x-momentum inflow from the
rate of x-momentum outflow, is
a
-pdx ax
Jz 0
U
2
dy a
+ UcoPdX ax Jz 0
udy = a
pdx ax
Jz0
(uco- u)udy
For y > a (i.e., outside of the boundary layer) the velocity u becomes
equal to the free-stream velocity uco. Therefore uco - u is zero for y > a
and we only have to consider the integrand within the limits from y = 0
toy = a. The net outgoing momentum flux is therefore
a
- pdx ax j"0 (uoo - u)udy
The increase in x-momentum flux is equal to the summation of the forces

in the x direction acting on the surface of the control volume. These
forces, considered positive in the direction of flow, are
1. The shearing stress at the surface, - r.dx.
2. The pressure on face ab, f' pdy.

3. The pressure on face cd, - J' pdy + :x (f.~y) dx.

0
Since the velocities on both sides of the face be are equal, no shearing
stress exists there.
Equating the forces to the rate of momentum increase yields finally
P
--
~
a
ax 1
, (uoo - u)udy =
__ T, + j" -ap
ax dy
(6-33)
0 0
This is the von Karman momentum integral equation of the boundary layer for
incompressible flow. It applies also to flow over slightly curved boundaries
if xis measured along the surface andy normal to it. The last terin can be
determined if the pressure along the wall or the velocity distribution out-
side the boundary layer is known. In that case the pressure can be found
from Bernoulli's equation
pu 2
Pco + 2gc - const
ro
or
dpco pU auoo 00
- ---
ax Yc ax
Since the boundary layer is very thin, it may be assumed (I) that the
pressure at any x location is constant throughout the boundary layer, i.e.,
p(x) = Poo(x), and
(6-34)
For flow over a flat plate the velocity U is constant and consequently00
the last term in Eq. 6-33 becomes zero.

If one assumes a physically reasonable velocity distribution in the
boundary layer, the momentum integral equation (Eq. ()-a:J) can be used to
determine the boundary-layer thickness and the wall friction for specified
geometries and flow conditions. The results naturally become more ac-
curate the more closely the assumed velocity distribution resembles actual
<'onditions. It has been found, however, that even a very rough assump-
tion for the velocity distribution will vield satisfactorv
~ ., results.
~
For thi~
reason the approximate method is a powerful tool in engineering analysis.
Example 6-5 illustrates the method.
Example 6-6. Determine the hydrodynamic boundary-layer thickness for laminar

flow over a flat plate by mean~ of the von Karman momentum equation of the boundar~·
layer. Assume a straight-line velocity distribution in the boundary layer.

Solution: The equation describing the velocity distribution for a linear increase in
velocity from u = 0 at y = 0 to u = lla:> at y = 8 is
UmY
u - -6-
The shearing stress at the wall T, is then
geT, -
-au\ ~- =--
-~-um
8
O?li 11 .... o
Sub!oltituting for u and T. in Eq. 6-33 yields
&
p?Jml -
a
ax f o
(t - Y-)6 -Y6 dy = -
~Uu,
-
a ----·
Evaluating the integral above yields
a dy - Ja '!!_ dy = -1 JL I a -
--
6
f 0
1!_
(5 0
t
«5 2 8 2
t
I 0
1 y'
-2 -
6 3 0
&
6
\
Then, we get
which yields
ada -= d (~)
2
- ~
P'Um
dx
Integrating the ahove equation gives the boundary-layer thickness 3 as
8 = ....! (12~)/{pu.:n) = 3.46 x/ ~ An8.

The boundary-layer thickness calculated by means of a linear approxi-
mation to the velocity distribution is about 30 per cent less than the value
obtained by Blasius (see Eq. 6-17). However, the approximate method
can be considerably improved by taking a velocity distribution which
resembles the true conditions more closely. Eckert (9) used a cubic
parabola of the form
u
uoo =
y
c1 ~ - c2 ~
( y )3 (6-36)
and obtained, by substituting the above relation for u in Eq. 6-33,
8 = 4.64x /~ (6-3~)
a value only 8 per cent below that of the exact analysis. Since most of
the experimental measurements are only accurate to within 10 per cent,
the results of the approximate analysis are satisfactory in practice.
To determine the rate of convective heat transfer to or from a surface
we make an energy balance for the aggregate of fluid particles within th~
control volume of Fig. 6-Hl. To simplify the problem we~~ -·

-- - - · ~.-...-.......,..,..
_ ------------~----
pe, 1.. f.- J.'.r,. tly

6r--- -------,e
I I
I
I
I
---rl~· [!rotJy +
pe,
pe,[~r.~ --~
\
• : I pe, k(fo•r,tl~tl•
:
l777777~77777717777777J'777777
J : r,...,. Sw~aco
_,ttl, .. 1.•
Flo. 6-16. Control volume for approximate

energy balance in a boundary layer.
the shear \Vork due to the frictional forces along the wall and assume also
that the physical properties are independent of the temperature.
Energy is convected into and out of the control volume as a result of
the fluid motion, and there is also heat flow by conduction across the inter-
face. The energy flow rates across the individual faces of the control
volume are listed in Table 6-5. To satisfy the principle of conservation
TABLE 6-5
Face MMB-Flow Rate Heat-Flow Rate
ab p J:' udy pep J:' u T ody
be pdx-
a
ax
J:' 0
udy pepdx -a
ax
f'o uT, oily
cd P[J:' udy + a~ (J:' udy )dxJ pep J:' uTady + pep a~ (J:' uTody) dx
da 0 -kaT \ dx
ay u = o
of energy in the steady state, the rate of energy influx must equal the
rate of energy efflux. Equating the net rate of convective energy outflow
to the net rate of heat inflow by conduction we·obtain
-a
ax
Jl (Tooo- To)udy = -- ·
pel'
k aT
ay
o u= o

Since the total temperature To equals the free-stream total temperature
To outside the thermal boundary layer (i.e., y > ~,,.), the integrand be-
CD
comes zero for values of y larger than~''" We therefore replace l, the upper
limit of the integral, by ~'"' and the heat-transfer equation of the boundary
layer becomes ·
-aaX j~th
o
(Tooo- To)udy = -
pep
k *lT
a Y
(6-37)
u•O
If we restrict our analysis to low-speed flow in which the kinetic energy is

negligible compared with the enthalpy, the total temperatures in Eq. 6-37
are equal to the static temperatures for all practical purposes, i.e., To~ T
and T ~ T oo•
0 CD
To determine the convective-heat-transfer coefficient we now select a

suitable shape for the temperature distribution which meets the physical
boundary conditions. Near the surface, where heat flows by conduction,
the temperature gradient should be linear, and at y = 0, the fluid tempera-
ture should be equal to the plate temperature. At the edge of the thermal
boundary layer (i.e., at y = ~,,.)the temperature should smoothly approach
the free-stream temperature. Mathematically these boundary conditions
are
ar = c and (T - T,) = 0 at y = 0
ay
a(T- T,) = O
(T- T,) = (Too- T,) and at y = ~tJa
ay
A cubic parabola of the form
T - T, = Cty + C2y 1 (6-38)
satisfies these boundary conditions if the constants Ct and C2 are selected

appropriately. The conditions at y = 0 are automatically satisfied for
any value of Ct and c2. At y = ~tA we have
a(T- T,)
and
. ay
Y ""'a
Solving for Ct and C2, and substituting these expressions in Eq. 6-38 yields
T - T, 3( y ) 1( y )a (6-39)
Too - T, = 2 ~ '" - 2 t;;;

Using Eqs. 6-39 and 6-35 for (T - T,) and u respectively, the integral in
Eq. 6-37 can be written as
!&"(Too- T)udy = i~'.[(Too- T,)- (T- T,)]udy
= (T 00
- T,)uoo 1 0
6111
[1 - ~ __!_ + ! (Jj_)
2 ~ th 2 ~til
3
] [~2 (_]!__)
~
- ! (_]!_)•] dy
2 ~
Performing the multiplication under the integral sign we obtain
(Too - T,)uoo j'•• [(:J y - ( 4 a~J y+ Ca!,.,) y' 2
-C~.) y' + Ca~a') y' - Ca.~•a•) y•] dy

which yields after integrating
(T _ T )u [~ ~a.? _ ~ ~111 2 +~ ~th 2 _ ~ ~th 4 + ~ ~,,• _ __.!:__ ~ 0, 4]

~ ~ ~ 8 ~3 20 ~ 3 28 ~ 3
00 00
' 4 4 20
If we let t = ~th ! ~~ the above expression can be written
<T 00
- T )u 8 00
~ (~ ,.2 - ~
20 ~
H)
280 ~
For fluids having a Prandtl number equal to or larger than unity, f is

equal to or less than unity and the second term in the bracket can be ne-
glected compared to the first. 13 Substituting this approximate form for
the integral in Eq. 6-37, we obtain
~ u ( T - T ) r2 a~ = a aT = ~ a T" - Too
20 00
ax
• ay 00
y ... 0
2 ~r
1 a~
10 uoor ~
3
or ax = a
From Eq. 6-36 we obtain

a~ v
~- = 10.75-
ax U 00
and with this expression we get

10 a
10.75 Jl
or o,h = 0.9oPr-! (6-40)
13 This assumption is not valid for liquid mctnls, which have Pr << 1.

Except for the numerical constant (0.9 compared with 1.0) the foregoing
result is in agreement with the exact calculations of Pohlhausen (Eq. 6-24).
The rate of heat flow by convection from the plate per unit area is,
from Eqs. 1-1 and 6-39,
!L = -k iJT 3 k
- - - - (T - T)
A iJy 2 ou, CX) •
Jl- 0
Substituting Eqs. 6-36 and 6-40 for ou, yields

q 3k PriRe) ( _ k R lp )
A = -2; (0. )( .64 ) Too- Ts) - 0.364 ~ ez r 1(T, - T
9 4
00 ) (6-41
and (6-42)
This result is in agreement with the exact analysis (Eq. 6-29) except for
the numerical constant, \vhich is about 9 per cent larger.
The foregoing example illustrates the usefulness of the approximate
boundary-layer analysis. Guided by a little physical insight and intuition,
this technique yields satisfactory results without the mathematical com-
plications inherent in the exact boundary-layer equations. The approxi-
mate method has been applied to many other problems, and the results
are available in the literature.
6-9. ANALOGY BETWEEN HEAT AND MOMENTUM TRANSFER IN TURBULENT FLOW
In a majority of practical applications the flow in the boundary layer

is turbulent rather than laminar. It is therefore not surprising that many
famous scientists, such as Osborn Reynolds, G. I. Taylor, Ludwig Prandtl,
and T. von Karman, have studied problems dealing with turbulent-
exchange mechanisms. Although these men as well as many others have
contributed considerably to our understanding of turbulent flow, so far no
one has succeeded in predicting friction and heat-transfer coefficients by a
direct analysis. The reason for this lack of suecess is the extreme com-
plexity of turbulent motion. In turbulent flow, irregular velocity fluctua-
tions are always superimposed upon the motion of the main stream, and
the fluctuating components can not be described by simple equations.
Yet, it is precisely these fluctuations which are primarily responsible for
the transfer of heat as weli as momentum in turbulent flow.
Qualitatively the exchange mechanism in turbulent flow can be pictured
as a magnification of the molecular exchange in laminar flow. In steady
laminar flow, physical properties such as temperature and pressure remain
constant at any point and fluid particles folJow well-defined streamlines.
Heat and momentum are transferred across streamlines only by molecular

diffusion. The amount of cross flow is so small that, when a colored dye
is injected at some point into the fluid, it follows a streamline without
appreciable diffusion. In turbulent flow, on the other hand, the color will
be distributed over a wide area a short distance downstream from the
point of injection. The mixing mechanism consists of rapidly fluctuating
eddies which transport blobs of fluid in an irregular manner. Groups of
particles collide with each other at random, establish cross flow on a macro-
scopic scale, and effectively mix the fluid. Since the mixing in turbulent
flow is on a macroscopic scale with groups of particles transported in a zigzag
path through the fluid, the exchange mechanism is many times more
effective than in laminar flow. As a result, the rates of heat and momentum
transfer in turbulent flow and the associated friction and heat-transfer
coefficients are many times larger than in laminar flow.
Instantaneous streamlines in turbulent flow are highly jagged, and it
would be a hopelessly difficult task to trace the path of individual fluid
elements. However, if the flow at a point is averaged over a period of
time, long as compared with the period of a single fluctuation, the time-
mean properties and the velocity of the fluid are constant if the average
flow remains steady. It is therefore general practice to describe each
fluid property and the velocity in turbvlent flow in terms of a mean value
which does not vary with time and a fluctuating component which is a
function of time. To simplify the problem, consider a two-dimensional
flow (Fig. 6-17) in which the mean value of velocity is paraiiel to the
x direction. The instantaneous velocity components u and v can then be
expressed in the form
u = ii + u'
I (6-43)
v= v
where the bar over a symbol denotes the temporal mean value, and the
I
I
l I
I
_l ___ _ /
L-----L-
I
L,dii --1 dy
%
Ftc:. 6-17. :--;k('teh illu~trat ing mixing )('ngt h
for momentum transfer.

Fm. 6-18. Sketch illustrating time

variation of instantaneous velocity.
prime denotes the instantaneous deviation from the mean value. Ac-
cording to the model used to describe the flow,
u=-1
8*
!,. udt (6-44)
0
where 8* is large compared with the period of the fluctuations. Figure 6-18
shows qualitatively the time variation of u and u'. From Eq. 6-44 or
from an inspection of the graph it is apparent that the time average of
u' is zero, i.e. u' = 0. A similar argument shows that v' and (pv)' are
also zero.
The fluctuating velocity components continuously transport mass, and
consequently momentum, across a plane normal to the y direction. The
instantaneous rate of transfer in the y direction of x-momentum per unit
area at any point is
- (pv)' ('a + u')
where the minus sign, as will be shown later, takes account of the statistical
correlation between u' and v'.
The time average of the x-momentum transfer gives rise to an apparent
turbulent shear or Reynolds stress r t defined by
YeT£ = - 1*
8
j'* (pv)'(u + u')d8 (6-46)
0
Breaking this term up into two parts, the time average of the first is zero, or
8
1* j'* (pv)'Ud8 = 0
0
since u is a constant and the time average of (pv)' is zero. Integrating the
second term, Eq. 6-45 becomes
g,T, = - ~
8 j" (pv)'u'd8 = -
0
(pt•)'u' (6-4.6a)

or if p is constant
(6-46)
It is not difficult to visualize that the time averages of the mixed products
of velocity fluctuations, such as for example v'u', differ from zero. From
Fig. 6-17 we can see that the particles which travel upward (zJ' > 0)
arrive at a layer in the fluid in which the mean velocity u is larger than in
the layer from which they come. Assuming that the fluid particles pre-
serve on the average their original velocity u during their migration, they
will tend to slow down other fluid particles after they have reached their
destination and thereby give rise to a negative component u'. Conversely,
if v' is negative, the observed value of u' at the new destination will be
positive. On the average, therefore, a positive v' is associated with a
negative u', and vice versa. The time average of u'v' is therefore on the
average not zero but a negative quantity. The turbulent shearing stress
defined by Eq. 6-46 is thus positive and has the same sign as the corres-
ponding laminar shearing stress,
rlu P du
Tll:t = J.l.f - = - II - [ 6-16]
dy Or dy
It should be noted, however, that the laminar shearing stress is a true stress,
whereas the apparent turbulent shearing stress is simply a concept intro-
duced to account for the effects of the momentum transfer by turbulent
fluctuations. This concept allows us to express the total shear stress in
turbulent flow as
viscous f oree
T = .
untt area
+ -Or1 (turbulent momentum flux) (6--47)
To relate the turbulent momentum flux to the time-average velocity

gradient, du/dy, Prandtl (10) postulated that fluctuations of macroscopic
blobs of fluid in turbulent flow are, on the average, similar to the motion
of molecules in a gas, i.e., they travel on the average a distance l perpen-
dicular to u (Fig. 6-17) before coming to rest in another y plane. This
distance l is known as Prandtl's mixing length and corresponds qualita-
tively to the mean free path of a gas molecule. Prandtl further argued
that the fluid particles retain their identity and physical properties during
the cross motion and that the turbulent fluctuation arises chiefly from the
difference in the time-mean properties between y planes spaced a distance
l apart. According to this argument, if a fluid particle travels from the
layer y to the layer y + l,
Digiti zed by G 00gIe Original from

\Vith this model we can write the turbulent shearing stress in a form anal-
ogous to the laminar shearing stress as
I I dii,
gc Tt = - pVU = p EM dy (6-49)
where the symbol EM is called the eddy viscosity or the turbulent exchange
coefficient for momentum. The eddy viscosity EJI is formally analogous to
the kinematic viscosity v, but whereas vi.., a physical property, EM depends
on the dynamics of the flow. Combining Eqs. 6-48 and 6-49 shows that
E.u = - Ill. Substituting Eqs. 6-15 and 6-49 in Eq. 6-47 gives the total
shearing stress in the form
P du
T = -
Yc
(v + EM) -dy (6-60)
In turbulent flow EM is much larger than v and the viscous term may
therefore be neglected.
The transfer of energy as heat in a turbulent flow can be pictured in
an analogous fashion. Consider a two-dimensional time-mean temperature
distribution as shown in Fig. 6-19. The fluctuating velocity components
continuously transport fluid particles and the energy stored in them
across a plane nonnal to the y direction. The instantaneous rate of energy
transfer per unit area at any point in the y direction is
(pv') (c"T) (6-61)
where T = T + T'. Following the same line of reasoning which led to
Eq. 6-46, the time average of energy transfer due to the fluctuations,
called the turbulent rate of heat transfer q,, is
(6-62)
:r-----
1
I
I
I
T(y) ~ +T'
I
I
I l
LJ__________________ _
l.-,4f_j
tly
FIG. 6-19. 8kctch illustrating mixing length for energy transfer.

Using Prandtl's concept of mixing length, we can relate the temperature

fluctuation to the time-mean temperature gradient by the equation
T' ~ l dT (6-53)
dy
This means physically that, when a fluid particle migrates from the layer
y to another layer a distance l above or below, the resulting temperature
fluctuation is caused chiefly by the difference between the time-mean
temperatures in the layers. Assuming that the transport mechanisms of
temperature (or energy) and velocity are similar, the mixing lengths in
Eqs. 6--48 and 6-53 are equal. The product v'T', however, is positive on
the average because a positive v' is accompanied by a positive T', and vice
versa.
Combining Eqs. 6-52 and 6-53, the turbulent rate of heat transfer per
unit area becomes
qt - dT
- = Cpp v 'T' = -c p v 'l - (6-54)
A p dy
where the minus sign is a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics
(see Sec. 1-2). To express the turbulent heat flux in a form analogous to
the Fourier conduction equation we define En. a quantity called the turbulent
exchange coefficient for temperature, eddy diffusivity of heat, or eddy heat
conductivity, by the equation E// = v'l. Substituting EH for v'l in Eq. 6-54,
.
gtves
q, dT
A
- -c p pEu-
dy
(6-55)
The total rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the mean stream
velocity can then be written as
q molecular conduction turbulent transfer
A
----------------+
unit area unit area
or in symbolic form as
q dT
A
- - Cpp(a + Eu) -d
y
(6-56)
where a = k/Cpp, the molecular diffusivity of heat. The contribution to

the heat transfer by molecular conduction is proporttonal to a, and the
turbulent contribution is proportional to Eu. For all fluids except liquid
metals, E11 is much larger than a in turbulent flow. The ratio of the
molecular kinematic viscosity to the molecular diffusivity of heat v/a. has
previously been named the Prandtl number. Similarly, the ratio of the

turbulent eddy viscosity to the eddy diffusivity t.v/Eu could be considered

a turbulent Prandtl number Pr,. According to the Prandtl mixing-length
theory, the turbulent Prandtl number is unity, since EM = EH = v'l.
Although the model postulated by Prandtl in his treatment of turbulent
fio\v is certainly grossly oversimplified, experimental results indicate it is
at least qualitatively correct. Isakoff and Drew (11) found that Prt for
the heating of mercury in turbulent flow inside a tube may vary from 1.0
to 1.6, and Forstall and Shapiro (12) found that Pr, is about 0.7 for gases.
The latter investigators also showed that Prt is substantially independent
of the value of the laminar Prandtl number as well as of the type of experi-
ment. For practical calculations it is usually satisfactory to assume that
Pr, is unity. With this simplification we can relate the turbulent heat flux
to the turbulent shear stress by combining Eqs. 6-49 and 6-55 and obtain
(6-67)
This relation was originaJly derived in 187 4 by the British scientist Osborn
Reynolds and is called the Reynolds analogy in his honor. It is a good
approximation whenever the flow is turbulent, and can be applied to
turbulent boundary layers as well as to turbulent flow in pipes or ducts.
Ho,vever, the Reynolds analogy does not hold in the laminar sub layer.
Since this layer offers a large thermal resistance to the flow of heat, Eq. 6-57
does in general not suffice for a quantitative solution. Only for fluids
having a Prandtl number of unity can it be used directly to calculate the
rate of heat transfer. This special case will now be considered.
6-1 0. REYNOLDS ANALOGY FOR TURBULENT FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE
In this section we shall derive for flow over a plane surface a relation
bet\\'een the heat transfer and the skin friction for a Prandtl number of
unity. In the following section we shall show how to calculate the skin
friction and consider some improvements over the simple analogy.
In two-dimensional flow the shearing stress in the laminar sublayer
T 11 z IS
du
YeT 1/Z = J.J - [ 6-15]
dy
and the rate of heat flow per unit area across any plane perpendicular to
the y direction is
q _ -k dT [ 1-1]
A dy

Combining Eqs. 1-1 and 6-15 yields

q k dT
A = - UcT 11 :r --;; du (6-58)
An inspection of Eqs. 6-57 and 6-58 shows that if Cp - k/u (i.e., for
Pr = 1), the same equation of heat flow applies in the laminar and turbu-
lent layers.
To determine the rate of heat transfer from a flat plate to a fluid with
Pr = 1 flowing over it in turbulent flow, \Ve replace k/u by Cp and separate
the variables in Eq. 6-58. Assuming that q and rare constant, we get the
equation
q, du - -dT (6-69)
AT,Cpgc ,-
where the subscripts is used to indicate that both q and Tare taken at the
surface of the plate. Integrating Eq. 6-59 between the limits u = 0 "·hen
T = T,, and u = U 00 when T = T yields 00
,
(6-60)
But since by definition
and
Equation 6-60 can be written as

hr:r Nu C fz
--= =-- (6-61)
CppUOO RezPr 2
Equation 6-61 is satisfactory for gases in which Pr is approximately unity.

Colburn (4) has shown that Eq. 6-61 can also he used for fluids having
Prandtl numbers ranging from 0.6 to about .10 if it is modified in accordan<'e
with experimental results to read
Nuz Cf:r
- - - PP 1
= St:r Pr1 - (6-62)
RezPr 2
where the subscript ;r denotes the distan<'c from the leading edge of the
plate.
6-11. TURBULENT FLOW OVER PLANE SURFACES
To apply the analogy between heat transfer and momentum transfer

in practice it is necessary to know the skin-friction coefficient Clz· For

turbulent flow over a plane surface the empirical equation for the local
friction coefficient
(rH;3)
is in good agreement with experimental results (I) in the Reynolds number

range between 5 X 1()5 and 10 7 as long as no separation occurs. Assuming
that the turbulent boundary layer starts at the leading edge, the average
friction coefficient over a plane surface of length L can be obtained by
integrating Eq. 6-63, or
-
c, = £1 iLc,xax
o = o.o12
(u: )-i L (6-64)
In reality, however, a laminar boundary layer precedes the turbulent

boundary layer between x = 0 and x = Xc. Since the local frictional drag
of a laminar boundary layer is less than the local frictional drag of a
turbulent boundary layer at the same Reynolds number, the average drag
calculated from Eq. {)-64 without correcting for the laminar portion of
the boundary layer is too large. The actual drag can be closely esti-
mated, however, by assuming that, behind the point of transition, the
turbulent boundary layer behaves as though it had started at the lead-
ing edge. ·
Adding the laminar friction drag between x = 0 and x = Xc to the
turbulent drag between x = Xc and x = L gives
C, = 0.072 ReL-i - 0.072 RexL-1 + 1.33 Rexc-j
For a critical Reynolds number of 5 X 105 this yields
C1 = 0.072 (ReL-i - 0.0464) (6-65)
Ruhstituting Eq. 6-63 for Cfx in Eq. 6-62 yields the local Nusselt
number at any value of x larger than Xc, or
Nux = hc:rX =
k
0.0288 Pri ( llr:oX
p
)o.s (6-66)
\Ve observe that the local heat-transfer coefficient hcz for heat transfer by
eonvection through a turbulent boundary layer decreases with the distance
x as h(':r ex: 1/x0 •2 • Equation 6-66 shows that, in comparison with laminar
flow where hex ex: 1I xi, the heat-transfer coefficient in turbulent flow de-
creases less rapidly with x and that the turbulent-heat-transfer coefficient
is much larger than the laminar-heat-transfer coefficient at a given value
of the Reynolds number.
The average conductance in turbulent flow over a plane surface of

length L can be calculated to a first approximation by integrating Eq. 6--66

between x = 0 and x = L, or
In dimensionless form we get

- fi .. L
NuL = - = 0.036 Prl ReL 0 •8 (6--67)
. k
Equation f'-37 neglects the existence of the laminar boundary layer and
is therefore valid only when L >> Xr. The laminar boundary layer can be
included in the analysis if Eq. 6-28 is used between x = 0 and x = X 0
and Eq. 6-66 between x = Xc and x = L for the integration of her· This
yields for Rec = 5 X 1()6
NuL = 0.036 Prl (RcL 0 ·8 - 23,200) (6-68)
Example 6-6. The crankcase of an automobile is approximately 30 in. long, 12 in.

wide, and 4 in. deep. Assuming that the ~urface temperature of the crankcase is 160 F,
e~timate the rate of heat flow from the crankcar~e to atmoRpheric air at 40 F at a road
speed of 60 mph. Assume that the vibration of the engine and the chassis induce the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow so near to the leading edge that, for practical
purposes, the boundary layer is turbulent over the entire surface. Neglect radiation
and use for the front and rear surfaces the same average convective-heat-transfer coef-
ficient as for the bottom and sides.
Solution: Using physical propertit.•s of n.ir at 100 F from Table A-3 in Appendix III,
the Reynolds number is
UooPL (60 mph)(88 ft./see) /mph (0.071 lhm/eu ft.) (30/12) ft
ReL = ----
~-'
= ~--~----~----~--------------------
1.285 X 20-" lbm/ft sec
- 1.21 X 108
From Eq. 6-67 the average Nusselt number is

NuL = 0.036 Prl ReLo.R
= (0.036) (0.896) (73,480) = 2370
and the average convective-heat-transfer coefficient becomes
ii _ K ~ _ (2370) (0.0154 Btu/hr ft F)

c - UL L - 30/12 ft
= 14.55 Btu/hr sq ft. F
The over-all area is 4.84 sq ft and the rate of heat loss is therefore
q = he A (T. - 7'r.rJ = (14.55) (4.84) (160-40) = 8430 Btu/hr Ans.
The thicknel"s of a turhu1erit boundary layer in flow over a p]ane

surfa e can be calculated by mean of th l(arman integral r lations. To

improve the accuracy of the calculations, "e hall u e a velocity di tribu-
tion determined by xperiment. Figure 6-20 how ev ral v locity pro-
til m ured by Vander H gge-Zyn n (14). Near the wall the velocity
incr · e lin arly with th di tance from the urfac . Thi i the region
call d h laminar ublayer, although ·orne rec nt mea urement ug-
g t t h· t it i · no compl t ly d void f turbul nc . In the fully turbul nt
p r ion f the b undary lay r th v locity incr a e · with the one- eventh
power of di tance and can be repr sent d by the equation
~ = (~Y (H9)
B tn een the laminar ublayer and the turbulent portion of the boundary
lay r i a tran 'ition r gi n where the turbulence 1 ' l i variable. Because
2000 ---+--- -+- --+---+---+- - ~ 1-
·-
y =Distoncl! from Plotc ( cml
FIG. 6-20. \ 1 ci y di tribution in turbul nt boundary lay rs over

plan urfac ~fter Vander H gge-Zyn n (14).
the laminar ublayer a w 11 a the tran ition lay r are v ry thin we hall,
fir t approximation, negl t both of them and u Eq. 6- 69 to ev luate
the momentum chang in th integral quation . Thi approximation
c nnot be u ed, how v r, to d termine the hearing tre s because, accord-
ing to Eq. 6-69, th velocity gradient i
du 1 uco
-= -
dy 7 f/rY"
which would lead to infinit ly large hearing tre at th wall (i .. , at

y = 0). To overcome this difficulty we shall use an experimentally

determined relation for the shearing stress.
In the Reynolds-number range between 105 and 107 the relation
YcTw = 0.0228 pU00 2 (-v-)l

Uco~
(6-70)
is in good agreement with experimental results obtained by Schultz-

Grunow (15). Substituting Eq. 6-iO for the shearing stress and Eq. 6-69
for the velocity distribution in the integral of Eq. 6-22 gives
Separation of the variables yields
~ 1 d~ = 0.235 (-v-)
uco
1
dx
from which we obtain the boundary-layer thickness in the form

t
~ = -
0.316 -v 4
;t;"K
( uoo )
or
~ = 0.376 Re.r-1 (6-71)
X
where Rez = (uco x/v). It can be seen from Eqs. 6-36 and 6-il that, at
any given value of x, a turbulent boundary layer increases at a faster rate
than a laminar boundary layer. Despite its greater thickness, the turbu-
lent boundary layer offers less resistance to heat flow than a laminar layt>r
because the turbulent eddies produce continuous mixing between warmer
and cooler fluids on a macroscopic scale. An inspection of the velocity
profiles in Fig. 6-20 shows, however, that the eddies diminish in intensity
in the buffer layer and hardly penetrate the laminar sublayer. Unless the
Prandtl number equals unity, the relative magnitudes of the eddy conduc-
tivity and the molecular conductivity in the vicinity of the surface have a
pronounced effect on the heat-transfer coefficient.
The effect of the diminution of the turbulent mixing near the surface
on the heat-transfer coefficient for fluids having Prandtl numbers larger
than unity was considered by Prandtl (16,1i) von Karman (18), and most
recently also by Deissler (19) in their respective improvements of the
Reynolds analogy. l\1artinelli (20) also treated the problem of ht."at
transfer to liquid metals, which have very small Prandtl numbers.
Prandtl divided the flo,v field into a laminar and a turbulent layer but

neglected the buffer layer in his analysis. The relation for flow over plane
surfaces, derived in detail in Ref. 21, is
c,z/2
- -------------------
1 + 2.1 Rez- 0 · 1 (Pr - 1)
(6-72)
'Ve observe that, for Pr = I, Eq. 6-72 reduces to the simple Reynolds
analogy. The second term in the denominator is a measure of the thermal
resistance in the laminar sublayer. 'Ve see that this portion of the total
thermal resistance increases as the Prandtl number becomes larger and
accounts for most of the thermal resistance when the Prandtl number is
very large.
Prandtl's analysis was later refined by von l{arman (18), 'vho divided
the flow field into three zones: a laminar sublayer adjacent to the surface
in which the eddy diffusivity is zero and heat flows only by conduction;
next to it a buffer layer in which both conduction and convection contribute
the heat-transfer mechanism (i.e., k / cp and En are of the same order of
magnitude); and, finally, a turbulent region in which conduction is negli-
gible compared to convection, and the Reynolds analogy applies. He
used experimental data for the velocity distribution and the shear stress
to evaluate EM from Eq. 6-50 and assumed EM = Ell in his analysis. He also
postulated that the physical properties of the fluid are independent of the
temperature. 'Vith these simplifications he determined the thermal re-
sistances in each of the three zones. The results of von Karman's analysis
are given below for flow over a flat plate:
Thermal resistance 5Pr

of laminar sublayer cpv;g;;;-
Thermal resistance ;)In (5 Pr + 1)
of buffer layer CpV pgcT,
Thermal resistance 5(1 + Jn 6) + uro/v-;:g:jp

of the turbulent region Cpv;g;;;
Adding the thermal resistances and introducing the definitions for the
Stanton number St and the local drag-friction coefficient Cfz yields, after
some rearrangement, the expression
Cfx/2
(6-73)
for the local value of the Stanton number for flow over a plane surface at

··- -------~----------------~--
a given value of x. The average value of St or he over a surface of length

L can be obtained by numerical or graphical integration.
To apply any of the equations relating the Stanton number and the
friction coefficient in practice, the physical properti~ must be evaluated
at some appropriate mean temperature. It is general practice to evaluate
the physical properties at the mean film temperature T 1 defined as T 1 =
(T, + T /2. This procedure is purely empirical, but has been found
00
)
satisfactory for moderate-temperature ranges.

The three-distinct-layer concept is somewhat of an oversimplification
of the real situation but is satisfactory for Prandtl numbers less than 25
or 30. For larger Prandtl numbers it is preferable to assume turbulent
eddy generation near the outer edges of turbulent boundary layers and
continuous damping of these eddies as they approach the wall. Some
progress has been made recently with this approach (19,22), and the reader
is referred to the original papers for details. An extensive review of the
analogies is presented in Ref. 23.
6-12. CLOSURE
In this chapter we have studied the principles of heat transfer by forced

convection. We have seen that the transfer of heat by convection is in-
timately related to the mechanics of the fluid flow, particularly to the flow
in the vicinity of the heat-transfer surface. \Ve have also observed that
the nature of heat transfer as well as flow-phenomena depend greatly on
whether the fluid far away from the surface is in laminar or in turbulent
flow.
To become familiar with the basic principles of boundary layer theory
and forced-convection heat transfer, we have considered the problem of
convection in flow over a flat plate in some detail. This system is geometric-
ally very simple, but it illustrates the most important features of forced
convection. In subsequent chapters we shall treat heat transfer by con-
vection in geometrically more complicated systems. In the next chapter
we shall examine free-convection phenomena. In Chapter 8, heat transfer
by convection to and from fluids flowing inside of pipes and ducts will be
taken up. In Chapter 9, forced convection in flow over the exterior
surfaces of bodies such as cylinders, spheres, tubes, and tube bundles will
be considered. In Chapter 12 we shall study convection in high-speed
flow, in particular the influence of frictional heating in the boundary on
the convection process. The application of the principles of forced-con-
vection heat transfer to the selection and design of heat-transfer equipment
will be taken up in Chapter 11.

REFERENCES
1. H. Schlichting, Boundary Layer Theory (translated by J. Kestin). (New York:
l\lcGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955.)
2. H. L. Langhaar, Di~ Analy8i& and Theory of Models. (New York: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1951.)
3. E. R. Van Driest, "On Dimensional Analysis and the Presentation of Data in
Fluid Flow Problems," J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 13 (1940), p. A-34.
4. A. P. Colburn, "A Method of Correlating Forced Convection Heat Transfer
Data and a Comparison with Fluid Friction," Tram. Am. lmt. Chem. Engrs., Vol. 29
(1933), pp. 174-210.
5. W. J. King, "The Basic Laws and Data of Heat Transmission," Mech. Eng., Vol.
54 (1932), pp. 410-415.
6. l\1. Blasius, "Grenzschichten in Fhissigkeiten mit Kleiner Reibung," Z. Math. u.
Phys., Vol. 56, No. 1 (1908).
7. E. Pohlhausen, "Der Wiirmeaustausch zwischen festen Korpern und Flii.ssig-
keiten mit kleiner Reibung und kleiner Wirmeleitung," ZAMM, Vol. 1 (1921), p. 115.
8. T. von Karman, "Vber laminare und turbulente Reibung," (translation) N ACA
TM 1092, 1946.
9. E. R. G. Eckert, Introduction to the Tramfer of Heat and Mass. (New York:
1\fcGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1950.)
10. L. Prandtl, ''Vber die ausgebildete Turbulenz," ZAM M, VoL 5 (1925), p. 136;
Proc. 2nd Int. Cong. of Appl. Mech., Zurich (1926).
11. S. E. Isakofl and T. B. Drew, "Heat and l\fomentum Transfer in Turbulent
Flow of l\1ercury," Inst. Mech. Eng. and ASME, Proc. General Disczusion on Heat Trans-
fer (1951), pp. 405-409.
12. W. Forstall, Jr. and A. H. Shapiro, "Momentum and l\1a.ss Transfer in Co-axial
Gas Jets," J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 17 (1950), p. 399.
13. M. Hansen, "Velocity Distribution in the Boundary Layer of a Submerged
Plate," N ACA TM 585, 1930.
14. Van der Hegge-Zynen, "Measurements of the Velocity Distribution in the
Boundary Layer along a Plane Surface," Thesis, Delft, 1924. (Delft: I. Waltman,
1924.)
15. F. Schultz-Grunow, "A New Resistance Law for Smooth Plates," Luftfahrt
Forsch., Vol. 17 (1940), pp. 239-246: (translation) N ACA TM 986, 1941.
16. L. Prandtl, "Bemerkungen tiber den Wanneiibergang im Rohr," Phys. Zeit.,
Vol. 29 (1928), p. 487.
17. L. Prandtl, "Eine Beziehung zwischen Wanneaustauch and Strohmungs-
wiederstand der Fliissigkeiten," Phys. Zeit., VoL 10 (1910), p. 1072.
18. T. von Karman, "The Analogy between Fluid Friction and Heat Transfer,"
Trans. ASME, VoL 61 (1939), pp. 705-711.
19. R. G. Dei.'JS]er, "Investigation of Turbulent Flow and Heat Tran.lifer in Smooth
Tubes Including the Effects of Variable Properties,'' Trans. AS,U E, Vol. 73 (1951), pp.
101-107.
20. R. C. 1\lartinelli, "Heat Transfer to l\1olten :M etals," Trans. ASME, Vol. 6H
(1947), pp. 947-959.
21. J. 1\f. Coulson and J. V. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Vol. I, (New York:
l\lcGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1954).
22. K. Goldmann, "Heat Transfer to Supercritical Water and Other Fluids with
Temperature Dependent Properties," Chem. E1lg. Prog. Symp. Serz:es Nuclear Eng., Part
1, Vol. 50, ~o. 11 (1954), pp. 105-110.

23. J. G. Knudsen and D. L. Katz, ''Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer," Eng.
Res. Bull. 87, (Ann Arbor: Univ. of 1\fichigan, 1953).
24. A. H. Davis, "Convective Cooling of Wirf>-a in Streams of Viseous Liquids,"
Phil. Mag., Vol. 47 (1924), pp. 1057-1091.
25. E. L. Diret, W. James, and M. Stracy, "Heat Transmission from Fine \Vires to
Water," Ind. Eng. Chern., Vol. 39 (1947), pp. 1098-1103.
26. R. Hilpert, "Warmeabgabe von geheizten Driihten und Rohren," Porsch.
Gebiete /ngenuurw., Vol. 4 (1933), pp. 215-224.
27. D. Coles, "The Law of the Wake in th<> Turbulent Boundary Layer," J. Fluid
Mech., Vol. 1, Part 2 (1956), pp. 191-225.
28. E. R. Van Direst, "Calculation of the Stability of the Laminar Boundary Layer
in a Compressible Fluid on a Flat Plate with Heat Trunsfer," J. Aero. Sci., Vol. 19 (1 Ut)2 1,
pp. 801-813.
29. A. H. Shapiro, The Dynam.ics and Thermodynnmi(·.~ oj Compres~ible Fluid Flow.
Vol. 1, (New York: The Honald Pre~~ Co .. 1H54).
PROBLEMS
.
8-1. Evaluate the dimensionless groups he D /k, V Dp / ~~o, Cp~~o/k, and hc/Cp G for
water, ethyl alcohol, mercury, hydrogen, air, and saturated steam over as wide a tem-
perature range as possible and plot the results vs. temperature. For the purpo.~ of
these calculations let D = 1 ft, V = 1 ft./sec, and he = 1 Btu/hr sq ft F.
'8-2. The average Nusselt number for flow over a 2-ft-long plate is 100. What is
the value of the average surface conductance for the following fluids: (a) air at 60 F,
(b) steam at 212 F and 15 psia, (c) water at 100 F, and (d) mercury at 200 F, and (e)
ethyl alcohol at 212 F.
6-3. Plot the velocity and temperature distributions in the laminar boundary
layer for air at 60 F flowing over a flat plate at Rez = 1~ if the free-stream velocity
is 1.0 fps and the surface temperature is 160 F using (a) the Blasius solution, (b) an
assumed straight line, and (c) a cubic parabola.
6-4. Steam at 1 atm and 212 F is flowing across a 2-in.-OD pipe at a velocity of
20 fps. Estimate the Nusselt number, the heat-transfer coefficient, and the rate of
heat transfer per ft length of pipe if the pipe is at 400 F.
6-6. Hydrogen at 60 F and at a pressure of 1 atm is flowing along a flat plate at
a velocity of 10 fps. If the plate is 1 ft wide and at 160 F, calculate the following
quantities at x =- 1 ft and at the distance corresponding to the transition point, i.e.,
Rez == 5 X 106• (Take properties at 110 F.)
a) Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness, in inches.
b) Local friction coefficient, dimensionless.
c) Average friction coefficient, dimensionless.
d) Drag force, in lbt.
e) Thicknes.'! of thermal boundary layer, in inches.
f) Local convective-heat-transfer coefficient, in Btu/hr sq ft F.
g) Average convective-heat-transfer coefficient, in Btu/hr sq ft F.
h) Rate of heat transfer, in Btu/hr.
8-6. Repeat Prob. 6-5 for x == 10 ft and u00 = 200 fps, (a) taking the laminar
boundary layer into account and (b) assuming that the turbulent boundary layer
starts at the leading edge.
8-7. Determine the rate of heat loss in Btu/hr from the wall of a building in a
10-mph wind blowing parallel to its surface. The wall is 80 ft long, 20ft high, its ~ur
face temperature is 80 F, and the temperature of the ambient air is 40 F.

6-8. Show that the energy equation ( Eq. 6-21) can be expre~sed in the form
puc, -
aT
+ pvc,. -aT uap + k a- T + - (au)
- - -
2
- Jl 1
ax ay gc ax ay 1 g~ ay
Hint: ~Iultiply Eq. 6-16 hy u and suhtrRct the rc~ulting exprP~I'lion from Ef1. 6-21.
u.,T.
---So---
~----------------•S
PaoB. 6-9.
6-9. A fluid at temperature T 00 is flowing at a velocity over a flat plate which

Uoo
il'" at the same temperature as the fluid for a distance Xo from the leading edge, but at
u temperature T. beyond this point. Show by means of the integral boundary-layer
Pquations that t, the ratio Of the thermal boundary-layer thickness to the hydrodynamic
boundary-layer thicknes~, over the heated portion of the plate is approximately
if the flow is laminar.

Hint: Assume that the temperature distribution i~ a cubic parabola and use T. as
your datum to simplify the boundary conditions, i.e., let
(1'- T,) == ay +elf
Also, inspect each equation and drop those terms which are small in comparison with
others. Show also that, for the partially heated plate, the Nusselt number at x, if
.r > Xo, is approximately
Nu,~ ~ 0.33 ( 1 _ ~~u/x)l) t Re.zl

6-10. Plot the local heat-transfer coefficient as a function of length for air at.
1000 F flo~ng over a 5-ft-long flat plate at 3000 F with a velocity of 100 fps .
./ 8-11. \Vhen a sphere falls freely through a homogeneous fluid, it reaches a terminal
velocity at which the weight of the sphere is balanced by the buoyant force and the
frictional resL"tance of the fluid. ~lake a dimensional analysis of this problem and
indicate how experimental data for this problem could be correlated. Neglect compres-
sibility effects and the influence of surface roughness.
8-12. Experiments have been performed on the temperature distribution in a
homogeneous long cylinder (0.40 ft diameter, thermal conductivity of 0.12 Btu/hr
ft F) with uniform internal heat generation. By dimen~ional analysis determine the
relation between the steady-state temperature at the center of the cylinder Tc, the
diameter, the thermal conductivity, and the rate of heat generation. Take the tem-
perature at the surface as your datum. \Vhat is the equation for the center temperature
if the difference between center and surface temperature is 80 F when the heat genera-
tion rate is 960 Btu/hr cu ft?
6-13. Air at 100 fps flows between two parallel flat plates spaced 2 in. apart.
Ei-'timate the distance from the entrance where the boundary lay·ers meet.

6-14. For Proh. 6-13 estimate the frictional pressure drop in the entrance l'lect ion,
taking into account the pres~ure drop due to the frictional drag Wl well as the pressure
drop due to the momentum change. Assume that the velocity at the inlet is uniform
and that the velocity profile~ of both boundary layer~ can he approximated by cubic
para hoi~.
6-16. Experimental pres~ure-drop data obtained in a ~eric~ of tests in which water
w~ heated while flowing through an elect rieally heah·d t uhc of 0.527 in. ID, 38.6 in.
long, are tahulated below.
Ma811 Fluid Bulk Surfa1ce PrCMute Drop with

Flow Rate "' Ternpt>raturE' Tb Temperature T, Heat Transfer .1IJ4C
(lb/sec) (F) (F) (pRi)
3 .04 HO 126 9.56

2 . 16 114 202 4 .74
1.82 H7 21H 3 .22
3.06 9H 248 8.34
2.15 107 283 4.45
lRothermal pre~ure-drop data for the fo\Rme tube are given in term~ of the dimensionless
friction coefficient f = (.lp / p l ' 2 ) (/J / 2L (/c) and the Heynold~ number based on the
pipe diameter, ReD = l' J)j, below.
Ren 1. 71 X 105 1. 0,) 105

X 1. 9 105
X 2.41 X 1()5
f 0 .00472 0.00513 0 .00463 0.00445
By comparing the isothermal with the noniMothermal friction coefficients at similar

bulk Reynolds numbers, derive a dimensionless equation for the nonisothermal friction
cofficients of the form
j ... constant X ReD" (p.,/ p.r,)"'
where p., = viscosity at surface temperature;
P.b = viscm~ity at bulk temperature;
n and m = empirical constants.
6-16. Tabulated below are some experimental data obtained by heating n-butyl
alcohol at a bulk temperature of 60 F while flowing over a heated flat plate (1 ft long.
3 ft wide, surface temperature of 140 F). Correlate the experimental data by ap-
propriate dimensionless numbers and compare the line which best fits the data with
Eq. G-30.
V(•]odty (fps) 0.26 1 .0 1. 6 3 .74

Unit-Surface Condudanc<' (Btu/hr sq ft F) 11.4 23 34 .6 69
6-17. Tabulated below are reduced test data from measurements made to deter-
mine tht heat-transfer coefficient im~ide tubes at Reynolds numbers only slightly above
transition and at relatively high Prandtl numbers (as w-sociated with oils). Tests were
made in a double-tube exchanger with a counterflow of water to provide the cooling.
The pipe used to carry the oih~ wa..-. l-in. OD, 18 B\VG, 121 in. long. Correlate the
data in term~ of appropriate dimenf'ionless parameters.

.,e PV
Tf'st No.
I
Fluid
I I I
rP
I k ~'•
I "'
11 'I
10C oil 87.0 1,072,000 0.471 0.0779 13.7 19.5

19 10C oil 128.2 1,504,000 0.472 0.0779 13.3 19.1
21 10C oil 264.8 2,460,000 0.486 0.0776 9.60 14.0
23 10C oil 143.8 1,071,000 0.495 0.0773 7.42 9.95
24 10C oil 166 .5 2,950,000 0.453 0.0784 23.9 27.3
25 10C oil 136.3 1,037,000 0.496 0.0773 7.27 11.7
36 1488 pyranol 140.7 1'795,000 0.260 0.0736 12.1 16.9
39 1488 pyranol 133.8 2, 840,000 0.260 0.0740 23.0 29.2
45 1488 pyranol 181.4 1'985 '000 0.260 0.0735 10.3 12.9
48 1488 pyranol 126.4 3,835,000 0.260 0 .0743 40.2 53.5
49 1488 pyranol 105.8 3,235,000 0.260 0.0743 39.7 45.7
where he: = mean surface heat-transfer coefficient, ba..._~d on the mean temperature
difference, Btu/hr sq ft F;
pV = mass velocity, lb/hr sq ft;
Cp = specific heat, Btu/lb F;
k = thermal conductivity, Btu/hr ft F (based on average bulk temperature);
J.'b = viscosity, ba..~d on average bulk (mixed mean) temperature, lbm/hr ft;
1'! = viscosity, based on average film temperature, lbm/hr ft.
Hint: Start by correlating Nu and ReD irreto~peetive of the Prandtl numbers, sinee
the influence of the Prandtl number on the NusRelt number is expected to be relatively
tomall. By plotting Nu vs. H.e on log-log paper, one can guess the nature of the cor-
relation equation, ~u = /t (Re). A plot of Nu//t(Re) vs. Pr will then reveal the
dependence upon Pr. For the final equation, the influence of the viscosity variation
should al~o be con~idered.
-- p VD ( C#-(b)0.2 (
One possible answer: N UD = 0.0067 ~ k,
#lh) 0.3
Jl!
6-18. A thin flat plate 6 in. square is suspended from a balance into a unifonnly
flowing stream of glycerin in such a way that the glycerin flows parallel to and along
the top and bottom surfaces of the plate. The total drag on the plate is measured and
found to be 9 Ib,. If the glycerin flows at the rate of 50 fps and is at a temperature of
112 F what is the heat-transfer coefficient he in Btu/hr sq ft F?
6-19. l\lercury at 60 F flows over and parallel t.o a flat surface at a velocity of
10 f~. Calculate the thickness of the hydrodynamic boundary layer at a distance
12 in. from the leading edge of the surface.
6-20. A thin flat plate 6 in. square is tested for drag in a wind tunnel with air at
100 fps, 14.7 psia, and 60 F flowing across and parallel to the top and bottom surface~.
The observed total drag force is 0.150 lb. Calculate the rate of heat transfer from this
plate when the surface temperature is maintained at 250 F. Neglect radiation .
.4 ns. 9600 Btu/hr
6-21. The convection equations relating the Nusselt., Reynolds, and Prandtl
numbers can be rearranged to show the heat-transfer coefficient iiz explicitly as a func-
tion of the absolute temperature T and the group v;;;;;;.
This formulation is of
the form h:,. == CT" ~, where n and C are constants. Indicate clearly how such
a relationship could be obtained for the laminar flow case from Nttz = 0.332 Re..,0 ·6
Pf"l·DI for the condition 0.5 < Pr < 5.0. State restrictions on method if any such
rP~trietions are necessary.

6-22. Experimental data for the transient cooling of a thick slab are to be cor-
related by dimensional analysis. The temperature of the slab is originally uniform at
To. At time 8 = 0, the temperature at face x = 0 is suddenly lowered to T ,. Thenno-
couples are imbedded at various depths. Determine dimensionles..~ groups relating Tz.
the temperature at x, to the cooling time 8.
6-23. The boundary-layer-displacement thickness a• is defined as the distance by
which a plane surface, past which a fluid is flowing, would have to be shifted into the
stream to obtain the same flow rate with an in viscid fluid as with the real fluid. Mathe-
matically a• is defined by the equation
Show that a• ~ c5/3 for laminar flow past a flat plate.

6-2,. A 1-in.-diam, 6-in.-long transite rod (k = 0.56 Btu/hr ft F, p =- 100 lb/cu ft.
c = 0.20 Btu/lb F) on the end of a 1-in.-diam wood rod at a uniform temperature of
212 F is suddenly placed into a 60 F, 100 ft/~c air stream flowing parallel to the axis of
the rod. Estimate the center line temperature of the transite rod 8 min after coolin~
atarts. Assume radial heat conduction, but include radiation losses, based on an emi&"iv-
ity of 0.90, to black surroundings at air temperature.
6-26. The thickness of the laminar sublayer has been estimated {18) to be given
by yv-T./PI" = 5.0. Compare this estimate with the experimental data (14) Hhown
in Fig. 6-20.
6-26. Replot the data points of Fig. 6-6 on log-log paper and find an equation
approximating the best correlation line. Compare your results with Fig. 6-7.

- -- - - - - -- - -
7 Free Convection
7-1. INTRODUCTION
Free-convection heat transfer occurs whenever a body is placed in a

fluid at a higher or a lower temperature than that of the body. As a result
of the temperature difference, heat flows between the fluid and the body
and causes a change in the density of the fluid ]ayers in the vicinity of the
surface. The difference in density leads to downward flow of the heavier
fluid and upward flow of the lighter. If the motion oit!te fluid is caused
solely by difj~t._:~n_ces in density resulting from temperl,_ltur_e _gradients, with-
out th~ a..iQ._of a pump or a fan, t~ssociated heat:1ransfer mechanism is
called naturaLru_fEee_convecl-iOJ!. Fr~-CQ~Ve_Gti9_n cu rr~n ts transf~~jn t~rnal
energy sto_red !!! !!"l~fiuid in essentiall:y_!_~~--_s~_!lle "!~n~er ~~f9r~ed~onvec
tion current. However, the intensity of the mixing motion is generally
less in free convection, and consequently the 4_eat-transfer_coefficjen_t_s_are
lower th~njn forced convection.
Although free-convection heat-transfer coefficients are relatively low,
many devices depend largely on this mode of heat transfer for cooling.
In the electrical-engineering field, transmission lines, transformers, recti-
fiers, and electrically heated wires such as the filament of an incandescent
lamp or the heating elements of an electric furnace are cooled by free
convection. As a result of the heat generated internally, the temperature
of these bodies rises above that of the surroundings. As the temperature
difference increases, the rate of heat flow also increases until a state of
equilibrium is reached where the rate of heat generation is equal to the
rate of heat dissipation.
Free convection is the dominant heat-flow mechanism from steam
radiators, wal1s of a building, or the stationary human body in a quiescent
atmosphere. The determination of the heat load on air-conditioning or
refrigeration equipment requires, therefore, a knowledge of free-convection
heat-transfer coefficients. Free convection is also responsible for heat
losses from pipes carrying steam or other heated fluids. Recently natural
convection has been proposed in nuclear-power applications to cool the
surfaces of bodies in which heat is generated by fission (1 ).
In all of the aforementioned examples the body force responsible for
297

298 FREE CONVECTION
the convection currents is the gravitational attraction. Gravity, however,
is not the only body force which can produce free convection. In certain
aircraft applications there are components such as the blades of gas tur-
bines and helicopter ramjets which rotate at high speeds. Associated with
these rotative speeds are large centrifugal forces whose magnitudes, like the
gravitational force, are also proportional to the fluid density and hence
can generate strong free-convection currents. Cooling of rotating com-
ponents by free convection is therefore feasible even at high heat fluxes.
The fluid velocities in free-convection currents, especially those gen-
erated hy gravity, are generally low, but the characteristics of the flow
48 1'20
.co 100
\ --
'
f
I
/
,.- ...
-r
' :,
''
- - - -
I ''
I I
_1
- --
' -' ~ -
32 80
I
I
' , , ,ulyl Ij
u I
"¥ • I ' ' .,I
~., ~
R
-
24 60 r-
-:1
~
!E I
I
''
''
...• I
I ''
16 40
: '~ ',,,
I
~
I
~I
8 :10
0 0
L 2
I
6
ytMillimeterd
-
8 10 12
FIG. 7- 1. Temperature and velocity distribu-

tions in the vicinity of a heated flat plateJ>Iaced
vertically in still air. (After E. Schmi t and
\V. Beckman, Ref. 3)
in the vicinity of the heat-transfer surface are similar to those in forced

convection. A boundary layer forms near the surface and the fluid
velocity at the interface is zero. Figure 7-1 shows the velocity and tem-
perature distributions near a heated flat plate placed in a vertical position
in air (3). At a given distance from the bottom of the plate, the local
upward velocity increases with increasing distance from the surface to
reach a maximum value at a distance between 0.1 and 0.2 in., then de-
creases and approaches zero again about 1 to 2 in. from the surface. Al-
though the velocity profile is different from that observed in forced convec-
tion over a flat plate where the velocity approaches the free-stream velocity
asymtotically, in the vicinity of the surface the characteristics of hoth

FREE CONVECTION 299
types of boundary layer are similar. In free convection, as in forced
convection, the flow may be laminar or turbulent, depending on the
distance from the leading edge, the fluid properties, the body force, and
the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid.
The temperature field in free convection (Fig. 7-1) is similar to that
observed in forced convection. Hence, the physical interpretation of the
N usselt number presented in Sec. 6-4 applies. For practical application
however, Newton's equation
[ 1-13]
is generally used. The reason for writing the equation for a differential
area dA is that, in free convection, the heat-transfer coefficient he is not
uniform over a surface. As in forced convection over a flat plate, we shall
therefore distinguish between a local value of he and an average value he
obtained by averaging he over the entire surface. The temperature Too
refers to a point in the fluid sufficiently removed from the body that the
temperature of the fluid is not affected by the presence of a heating (or
cooling) source.
An exact evaluation of the heat-transfer coefficient for free convection
from the boundary layer is very difficult. The problem has only been
solved for simple geometries, such as a vertical flat plate and a horizontal
cylinder (3,4,19). We shall not discuss these specialized solutions here.
Instead, we shall set up the differential equations for free convection
from a vertical flat plate using only fundamental physical principles.
From these equations, without actually solving them, we shall determine
the similarity conditions and associated dimensionless moduli which cor-
relate experimental data. In Sec. 7-3 pertinent experimental data for
various shapes of practical interest will be presented in terms of these
dimensionless moduli, and their physical significance will be discussed.
7-2. SIMILARITY PARAMETERS FOR FREE CONVECTION
In the analysis of free convection we shall make use of a phenomenon

observed by the Greeks over 2000 years ago and phrased by Archimedes
somewhat as follows: A body immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant
or lifting force equal to the mass of the displaced fluid. Hence, a sub-
merged body rises when its density is less than that of the surrounding
fluid and sinks when its density is greater. The buoyant effect is the
driving force in free convection.
For t}:le_ purpose of analysis, consider a domestic heating panel which
can be idealized by a vertical flat plate, very long and wide in the plane
perpendicular to the floor so that the flow is two-dimensional (Fig. 7-2).
\Vhen the heater is turned off, the panel is at the same temperature as the
surrounding air. The gravitational or body force acting on each fluid

300 FREE CONVECTION
element is_in equilibrium with_ the hydrostatic _pre:ssurur~clie_nt.~ a!H.l the

air is ~o~ion!ess. When the heater is turned on, the fluid in the vicinity
of the panel will be heated and its density will decrease. Hence, the body
force (defined as the force per unit mass) on a unit volume in the heated
portion of the fluid is less than in the unheated fluid. This unbalance
causes the heated fluid to rise, a phenomenon which is well known from
experience. In addition to the buoyant force there are pressure force~
and also frictional forces acting when the air is in motion. Once stea.dy-
./
-v
0
~-
FIG. 7-2. Sketch illustrating forces

acting on a fluid element in free-
convection flow.
state conditions have been established, the total force on a volume ele1nent.
dxdydz in the positive x direction perpendicular to the floor consis~ of
1. The forre due to the prp:-;surP gradient
pdydz - (Jl +:: rl ) dyrlz = - :: (d.rdyrlz)
2. The body force fxP (dxdydz), where fz = - g Yc, since gravity

alone is active.
3. The frictional shearing forres due to the velocity gradient
arr11
( - Tr 11 )dxdz + ( Tr 11 +- - dy ) dxdz
ay

FREE CONVECTION 301
Since Try = #l(aujay)/gc in laminar flow, the net frictional force is
-
#-' a2u) dxdydz
--
( 2
- - - - - - - - - Yc ay
Force due to the de - - ~tio of th~ fluid element will he neglected in
view ·the low. v-~~~~
The rate of change of momentum of the fluid element is pdxdydz
[u(au;ax) + v(aujay)] as shown in Sec. &--1- Applying Newton's second
la\v to the elemental volume yields
au au) ap a2u
p ( U -
ax
+ t' -
ay
:.: - Yc -
ax
- pg + #-' - 2
ay
(7-1)
after canceling dxdydz. The unheated fluid far removed from the plate
is in hydrostatic equilibrium, or g('(ap(!jax) = - Peg where the subscript
e denotes equilibrium conditions. At any elevation the pressure is uniform
and therefore apjax = ape/ax. Substituting PcY for - (ap 1 a~t) in Eq. 7-1
gives
au
p ( u ;-
. uX
+ v au)
-;-
uy
= (pt: - p)g + a2u
#-' ~
uy
(7-2)
.\ further simplification can be made by assuming that the density p de-

pends only on the temperature, and not on the pressure. For an incompres-
sible fluid this is self-evident, but for a gas it implies that the vertical
dimension of the body is small enough that the hydrostatic density Pe is
constant. \Vith these assumptions the buoyant term can be written
g (pe-p) = g (poo-p) = - gp{3(Too- T) (7-3)

where {3 is the coefficient of thermal expansion, defined as
(7-4)
For an ideal gas (i.e., p = p/ffi T) the coefficient of expansion is
Poo/P - 1 T/Too- 1 1
{3= - =- (7-6)
T-T 00
T-T 00 Tc:o
and gp{3(Too - T) - -gp (~m - 1)

The equation of motion for free convection is obtained finally by suhsti-
• The effects of the compresRion work and frictional heating are discussed in Ref. l.
- '

302 FREE CONVECTION
tuting the buoyant term as expressed by Eq. 7-3 into Eq. 7-2 and we get
au au) a2u
P ( u ax+ v ay = gp{3(T- Too) + JL ay2 ('1-6)
Equation 7-6 is identical to the boundary-layer equation for forced convec-

tion over a flat plate except for the term gpB(T - T aJ, which appears ~~
a result of the body force which was ignored in forced convection.
The problem now is to determine the conditions for which the velocity
field in one free-convection Hystem is similar to the velocity field in another.
The boundary conditions are the same for all free-convection systems, that
is the velocity is zero both at the surface and a distance far removed from
the surface. Hence, dynamic similarity for different systems exists if
Eq. 7-6 applies.
Let us first write Eq. 7-6 for system A as
auA + v.1 -;-----
auA) = a2uA
PA ( u.1 - !)-
uXA uyA
PAYA/3.-i(T - Too)A + JLA aYA 2 ('1-'1)
Now consider another system, B, relat<'d to system A by the equations

UB = CvuA f3B = C(J/3A
VB = CvvA (T- Too)B = Cr(T- TaJA
XB = CLXA JLB = Cp.JLA
YB = CLYA PB = CppA
UB = CuUA
These equations state that a velocity in system B is equal to Cv, a velocity
constant or reference quantity, times the velocity in system A; the viscosity
in system B is equal to a constant C" times the viscosity in system A; etc.
Equation 7-6 applies also to system B, or
('1-7a)
'Ve can express the equation of motion for system Bin terms of the quanti-
ties pertaining to system A by inserting the relations previously listed.
Then Eq. 7-7a becomes
('1-8)
The next step is crucial in this type of analysis and should be noted
carefully. Equation 7-8, the equation of motion for system B, is identical

FREE CONVECTION 303
to the equation of motion of system A if the coefficients of each of the
terms in square brackets are identical. Then, the solutions of the equations
of motion for both systems (the boundary conditions being similar) \vill
be the same and the systems are said to be dynamically similar. There-
fore, the dynamic similarity requirements are that
CpCv 2 C~Cv
- - = CpCuC/3 = - -
2
(7-9)
CL CL
To see the physical significance of Eq. 7-9, we substitute for the reference
quantities (i.e., the C's), the equalities relating systems A and B in the
tabulation (for instance C13 = f3s/{jA, C ~ = J.Lsl JJA, etc.). To simplify the
relationships we shall use the symbol V for the significant velocity and
L for the significant length. Then we have
v
PB s 2 /Ls
-
PBYBfJB(T - T oo)B
-
v
JlB s!Ls2
(7-10)
PA V A2 /LA PAYAf3A(T- T 00 )A JJA V A/LA2
Any combination of terms in the above similarity equation is permis-

sible, but only those combinations which have some physic•l significance
are of practical usc. However, it is not always obvious which of the many
possibilities is most convenient and significant. Often a trial-and-error
approach, with some experimental data as a guide, is required to find the
right combination.
If we combine the first and the last term of Eq. 7-10 we get
(7-11)
which are equivalent expressions of the Reynolds number. The equality

of the Reynolds numbers means that the ratios of inertia forces to frictional
forces are identical at corresponding points.
Combining the second and the third term of Eq. 7-10 we obtain
PBYBf3B(T - Too)BLB 2 P.4gAf3A(T - T }ALA 2
00
(7-12)
that is, the ratios of buoyant to frictional forces are equal.

From the physical aspects of the problem we recall that the velocity
of the fluid is not an independent quantity, but depends upon the buoyant
driving force. Hence, we can eliminate V from Eq. 7-12 by substituting
its value from Eq. 7-11. \Ve then obtain
PB 2YBf3B(T- Too)B£8 3 PA 2gAf3A(T- Too)ALA 3
(7-13)

304 FREE CONVECTION
The dimensionl~modulut> p 2gji(T- T_)L 3J_K __li,_ra}_le_(Lth~_Gr~h<>f . nurn-

ber, Gr, and represents the ratio of buoyant to viscous forces. 2 Consistent
units are:
p lbrn/cu ft L ft
J.L Ibm/sec ft (T-Ta,) F
f1 l/)! F g ft/sec 2
When the buoyancy is the only driving force, the fluid velocity is de-
termined entirely by the quantities contained in the Grashof modulus.
· The~efo~e_L~l!_e _!leynold~- -~!mber__ i_~~-q~_t:_Au9u~_l_or___f_~e ___~o!lyection, and
equality of the Grashof number.~ establishes dynamic similarity.
The equation describing the temperature field in -free convection is
pe
9
( _T_ + v _aT_) 2
= k _a_T [ 6-23]
-·-- - - -~ - --
ay oy2
- - - --
This equation is identical to the heat-transfer equation for forced convec-

tion over a flat plate, and its derivation has been presented previously
(Sec. 6-6). For similarity of temperature fields in forced convection, W£'
found that the Prandtl numbers, CpJ.L / k, must he equal. This applies also
to free convection . . Therefore, when geometrically similar bodies are
cooled or heated by free convection, both the velocity and temperature
fields are similar provided Gr and Pr are equal at corresponding points.
It follows also from the same arguments used in the case of forced convec-
tion that, when the Grashof and Prandtl numbers are equal, the Nusselt
numbers for the bodies are the same. Hence, experimental results for
free-conver.tinn hPat transfer ean be correlated by an equation of the type
Nu = cp (Gr) 1/; (Pr) (7-14)
where cp and 1/; denote functional relationships.
The Prandtl number of gases having the samP number of atoms per
molecule it-i nearly constant. For a group of gases having the same number
of atoms, Eq. 7-14 can therefore be reduced to
Nu = cp (Gr) (7-16)
As a first approximation, tlata for different fluids can also be correlated
on a single curve. If the velocities are sufficiently small that inertia forces
ean be neglected in comparison with the forces of friction and buoyancy,
the left-hand side of Eq. 7-9, which represents the inertia force3, can be
discarded (see Pro b. 7 -15). Then, the similarity condition is
C~~-Cv
CpCuCtJCr = C 2
(7-16)
/ L
2 In Table A-3 the combination p2gf3 / u. 2 is listed to facilitate numerical computn-

tions.

FREE CONVECTION 305
By sub tituting the equality r lation for y terns A and B it can easily
verifi d that the dimen ional sirnilar_ity param ter i (Gr Pr). Hence,
th N elt number become a function of the single variable (Gr Pr) and
\Ve have
Nu = ¢ (Gr Pr) (7-17)
,,-h n the in rtia forces are negligible. Using an equation of this type,
~-penm ntal data from variou · urce for free con\ ection from horziontal
2 .0
S.,...OOI rl.,id O.Om 1 t Pren fluid Cyt.nd '

Aim> Temp T-p
+ ..... ""
0 01-0 07 1-n 20( 185 c
..... o oo•-o o~ I 27 c 1077 c
..... 0 003·0 03.S 1 IO-U
'• l'a a...J
Ali .. 3- 11 3
011
0 11-1
097-168
12-103
16
300
82-150
916
• " lo..,l ""'
HJ<f•OO•" 011 097·11• 16 916
l. .C
---c l'eaoo1
Oa •
COz
...,. ~.
011
001.S
1·3.S
1
16
I•
9 16
19·6•
D Oa • cet . 0 015 1 13 18·63
+ [)a.,, G lyc l'r,.,e OOI.S 1 19 24-69
[)o .., , Tol..en 0015 1 1.S.S 20·65
u... ..... 7 6·16 1 20 140·180
I 1 - • Ac ermon Wat r .s 1 30-50 34·92
oc:h 1 4·10 1 20 30-190
-..... WO!Tij1 r 2 O.S-8 9 1 1.5-30 SS·2•0
•
~ 10 0
~ •
0
~
,.< 08
'-
0
r;
..!2
0.6 Coordinol s of
Recomm nd d Cvrv
Nu.f Gr,f Pr,f

o.c -0.<490 to- 4
- 0 ..5.50 IQ-3
-0.66t lQ-2
07 -0 8.Ct to-1
1.08 0
1..5t tO
2.tt t02
0 3 t6 10l
.5 .37 10 4
9 .33 to5
t6.2 t0 6
-0.2 18.8 to7
.51.3 to•
93 3 to•
- 2 -t 0 1 2 3 .. .5 6 7 8 9
fJ11TD~ )
10 010 ( cpp2 }lk ,
FIG. 7-3. C rr la ion of data for fre -conve tion heat tran f r from hori-
z n 1 cylind r in gru and liquid·. (By p rrni., i n fr m ~. H. l\[ . dam ·,
Heat Transmi ion, 3d d., N w York: ~Ic raw-Hill Bo k ompany
Inc., 1954)
w1r and ttib ar orrelat d in Fig. 7-3 b plotting hcD /k th av rage

lt numb r a ain t Cvp 2g{36.TD 3 I J.Lk, th pr duct of th Gr hof and
Prandtl numb r . Th phy ica] prop rti . ar valuated at th arithmetic
mean .t emperatur . 'Ye ob n r that data f r fluid a diff r nt a air
I c rin and ''"at r are "ell corr lat d ov r a rang of Gr hof number.
fr m Io- 5 to 107 f r rylind r ranging fr m mall wir to larg ptp

306 FREE CONVECTION
King (18) has shown that the correlation in Fig. 7-3 gives approxima
r ults also for thr e-dimensional shape such as hort cylinder and bloc
if the characteri tic length dimension is determined by the equation
1 1
-=-
L Lhor
+-1 Lvert
where Lvert is the height and Lhor the average horizontal dimension of h
body. For spheres, the radius is the pertinent length dimen ion.
A similar correlation for free convection from vertical plate and v rti . 1
cylind r is shown in Fig. 7-4. The ordinate is h('L / k th average N lt
/
f- 0
0
Vertical Cylinder }
y · 1 PI !Reference 17, Fig . 25-31
/
i-- V
6
rt1co onl!'
9 .0 1-in . Plote
2 .99-in . Plole
I I
} !Reference 9, Fig . 129
Compressed Air)
)Y
/
l ~
Nu
~-- Region ·-- 1'
Tron i it ion
0 l/~
~
..,
~
.........
~"--- Nu = 0.021o(Gr Pr)s
l
·-
~
c;...
/
J02
80
lom inor Region
II
--~
_..PA
0
0
7 Turbulent Region
60 l: #!"/ '
y /
.2 v Nu = 0.555 (G r Pr)i
20 v
f
10 /
10 5 10 9 1011 IOU
( G;:Pr
FI . 7 ' rr lat ion of data for fr - onve tion ht>a tran f ' r frum
v rt i ·a l plat.c. and ') lind cr .
number based on the height of the body, and the absci a i the pr due
Grand Pr, i. / cpp 2{3gtlTL 3 / J.Lk : \Ve note the flow i laminar up
Grashof number of about 10 · passe through a tran ition r gim b t\\-
10 and 1010 , and become fully turbul nt at Gra hof numbers abov 1
Thi typ of behavior is typical of fre conv ction on vertical surfa
und r normal condition th ritical value of Grashof numb r i u Uv
tak n at 10 •
9
A compli ation ari e wh n the phy ical properties of th fluid "\!. ry

on id rably with t mp ra ur and the temp rature cliff ren t\\- n
th h dy urf e T and the urrounding m dium Too is larg . It h n

FREE CONVECTION 307
suggestoo that, for such cases, an additional parameter (T, - T co) / T ro he
introdured. However, for practical purposes satisfactory results are
obtained without this parameter by evaluating the physical properties
in Eq. 7-14 at the mean temperature {T, + Tro)/2. rWhen the surface
1
temperature is not known, a value must be assumed initially. It can he

used to calculate the unit-surface conductance to a first approximation and
is then recalculated. If there is a discrepancy between the a.~sumed and
the calculated value of T ,, the latter is used to recalculate the heat-transfer
coefficient, and so on.
7-3. EVALUATION OF UNIT-SURFACE CONDUCTANCE
After experimental data have been correlated by dimensional analysiH,

it is general practice to write an equation for the line faired through the
data and to compare the experimental results with those obtained by ana-
lytic means. In this section we shall discuss and interpret the results of
some analytical and experimental studies on free convection for a number
of geometric shapes of practical interest. Each shape is identified by a
characteristic dimension, such as its length L, diameter D, etc. The
characteristic dimension is attached as a suffix to the dimensionless para-
meters Nu and Gr. Average values of the Nusselt number for a given
surface are identified by a bar, i.e., Nu; local values are without a bar.
Unless stated otherwise, all physical properties are to be evaluated at the
arithmetic mean between the surface temperature T, and the temperature
of the undisturbed fluid T The temperature difference in the Grashof
00
•
number ~T represents the absolute value of the difference between the

temperatures T, and T All of the equations to be discussed apply
00 •
strictly to bodies immersed in an effectively infinite medium in which the

flow pattern is influenced only by the body transferring the heat. The
accuracy with which in practice the unit-surface conductance can be pre-
dicted from any of the equations is generally no better than 20 per cent,
because most experimental data scatter by as much as + 15 per cent or
more and in a majority of engineering applications stray currents due to
some interaction with surfaces other than the one transferring the heat are
unavoidable.
Flat plates and vertical cylinders. In recent investigations, Eckert and
Soehnghen (6,7) obtained photographs which illustrate important features
of free convection. These investigators observed, in air, free convection
from flat plates, cylinders, and composite shapes by meanH of a Mach-
Zehnder (20) opt1'cal interferometer. This instrument produces interference
fringes \Vhich are recorded by a camera. The fringes are the result of
density gradients caused by temperature gradients in gases. The spacing
of the fringes is a direct measure of the density distribution, which is
related to the temperature distribution. Figure 7-5 shows the fringe

308 FREE CONVECTION
pattern observed near a heated vertical flat plate

in air, 3 ft high and 1.5 ft wide. \Ve observe
that the flow is laminar for about 20 in. from
the bottom of the p]ate. Transition to turbulent
flow begins at 21 in., corre:-;ponding to a critical
Grashof numlwr of about 4 X 10 8 . Near the
top of the plat,(', turbulent flow is approached.
Temperature profiles fur laminar flow at
various distances from the lower edge are
shown in Fig. 7-6 for u temperature difference
of 90 F between tlw platt' and thP surrounding
air. \Y c note that the tcmp<~rature gradients
are largest near the leading edge and become
smaller with increasing distance from the bot-
tom. These results are in good agreement with
the equation
k
hcz = 0.360 - (Gr x) I (7-18)
X
which was derived analytically by Rchmidt and

Beckman (3) for air having a Prandtl number
of 0.74. According to this rdation h,..z, the
local heat-transfer coefficient at a distance x
from the leading edge, d('creas<'s with increas-
Ing x, or
II, .r cr .r - •'
The average heat-transfpr coefficient for a plat<·

of 1(_\ngth L is ohtaitwd h,\· intPgrating Eq. 7-18
hct\\'()en the limits of J' = 0 and .r = L and
dividing by L. In dinl<'nsioniPss form we get
hcL ,
N u 1. = -T = O.-t80 (Gr L)• (7-19)
The numerical coefficient in this equation

agrees ,..,·ithin 10 per cent with the value ob-
tained by fairing a line through the experimen-
tal data shown in Fig. 7--l. For fluids having
Prandtl numbers different from 0. 74, Eckert Fw. 7-5. Intcrfcren(•e
photograph illustrating
(8) derived, by means of the integra] rc1ntion:-; laminar and turbulent
presented in Chapt.Pr 6, the equation free-convection flow of
air along a vertical flat
( 0 . 95 :~ Pr GrrPrY
plate. (CourtesyofPro-
Nu. = 0 ..508 (7-20) fpssor E. R. G . Eckert)

FREE CONVECTION 309
Distance from lower Edge
2 .. 6
y- Distance from Plote Surface in mm
FIG. 7-6. Temperature profilt>~'\ at various dis-

tances from the- leading edge for vertical plate
in free convection. (Courtesy of U.S. Air Force,
from "Studies on Heat Transfer in Laminar Fret.~
Convection with the Zehnder-:\lach Interferome-
ter," by E. R. G. Eckert and E. E. ~oehngen,
Ref. 7)
for the local value of the laminar free-convection heat-transfer coefficient

from a vertieal flat plate. Equation 7-20 agrees satisfactorily with experi-
mental results for gases and liquids. It also predicts the right order of
magnitude for free-convection heat-transfer coefficients in liquid metals,
\\·hich have very small Prandtl numbers (12). This relation can ab;o be
extended to a moderately inclined surface (Fig. 7-7) by modifying the
value of the body force. If we orient the coordinate axis relative to
the plate as shown, the component of the body force along the x axiH is
g{3(T - T cos a. For inclined surfaces, the local Nusselt number
00 )
N u z becomes the refore

_ ~ (-- Pr -- ) (
2
g~~ T cos a xa) (7-21)
Nuz - 0 ..)08 0.952 + Pr v2
where x is measured along the surface.

310 FREE CONVECTION
For turbulent free convection over a vertical plane Eckert (5) derived
the equation
-
NuL =
( Pr
0.024 1 + 494 0.
1.
17
p~ GrL
)l (7-22)
assuming a completely turbulent boundary layer. Since in reality the

boundary layer is first laminar and becomes turbulent only at a certain
distance from the lower edge of the plate, the preceding expression for the
average heat-transfer coefficient can be expected to yield good results only
at Grashof numbers so high that the extent of the laminar region is small
compared to the turbulent region. This limit for the Grashof nun1.ber
·seems to be near 10 10 • An inspection of Fig. 7-4 shows that Eq. 7-22
agrees quite well with experimental data at Gr > 1010 • It should be noted
that, in the turbulent region, the value of hex, the local heat-transfer
90-a
_____ .,
L __
Fw. 7-7. ~ketch illustrating body

forcC:: acting on a fluid on or near an
inclined surface.
coefficient, is nearly constant over the surface. In fact, :\fc.Adams (9)

recommends for Gr > 10e the equation
ii('L t
T = 0.13(Gr LPr) ( 7-23)
where the length, L, actually cancels.

A theoretical analysis by Sparrow and Gregg (10), supported by experi-
mental data by Dotson (11), indicates that the equations for laminar free
convection from a vertical flat plate apply to a constant surface tempera-
ture as well as to a uniform heat flux over the surface. In the latt~r case
the surface temperature T. is to be taken at one-half of the total height of
the plate.
Example 7-1. The maximum allowable surface t€mperature at thf' center of an elec-
trically heated vertical plate. H in. high and 4 in. wide, is 270 F. E~timate the maxinHim
rate of heat dissipation from both sides of the plat(' in 70 F atmo~pheric air if the unit-

FREE CONVECTION 311
surface conductance for radiation iir is 1.5 Btu/hr sq ft F for the specified maximum
rmrface temperature.
,-.
Soluti(Jn: The arithmetic mean temperature is 1_4() F and the corresponding value
of Gr1. i8 found tQ be 1.2 X 106 L3 (T. - 1'00 ), from the last column in Table A-3 by
interpolation. For the ~pecified conditions we get
GrL = (1.2 X 106 ) (ti/12)3 (200) a:: 3 X 107
:-\ince the Gra.~hof number i.s less than 109 the flow is laminar. For air at 170 F the
1
Prandtl number is 0.71 and GrPr is therefo~2.1 X 10 1• Fro-m Fig. 7-4 the average
Nusselt number is 38 at GrPr of 2.1 X 10 7 and therefore
iic = 38 X kd L = 38 °·~.1; 2 Btu/~r ft F = 1.31 Btu/hr sq ft F
The maximum t-otal heat-dissipation rate is therefore

q = A (he + hr)(T. - T 00 )
= [
(2)(6)(4)
144
sq ft.
J[(1.31 + 1.5) Btu/hr sq ft F] (200 F)
= 187 Btu/hr Ana.
Note that more than half of the heat is transferred by radiation.
The equations for vertical plates can also be used to calculate free-
convection heat-transfer coefficients from the vertical surfaces of cylinders
with satisfactory accuracy.
The behavior of horizontal surfaces, however, is slightly different.
For heated square plates facing upward or cooled plates facing downward,
1\lcAdams (9) recommends the equation
hcL t
T = 0.14(GrLPr) (7-24)
in the turbulent range, Gr from 2 X 107 to 3 X 1010 , and

hrL
T = 0.54(Gr LPr)'
1
(7-26)
in the laminar range, Gr from 105 to 2 X 107 , where L is length of the

side of the square. For heated plates facing downward and cooled plates
racing upward, the equation
hcL
T = 0.27(Gr LPr)'
1
(7-26)
is recommended (9) in the laminar range, (i.e., Gr from 3 X 10' to 3 X 1010 ).

Data in the turbulent range are- lacking. As a first approximation, the
foregoing three equations can be applied to horizontal circular disks if L
is replaced by 0.9 D, where Dis the diameter of the disk.

312 FREE CONVECTION
Fr . 7- 8. In terfer nc photo raph illuf:-

trating t mperat ur fi eld a round a hori-
zontal ylinder in laminar flmv. ( ourte y
of Prof . or E. R. G. E k rt)
Horizontal cylinders and spheres. The temp rature field sround a

horizontal cylind r heat d in air i ~ illu ·tt·ated in Fig. 7- 8, whi h how
interferen e fring photograph d by Eck rt and o hngh n (7). The flow
i laminar ov r the entir urfac . The cl er pacing of the int rf r n
fring ov r the low r portion of th cylind r indicat s a teeper temper -
ture gradient and con quently a larger local unit- urface condu tan
than ov r th top portion. Th variation of the surfa e conductance with
angular po ition a i hown in Fig. 7-9 for two Grashof number . Th
exp rim ntal re ult do not differ appr ciably from the theoretical calcula-
tions of Herman (4) who derived the quation
Nuna = 0.604 Grnl cp (a) (7-27)

for air i.e. Pr = 0.74. The angle a i m asured from the horizontal
po it1on and numeri al valu of th function ¢ (a) are as follow · :

FREE CONVECTION 313
a 90 60 30 0 30 60 75 00
.P(a) 0.76 0.75 0.72 0.66 0.58 0.46 0.36 0
--- - -- -- - - - -· -- - -- - - - - --- -
Bottom h:df Top h:tlf
.6~--~~-----~
, --~----------~----~--~----·~----~
\ oCr•42050
•Gr•26300
~ 0 t 0
~--~----~-- ~·~--~~=~~~----+---~----~ -----~--~
• • I ~
~-- ------+----;-~ -- ~~
Nu• I f -~--- 'r--·.:___·_,_!--..::----~-.:
-... +-l\_--t----;
: -r-i-,~
1
Cr''·: I : !
.21-
1
!
-----+~-----+--1:
I ,_l
----+-----t-:----- _
:_l ~'
\
1-----+ - - - . _ __ J _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,____ - - t - - -+ ----t-----'"'t.'1
I ~
I
I
I
0 40 80 120 160
Fm. 7-9. Local dimensionlcs."i unit-surface conductance along

the circumference of a horizontal cvlinder in laminar free con-
vection (dashed line according to Ref. 4). (Courtesy of U. S.
Air Force, from "Studies on Heat Transfer in Laminar Free Con-
vection with the Zehnder-l\fach Interferometer," hy E. R. G.
Eckert and E. E. Hoehngen, Rf'f. 7)
.\n equation for the average heat-transfer coefficient from single horizontal
wires or pipes in free convection, rflcommenderl by l\-fcAdams (9) on the
basis of the experimental data in Fig. 7-3, is
(7-28)
1'his equation is valid for Prandtl numbers larger than 0.5 and Grashof
numbers ranging from 10 3 to 109 • \Vhereas in the case of the vertical flat
plate the lower limit of Gr for which Eq. 7-20 is valid does not imply a
!'t'rious restriction in practical applications, it does in the case of Eq. 7-28
for a cylinder. There are many engineering problems where the heat
transfer from small wires is important. Since the diameter appears to
the third power in the Grashof number, very small values of this parameter
are not uncommon. For very small diameters, Langmuir has shown that
the rate of heat dissipation per unit length is nearly independent of the
wire diameter, a phenomenon he applied in his invention of the coiled fila-
m~nts in gas-filled incandescent lamps. The average unit-surface condur.-

314 FREE CONVECTION
tance for Gr less than 10 3 is most conveniently evaluated from the curve
A -A drawn through the experimental points in Fig. 7-3 in the low Grashof-
number range.
The onset of turbulence in free-convection flow over horizontal cylinders
for fluids other than liquid metals occurs at a value of Gr Pr/D 3 of about
1011 (12). In turbulent flow it has been observed (12) that the heat flux
can be increased substantially without a corresponding increase in the
surface temperature. It appears that in free convection the turbulent-
exchange mechanism increases in intensity as the rate of heat flo\v is
increased and thereby reduces the thermal resistance.
Simplified equations for moderate surface temperatures are given in
Ref. 9 for air at atmospheric pressure. They are
he = 0.18 D.Ti (7-29)
for Gr from 10 9 to 10 12 , and
_
he= 0.27
(~T)t
[) (7-30)
for Gr from 103 to 10 9 , where he is in Btu/hr sq ft F and D.T is in F.

For liquid metals in laminar flow the equation
- ( Pr2
Nun = 0.53 0. 952 + Pr Grn
)l (7-31)
correlates the available data (12) for cylinders larger than small wi rP~.
No data on small wires are available to date.
Equation 7-28 also applies to spheres at Gr > 10 3 when the spherP
radius is used as the characteristic length in N u and Gr. For very small
spheres when the Grashof number approaches zero, the N usselt numh(•r
approaches a value of 2. This condition corresponds to pure conduction
through a stagnant layer adjacent to the surface.
Example 7-2. A 1 ~-in.-OD pipe carrying slightly wet steam at 15 psi~ il" in~t::.diPd
in a location where it is covered by water after a heavy rain but is cxpo:-lcd to air under
normal conditions. Compare the rate of heat tmn~fer to uir with the rate of ht."'at
transfer to water, a...~suming that both fluids are at 50 F.
Solution: From steam tables we find that the temperature of the ~team at 15 p,.:i Jl.
i~ 250 F. Assuming that the pipe temperature equals the 8team temperature bee-aU:-'(_"'
the heat-transfer coefficient inside the pipe is large (Table 1-1), the meun film temiX'ra-
ture is 150 F. From Table A-3, the produ<"t of the Grashof and Pnmdt I numbers i~
Gr/)Pr = (1.2 X 109 )(200) ( 1.50) 3 = 4.7 X 10~ for water

12
(\~-)
3
GrvPr = (0.85 X 1011 )(200) = 3.3 X 10!> for air

"
FREE CONVECTION 315
From Fig. 7-3 the respective Nusselt numbers are therefore
NuD = 717 for water

NuD = 12.6 for air
The respective heat-transfer coefficients are therefore
he = Nu ~ = 1fl
0 384
·
1
~~~~h~ ft F = 23,6 Btu/hr sq ft F for water
he = 12.6 ~:~~~ = 1.66 Btu/hr sq ft F for air
The rate of heat loss by convection per foot length of pipe is therefore
Qc = heA(T, - Tcr:J = (236) (1.5/12) (200) - Ul 1688 Btu/hr ft in water
Qc = (1.66) (1.5/12) (200) ~ Btu/hr ft in air
'There is no appreciable radiation in water, but in air the heat transfer by radiation is
from Eq. 1-7
q, = (0.173) (0.9) (1.5/12) [(7.10) 4 .- (5.10) 4} = 115 Btu/hr ft

if the emissivity of the pipe is 0.9. The total heat-transfer rate in air is therefore
245 Btujhr ft, which is only a small fraction of the heat-transfer rate when the pipe
is c~vered by water. Ans.
Parallel vertical plates. The cooling ribs of some industrial devices

such as transformers, central-heating radiators, and certain electronic
instruments can often be idealized by parallel flat plates. The addition of
cooling ribs, as discussed in Sec. 3-5, serves to increase the rate of heat
dissipation at a given surface temperature. Laminar free-convection heat
Nub,s
l
10
p'\/ ~ ----
1
v 1 f4
J UL
0.1
v
/ b ... t+
0.01
~
0.001 ··-· ·-
O.t tO tel 1ol to•
-(GrbPr)5 i
FIG. 7-10. Free-convection heat transfer
from two pamllE>l vert.tcal plates spaced a
distance b apart. At P the rate of heat
transfer pPr unit area is the maximum.
(Courtesy of \V. Elenbaa.o;;, ~. V. Philips'
Glocilampenfabrieken, Ref. 13)

316 FREE CONVECTION
transfer between two parallel vertical flat plates (see insert of Fig. 7-10)
had been investigated experimentally by Elenbaas (13). His results are
shown in Fig. 7-10. The ordinate is Nu, the average Nusselt number
ii;h/k and the abscissa is the product of the Grashof number Grb, the Prandtl
numbf\r Pr, and the ratio of the distance between the plates b and their
height !... In this correlation all of the physical properties except fJ are
evaluated at the surface temperature T,. The coefficient of thermal ex-
pansion {3 is evaluated at Too·
\Vhen the object of a design is to space the fins to dissipate the maximum
amount of heat for a given base area of height L, Elenbaas recommend:-:
that the optimum spacing bopt between plates he selected according to ttl('
relation
(7-32)
For diatomic gases the optimum spacing is

Ll p.,l T rol
bop< ~ 2.9 glp,iflTl (7-33)
where the subscript s indicates that JJ. and p are to be taken at Ts.
Example 7-3. EHtimate (a) the optimum spacmg and (b) the average heatl"'tran:-~ft•r
coefficient for vertical rectangular fins attached to the sides of an electronic devic<'
having the shape of a box. The height of the box is 6 in. and the maximum allowable
~urface temperature i~ 200 F. The cooling medium is still air at 100 F.
Solution: (a) The oplimum :-;pa<"in~ i~ calc·ulated from Eq. 7-33. l' 111ing property
values from Table .-\-3 we J(<'1
b = (0 ..5 ft.)l(0.144 X to-~lbru l ft t>Pr)1(500 R)t ( ~~)
12
opt (32.2 ft / :.-e(' 2 )1(0.()6lhm/ eu ft)~(IOO R)l ft
= 0.'295 in.
Thus, t.he fim; should he :-~paced about 0.3 in. apart. An ...:.
b) Although the temperature iH not constant. along the cooling nb!', we shall negleC't
the temperature variation to l"implify the rnl<'ulntion~. From Table .-\-3 we find
2
p {Jgc!_ = (GrbPr). = 0.594 X 106 nt. 200 F
'"'k b 3 ~T
Forb = 0.3/12 ft, 1.~ = OJ) ft, and ~ 1' = 100 F, we get b/ L (Grb Pr). = 0.464. From
Fig. 7-10 we find Nu". ~ 1.0 and
= ~ ~:~~~
4
fie Nu, c: X 1 .0 = 0.606 Btu/hr sq ft F A~~.
Additional information on free convection between parallel plates is pre-
~ented in Refs. 21 and 22.
Vertical ducts. The heat transfer by lan1inar free convection at the

-----
FREE CONVECTION 317
in id urfac of duct · h ving vari u cr ,' - ·ect i nal geometri · h al o

b en ·tudi d by E lenbaa ( L3). Hi r ult are ummari z d by variou
curv in Fig. 7- 11 where the char cteri tic dim n ion for Nu and Gr is r
'vhich i defined as
(7-34)
The ordinate in Fig. 7-11 i the Nu elt number Nur - ii, rj k, and th
ab ci . i (r/ L) Grr Pr where, a in th pr viou ca , the phy i al prop r-
10
l I I I :---
.5
2
- Ur,1 :: 1
•
..! IG<Pd
L r,s
~- [Y'•·l( .~; ~ q•
~I ~
~
l ~r: - = ("L f''•'' Nur,t O..C2 Gr Pr
-
~ I I_l
0 ..5
~
0 ~0 1--
0 .2
ol 0
1 ~
~ I om~L I
I
0.1
r-o ~r-s 1 0 I
0 .0.5
2o · -:1. .
~~ i:~t
5o - '
~v
~~
0 .02
0 01
· 0 1
~ w
02 0 .5 2
i
10 20
( Gr, Pr ~
50 100 200 500 I 000 2000 5000 10,000
FIG. 7- 11. Free-conv
a.r
ti ·w ith the xception f (3 ar to b t k n at T ,. Th mall ymbol

indi at the cro - ection 1 ge m trv. Thu. curv 1 i for a du t having
an quilateral-triangul r r , t i n urv 2 i , f r a qu r du t and
o n. When the duct r c olin ril ar inclin d by an an l from th
" rticaJ the body force ·hould b taken a g o a a hown in Fig. 7- 7.

318 FREE CONVECTION
·Enclosed air spaces. Fr conv ti n in encl d air pac i of im-

portance in the d ign and analy i of in ulation. ince the th rm 1
onductivity of air i v ry low it i an xcell nt in ulator as long a fr -
convection curr nt ar small. An xt n iv tudy of the ph nomena
as ociated with h at tran f r in ncl d-plane air lay r was made by
DeGraaf and von d r I-Ield (14) and l\iull and Reiher (15), whom ur
the over-all heat-tran f r coeffi i nt U b tw n two parallel plates enclo ed
10 J ---
1 ·-~ - -- --
~
.4)1
-It 8
10
7
6
5
'-
--·
--
,_
--
-
H~---~
~
~~~--- ~
3
-~
--
2
~~
~
_l-- ....-
1
1ol 2 3 • 5 6 7 8 10 4 10 5 Jo• 101
Gr~ -__.
R
L-------'
ttf' b
q
FIG. 7- 12. Fr e- onvection h at ransf r through n lo d-plan a ir layer.
around th ir dg to form a box. F r thi y t m the over-all heat-transfer

coefficient between the plat U i d fin d as
1 1
-
u = --
hcl
+ -k1b + --hc21
where hc1 and hc2 are the unit- urfa e conductan for free conve tion at
the inner urface qf plat s 1 and 2 r p ctiv ly and b/ k 1 repr n the
thermal re i tance per unit ar a for pur condu tion through the air be-
tween plat pa ed a di tance b apart. The r ult of th e inve tigations
for enclo d-pl ne air lay r in horiz n al and v rtical po ition r p ctively
are hown in Fig. 7- 12. Th ordinat i the ratio of the over-all unit n-
ductance U to the unit condu tanc for h at c nduction alone k 1/ b and the
ab ci a i th Gra hof numb r rb, with th thickn of the air lay r b a
th characteri tic dimen ion. All phy ical properti s are taken at them an
temperature. We note that Ub / k 1 = 1 when rb i le s than 2000 for

FREE CONVECTION . 319
horizontal layers heated from below and when Grb is less than 8000 for
vertical layers. This means that, below these values of Grb, heat flows
only by conduction, or U = k 1 /b. As the Grashof number is increased,
convection currents are set in motion and the over-all unit conductance
increases. The motion is laminar until the Grashof numbers reach about
6 X 10 4 • In the horizontal position, the laminar motion is cellular and
looks somewhat like a honeycomb (Fig. 7-13). In the transition stage
between laminar and turbulent flow, Ubjk1 is nearly independent of Grb.
For Grb larger than 2 X 1()5, the flow is fully turbulent and
Ub
- = 0.0426 Grb 0 · 37 for horizontal layers (7-35)
k,
Ub
- = 0.0317 Grb 0 · 37 for vertical layers (7-36)
k,
It appears from the available data that the heat transfer per unit area in
enclosed air layers is independent of the size of the heat-transfer area as
Fw. 7-13. Cellular motion in enclosed-

plane air layer heated from the bottom.
long as the distance between the plates is small. One would therefore not
expect that compartmental partitions would influence the heat transfer.
At high temperature, radiation between the plates transfers appreciable
amounts of heat and the problem of insulation becomes one of reducing
radiation rather than convection.
7-4. FREE CONVECTION CAUSED BY CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
In all of the problems considered so- far in this chapter, the force actuat-
ing free convection was gravity. However, free-convection processes,
similar to those discussed previously, occur also under the influence of
centrifugal forces. For example, in rotating components of turbines,
compressors, and jet-propulsion device:-;, the centrifugal-force field may be
many times larger than the gravitational force, and substantial free-convec-
tion velocities and effective heat transfer can he achieved without external
pumps or fans . o-de of the most important potential applications of free

320 FREE CONVECTION
convection is in cooling the blades of gas turbines. The efficiency of gas

turbines can be substantially improved by increasing the temperature of the
gases entering the turbine. The maximum inlet temperature is at present
limited by the stresses which the rotating blades can withstand. Internnl
cooling of the bladeR reduce:-; the metal temperature and thereby allows
the metal to withstand high stresses even at elevated gas temperatures.
Free-convection cooling of gas-turbine blades was first prop<>Sf'd by E.
Schmidt, and Fig. 7-14 shows the cooling arrangement suggested by him.
Cooling passages are drilled into the blade from the root and are closed at
the ends near the blade tip. The openings near the root of the blade are
Flo. 7-14. Free-convection-cooled

gas-turbine blade. {Courtesy of
National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics, N ACA RM E50D25)
connected to a coolant supply, and the cooling fluid fills the entire passage.
When the blades are heated by the combustion gases, the layer of cooling
fluid near the surface of the holes is heated and its density becomes smaller
than the density of the cooler liquid in the center of the passage. In the
rotating turbine, the fluid in the cooling passage is subjected to a centrifugal
acceleration equal to rw 2 , where w is the angular velocity and r is the radius.
Since the resultant centrifugal forces per unit volume prw2 are smaller in
the heated layer where the density is less than in the center, the warmer
fluid flows towards the axis of rotation. This motion is similar to that of
hot air rising near the surface of a vertical heated flat plate (Sec. 7-2).

FREE CONVECTION 321
In the turbine blade it produces continuous circulation because the hot

fluid leaving the cooling passages is replaced by cool fluid flowing outward
from the core. The velocity profile at a cross section of the cooling passage
has a shape similar to that shovv·n in Fig. 7-14 as long as the cross-sectional
area of the cooling passage is large compared with the area occupied by the
heated boundary layer (Fig. 7-1). U?dcr these conditions the average
heat-transfer coefficient can be computed from Eq. 7-22 or Eq. 7-23 if
the Grashof number is built with the centrifugal acceleration rw 2 instead
of the gravitational acceleration g, or
rw 2 {J~TL 3
Gr = .,2
(7-37)
where L is the length of the cooling passage. 3 Under normal operating

conditions, the Grashof number will be larger than 1012 , so that the flow
is fully turbulent.
Example 7-4. A turbine blade i~ cooled by free convection with water a.~ the coolant.
The cooling pas~age is a hole 0.25 in. in diameter and 2.5 in. long. The circumferential
velocity l.cir at the mean radiu~ of 8 in. is 700 fp~, and the cooling wnter is available
at 110 F. Estimate the average heat.-tram~fer coefficient.
Sollllion: The average centrifugal aceelcmtion rm w 2, evaluat.f'd at the mean ra.diw~

rm il' equal to
Evaluating the ph_v~i<'al propertieH at an average film temperature uf 200 F, Pr = 1.75

and Gr = 9.1 X 10 13 • Equation 7-22 applie~ approximnt.el.v and we get
-.- ( Pr'·n )~
1\ u 1• = 0.0246 1 + O...lH.t p~l Gr
= 0.0246 (7.2 X w 13 )! = 8600
and h-e = ~
L
8600 = 0.3B3 Btu/hr ft F 8fiiV\
2.5/12 ft 1'\J\J
= 16 200 B
' tu
/h R f F
r ·q t Ans.
As shown in the preceding example, heat-transfer coefficienb inside a cool-

ing passage become very large when the centrifugal forces give rise to high
Grashof numbers. The heat-transfer coefficient at the outer surfaee of u
turbine blade is of the order of 80 Btu/hr sq ft F (16). Consequently
the temperature drop between the hot gas and the surface of the turbine
hlade is of the order of 100 times as large as the temperature difference
between the surface of the cooling passage and the coolant. The blade
can therefore be cooled effectively as long as the thermal resistance of the
metal between the outer blade surface and the surface of the cooling passagP
does not cause too large a temperature drop. Difficulties are eneountered
a Corio] is forees, although present, do not. affcet the lH'at trau~fer nppreciahly (lu ).

w
t..)
t..)
40,000 1 1 1 1 1 11 I I 1 I I I I II I I I I I I I II I 1 1 1 I I I II I I I I I I I ill
0
l.O
J:Fff1-rrm
c:!".
'<
N
ro
0.
r::r 20.000 I I l itIr i i i i i' -~. , I
/ /////
• I
/ /
rI I I T
L/ D -= 25 · Pr = 1 0
T
V 1
CJ ! ;u L I I II~ ~l v ..
~--t-~--r--
1· ~ ~~
10.000 I ·- f f f '- L/ 0 = so: p, = · ·0- /
0 ?/ 1 f f f Vv .... ~
~-
8000 _l I ' - /
c£,......... 6000 :T
I
I
-I -
i·.J. ,_
1I
?.' t f /,
// '/
-
,. . .-. ,. ....... , ~
__
I.e
I I
TTn
l
L/
(V I . +- - f - f - +- _ ~~ . / ~": ~ ~ · - Ref. 16-+ I

·
I
I 1
I I r - I T-~,p~ r---__..-
f'-j----Lb- ~. -
-
-+-~ -
-n
~
m
m
2000f-+ -+ . I' v '
II' i I
Nu I
n
+-+-I I I
~
_../v- c..-- I
l \_ . \ ,·; ,·, ; 0
z
T!~
= -1-+-l--t-~' ~~
I I I I ' ( 0 ' + t t t .:.
1ooo l=_t-++ + I t-e-- J ..,--(
L.... 1t + + t 1v
<
800
T
I L 1- - - -- - _.J.J'
-at- ·. • -
_
- - - 1-- - f-1-
1--->---
'I + t
A •l I I ;. 1:·.. I I I II II I m
n
.....
-
<OO~~_i":;;:;::;,~;•
600 ' I . ' ....... _.0'"'
"' v
- 1- b-- ·L ' -"l,,' ·
>--~~H{#$f I. II• ::!Ill

II
c 0
<
m
z
;::c
.. :
I~ ~ +
_:._ x -• ·
•
-"~ ~~XX~ 0 z
VlO 1
~~: II -:---- --rJ" _ 1 1· I •
-
0 ·····-·. __
0~
::J
,:s::a
200 1 1 1; .
l d "''""'· Rof.l · Cl)l ~ _
Hole Diameter ln,ufticienl
.
I Data
NACA ll •0 =2SI t-H l
Ref. 31
I
t-+-t-t I I I I I I I I I I f ft
-3
n
:I:
Ifor Proper Flow. I
PasJCJge Choke•
G) 100 I I I I I II I I I I I I I II I I I I I II I I I
)>
z .4 .6 1 • 10H 2 " 6 10 x 1on 20 40 60 100 ~~ 1ou 200 400 600 1000. 1ou 2000 4000 6000 10.000 x 1011
fGr Prl
FIG. 7- 15. Comparison of experimental and tlworctical turbulent free convect ion in restricted and unrestricted flow.
FREE CONVECTION 323
when the diameter of the cooling pas age is mall compared with its length,
o that the boundary lay r fills mo t of the pa age and the cooler core
become too mall to provide effective circulation. Thi eff ct i illu trated
in Fig. 7- 15 \\here xperimental data for natural convection cooling of
turbine blade with coolant pas age of 0.06 to 0.125 in. diam are compared
with Eq. 7- 22. The olid line was calculated from Eq. 7- 22 with Pr =
0.72 while the he vy dott d line repre ent an average of the experimental
r ult obtain d at NA A by Freche and Diaguila (31) with a 14-in.-diam
water-cooled turbine. While experimental results of everal inve tigators,
Section A·A
Outflow
ained 'vith compr d air on plate and a v rtical ylinder in the

r nge Gr 1 Pr 1 from 5 X 10 o 100 X 10 10 , are in ood agreement with
10
E . 7-22, the exp rim nta1 data obtained with fre -convection cooling of
the turbine blade fall below th cal u1at d v lu , b ing e ntially con-
nt over the range f Gra hof number inv ti t d. Thi indicat
th t the pas age iz limit d th flow and r du d h t transf r, compar d
with unr tricted flow. ckert and J n (1 ) h v tim t d th thi k-
ne of fr e-conv cti n bound ry 1 y r , nd th r ad r i r f rred t th ir
work for furth r inf rma i n. "hen m 11 hol must u d to r du
he thickne f lid mat rial through whi h the h t mu t flow b f r
r hing the c olant p , th circulati n c n ften impr v d by
nn ting a m 11 h 1 to I rg ron , a ho\\n in Fig. 7- 16. Th fl w

324 FREE CONVECTION
through the smaller hole is then only in one direction and is similar to fiow
through a pipe in forced convection.
7-5. CONVECTION FROM ROTATING DISKS AND CYLINDERS
Heat transfer by convection between a rotating body and a surrounding

fiuid is of importance in the thermal analysis of shafting, fiywheels, turbine
rotors, and other rotating components of various machines. Despite the
wide range of application of rotating machinery, relatively little informa-
tion on convection phenomena associated with rotating bodies is available.
The only geometrical configurations on which experimental measurements
have been made are the circular cylinder and the disk.
Convection heat transfer from a heated rotating horizontal cylinder to
ambient air has been studied by Anderson and Saunders (23) and Etemad
(24). The smoke photographs in Fig. 7-17 show the flow patterns in the
vicinity of a horizontal cylinder rotating at various speeds. At low rota-
tional speeds the fiow clings to the surface and the heated air rises vertically
in a narrow chimney by free convection. As the rotational speed increases,
the point of departure of the heated air moves downward along the side in
the direction of rotation. When the rotational surface speed reaches a
certain critical value, the fiow becomes turbulent in the vicinity of the
cylinder. Particles are then thrown off randomly from the surface, owing
to centrifugal force, and replaced by other particles drawn inward. In
isothermal flow, turbulence begins to appear at a critical peripheral speed
R.eynolds number, Rew = w1rD 2 jv, of about 50. 'Vith heat transfer the
critical speed is reached when the circumferential speed of the cylinder sur-
face becomes approximately equal to upward free-convection velocity at the
side of a heated stationary cylinder. The photograph at 480 rpm illus-
trates the flow pattern in the turbulent regime.
Below the critical velocity free convection, characterized by the con-
ventional Grashof number {Jg ( T. - T D 3 /.,l-, controls the rate of heat
00
)
transfer. At speeds greater than critical (Rew > 8000 in air) the peripheral
speed Reynolds number 1rD2w/v becomes the controlling parameter. The
combined effects of the Reynolds, Prandtl, and Grashof numbers on the
average Nusselt number for a horizontal cylinder rotating in air above the
critical velocity can be expressed by the empirical equation
hD o.n
NuD = k = 0.11 [ (0.5 Rew2 + Gr) Pr] (7-38)
A semi-empirical theory for predicting the heat transfer from cylinden:o

rotating above the critical velocity in a fiuid having Prandtl numbers
larger than unity, has been proposed by Kays (25), but it has not been
verified experimentally. Gazley (26) studied convection heat transfer to
air in the annular gap between a rotating inner cylinder and a stationary

FREE CONVECTION 325
eo 110
Rev/Min Rev/Min
170
Rev/Min
l40 (Just
Rev/Min
-~~"{!!!! Below
::i Critical)
480
Rev/Min
(Above
Critical)
FIG. 7-1 7. Titanium
outer cylinder. H u d both m th and lotted urfa t imul t

ndi t ion in lectric m tor or gen rat r ', and al o inv tig t d th ff
f axial flow on the heat transfer.

326 FREE CONVECTION
Heat transfer from a rotating disk has been investigated experimentally
by Cobb and Saunders (27) and theoretically, among others, by l\lillsap~
and Pohlhausen (28) and Kreith and Taylor (29). The flow and the
boundary-layer profiles in the vicinity of a horizontal disk rotating in an
infinite environment are illustrated schematically in Fig. 7-18. Flow
towards the plate is induced by the frictional drag and the accompan};ng
centrifugal forces which tend to throw the rotating fluid particles radially
outward. The boundary layer on the disk is laminar and of uniforn1
thickness at rotational Reynolds numbers wr2/v below about 250,000. At
higher Reynolds numbers the flow becomes turbulent and the boundary
layer thickens with increasing radius.
Pure free-convection phenomena, similar to those for a stationary
heated plate, become negligible at Reynolds numbers above 3 X 104 • . At
larger Reynolds numbers the heat transferred from the disk to the fluid is
Tronlitioft
~.. _j
{a) {b)
FIG. 7-18. Veloeity and boundary layer profiles for a disk rotating
in an infinite environment.
carried away at the rim by the radial velocity component as energy stored
in the fluid. The total rate of heat transfer from the disk to the fluid can
therefore be expressed as (see Fig. 7-18)
q,1rr .. = 21rr. fT v
0
,(y)c,.oT(y) Jay (7-39)
where the upper limit in the integral may be replaced by 8, the boundary
layer thickness. For a disk rotating in air below the critical velocity
\Vagner (30) evaluated the integral in Eq. 7-39 and found that
Nu,. = h~.
-
= c("':.'). (7-40)
where C = 0.335 for Pr = 0. 74.

Wagner's results are in good agreement with experimental data in
Ref. 26. An exact solution (27) yields a coefficient of 0.35 in the plaee of

FREE CONVECTION 327
0.335 in Eq. 7-40. The corresponding coefficients at other values of

Prandtl number are tabulated in Table 7-1.
TABLE 7-1
VALUES OF CoEFFICIENT C IN EQ. 1-40 FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF PR
Pr 0.7 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0

c 0.35 0 .38 0 .5 0.8 1.1
In the turbulent flow regime heat-transfer data have been published

only for rotation in air (27). For this system the local value of the Nusselt
number in the turbulent regime at a radius r is approximately given by
(7-41)
and the average value of the Nusselt number for laminar flow between
r = 0 and rc, and turbulent flow in the outer ring between r = rc and
r o is approximately
Nu,. = i :· - 0.015 ("':-')"' - l(X) C: )' (7-42)
To estimate the Nusselt number in the turbulent regime for heat transfer
to a fluid having Prandtl numbers larger than unity it is recommended
that the right-hand side of Eq. 7-41 be multiplied by Prl. This recom-
mendation is based on unpublished experimental data obtained by the
author in a system corresponding to Pr = 2.5.
REFERENCES
I. S. Ostrach, "New Aspects of Natural-Convection Heat Transfer," Trans. ASM E,

Vol. 75 (1953), pp. 1287-1290.
2. E. Griffith and A. H. Davis, "The Transmission of Heat by Radiation and Con-
vection," Special Report 9, Ford Investigation Board, British Dept. of Sci. and Ind. Res.,
1922.
3. E. Schmidt and W. Beckman, "Das Temperatur und Gesehwindigkeit.'3feld vor
einer warmeabgebenden senkreehten Platte bei natHrlicher Konvection," Tech. Mech. u.
Thermodynamic, Bd. 1, ~o. 10 (October, 1930), pp. 341-349; cont. Bd. 1, No. 11 (Novem-
ber, 1930), pp. 391-406.
4. R. Herman, ''Warmeiibergang bei freier Strohmung am wagrechten Zylinder in
zwei-atomic Gasen," l1 DI-Forschunoshcft, ~o. 379 (1936); translated in NACA TJ!
1366, ~ovember, 1954.
5. E. R. G. Eckert and T. \V. Jackson, "Analysis of Turbulent Free Convection
Boundary Layer on Flat Plate," N.-1CA Report 1015, July, 1950.
6. E. R. G. Eckert and E. Soehnghen, "Interferometric Studies on the Stability
and Transition to Turbulence of a Free-Convection Boundary Layer," Proc. of the Gen-
eral Diuu&Bion on Heat Transfer (London: A.Sl\IE-11\-IE, 1951), pp. 321-323.

328 FREE CONVECTION
7. E. R. G. Eckert and E. Soohnghen, "Studies on Heat Transfer in Laminar Fn·e

Convection with the Zehnder-Mach Interferometer," USAF Tech. Report 5747, DecPrn-
ber, 1948.
8. E. R. G. Eckert, Introduction to tM Transfer of Heal and Mau. (~ew York:
l\lcGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1951.)
9. W. H. l\1cAdams, Heat Trarunni&sion, 3d ed. (New York: l\IcGraw-Hill Book
10. E. M. Sparrow and J. L. Gregg, "Laminar Free Convection from a Vertical
Flat Plate," Trans. ASME, Vol. 78 (1956), pp. 435-440.
11. J. P. Dotson, Heat Tran.sfer from a Vertical Flat Plate by Free Convection, :\I.S.
Thesis, Purdue Universit~·, l\lay, 1954.
12. S.C. Hyman, C. F. Bonilla, and S. W. Ehrlich, "Heat Transfer to Liquid :\let:.ds
and Non-metals at Horizontal Cylinders," A/ChE Symp<nium on Heat Tran.sfer, Atlanti•·
City, 1953, pp. 21-33.
13. W. Elenbaas, "Dissipation of Heat by Free Convection," Parts I and II, Philip.>~
Research Report 3, N. V. Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken, Eindhoben, Netherlands, 1948,
pp. 338-360 and 450--465.
14. J. G. A. DeGraaf and E. F. M. von der Held, "The Relation between the IIP:it
Transfer and the Convection Phenomena in Enclosed Plane Air Layers," App. Sci. Rt:~ .•
Sec. A, Vol. 3 (1953), pp. 393--410.
15. W. Mull and H. Reiher, "Der Warmeschutz von Luftschirhten," Rc>ihe 1,
Gesundh.-lng. Beihefte, Heft No. 28, 1\;lunich and Berlin, Germany, 1930.
16. E. R. G. Eckert and T. W. Jackson, "Analytic Investigation of Flow and HP:lt
Transfer in Coolant Passages of Free Convection Liquid-Cooled Turbines," NACA R.\1
E50D25, JuJy, 1950.
17. M. Jacob, Heat Tran.sfer, Vol. I (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1!l4~) , _
18. W. J. King, "The Ba..'"lic Laws and Data of Heat Transmission," Mech. E,,g.,
Vol. 54 (1932), pp. 347-353.
19. E. l\1. Sparrow and J. L. Gregg, "Similar Solutions for Free Convection from
a Nonisothermal Vertical Flat Plat~," .4SME Paper 57-SA-3 (presented at the Semi-
Annual l\Ieeting of ASME, San Frn.nrisco, Calif., 1957).
20. E. R. G. Eckert, R. l\1. Drake, and E. Soehnghen, ••Manufacture of a Zehn-
der-1\;lach Interferometer," Tech. Rep. 5721, Air 1\;laterial Command, \Vright Patt••rson
Air Force Bn..~e, Ohio, August, 1948.
21. A. F. Lietzke, ••Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of Heat Tru.n~fpr
by Laminar Free Convection Between Parallel PlateR," N ACA TN 3328, December, 1~)."54.
22. S. 0Rtrach, "Laminar Natural-Convection Flow and Heat Transfer of Fluid~
with and without Heat Sources in Channels with Constant \Vall Temperatures," NACA
TN 2863, 1952.
23. J. T. Anderson and 0. A. Saundcn~, "Convection from an Isolated Heatt'd
Horizontal Cylinder Rotating About its Axis," Proc. Roy. Soc., A., Vol. 217, 1~1.~.
pp. 555-562.
24. G. A. Etemad, ••Free-Convection Heat Transf<'r from a Rotating Horizontal
Cylinder to Ambient Air with Interferomct~r foit.udy of Flow." Trans. ASME, Vol. 77,
1H55, pp. 1283-1289.
25. W. l\1. Kays and I. S. Bjorklund, "Heat Transfer from a Rotating Cylinder with
and without Cross Flow," Trans. ASME, Vol. 80, 1958, pp. 70-78.
26. Carl Gazley, Jr., "Heat Transfer Charaderistics of the Rotat.ional and .-\xial
Flow Between Concentric Cylinder~," Trans. AS~~E, Vol. 80, 1958. pp. 79-90.
27. E. C. Cobb and 0. A. Saunders, "Heat Transfer from a Rotating Disk," Proc.
Roy. Roc., A., Vol. 220, 1H56, pp. 343-3.51.

FREE CONVECTION 329
28. K. l\Hllsap and K. Pohlhausen, ''Heat Transfer by Laminar Flow from a Rotat-
ing Plate," J. of the Aero. Sci., Vol. 19, 1952, pp. 120-126.
29. F. Kreith and J. H. Taylor, Jr., "Heat Transfer from a Rotating Disk in
Turbulent Flow," ASME Paper No. 56-A-146, 1956.
30. C. \Vagner, "Heat Transfer from a Rotating Disk to Ambient Air," J. of Appl.
Phys., Vol. 19, 1948, pp. 837-841.
31. J. C. Freche and A. J. Diagulia, ''Heat Transfer and Operating Characteristics
of Aluminum Forced-Convection and Stainless-Steel Natural-Convection Water-Cooled
Single-Stage Turbines," N ACA RM E50D03a, 1950.
PROBLEMS
7-1. An empirical equation proposed by Heilman (Trans. ASME, Vol. 51, 1929,
p. 287) for the unit-surface conductance in free convection from long horizontal cylin-
ders to air is
he == 1.016(T. - 7'00 ) 0 ·*
IJ0 ·2T l.uu
The corresponding equation in dimensionless form is
hcD
- - == C Gr, .. PrJ''
k,
By comparing the two equations, determine those values of the constants C, m, and n
in the latter equation which will give the same results as the first equation.
7-2. Consider a design for a nuclear reactor using free-convection heating of liquid
bismuth. The reactor core is to be constructed of parallel vertical plates, 6 ft tall and
4 ft wide, in which heat is generated uniformly. Estimate the maximum possible
heat-dissipation rate from each plate if the surface temperature of the plate is not to
exceed 1600 F and the lowe~t allowable bismuth temperature is 600 F.
7-3. A 10-gal tank full of water at 60 F is to be heated to 120 F by means of a
~-in.-00 copper steam coil having I 0 tuml-l of 12 in. diameter. The steam is at atmospheric
pressure, and its thermal resistance is negligibly small. Neglecting heat losses from the
tank, el'ltimat~ t.h~ -h~~tii!.KJime requ~re«!.
7-4. An 8-in.-diam sphere containing liquid air (- 220 F) is covered with 2-in.-thick
glass wool. Estimate the rate of heat tran~fer to the liquid air from the surrounding
air at 70 F by convection and radiation. How would you reduce the heat transfer?
7-6. A horizontal 2f-in.-OD, 21-in.-ID 8team pipe carrying saturatoo steam at
50 psia is covered by 1-in.-thick molded-asbestos insulation. Estimate the rate of heat
loss to surrounding air at 70 F fora 100-ft length. \Vhat would be the quality of the steam
at the outlet if it is saturated at the inlet'? The unit-~urface conductance at the st~am
side is 2000 Btu/hr sq ft F and the average velocity is 10 fps.
7-6. A small transformer is to be cooled by free convection. The shell is 1 ft tall
and 1 ft by 1~-in. in cross section. Estimate the optimum spacing of vertical 4-in.-wide
flat-plate fins in air and in a light heat-transfer oil for an average surface temperature
of 200 F and a coolant temperature of 100 F. \Vhat is the rate of heat dissipation in
both cases?
7-7. Estimate the rate of heat transfer by free convection and radiation across a
j-in. air space formed between two horizontal 24-ST aluminum sheets, the upper one
of which is maintained at 300 F while the lower one remains at 70 F.
7-8. Repeat Prob. 7-7 for the case in which the air space is divided in half by a
very thin sheet of bright aluminum foil, placed parallel to the surface.
7-9. Estimate the heat-transfer coefficient in a free-convection-cooled turbine

330 FREE CONVECTION
blade with air as the coolant. The cooling passage is a slot of l-in. by 0.2-in. area,
2-in. length. The circumferential velocity at the mean radius of 14 in. is 700 fps. The
inlet air is available at 100 F, the hot gases on the outside of the blade are at 1400 F.
and the unit-surfaee conductance on the outer-blade surface is 100 Btu/hr sq ft F.
7-10. Repeat Prob. 7-9 with water as the coolant. What is the approximate
blade temperature?
7-11. Starting with the equation
1
N UD = 0.53 ( 0 .4 5:r: Pr Gr)
show that, if Pr is much larger than unity~
Nu ~ (Gr Pr) 1
and when Pr is much less than unity (e.g., liquid metals)
Nu ~ (Gr Pr1 ) 1
7-12. Consider a thin vertical flat plate L feet high and 1 ft wide at a temperature
difference between surrounding medium (Pr = l) and plate surface of liT. If heat
exchange is taking place by free convection in laminar flow, derive an expression for
the lifting force acting on the plate as a. result of the temperature difference ll T.
7-13. A light oil is maintained at 150 Fin a 2-ft-square sump tank by ten 2-ft-long,
~-in.-OD tubes which are widely spaced and arranged horizontally in the lower third
of the 6-ft tank depth. The tube surface temperature is maintained at 50 F by cooling
water circulated at a high rate through the tubes. Estimate the oil cooling rate in
Btu/hr if the heat-transfet area is 2.62 sq ft. Ans. ~ 6500 BTu/hr
7-14. A thermocouple (~-in.-OD) is located horizontally in a large enclosure
whose walls are at 100 F. The enclosure is filled with a transparent quiescent gas
which has the same properties as air. The electromotive force (emf) of the thermo-
couple indicates a temperature of 450 F. Estimate the true gas temperature if the
emissivity of the thermocouple is 0.8.
7-16. Starting with Eqs. 7-2 and 7-6 verify the validity of Eq. 7-16 under the
assumption that inertia forces are negligible.
7-16. Show from Eq. 7-39 that if Vr = 0.162wr(y/15)t [1 - (y/c5)] and lJ = 0.526r
(r w/v)-l (see ZAMM, Vol. 1, 1921, p. 231) and (T - 7' = (T. - Ten) [1 - (y/c5HJ
1
00 )
the average Stanton number for turbulent flow of a fluid with Pr = 1 on a rotating disk
of radius ro is given by
- li l
St = CpfXtJTo
c = 0.0116(J~/r 2w)'
7-17. A mild steel, 1-in.-OD shaft, rotating in 70 Fair at 20,000 rpm, is attached to
two bearings, 2 ft apart. If the temperature at the bearings is 200 F, determine the
temperature distribution along the shaft. HINT: Show that for high rotational speeds
Eq. 7-38 approaches Nuv = 0.076 (rD2w/") 0 · 7 •
7-18. Estimate the rate of heat transfer from one side of a 6-ft-diam disk rotating
at 600 rpm in 70 Fair, if its surface temperature is 120 F.
7-19. A 4 ft by 4ft flat, chromeplated plate, supported horizontally on 6-ft legs, is
exposed to the sun at 12 o'clock noon on May l. If the air temperature is 80 F, (a)
determine the equilibrium t~mperature on an average clear day; (b) determine the equi-
librium temperature for an irradiation of 350 Btu/sq ft. hr.
7-20. Estimate the equilibrium temperature of a polished aluminum plate mounted
on an insulating pad when exposed on a clear day to the noon sun. The irradiation is
255 Btu/sq ft hr and the ambient temperature is 80 F. Assume that the effective sky
temperature is also 80 F.

8 Forced Convection Inside
Tubes and Ducts
8-1. INTRODUCTION
The heating and cooling of fluids flowing inside conduits are among the
n1ost important heat-transfer processes in engineering. The design and
analysis of all types of heat exchangers requires a knowledge of the heat-
transfer coefficient between the wall of the conduit and the fluid flowing
inside it. ·The sizes of boilers, economizers, superheaters, and preheaters
depend largely on the unit-convective conductance between the inner sur-
face of the tubes and the fluid. Also, in the design of air-conditioning and
refrigeration equipment, it is necessary to evaluate heat-transfer coefficients
for fluids flowing inside ducts. Once the heat-transfer coefficient for a
given geometry and specified flow conditions is known, the rate of heat
transfer at the prevailing temperature difference can be calculated from
the equation
[ 1-13]
The same relation can also be used to determine the area required to trans-
fer heat at a specified rate for a given temperature potential.
The heat-transfer coefficient he can be calculated from the Nusselt
number he D 8 /k, as shown in Sec. 6-4. For flow in long tubes or conduits
(Fig. 8-la) the significant length in the Nusselt number is the hydraulic
diameter DH, defined as
flow cross-sectional area
DH = 4------------------- (8-1)
wet ted perimeter
For a tube or a pipe the flow cross-sectional area is 7rD 2 /4, the wetted
perimeter is 1rD, and therefore the inside diameter of the tube equals the
hydraulic diameter. For an annulus formed between two concentric tubes
(Fig. 8-lb) we have
_ _(7r l 4)(Dt 2 - D·l)
Du 4 (8-la)
1r(D1 + D2)
331

332 FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE TUBES AND DUCTS
In engineering practice the Nusselt number for flow in conduits is

usually evaluated from empirical equations based on experimental results,
although in recent years semi-analytic methods of approach have made
considerable strides toward an understanding of the basic principles of
forced convection in tubes and annuli. From a dimensional analysis, as
shown in Sec. 6-6, the experimental results obtained in forced-convection
heat-transfer experiments can be correlated by an equation of the form
Nu = <1> (Re) 1/1 (Pr) (8-2)
where the symbols q, and 1/1 denote functions of the Reynolds number
and Prandtl number respectively.
Selection of reference fi.uid temperature. The convective-heat-transfer
coefficient used to build the N usselt number for heat transfer to a fluid
flowing in a conduit is defined by Eq. 1-13. The numerical value of ii., as
I "
/
/
-- ---
I
I
I
____ ..... ..,
__
I
I ....
....... _..... _ -
(a) (b)
Arbitrary eross-scetion Aunulus
Fw. 8-1. Hydraulic diu.nwter.
mentioned previously, depends on the choice of the reference temperaturr

in the fluid. For flow over a plane surface the temperature of the fluid
far away from the heat source is generally constant, and its value is a
natural choice for the fluid temperature in Eq. 1-13. In heat transfer to
or from a fluid flowing in a conduit, the temperature of the fluid does not
level out but varies both along the direction of mass flow and in the direc-
tion of heat flow. At a given s;nms ~ection of the conduit, the temperature
of the fluid at the -~ter Could be selected as the referen(~e temperature
in Eq. t=I3. However, the center temperature is difficult to measure
iii practice; furthermore, it is not a mea.~ure of the change in internal
energy of all the thud flowing in the conduit. It is therefore a common
practice, and one we shall follow here, to use the average bulk tempera-
ture Tb as the reference fluid ten1perature in Eq. 1-13. The average bulk
temperature at a station of the conduit is often called the cup mixing
temperature because it is the temperature which the fluid passing a eros::;-

FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE TUBES AND DUCTS 333
sectional area of the conduit during a given time interval would assume if
the fluid were collected and mixed in a cup.
The usc of the fluid bulk temperature as the reference temperature in
Eq. 1-13 allows us to make heat balances readily because, in the steady
state, the difference in the average bulk temperature between two sections
of a conduit is a direct measure of the rate of heat transfer, or
q = mc,~T,
where q = rate of heat transfer to fluid, in Btu/hr;

m = flow rate, in lbm/hr;
c, = specific heat, in But/Ibm F;
tlT, = difference in bulk temperature between cross sections in
question.
The problems associated with variations of the bulk temperature in the
direction of flow will be considered in detail in Chapter 11, where the analy-
sis of heat exchangers is taken up. For preliminary calculations, it is
common practice to use the bulk temperature halfway between the inlet and
the outlet section of a duct as the reference temperature in Eq. 1-13. This
procedure is satisfactory when the wall temperature of the duct is constant
but requires some modification when the heat is transferred between two
fluids separated by a wall as, for example, in a heat exchanger where one
fluid flows inside a pipe while another passes over the outside of the pipe.
Although this type of problem is of considerable practical importance, it
\Vill not concern us in this chapter, where the emphasis is placed on the
evaluation of convective-heat-transfer coefficients, which can be determined
in a given flow system when the pertinent bulk and wall temperatures are
specified.
Effect of Reynolds number on heat transfer and pressure drop in fully
established flow. For a given fluid the Nusselt number depends primarily
on the flow conditions, which can be characterized by the Reynolds number
Re. For flow in long conduits the characteristic length in the Reynolds
number, as in the Nusselt number, is the hydraulic diameter, or
In long ducts, where the entrance effects are not important, the flow is
laminar when the Reynolds number is below 2100. In the range of
Reynolds numbers between 2100 and 10,000, the transition from laminar
to turbulent flow takes place. The flow in this regime is called transitional.
At a Reynolds number of about 10,000, the flow becomes fully turbulent.
In laminar flow through a duct, just as for laminar flow over a plate,
there is no mixing of warmer and colder fluid particles by eddy motion

and the heat transfer takes place solely by conduction. Since all fluids
with the exception of liquid metals have small thermal conductivities, the
heat-transfer coefficients in laminar flow are relatively small. In trans-
itional flow a certain amount of mixing occurs by means of eddies which
carry warmer fluid into cooler regions, and vice versa. Since the mixing
motion, even if it is only on a small scale, accelerates the transfer of heat
considerably, a marked increase in the heat-transfer coefficient occurs
above Re = 2100. This is illustrated in Fig. 8-2 where experimentally
measured values of the average Nusselt number for atmospheric air flowing
200
v
v·
100
..A
Nu•¥
}-
50
k<:u«R.U
20
v
:/
/
10
Laminar !7 Tm••;•;~ol Turbul•nt
5.0
<~
~ Nu aReo..l
2. 0
- ..,.....
1. 0
100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000 20,000 50,000
••·YDpjJJ
FIG. 8-2. N usselt number vs. Reynolds number for air flowing in a pipe.
through a 60-in.-long, 1-in.-ID heated tube are plotted as a function of the

Reynolds number. Since the Prandtl number for air does not vary appre-
ciably, Eq. 8-2 reduces to Nu = ct>(Re), and the curve drawn through the
experimental points shows the dependence of Nu on the flow conditions.
\Ve note that, in the laminar regime, the N usselt number remains smaJl,
increasing from about 2.2 at Re = 200 to 5.0 at Re = 2100. Above a Rey-
nolds number of 2100, the Nusselt number begins to increase rapidly until
the Reynolds number reaches about 8000. As the Reynolds number is
further increased, the Nusselt number continues to increase, but at a slower
rate. · A qualitative explanation for this behavior can be given by observing
Digiti ze d by Coogle Original from

the fluid-flow field shown schematically in Fig. 8-3. At Reynolds numbers

above 8000, the flow inside the conduit is fully turbulent except for a very
thin layer of fluid adjacent to the wall. In this layer turbulent eddies are
damped out as a result of the viscous forces which predominate near the
surface, and therefore heat flows through it mainly by conduction. The
edge of this so-called laminar sublayer is indicated by a dotted line in Fig.
8-3. The flow beyond it is turbulent and the circular arrows in the turbu-
lent-flow regime represent the eddies which sweep the edge of the laminar
layer, probably penetrate it, and carry along with them fluid at the tempera-
ture prevailing there. The eddies mix the warmer and cooler fluids so effec-
tively that heat is transferred very rapidly between the edge of the laminar
boundary layer and the turbulent bulk of the fluid. It is thus apparent
that, except for fluids of high thermal conductivity (e.g., liquid metals),
the thermal resistance of the laminar layer controls the rate of heat transfer,
and that most of the temperature drop between the bu1k of the fluid and
fdve of LGmlnar //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////.

Sublayer - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Edge of Buffer/ !J /"') /") /1- ~ "+ J

or Transitional Lay.r ~
TurbulentCore 7 -b -_,- ) f) J ; t
7///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////7////////
FIG. 8-3. Flow pattern for a fluid flowing turbulently
through a pipe.
the surface of the conduit occurs in this layer. The turbulent portion
of the flow field, on the other hand, offers little resistance to the flow of
heat. The only effective method of increasing the heat-transfer coefficient
is therefore to decrease the thermal resistance of the laminar boundary
layer. This can be accomplished by increasing the turbulence in the main
stream so that the turbulent eddies can penetrate deeper into the laminar
layer. An increase in turbulence, however, is accompanied by large energy
losses which increase the frictional pressure drop in the conduit. In the
design and selection of industrial heat exchangers, where not only the
initial cost but also the operating expenses must be considered, the pressure
drop is an important factor. An increase of the flow velocity yields higher
heat-transfer coefficients which, in accordance with Eq. 1-13, decrease
the size and consequently also the initial cost of the equipment for a
specified heat-transfer rate. At the same time, however, the pumping
cost increases. The optimum design therefore requires a compromise
between the initial and operating costs. In practice it has been found that
increases in pumping costs and operating expenses often outweigh the
saving in the initial cost of heat-transfer equipment under continuous

operating conditions. As a result, the velocities used in a majority of

commercial heat-exchange equipment are relatively low, corresponding to
Reynolds numbers of no more than 50,000. '\Vhenever possible, laminar
flow is avoided in heat-exchange equipment because of the low heat-transfer
coefficients obtained. However, in the chemical industry, where frequently
very viscous liquids must be handled, laminar flow sometimes can not be
avoided without producing undesirably large pressure losses.
It was shown in Sec. 6-10 that for turbulent flow of liquids and gase:-0
over a flat plate, the N usselt number is proportional to the Reynold:-o
number raised to the 0.8 power. Since in turbulent forced convection
the laminar sublayer generally controls the rate of heat flow irrespective
of the geometry of the system, it is not surprising that also for turbulent
forced convection in conduits the Nusselt number is related to the Reynolds
number by the same type of power law. For the case of air flo,ving in a
pipe, this relation is illustrated in the graph of Fig. 8-2.
Effect of Prandtl number. The Prandtl number Pr is a function of
the fluid properties alone. It has been defined previously as the ratio of
the kinematic viscosity of the fluid to the thermal diffusivity of the fluid,
that is,
Pr = v = Cp#J.
a k1
The kinematic viscosity v, or p./ p, is often referred to as the molecular
diffusivity of momentum because it is a measure of the rate of momentum
transfer between the molecules. The thermal diffusivity of a fluid k 1 /cpp
is often called the molecular diffusivity of heat. It is a measure of the ratio
of the heat transmission and energy storage capacities of the molecules.
The Prandtl number relates the temperature distribution to the velocity
distribution, as shown in Sees. 6-7 and 6-10 for flow over a flat plate. For
flow in a pipe, just as over a flat plate, the velocity and temperature
profiles are similar for fluids having a Prandtl number of unity. \::Vhen the
Prandtl number is smaller, the temperature gradient near a surface is ]e~
steep than the velocity gradient, and for fluids whose Prandtl _number is
larger than one, the temperature gradient is steeper than the velocity
gradient. The effect of the Prandtl number on the temperature gmdient
in turbulent flow at a given Reynolds number in tubes is illustrat~l
schematicaliy in Fig. 8-4, where temperature profiles at different Prandtl
numbers are shown at Ren = 10,000. These curves reveal that, at a
specified Reynolds number, the temperature gradient at the wall i~
steeper in a fluid having a large Prandtl number than in a fluid ha\t"ing a
small Prandtl number. Consequently, at a given Reynolds number fluid:'
with larger Prandtl numbers have larger Nusselt numbers.
Liquid metals generally have a high thermal conductivity and a small

~ r lominor Subloyer
4 l l u h r Loyer
1.0
~00 /,
f ,_.,.,- ~
~
- ~ ,.._ ~ /
/
~~
~
~
!.o
/
/
p~ /
0.8
v•mo• v / ~
I ~ /
//
/l 0.7< I~~
/
. 0.01 'l /
/
I
~ 0.6
........
I I ~~0.001
/ /
I I ~
/
...~to:
-
.2
a
0 ..4 vj / :/
/~ '\0
/
/
~/
"
j /
I ~/
/
ReD •10,000
0.2
/j I'
0
r 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.0
0.6
lotto Lro
FIG. 8-4. Effect of Prandtl number on the temperature
profile for turbulent flow in a long pipe. (Extracted from
"Heat Transfer to l\Iolten l\letals,' by H. C. :\lartinclli,
Trans. ASl.tE, Vol. 69, 1947, with permis.'lion of the pub-
lishers, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
~pecific heat; their Prandtl numbers are therefore small, ranging from
0.005 to 0.01. The Prandtl numbers of ga~cs range from 0.6 to 0.9. l\Iost
oils, on the other hand, have large Prandtl numbers because their vi~cosity
is large and their thermal conductivity is small.
Entrance effects. In addition to the Reynold~ number and the Prandtl
number, several other factors can influence the conditions of heat transfer by
forced convection. For example, when the conduit is short (L/ Du < 50),
entrance effects are important. As a fluid enters a duct with a uniform
velocity, the fluid immediately adjacent to the tube wall is brought to
rest. For a short distance from the entrance a laminar boundary layer is
formed along the tube wall. If the turbulence in the entering fluid stream
is· high, the boundary layer will quickly become turbulent. I rrespectivc
of \vhether the boundary layer remains laminar or becomes turbulent, it
will increase in thickness until it fills the entire duct. From this point on,
the velocity profile across the duct remains essentially unchanged.
The development of the thermal boundary layer in a fluid which is
heated or cooled in a duct is qualitatively similar to that of the hydro-

dynamic boundary layer. At the entrance, the temperature is generally

unifonn transversely, but as the fluid flows along the duct, the heated or
cooled layer increases in thickness until heat is transferred to or from the
fluid in the center of the duct. Beyond this point the temperature profile
remains essentially constant if the velocity profile is fully established.
The final shapes of the velocity and temperature profiles depend on
whether the fully developed flow is laminar or turbulent. Figures 8-.j
_ _ _.,..X
Ts=O
' ·'
fOf Flute! ki~

Cool.d ( 'Ts = 0)
1.0 -------------- - ---------- - --
s/D
FIG. 8-5. Velocity distributions, temperature profiles and variation of
the unit-convective conductance near the inlet of a tube for air being cooled
in laminar flow.
and 8-6 illustrate qualitatively the growths of the boundary layers as well
as the variations in the local unit-convective conductance near the entrance
of a tu,be for laminar and turbulent conditions respectively. An inspection
of these figures shows that the unit-thermal conductance varies considerably
near the entrance. If the entrance is square-edged, as in most heat ex-
changers, the initial development of the hydrodynamic and thermal
boundary layers along the walls of the tube is quite similar to that along
a flat plate. Consequently, the conductance is largest near the entranre
and decreases along the duct until both the velocity and the temperature

profiles for the fully developed flow have been established. If the pipe
Reynolds number for the fully developed flow VDp/,.,. is below 2100, the
entrance effects may be appreciable for a length as much as 50 diameters
from the entrance. For velocities corresponding to turbulent-pipe Rey-
nolds numbers, the entrance effects disappear about 10 diameters from
the entrance.
Variation of physical properties. Another factor which can influence
the heat transfer and friction considerably is the variation of physical
~q
,. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Growth of
--+-- - -
Boundary layers
----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---
t9 t9 tq 1
Variationof~~
- -- -- ~-
Velocity
Distribution _
-
-=---- --- ----
\
laminar "'
Boundary
Loyer Turbulent Boundary layer fully Established Velocity Distribution
s/D
FIG. 8-6. Velocity distribution and variation of unit-
convective conductance near the entrance of a tube for a
fluid in turbulent flow.
properties with temperature. When a fluid flowing in a duct is heated or

cooled, its temperature, and consequently also its physical properties,
vary along the duct as well as over any given cross section. For liquids,
only the temperature dependence of the viscosity is of major importance.
For gases, on the other hand, the temperature effect on the physical
properties is more complicated than for liquids because the thermal con-
ductivity and the density, in addition to the viscosity, vary significantly
with temperature. In either case, the numerical value of the Reyno1ds
Di gitized by Coogle Origina l from

number depends on the location at which the viscosity is evaluated . It

is believed that the Reynolds number based on the hulk temperature i~
the significant paran1eter to describe the flow conditions. However~ con-
siderable success in the empirical correlation of experimental heat-tran.~f~r
data has been achieved hy evaluating the viscosity at an avera{Je film
temperature, defined as a temperature approximately halfway between the
wall and the bulk mean temperatures. Another method of taking account
of the variation of physical properties with temperature is to evaluate aJJ
properties at the bulk mean temperature and to correct for the thern1al
effects by multiplying the right-hand ~ide of Eq. 8-2 by a function pro-
portional to the ratio of bulk to wall temperatures or viscosities. The
latter is preferred because it is simpler to apply in practice and can al:'o
he justified on the basis of more advanced boundary-layer theory.
Thermal boundary conditions and compressibility effects. For fluid~
having a Prandtl numher of unity or less, the heat-transfer coefficient al~o
depends on the thermal-boundary condition. For example, in geometri-
eally similar systems a uniform wall temperature yields smaller convective
eonductances than a uniform heat input at the same Reynolds and Prandtl
numbers. 1
'Vhen heat is transferred to or from gases flowing at very high velocitie:-:,
compressibility eff~cts influence the flow and the heat transfer. Some
problems associated with heat transfer to or from fluids at high l\Iach
numbers will he considered in Chapter 12.
Limits of accuracy in predicted values of convective heat-transfer
coefficients. In the application of any empirical equation for forced con-
vection to practiea] problems it is important to bear in mind that the
predicted values of the heat-transfer coefficient are not exact. The results
obtained hy various experimenters, even under carefully controlled con-
ditions, differ appreciably. In turbulent and in laminar flow the accuracy
of a heat-transfer coefficient predicted from any available equation or
graph may he no better than 30 per cent. In the transition region, where
experimental data are scant, the accuracy of the Nusselt number predicted
from available information may he even lower.
8-2. ANALOGY BETWEEN HEAT AND MOMENTUM TRANSFER
To illustrate the most important physical variables affecting heat
transfer by turbulent forced convection to or from fluids flowing in a long
tube or duct, we shall apply the analogy between heat and momentum
1 Sellars, Trihus, and Klt:>in (Tran:~. ASlt.fE, Vol. 78, 1956, p. 441) have recently pre-
~ented a genPralized proct:>dure for tht:> evnluation of the Nussdt number in laminar Bow
through duets or tubt:>s, suhjeet to arbitrary variations of wa11 temperature or hC>at flux
di!'itribution along tht:> durt. Srhl<·irher and Trihus (Tran..,. ASJIE, Vol. 7H, Hl57, pp.
78H-797) hav<· tn~ated the prohl<'m of heat trausfpr in a pipe with turbulent flow and
arbit"rary wull-t<·mJwrature distribution.
_Digiti zed by Coogle Original from

transfer. The basic concepts of this analogy, introduced by Osborn

Reynolds in 1874 (1), have been discussed in Sec. 6-9. The basic analogy
"·as later improved by Prandtl (2), and additional refinements, particularly
applicable to forced convection in circular ducts, were made over the years
by von Karman (3), Boelter et al. (-1), l\Iartinelli (5), and most recently
by Deissler (6,7). In this section we shall develop the analogy for pipe
flow only in its simplest form and then present some of the important
practical results of the more advanced refinements.
The assumptions necessary for the simple analogy are valid only for
fluids having a Prandtl number of unity, but the fundamental relation
between heat transfer and fluid friction for flow in ducts can be illustrated for
this case without introducing mathematical difficulties. The results of the
simple analysis can also be extended to other fluids by means of empirical
correction factors, as will be shown in Sec. 8-3.
The rate of heat flow per unit area in a fluid can be related to the
temperature gradient by the equation
_q_ _ = -(~ + E/1) dT (6-56]

Apcp pep dy
This relation, as shown in Sec. 6-9, takes into account the heat flow by
conduction as well as by eddy convection. In purely laminar flow En = 0,
and, except for liquid metals, the term k I pep is negligible in highly turbulent
motion. Similarly, the shearing stress caused by the combined action of
the viscous forces and the turbulent momentum transfer is given by
T:, = (: + EM) ~~ [6-60]
According to the Reynolds analogy, heat and momentum are transferred

by analogous processes in turbulent flow . Consequently, both q and r
vary withy, the distance from the surface, in the same manner. For fully
developed turbulent flow in a pipe, the local shearing stress decreases
linearly with the radial distance r. Hence we can write
T r y
-=-= 1 -- (8-3)
Ta r, r,
and
q/A r y
=- = 1 -- (8-4)
(q/ A), r, r,
where the subscripts denotes conditions at the inner surface of the pipe.
Introducing Eqs. 8-3 and 8-4 into Eqs. 6-50 and 6-56 respectively yields
T ,g Y ) ( p. ) d ll
p c (
1 - --;::- = - -;; + E.\[ dy (8-6)

and
A,pc, r,
y)
q, ( 1 - - - - - k
pc,
( + EH) -
dT
dy
(8--6)
If EH = EM, the brackets on the right-hand side of Eqs. 8-5 and 8-G are
equal provided the molecular diffusivity of momentum Jl l p equals the
molecular diffusivity of heat k/ pe,, that is, when the Prandtl number i~
unity. Dividing Eq. 8-6 by Eq. 8-5 yields under these restrictions
q, du = -dT (8--7)
A,c,gcTa
Equation 8-7 can be integrated between the wall where u = 0 and T = T$.
and the bulk of the fluid where u = V and T = Tb. The integration then
yields
(8-8)
which can also be written in the form

T,gc q, 1
--= - (8-9)
A,(T, - Tb) c,p V
since he- is by definition equal to q,/ A, (T, - Tb). ~Iultiplying the numer-
ator and the denominator of the right-hand side of Eq. 8-9 by 1) 1111k
and regrouping yields
ii,.D HJlk k 11
------
Nu
c,pV D11Jlk VD11p Re Pr
which we recognize as the Stanton number, St. To bring the left-hand
side of Eq. 8-9 into a more convenient form, we make a force balance on
a cylindrical mass of fluid as shown in Fig. 8-7. The pressure difference
Pt - P2 exerts the force (Pt - p2) 1rD 2/ 4, which is balanced in steady flow
by the shear at the wall, or
(8-10)
Fw. 8- 7. Sketeh illu~trating nonwnelaturt" for

for·cp hn.lanee on a Huid l'l(,mcnt in a t uhe.
_ _ Digiti zed by Coogle ___ Original from

Solving for the wall shear per unit area yields
(Pt - P2)D
T, = (8--11)
4L
In fluid mechanics the pressure drop is usually expressed in terms of a
drag-friction coefficient I as2
L pV2
P1- P2 = 4f--- (8--12)
D 2gc
Substituting Eq. 8-12 for Pt - P2 in Eq. 8-11 gives

pVt
T, = j-- (8-13)
2gc
Substituting Eq. 8-13 for r, in Eq. 8-9 finally yields the equation
Nu
=
f- (8-14)
St = RePr 2
which is known as the Reynolds analogy. 3 It agrees fairly well with experi-
mental data for heat transfer in gases whose Prandtl number is nearly unity.
According to experimental data for fluids flowing in smooth tubes in
the range of Reynolds numbers from 10,000.
to 120,000, the friction coeffi-
- ~ - ..._~ -
cient j is given by the empirical relation

I= 0.046 ReD- 0 •2 (8-16)
Using this relation, Eq. 8-14 can be written as
Nu
St = = 0.023 ReD-o.s (8-16)
RePr
or, since Pr was assumed unity, as

N u = 0.023 ReD 0•8 (8-17)
-0.8
or he = 0.023V D- k ( :
0 8
·
0 2
·
)
tIt should be noted that some authors write Eq. 8-12 in the form
L pV1
Pt - Pt == f D-W D 2g,
This expression is called the Darcy-Weisbach form. The Darcy-Weisba.ch friction
factor f D- w is four times larger than the drag-friction coefficient by definition.
a The Reynolds analogy can be extended to mass transfer. The analogies among
mass-, heat-, and momentum-transfer will be discussed in Chapter 13.

Val""' ol lvt>l lOt Wolor at 6()f Volocltr Ia fp, X o;.,.,.. :.. a..J
w
10.000 ~
~
,I 4 16 Lol 10 I Vo'j' el IVOl ;

40 60 100
""-•pjoo•oc:
200
j o1 6Cf
400
I _ _l
600
890_
1000 10001 4000 16000~ boo 10,000
I I lll;oolf l
40.0001 60,000 100,000
e. I \ I I I I I II I
0
.t19
I I II I II I
'
1:l-
' c..
.oaI
" - - - ~-f.
I I I I
, . , _ Cntocot r,_ ..-
II I
>- z- c-pte,. r~ •. t - h ,.'PO,

,
~ J)J 0
i CJ .07
.D6'
I
'
- ~
!:!,~ r-
"
"
.04
::0
n
m
0 \ J)l 0
0 .0$I ; .\ n
.« a. ~·.;\t'
,........ 0
\\ .01
z
-
~
(i) OI S
......
~ ...... <
1
... m
I\ ~ ' ~ 1---
......_ ,_ .01 n
~Q, \
\
f';_;~
~ ~
.... _,_ '- oat -4
'"""'
1::1
~ f.-
..... ........_
.()06
0
!... 03
~~ ~-
' j z
• ~
.004 J
J 02$I t z
~
J
---
(/')
J ~~
002
0
i .02
•
.....
f'...
..............
:--...... -- ...
00 1
0008
m
-4
c
z ~ :--..... 0006 c
~~0 .ouI
t§::: ~--..
~~
- - 0004 OJ
m
- --
-...... (/')
......
.....
~~: 0001
>
......_ ...
::::l
0~
,...,
~
........
.000 1 z
13::d ~ 1- 0
-3
n ~ ~ t-. .ooo.os
.0 I 0
-
I -....;::::::
-....; r-- c
I~ '
./)(J9
"""~~tt,; $ n
z ~ ~::-... - r- -4
.DOl ... , - - - -· - - - .. - ..... -
000.01
- . o• (/')
F10. 8-8. Friction vs. Reynolds number for laminar and turbulent flow in tubes of various surface rough·
ncsses. (Extracted from "Friction Factor for Pipe Flow," by L. F. Moody, puhlishPd in Trans. ASM E,
Vol. 66, 1944, with pcrmiR.Sion of tho publishers, Tho American Society of 1\fccluurical Engln eN~)
\Ve observe that, in fully established turbulent flow, the convective-
unit conductance is directly proportional to the velocity raised to the 0.8
·power and inversely proportional to the tube diameter raised to the 0.2
power. For a given flow rate, an increase in the tube diameter reduces
the velocity and thereby causes a decrease in he proportional to 1/DL 8•
The use of small tubes and high velocities is therefore conducive to large
heat-transfer coefficients, but at the same time the power required to
overcome the frictional resistance is increased. In the design of heat-
exchange equipment it is therefore necessary to strike a balance between
the gain in heat-transfer rates achieved by the use of ducts having small
cross-sectional areas, and the accompanying increase in pumping require-
ments.
Figure 8-8 shows the effect of surface roughness on the friction coeffi-
cient. \Ve observe that the friction coefficient increases appreciably with
the relative roughness, defined as ratio of the average asperity height E to
the diameter D. According to Eq. 8-14 one would expect that roughening
the surface, which increases the friction coefficient, also increases the
ronvective conductance. Experiments performed by Cope (8) arc quali-
tatively in agreement with this prediction, but even a considerable increase
in surface roughness improves the rate of heat transfer only very little. 4
Since an increase in the surface roughness causes a substantial increase in
the frictional resistance, Cope found that, for the same pressure drop, the
rate of heat transfer obtained from a smooth tube is larger than from a
rough one.
The equations relating the Nusselt number to the flow conditions have
heen developed above for fluids having a Prandtl number of unity. The
analogy between heat and momentum transfer has also been applied to
fluids having Prandtl numbers other than unity (2,3,4,5,6,7). However,
when the Prandtl number is not equal to unity, it is necessary to obtain a
relationship between the velocity u and the coordinate y, as well as between
the molecular diffusivities of heat and momentum, to integrate Eq. 8-6.
11artinelli (5), in a refinement of the simple analogy, assumed that E.v = Eu
and used experimental data obtained by Nikuradse (9) to perform the
integration. For the purpose of his analysis he divided the flow field into
three separate regions:
1. A laminar sublayer adjacent to the surface where the heat-flow

mechanism is conduction alone and E.1r = Ell = 0.
2. A buffer layer in which heat is transferred by conduction as well as
convection. In this buffer layer between the edge of the laminar
• The effect of surface roughness on heat transfer to air has hcen investigated recently
in detail by Nunner (23). The results of his theory and expNiment~ eorroboratt.' Cope's
eonclusion qualitatively.

sublayer and the turbulent core, the eddies build up in intensity and
the transition between laminar and turbulent flow takes place.
3. A turbulent core in the center of the duct.
Although, as Deissler (7) has pointed out, the subdivision of the flow
field is somewhat artificial and ceases to be valid for large Prandtl numbers.
it is helpful in visualizing the fluid flow and heat-flow mechanisms. Figure
8-4 shows the cross-sectional temperature distribution in dimensionless
coordinates for flow through a tube at a Reynolds number of 10,000. \Ve
observed that, for a viscous oil (Pr = 100), about 95 per cent of the total
temperature drop occurs in the laminar sublayer, whereas for a liquid
metal (Pr = 0.01), it is less than 5 per cent. For air, the temperature and
velocity fields are nearly identical, as would be expected from the Reynolds
analogy. As mentioned earlier, the reason why the thermal resistance of
the laminar sublayer is only a small fraction of the total resistance in the
case of a liquid metal is that the molecular diffusivity term k/ pc, in Eq.
8-6 is much larger than EH when the thermal conductivity of the liquid is
large. Hence, the main contribution to the total heat transfer comes from
the conduction mechanism when the Prandtl number is small, whereas for
fluids having a large Prandtl number the conduction is negligible compared
to mixing in the bulk of the fluid.
8-3. HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS FOR TURBULENT FLOW

The final expressions obtained from more advanced analogies are very
complicated and the evaluation of the Nusselt number under given flow
and thermal-boundary conditions requires usually a numerical integration.
For this reason it is more convenient for engineering purpos&'3 to use semi-
empirical equations, or graphs based on the advanced analogies. In this
section we shall present some of the engineering equations and graphs
relating the Nusselt number to the Reynolds number, Prandtl number,
the geometrical configuration of the system, the temperature gradient, and
the thermal boundary condition.
For fluids having Prandtl numbers in the range from 0.5 to 100, Colburn
(10) recommends, on the basis of experimental data, that the Stanton
number in Eq. 8-16 be multiplied by Prl, or
StPrl = j = 0.023 Rc-•·• = ~ (8-18)
The term StPrl is usually called the Colburn j-factor in the heat-transfer
hterature.
To account for the variation in physical properties due to the tempera-
ture gradient, ~IcAdams (11) recommends that all of the physical properties
~. -Digitized by Coogle~
Original from
in Eq. 8-18 except c, be evaluated at the average film temperature of the

fluid T 1 defined as
(8-19)
where T. is the temperature of the heat-transfer surface, or the wall
temperature.
Denoting properties evaluated at T1 by the subscript/, Eq. 8-18 can
be 'vri tten as
he
c,G = 0.023
( JJ./
DnG
)0.2 Pr --f
1 (8-20)
'vhere G = p V, i.e., the mass velocity per square foot of cross section in
lbm/hr sq ft. Equation 8-20 has been found to correlate the results of
numerous experimenters for moderate temperature differences, T. - Tb,
\vi thin 30 per cent. In many practical problems the wall temperature and
the bulk temperature are unfortunately not directly available, and then a
trial-and-error solution becomes necessary. For this type of problem the
Stanton number can often be evaluated more conveniently by a method
'vhich was originally suggested by Sieder and Tate (12) and later improved
by Kays and London (13). This method uses, for gases flowing in long
•
ducts, an equation of the type
StPrl = C Re-•·• ( ~:)• (8-21)
and, for liquids, an equation of the type
St = <t>(Rc),Y(Pr) e:r (8-22)
In both of these equations _all of the physical properties are evaluated at

the average fluid bulk temperature Tb, and the variations in physical proper-
ties caused by the temperature gradient are accounted for either by the
temperature or by the viscosity correction factor. The constant C in
Eq. 8-21 which gives the best correlation with the available data for gases is
C = 0.020 for a constant duct-wall temperature
and
C = 0.021 for constant heat input per unit tube length or constant
temperature difference in the flow direction
The exponent of the temperature-correction factor n in Eq. 8-21 is
n 0.575
= for gas heating
n = 0.15 for gas cooling

F0r liquids having Prandtl numbers larger than 1.0 the exponent n of th
viscosity ratio (p., j J.Lb) in Eq. 8-22 is
n = 0.36 for liquid heating

n = 0.20 for liquid cooling
The variation of the Stanton number with the Prandtl number in Eq. - 22
is shown graphically in Fig. 8- 9 for variou value of the bulk R yn 1 ,
number GD H / p.. This graph i based on an analy i by Dei l r (7 f I
circular tubes which is in excellent agreement with availabl xp rim
results. Its use is recommended to evaluate the Nu elt number f r h t-
ing and cooling of liquid when large wall-to-fluid temp ratur cliff rene .
exist. For liquid having Prandtl numbers larg r than unit) Eq. 8- 22 p-
plies to any type of wall-temperature variation, so that no di tin
between uniform heat input and uniform wall temperatur 1 nee a
100
80
70
60
50
40
30
~
25 ~~ ~
'""~~ "~ -t,
'0
,.-.._ 20
----~~
~~ """""" '-...o ' J
........... '~ ""'~

0 oi; 15 ......... ......
~ ~ ~ ~ ........ i'-
' ~ ........
10
9
8
7
~
" ..........
~
......~
..........
.........
........ ........
t-.... .........
t-.... .........
.......
..........
t'-..
~"""
...........
........
....... ['........~ .....................
........
6
5 ~""' ~ r--............. .......
.........
~~ ~~
" ~~
3
"~
~~
~ ~
~ ~"'-- .......
. 2.5
2
.""' ~t---. ' :---. ........
.......
.........
-......:
~ .......
~~
1.5 I""
1
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 .20 25 30 40 50 607080 100
Pr
Note - n = "0.36 for Heating
na0.20 for Cooling
Fro. 8- 9. Varia ion of the , tanton number with Prandtl number for
variou valu of th bulk R ynold number. (By p rmi ion fr m
W. M. Kay and A. L. London, ornpact Heat E xchangers, K tional
Pr , Palo Alto, 1955)

For gases and liquids flowing in short circular tubes (2 < LID < 60)
with abrupt contraction entrances, the entrance configuration of greatest
interest in heat-exchanger design, the entrance effect for Reynolds num-
bers corresponding to turbulent flow (II) can be represented approximately
by the equation
h~L = 1 + (DI£)0.7 (8-23)

he
'vhen LID is less than 20 but larger than 2, and by the equation
h~L _:_ {I + 6 DIL) (8-23a)

he
when LID is larger than 20. In both of the above equations, heL is the
average unit conductance for the tube of finite length L and he is the
conductance for an infinitely long tube evaluated either from Eq. 8-2I or
Eq. 8-22.
An extensive theoretical analysis of the heat transfer and the friction
drop in the entrance regions .of smooth passages is given in Ref. 14, and
a complete survey of experimental results for various types of inlet condi-
tion in Refs. 21 and 22.
In many applications the fluid temperature, and thus also the physical
properties, vary considerably along the direction of flow. For practical
purposes it has been found sufficiently accurate to evaluate the physical
properties of the bulk of the fluid at a mean temperature with respect to
the flow-tube length, i.e., halfway between the inlet and the outlet tem-
perature. This mean temperature is then also used to correct for property
variations at a flow section, as discussed previously.
Liquid metals. Liquid metals have in recent years been employed as
heat-transfer media because they possess certain advantages over other
common liquids used for heat-transfer purposes. Liquid metals, such as
sodium, mercury, lead, and lead-bismuth alloys, have relatively low melting
points and combine high densities with low vapor pressures at high tempera-
tures as well as with large thermal conductivities, ranging from 5 to 50
Btu/hr ft F. These metals can be used over wide ranges of temperatures,
they possess a large heat capacity per unit volume, and also have large
unit thermal convective conductances. They are especially suitable for
use in nuclear power plants where large amounts of heat are liberated and
must be removed in a small volume. Liquid metals pose some difficulties
in handling and pumping, but the development of electromagnetic pumps
has eliminated most of these problems.
A comprehensive summary of the available information on liquid-metal
heat transfer is contained in Refs. I5 and 20. The material presented here
has been taken mainly from these references.

c..)
01
0
0
LO 10 t
2: - - lyon lth.oreticall
N
(1) 0 Trefethen lmercuryl
o._
0 Johnson, Hortne". and Clabaugh (mercury and '-ad-bismuth;
rr laminar and transition) "TT
'<
<> John~n. Clobauoh, and Hortne" lmercuryl
I /
0
6 Stromquist lmercuryl ::0
~ English and Borre" (mercury) lo l$~ n
D Untermeyer !lead-bismuth) m
~~ IJ. c
o< ~.......... v
I
~
Untermeyer !lead-bismuth plus magnesium) .,.. ~ Nu = 0.62SPeOA
..- S.ban lleod-bismuthl
y
A
n
~~
,......... l~ltoff and Or- (mercury; inside wall temperatures [0
9
(\) Q-
I.C:
1:Z"
u 6
cokuloted from Auid temperature profiles)
lsakoff and Drew (mercury; inside wall temperatures
calculated from outside wall temperatures)
0 John~n. HartneH, and Clobauoh llead-bismuthl
Cl Styriltovich and S.menovlter (mercury)
t> MacDonald and QuiHenton hodiuml
0~ ~ ~~
'!G ~•..L ~~ )
~~ Pb~
/
/
~~
A. AL\
~fF
~~
' 0
z
<
m
n
-
--t
I.I
j
z
~
-:::
"i
10
 "~
.l
n
-- -
b..
~
~
J(
~ ""v lit.
~L
.........
'b.>:
~ r.:::l'lli
-~
f{!~
"
'.o '1
cr
- 0
z
-z
.lr. . ~ ~Sol\
~
~·
>
~
c-
z D (/)
~~
AI
 [;l
p~ ,<J m
~~
l/'lO
~.6-
t>r>~ ~
(/)
::::1 -{:}(
z>
I 0~ A
I ""T1 ~ "0
~0
-3
n J 0
I
' Gl
p D
c
)>
.... .... c
z '-10 toa to' 104 10'
n
.....
Pedet Number Pe = leD Pr (/)
Fw. 8--10. Comparison of measured and predicted Nm~"4elt number for liquid metals heated in long tubes with constant heat in-
put. (Courtesy of National Advisory COmmittee for Aeronautics, NACA TN 3336)
In liquid metals the most important heat-transfer mechanism is con-

duction, and even in a highly turbulent stream the effect of eddying is of
secondary importance. As a result, the empirical equations for gases and
liquids do not apply. Several theoretical analyses for the evaluation of
the Nus..'3elt number are available, but there still exist some unexplained
discrepancies between many of the experimental data and the analytic
results. This is illustrated in Fig. 8-10 where the experimentally measured
N usselt numbers for heating of mercury in long tubes by various observers
are compared with the analysis of l\fartinelli (5). The results of Martin-
elli's analysis were simplified by Lyon (15) who found that the equation
Nu = 7 + 0.25 (ReD Pr) 0 8
· (~24)
approximates the more complex relation of Ref. 5 with satisfactory ac-

curacy for a uniform heat input along the tube, whereas the equation
Nu = 5 + 0.25 (ReD Pr) 0 8
· (8-26)
applies when the tube-wall temperature is constant. An inspection of the
experimental data obtained by several independent investigations shows
that they fall within 60 to 80 per cent of their predicted values. Lubarsky
and Kaufman (20) found that the empirical equation
Nu = 0.625 (ReD Pr) 0 · 4 (8-26)
represents most of the fully developed turbulent heat-transfer data. Those
points that fall very far below the average are believed to have been ob-
tained in systems where the liquid metal did not wet the surface. How-
ever, no final conclusions regarding the effect of wetting have been reached
to date. No reliable data showing the effect of the cross-sectional varia-
tion of the properties of liquid metals during heating or cooling are available
to date, and the use of a mean film temperature is recommended.
The entrance corrections obtained from Eqs. 8-23 and 8-23a do not
apply to liquid metals. The conditions in the entrance regions for fluids
,,;th small Prandtl numbers have been investigated analytically by Deissler
(14) and experimental data supporting the analysis are summarized in
Ref. 21.
Calculation of the heat-transfer coefficient. The application of the
formulas for convective heat transfer requires a knowledge of the physical
properties of the medium. As every practicing engineer knows from
experience, the physical properties of fluids have only been measured accu-
rately for some of the more common fluids. In many instances it is neces-
sary to estimate the value of properties, especially at eleva ted temperatures.
Since physical properties have been published by investigators of many
countries, it is always important to note carefully the units used. The
use of dimensionless numbers in the presentation of experimental data has

eliminated many of the difficulties involved in the practical application.

However, it cannot be overemphasized that a careful checking of the units
of the quantities used in building the dimensionless numbers is a pre-
requisite to obtaining correct results. It is also suggested that a common-
sense order-of-magnitude check be applied to the final result. The order
of magnitudes for heat-transfer coefficients under typical conditions in
Table 1-2, will aid in this task.
The use of the equations for evaluating the heat-transfer coefficient in
turbulent forced convection is illustrated in the following examples. It is
sugge8ted that the reader work each of these examples independently in
order to gain facility in the application of the various equations presented
in this section.
Example 8-1. An aniline-alcohol solution is flowing at a velodty of 10 fps through
a long 1-in.-ID thin-wall tube. On the outer surface of the tube~ ~team is condensing at
atmospheric prcRsure, and the tube-wall temperature is 212 F. The tube is rlean, and
there is no thermal resistance due to a scale deposit on the inner surfu.ce. U ~ing the
physical properties tabulated below, estimate the unit-surface conductance between the
fluid and the pipe by means of Eq. 8-20, as well WI Eq. 8-22 and Fig. 8-B, and compare the
results. A8sume that the hulk temperature of the aniline solution is ti8 F and negleet
entrance effe<>t~.
Physical properties of the aniline solution:
Temp \' isco."!i t y Thermal Conduct.ivity Specific Heat

Specific Gra,·ity
(F) (centipoi~efl) Wtu/hr ft F) c Btu/lb F)
68 5.1 0.100 1.03 0.50

140 I. 4 O.OH8 0.98 0.53
212 0.6 0.095 .... 0.56
Solution: Firl-lt we determine the He~·nol<..ls number to determine whether the flow
JH laminar or turbulent. Evaluating the viscosit~· at the bulk temperature we get
Re _ VDp _ (10 ft/sec)(l/12 ft)(l.03)r62.4 lbm/fP)
15 600
Db p. - (5.1 centipoiscs)(0.000672 lbm/SN' ft./centipoise) = '
and thus establish that the flow is turbulent. The avPrnge film temperature according
to Eq. 8-19 is
T 1 = 0.5 (T, Tb)= 0.5 (68 +
212) = 140 F +
and the Reynolds number HeD/ is 56,800 when the viscrn~ity is taken at T 1• The
Prandtl number, based on the property values at the hulk temperature, is
Cp. (0.5 Btu/lhm F) (5.1) (0.000672 lhm/:"Pe ft) (3600 sec/hr)
Pr - - - :a 61 5
k 0.100 Btu/hr ft F ·
[The conversion factor (0.000{)72 lbm/sec ft ;'centipoise) is taken from Appendix 11.1
\Vhen the properties are taken at 7'/1 the Prandtl number is 18.4. Using Eq. 8-20 to
evaluate the unit-convedive conductance we have, after some rearrangement,
1ic: -
k, ReD G.8Pr °· 13 = 0.023 (0.098) (10,100)(2.58) - 710 Btu/hr sq ft F
0 .023D 1 1
1112

From Fig. 8-9 at Pr - 61.5 and ReD = 15,600 we find
St ( ;; ) ,. = 2. 7 X to-•
For heating liquids n = 0.36 and the viscosity correction factor is
( ~)"
,.,..
-= (~)O.M
0.6
= 2.16
l~sing Eq. 8-22 to evaluate he we get

fi..... O.IOO Btu{~;;~/t (F/ft) (15,600)(61.5)(2.16)(2.7 X IO-•)
= 670 Btu/hr sq ft F Ans.
\Ve note that, for the example which represents unusually large viscosity
variations (P.b/ p.. = 8.5), Deissler's analysis predicts a value of he which is
6 per cent smaller than the value predicted by l\fcAdams' empirical equa-
tion. This sort of discrepancy between different methods is not unusual
in convective heat transfer.
Example 8-2. Determine the unit thermal convective conductance for water
flowing at a velocity of 10 fps in an annulus formed between a 1-in.-OD tube and a
J !-in.-ID tube. The water is at 180 F and is being cooled. The temperature of the
inner wall is 100 F, and the outer wall of the annulus is insulated. Neglect entrance
effects and compare the results of Eqs. 8-20 and 8-22. The properties of water are
given in the accompanying tabulation.
T A: p c
(F) "'
(lhm/hr ft) (Btu/hr ft F) Obm/cu ft) (Btu/Ibm F)
100 1.67 0.36 62 .0 1.0

140 1.14 0.38 61.3 1.0
180 0 .75 0.39 60.8 1.0
Solution: The hydraulic diameter Dn for this geometry is 0.5 in. The Reynolds
number based on the hydraulic diameter and the bulk temperature properties is
VDIIP (10 ft/sec)(0.5/12 ft)(62lbm/cu ft)(3600 sec/ hr)
Re Db a: = 0.75 lbm/hr ft
"'
= 125,000
Based on the mean film temperature T ,, the Reynolds number is ReD! = 82,000.
The Prandtl number at the hulk temperature i~
Pr, =- Cp. =- (1.0 Btu/lhm F)(0.75 lhm/hr ft) = 1. 92
k 0.39 Btu/hr ft. F
and at T 1 , we find that Pr1 = 3.0. According to Eq. 8-20 we have
fir
St = - - = 0.023 ReD 1 ~ · 2 Pr1-i
cpV
= 0.023/(9.6 X 2.08) = 0.00! 15

so that he :::a (1 Btu / Ibm F) (62 lbm/cu ft) (10 ft/aec) (3600 sec/hr) (0.00115)
= 2570 Btu/hr sq ft F
Using Fig. 8-9, we get
with n = 0.20 for cooling. Therefore, the unit-convective conductance is

c kb
ne = (16 X to-•) D- ReDb Prb (JJ.b/JJ..) 0·1
II
= (16 X I0- 4) ( 0.~·~~2 ) (125,000) (1.92)(0.85)
= 3060 Btu/hr sq ft F Am.

We see that the results obtained by two different methods of calculating he for
turbulent flow in ducts agree within 16 per cent.
8-4. FORCED CONVECTION IN LAMINAR FLOW

Although heat-transfer coefficients for laminar flow are considerably
::;maller than for turbulent flow, in the design of heat-exchange equipment
for very viscous liquids, it is sometimes economically necessary to accept
a lower unit-surface conductance in order to reduce the pumping-power
requirements. In recent years, laminar gas flow has also been considered
for high-temperature, compact heat exchangers, where tube diameters are
very small and gas densities very low. Another potential application of
laminar-flow forced convection lies in the atomic-power field, where liquid
metals are used as heat-tran~fer mediums. Since most liquid metals have
a high thermal conductivity, their heat-transfer coefficients are relatively
large even in laminar flow.
The heat-flow mechanism in purely laminar flow · is conduction. The
rate of heat flow between the walls of a conduit and the fluid flowing in it
can be obtained analytically by solving the equations of motion and of
conduction heat flow simultaneously. To obtain a solution it is necessary
to know or assume the velocity distribution in the duct. In fully developed
laminar flow without heat transfer, the velocity distribution at any cross
section ha..~ the shape of a parabola. For high-Prandtl-number fluids, such
as oils, the velocity profile becomes fully established much more rapidly
than the temperature profile, usually within 20 to 80 diameters from the
entrance. 5 Heat-transfer equations based on the assumption of a parabolic
velocity distribution will therefore not introduce serious errors for oils and
other viscous fluids flowing in long ducts, if they are modified to account
for effects caused by the variation of the viscosity due to the temperature
gradient. For liquid metals, on the other hand, the temperature profile
& According to Langhaar (Jour. Appl. J.fech., Vol. 64, 1942, p. A-55) the length re-
quired to establish u parabolic velocity distribution in isothermal flow is 0.05 D ReD.

tabli hed much more rapidly than the velocity profile a a result of the
me 1 'high thermal conductivity, and the a sumption of a uniform velocity
profile may not inv lve large errors for many applications. For gase , the
temperature and velocity profile develop nearly at equal rates along the
tub nd the actual behavior of both mu t be considered in a heat-transfer
naly i .
Effect of free convection. An additional complication in the determina-
ion of a heat-transfer coefficient in laminar flow ari e when the buoyancy
f rce are of the same order of magnitude a the external forces due to the
forced circulation. Such a condition may ari e in oil cooler when low
fio\v v locities are employed. AI o, in the cooling of rotating parts, such
ro or blades of ga turbine and ramjet attached to the propellers of
heli opter , the free-convection force may be o large that their effect on
h v I city pattern cannot be neglected ev n in high-velocity flow. When
th buoy ncy fore are in th arne dire tion a th xternal force ,
.g., he gravitational fore uperi mpo d n upward ft w, they increase
he rate of heat tran fer. When the external and buoyancy forces act in
Pr
--0.7
---- 7
- · - 3.0
- · · - 3.0
JOS
Ref 16
Pr "" 0 .7
l / 0=5
laminar Turbulenl
FIG. 8-11. Fore d- nvec i tion, and mix d-

How r gim for flow in t ub at Prandtl num r 0.7 and
3.0. (Extract d from "Conv ctive Hea Tran f r for Mix d
Free and For d F low Through Tub ," y R. . ck r and
A. J. Diaguila, pu li ·h d in Trans. •A ME, Y l. 76, 1954,
wi h p rmi ion of th publishers, Th · n i ty f
NI ch ni al Engin

opposite direction, the heat transfer is reduced. Eckert (16) studied heat
transfer in mixed flow in a vertical pipe, and his results are shown quali-
tatively in Fig. 8-11. In the darkly shaded area, the contribution of free
convection to the total heat transfer is less than 10 per cent, whereas in
the lightly shaded area, forced-convection effects are less than 10 per cent
and free convection predominates. In the unshaded area, both free and
forced convection are of the same order of magnitude. These results are
only qualitative; they are presented primarily to call attention to the
existence of phenomena of mixed flow. In cases where it is doubtful
whether forced- or free-convection flow applies, the heat-transfer coeffi-
cient is generally calculated by using forced- and free-convection relation~
separately, and the larger one is used ( 11). The accuracy of this rule of
thumb is estimated to be about 25 per cent.
Correlations and empirical equations. The details of the mathematical
solutions for purely laminar flow are beyond the scope of this text. Refer-
ences listed at the end of this chapter, especially Refs. 17 and 18, contain
the mathematical background for the engineering equations and graphs
which are presented and discussed in this section.
For engineering applications it is most convenient to'~ent the result~
of analytical and experimental investigations in terms of a N usselt number
I
defined in the conventional manner as /--

- hrD
. .
NuD = -k-
It was pointed out in Sec. 8-1 that the unit-convective conductance hr

varies along the tube. For practical applications the average value of the
conductance is most important, and for the equations and charts presented
in this section we shall use a mean Nusselt number Nu = he Djk, ~aged_
with respect to the length of the duct L, or
- L}iL
NuD =
0
Nuz<,lx
where the subscript x refers to local conditions at x. This mean Nusselt

number is often termed the log-mean Nusselt number because it can be
used directly in the log-mean-rate equations for heat exchangers presented
in Chapter 11.
The mean Nusselt numbers for laminar flow in tubes at a uniform wall
temperature have been calculated analytically by various investigators.
Their re~;ults are shown in Fig. 8-12 for several velocity distributions. All
of these solutions are based on the idealizations of a constant tube-wall
temperature and a uniform temperature distribution at the tube inlet and
apply strictly only when the physical properties are independent of tem-
perature. The abscissa is the dimensionless quantity ReDPrD/ L, the

________....._______ ......
reciprocal of the Graetz number Gz. To determine the mean value of the
Nus elt number for a given tube of length Land diameter D, one evaluates
the Reynolds number Rev, the Prandtl number Pr, form the dimensionless
parameter Rev PrD/ L, and enters the curve of Fig. 8-12. The selection
of the curve representing the conditions which most nearly correspond to
the phy ical conditions depends on the nature of the fluid and the geometry
of the system. For high-Prandtl-number fluids, uch as oils, the velocity
profile is established much more rapidly than the temperature profile .
.....
100 v
80 /
I
60 +-i Very " long " Tubes VUy "ShOrt'";; Tub.s ............ / ,., v
I / k
~0
/
v .,/"'_
/
,., .....
,....v / :,....
Groetz Uniform V locoty, ~
v
/
30
vv _...1--'"'"'
-----~---
;:::.
20
Pohlhausen Modified for Tube Pr=0.7, .,.,.- / ~--- ~
........
1.5
) v ... ~
~
...~t-
'"' le .. eque Approximotoon
I l l l _l
---- !-" ........

--_... > ~~
~~
~ ::::- " Pohlhousen Flat Plate Pr = 0 .7
NuD
10
8
r-
-- '-
..;:><
~
- --~
---
I-
...... r--
.....
.....
~Graetz Parabolic Velocity

..rtf"
~
t'- Norris and Streid Interpolation( 191
I I I
--
6
r-
v
~ ~
J - Region of Interest in
Gal Flow Heat E~tchangen ~-
2 I I I I I
0 .I 0 I .5 0.2 0.3 0 .4 0.6 0 8 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8 .0 10 1.5 20 30 ~0 60 80 100
Re 0 Pr D
----=....,, . - X I 0- 2
L
Fw. 8-12. Curv s illustrating solutions for laminar-flow heat transfer at

constant wall temperature. (Extracted from "Numerical olutions for Lami-
nar Flow Heat Transfer in Circular Tub ," by W. l\1. Kay , publi hed in
Trans. A ME, Vol. 77, 1955, with p rm· ion of the publishers, The American
"ociety of l\Iechanical Engineers)
Consequently the application of the curve labeled "p~rabolic velocity" does

not lead to a serious rror in long tub when R vPrD/L is l than 100.
For very long tubes the Nus elt number approaches a limiting minimum
value of 3.66 when the tube temperature i uniform. vVh n th h at rat
instead of the tube temperature i uniform the limiting value of Nun is -!.3 .
For very low-Prandtl-number fluid uch as liquid metal , th tempera-
ture profile is establi h d much more rapidly than th v lo i ty profil .
For typical application the as umption of a unif rm velo ity profile may
giv ati factory re ults, although exp rim ntal evid nc i in ufficient f r
a quantitative evaluation of the pos ible deviation from the analyti al

Original from
solution for slug flow. For very short t.ub~s or rectangular ducts with
initially uniform velocity and temperature distribution, the flow condition:.;
along the wall approximate those along a flat plate, and the Pohlhausen
analysis presented in Sec. 6-7 is expected to yield satisfactory results for
liquids having Prandtl numbers hetween 1.0 and 15.0. The Pohlhauscn
solution applies (18, 19) when L / D is less than 0.00-!8 ReD for tuhes and
when L / /) is les.~ than 0.0021 ReDn for flat ducts of a rectangular cro:':-;
section. For these conditions the Pohlhausen equation for flow over a flat
plate can he converted to the coordinat(ls of Fig. 8-12, or
RenPrD 1
NuD- - - - - I n (8-27)
4L 2.tl!'>4
1 - - Pr 0 · 167 (He~·PrJJ7L) o.:~
An extension of Pohlhauscn's analysis to longer tubes is presented in Ref.

18, and the results are shown in Fig. 8-12 for Pr = 0.73 in the range of
HeDPrD/L between 100 and 1.100, where this approximation is n1ost
likely to he applirahle.
50
I
.40
30
20
15
NuD I
Conlt . Temperature Difference
I I
I _.... ~ I--'
~~
~~
Langhaar V•locity -..., I
· 1.,.----
10
t----t--.-
J..,...- t/""'
~
\ _. j,....o-"
~
v--f-'
_, 1:/ .\.--
8 _. """" 1
~""
--~~,..--"
6
5~
~-----~
L--::: ~
L--r-'
- j.....-- n
""'
~'!ant Wall. Tem~roture
~ Longhaor Velocity
Parabolic Velocity
e::::::: ~----~ I I I
'
3
l
I
I
2 I I I
. .2 .3 ... .5 .6 .8 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.010.0
ReD Pr D
---=---=--- X I 0- 2
L
FIG. 8-13. .\lean :\u&<;elt numlwr with n'!'pect to tube lt>ngt h

for ga."'iPS in laminar flow. (Extmet<·d from "::\umerical ~o
lutions for Laminar Flow Heat. Tmn:-;fpr in Circular Tubes,"
by\\'. ~1. Kays, puhli!-ihcd in Trans . .ts~uH, \'ol. 77, IH55,
with J)(:'J"mi:-;~iou of the puhli:.;twrs, Tlw :\nH•rican Society of
.\h•dmnical Enginl•t>rs)
Googl~--
Original from
Digitized by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
;; - -
For laminar flow of gases in the range of RePrD/ L from 0 to 300 an

extensive numerical analysis has been made by W. l\1. Kays (18). For
laminar flow of gases whose Prandtl is approximately unity, both tempera-
ture and velocity profiles develop at an equal rate. Hence, neither the
assumption of a parabolic velocity profile nor that of a uniform profile is
satisfactory. Kays therefore used the actual velocity profiles, calculated
earlier by Langhaar, for the analysis, whose results are shown in Fig. 8-13
for a constant wall temperature as well as for a constant temperature dif-
ference between the fluid bulk and the wall. The solution for a constant
\vall temperature applies to evaporators, condensers, and most parallel-flow
gas-to-gas heat exchangers (see Chapter 11). The second boundary condi-
tion is approximated in gas-to-gas counterflow exchangers where both
fluid~ have similar capacity rates and conductances. The results of Kays'
analysis are in good agreement with available experimental data.
An empirical equation suggested by Sieder and Tate (12) has also been
widely used to correlate experimental results for liquids. This equation
can be written in the form
-Nu = 1.86(RenPrD/L) 0 · 33
(fJ.b)o.u
p., (8-28)
where the empirical correction factor (P.b/ p.,) 0·14 is introduced to account for
the effect of the temperature variation on the physical properties.
In liquids the viscosity decreases with increasing temperature, while in
gases the reverse trend is observed. \Vhen a liquid is heated, the fluid
near the wall is less viscous than the fluid in the center. Consequently,
the velocity of the heated fluid near the wall is larger than for an unheated
fluid, hut less in the center. The distortion of the parabolic velocity
profile for liquids when heating or cooling is shown in Fig. 8-14. For
gases the conditions are reversed, but the variation of density with tempera-
ture introduces additional complications.
Fm. 8-14. Effect of heat transfer on

velocity profiles in fully developed lam-
inar flow. (Curve 11, isothermal flow;
curve B, heating of liquid or cooling of
gns; curve C, cooling of liquid or heating
of gas.)

w
~
0
0
<.0
;:;:
i'j'
(1)
D..
0.1 ,
o-
'<
I 0
i ::0
CJ n
m
0 0
c2,...._
('V
~
~L/DH=50
~ .. '
n
0
z
d
~ ~~L/DH=loo <
m
~ n
...
~0.0
9
I~ ~ ~~
~0
~ I I
'
~
0
~ ........ ="" z
"" ""
8 ~ i I
c-. 7 ........ J l
. .Q
.
0...
.--.....
6
5
~
0 ~
~ I
i'-
I
t'-
!
-z
,.;J~
~
4 r---L/ ~H ~ 2.~- K
L/DH=4oo
f~
........
,_
i' l"~
~,..... ·""' '
........
.... ~ "~
~~ -- .... -I'- ......
..
(J)
0
m
-
33 -r--
./ ./ ;.."
""
I I .......... 1--.
.~ I~ r- r- ~
c
z 2i
' .L ~ ~
c:
r-- r- r-r--
-
:::J 102 103 10 4 105 106 10 7
.,....,
0~ z
:s:a Reynolds Number p YDH/.Ub 0
-3
(")
I
FIG. 8-15. Recommended curves for determining heat-transfer coefficient in the transition rf'Jl:ime. (R('printPd from 0
G) c
:t>
z
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 28, p. 1429, DecembPr Hl36, with JWrmis..-,ion of the eopyright O\\·ner, The n
~
American Chemical Hocil•ty) (I)
The empirical viscosity correction factor is merely an approximate n1le

of thumb, and recent data indicate that it may not be satisfactory when
large temperature gradients exist. As an approximation in the absence of
a more satisfactory method, it is suggested that, for liquids, the Nusselt
number obtained from analytic solutions presented in Figs. 8-12 and 8-13
also be multiplied by (p.. / J.Lb) 0•14 to correct for the variation of properties
due to the temperature gradient. For gases J{ays and London (13) suggest
that the ~ usselt number from Fig. 8-Ia be multiplied by a temperature-
correction factor. If all fluid properties are evaluated at the average bulk
temperature, the corrected N usselt number is ,
~: )".
1
Nuo = Nuo >11 • s-ta ( ' • (8-29)
\Vhere n = 0.25 for a gas heating in a tube, and 0.08 for a gas cooling in a
tube.
Effect of heat transfer on the friction coefficient. The variation in
physical properties also affects the friction coefficient. To evaluate the
friction coefficient of fluids being heated or cooled it is suggested that, for
liquids, one modifies the isothermal friction coefficient by
/heat trnnafer = fiaothermnl (

P.s
llb
)o.u (8-30)
and for gases by

T 8 )0.14 (8-31)
/hco.t transfer = /isothermal ( Tb
8-5. FORCED CONVECTION IN TRANSITION FLOW

The mechanisms of heat transfer and fluid flow in the transition region
(ReD between 2100 and 10,000) vary considerably from system to system.
In this region the flow may be unstable, and fluctuations in pressure drop
and heat transfer have been observed. Th~re exists a large uncertainty
in the basic heat-transfer and flow-friction performance, and consequently
the designer is advised to design equipment, if possible, to operate outside
this region. For the purpose of estimating the Nusselt number in the
transition region, the curves of Fig. 8-15 may be used, but the actual
performance may deviate considerably from that predicted on the basis of
these curves.
REFERENCES
1. 0. Reynolds, "On the Extent and Aetion of the Heating Surface for Steam Boil-
ers,'' Proc. Manche8ter Lit. Phil. Soc., Vol. 8 (1874 ).
2. L. Prandtl, "Eine Beziehung zwischen \Vi.i.rmeaustausch und Stromungswie-
rlerstand der Fhissigkeiten," Phys. Zeit., \'ol. 11 (1910), p. 1072.
Digitized by Coogle Orig ina l from

3. T. von Karman, "The Analogy between Fluid Friction and Heat Transfer,"
Trans. ASJrlE, Vol. 61 (1939), p. 705.
4. L. l\1. K. Boelter, R. C. Martinelli, and F. Jonassen, "Remarks on the Analogy
Between Heat and :\tomentum Transfer," Trarnt. ASJrl E, Vol. 63 (1941), pp. 447--455.
5. R. C. Martinelli, "Heat Transfer to MoltPn Metals," Trans. ASM E, Vol. 69
(1947), p. 947.
6. R. G. Deissler, "Investigation of Turbulent Flow and Heat Transfer in Smooth
Tubes Including the Effect of Variable Properties," Trans. ASJrlE, Vol. 73 (1951 ). p. 101.
7. R. G. Deissler, "Analysis of Turbulent Heat Transfer, .Mass Transfer and Fric-
tion in Smooth Tubes at High Prandtl and Schmidt Numbers," N ACA TN 3145, l\la.\·,
1954.
8. W. F. Cope, "The Friction and Heat Transmission Coefficients of Rough Pipe$,''
Proc. /nat. Mech. Engrs., Vol. 145 (1941), p. 99.
9. J. Nikuradse, "Wiederstandsgesetz und Geschwindigkeit von turbulenten \Va.---
serstrohmungen in glatten und rauhen Rohren," Proc. 3rd Int.. Cong. Appl. Mech., Vol. 1
(1930), p. 239.
10. A. P. Colburn, "A Method of Correlating Forced Convection Heat Transfer
Data and a Comparison with Fluid Friction," Trans. A/ChE, Vol. 29 (1933), p. 174.
11. W. l\1. 1\lcAdams, Heat Transmission, 3d ed. (New York: :McGraw-Hill Book
12. E. N. Sieder and C. E. Tate, "Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop of Liquids in
Tubes," Ind. E'lfl· Chem., Vol. 28 (1936), p. 1429.
13. W. M. Kays and A. L. London, "Compact Heat Exchangers-A Summary of
Basic Heat Transfer and Flow Friction Design Data," Tech. Rep. 23, Stanford Univer-
sity, 1954.
14. R. G. Deissler, "Turbulent Heat Transfer and Frietion in the Entrance Regions
of Smooth Passages," Trans. ASME, Vol. 77 (1955), pp. 1221-1234.
15. R.N. Lyon, Ed., Liquid Metals Handbook, 3d ed. (Washington, D. C.: Atomic
Energy Commission and Department of the Navy, 1952.)
16. R. G. Eckert and A. J. Diaguila, "Convective Heat Transfer for !\fixed Free
and Forced Flow Through Tubes," Trans. ASM E, Vol. 76 (1954), pp. 497-504.
17. T. B. Drew, "Mathematical Attacks on Forced Convection Problems: A Re-
view," TraM. A/ChE, Vol. 26 (1931 ), p. 26.
18. W. M. Kays, "Numerical Solution for Laminu.r Flow Heat Transfer in Circ~ular
Tubes," TraTUJ. ASME, Vol. 77 (1955), pp. 1265-1274.
19. R. H. Norris and D. D. Streid, .. Laminar-Flow Heat-Transfer Coefficient.s for
DuctR," Trans. ASME, Vol. 62 (1940), p. 525.
20. B. Lubarsky and S. J. Kaufman, "Review of Experimental Investigations of
Liquid-Metal Heat Transfer," N ACA TN 3336, 195.5.
21. J. P. Hartnett, "Experimental Determination of the Thermal Entrance :U.ngth
for the Flow of Water and of Oil in Circular Pipes," Trans. ASME, Vol. 77 (1955), pp.
1211-1234.
22. L. l\1. K. Boelter, D. Young, and H. \V. Iverson, "An Investigation of Aircraft
Heaters-XXVII Distribution of Heat Transfer Rate in the Entrance Section of n Cir-
eular Tube,'' N ACA TN 14.51, 1948.
23. W. Nunner, "Wiirmeiibergang and Druckabfall in Rauhen Rohren, '' r J)f
Forschr.mgshrft No. 455, V /)/ Verlag G:\1 B;.\1, Duesseldorf, 1956.
PROBLEMS
l) 8-1. \Vater at an avera~c temperature of 80 F is flowing through a smooth 2-in.-ID
pipe at a velocit~· of 3 fps. If the temperature at the inner surface of the pipe is 120 F.
_ Digitiz.ed by Coogle _ Original from

determine (a) the unit-surface conductance, (b) the rate of heat flow per foot of pipe,
(c) the bulk-temperature rise per foot, and (d) the pressure drop per foot in psi.
Ans. (a) ii = 620 Btu/hr sq ft F ( ::1:: 10%); (b) q/ft = 13,000 Btujhr;
(c) 6T /ft = 0.89 F; (d) 6p/ft ~ 1 psi (depending on roughness)
8-2. A double-pipe heat exchanger is used to condense steam at 1 p.~ia. \Vater at
an average bulk temperature of 50 F flows at 10 fps through the inner pipe (copper,
1 in. ID, 1.2 in. OD). Steam at its saturation temperature flows in the annulus formed
between the outer surface of the inner pipe and an outer pipe of 2 in. ID. The average
unit-surface conductance of the condensing steam is 1000 Btu/hr sq ft F, and the thermal
resistance of a surface scale on the outer surface of the copper pipe is 0.001 hr sq ft
F /Btu. Determine (a) the over-all heat-transfer coefficient between the steam and the
water based on the outer area of the copper pipe. Also sketch the thermal circuit and
(b) evaluate the temperature at the inner surface of the pipe. (c) Estimate the length
required to condense 1 lb of steam. A ns. U = 350 Btu/hr sq ft F; T ~' = 65 F
8-3. Determine the rate of heat transfer per foot length to a light oil flowing
through a 1-in.-ID, 2-ft-long copper tube at a velocity of 6 fpm. The oil enters the
tube at 60 F and the tube is heated by steam condensing on its outer surface at atmos-
pheric pressure with a unit-surface conductance of 2000 Btu/hr sq ft F. The properties
of the oil at various temperatures are listed in the accompanying tabulation :
T (F) 60 80 100 150 212

p (lhjcu ft) 57 57 56 55 54
c (Btu/lb F) 0 .43 0 .44 0.46 0.48 0.51
k (Btu/hr ft F) 0.077 0.077 0 .076 0.075 0.074
p. (lb/hr ft) 215 100 55 19 8
Pr 1210 577 330 116 55
A ns. q ~ 1380 Btujhr
0 8-4. Atmospheric air at a velocity of 200 fps and a temperature of f>O F enters a
2-ft-long square metal duct of 8- by 8-in. cross section. If the duct wall is at 300 F,
determine the average unit-surface conductance. Comment briefly on the L/ Dn ~ffect.
Ans. ii ~ 14 Btu/hr sq ft F ( =*= 15%)
8-6. Air at 60 F and atmospheric pressure enters a i-in.-ID tube at 100 fps. For
an average wall temperature of 212 F, determine the discharge temperature of the air
and the pressure drop in inches of water if the pipe is (a) 4 in. long, (b) 40 in. long.
Use the average bulk temperature of the air between the inlet and the outlet to evaluate
the rate of heat transfer between the wall and the air.
Ans. (a) Taut = 82 F, D.p = 3.8 in. H20; (b) Tout. = 175 F, 6p = 9.1 in. HtO
8-6. Evaluate the rate of heat loss per foot from superheated steam flowing at
600 F and 250-psi pressure through sehedule 80 4-in. pipe at a velocity of 100 fps.
The pipe is lagged with a 2-in.-thick layer of asbestos. Heat is transferred to the sur-
roundings by free convection and radiation.
Q 8-7. Determine the heat-transfer coefficient for liquid bismuth flowing through an
annulus (2 in. ID, 2.5 in. OD) at a velocity of 15 fps. The wall temperature of the
inner surface is 800 F and the bismuth is at. 600 F. It may be assumed that heat losses
from the outer surface are negligible.
8-8. Assume that the heat source in Proh. 8-7 is an aluminum-clad rod of uranium,
2 in. OD and 6 ft long. Estimate the heat flux that will raise the temperature of the
bismuth 100 F and the maximum center and surface temperatures nece.._~sary to transfer
heat at this rate.

8-9. Air at an average temperature of 300 F flows through a short square duc-t
(4 by 4 by 1 in.) at a rate of 116 lb/hr. The duct-wall temperature is 800 F. Deter-
mine the average heat-transfer coefficient using duct equation with appropriate L ,/D
correction. Compare ynur results with Bow-over-fiat-plate relations.
8-10. In a long annulus (1.0 in. ID, 1.5 in. OD), atmospheric air is heated by
steam condensing at 300 F on the inner surface. If the velocity of the air is 20 fps and
its bulk temperature 100 F, calculate the heat-transfer coefficient.
8-11. If the total resistance between the steam and the air (including the pipe
wall and scale on the steam side) in Prob. 8-10 is 0.20 hr sq ft F /Btu, calculate the
temperature difference between the outer surface of the inner pipe and the air. Bhuw
the thermal circuit.
8-12. Compute the average unit-surface conductance, he, for 50 F water flowin~
at 10 fps in a long 1-in.-ID pipe (surface temperature of 102 F) by three different equa-
tions and compare your results. Also determine the pressure drop per foot length of
pipe.
8-13. In a pipe within a pipe heat exchanger, water is flowing in the annulu~ and
oil having the properties listed in Prob. 8-3 is flowing in the central pipe. The innN
pipe is 0.527 in. ID, 0.625 in. OD, and the ID of the outer pipe is 0.750 in. For a
water bulk temperature of 80 F and an oil bulk temperature of 175 F, determine t ht·
over-all heat-transfer coefficient based on the outer diameter of the central pipe anJ
the frictional pressure drop per unit length of the water and the oil for the followinf!
velocities: (a) water rate 1 gpm, oil rate 1 gpm; (b) water rate 10 gp.n, oil rat~ I gp:n:
(c) water rate 1 gpm, oil rate 10 gpm; and (d) water rate 10 gpm, oil rate 10 gp~.
8-1,. \Vater in turbulent flow is to he heated in a single-pass tubular heat exchan~t."r
by steam condensing on the outside of the tubes. The flow rate of the water. it~
pressure drop, its inlet and outlet temperatures, and the steam pressure are fixed.
Assuming that the tube-wall temperature remains constant, determine the dependenN'
of the total required heat-exchanger ares on the inside diameter of the tubes.
Ans. A total ~ (1 / ID :
8-1&. The following thermal-resistance data were obtained on a 50,000 sq ft
<"ondenAer constructed with 1-in.-OD brass tubes, 231 ft long, 0.049 in. wall thickne~!
at va,ious water velocitieR inside the tubes I Trans. AS.\IE, Vol. 58 (1936), p. 6721.
I
I. Water \'elocity I 1 Wst('r \ 'elncit,:\·
-x
u. 1~ ( I tr s 'l f t F/ H t II) (Cps) II 1
-: X 1o-a ( h r ~q Ct F I Rt u ) (fr~>
•
I·
2.060 6.91 1: 3.076 2 .95

2.113 6.35 2.743 4.12
2.212 5.68 I 2.498 6.76
2.374 4 .90 I 3.356 2 .86
3 .001 2.B3 2. 2()<J 6.27
2 .081 7.01
Assuming that the unit-surface conductance on the steam side is 2000 Btu / hr ~q ft F.
determine the scale resistance. HINT: Plot U vs. 1I V0 · 8• (This method is called the
lVilson plot.)
8-16. \Vater at 180 F is flowing through a thin copper tube (6 in. ID) at a velocity
of 25 fps. The dud iR located in a room at 60 F and thP. unit-~urface conductance at the
outer surface of the duct is 2.5 Btu/hr ~q ft F. (a) Determine the heat-transfer coefficiPnt
ut. the inner surface. (b) Estimate the length of duct in which the water templ"'rature
drops 1 F. Ans. (a) he ~ 3800 Btu/hr sq ft F; (b) L ~ 1500 ft

8-17. The equation

~ hcD _ ~
3 65
+ 0.0668(D/L) Re Pr t (~)o.u
J.~U - k 1. 1 + 0.04[(D/L) Re Pr]l ~ p.,
was recommended by H. Hausen (Ze,it&chr. Ver. Deut. lng., Beiheft No. 4, 1943) for
forced convection heat transfer in fully developed laminar flow through tubes. Compare
the values of the Nusselt number predicted by Hausen 's equation for Re = 1000,
Pr - 1, and D/ L = 2, 10, and 100 respectively with those obtained from appropriate
equations or graphs in the text.
8-18. The equation
Nu = 0.116 (Rei- 125)Prl [1 +(D/L)I] (J.&~J/J.&.)o.u
has been proposed by Hausen (op. cit.) for the transition range (2300 < Re < 8000) as
well as for higher Reynolds numbers. Compare the value~ of Nu predicted by Hausen·~
equation for Re = 3000 and Re """ 20,000 at D/ L of 0.1 and 0.01 with those obtained
from appropriate equation or charts in the text. Assume the fluid is water at 60 F
flowing through a pipe at 200 F.

9 Forced Convection Over
Exterior Surfaces
9-1. FLOW OVER BLUFF BODIES
In this chapter we shall consider heat transfer by forced convection

between the exterior surface of bluff bodies, such as spheres, \vire:,, tubes.
and tube bundles, and fluids flowing perpendicularly to the axes of these
bodies. The heat-transfer phenomena for these systems, as for those in
which a fluid flows inside a duct or along a flat plate, are closely related
to the nature of the flow. The most important difference between the
flow over a bluff body and the flow over a flat plate or a streamlined body
lies in the behavior of the boundary layer. We recall that the boundary
layer of a fluid flowing over the surface of a streamlined body will separate
when the pressure rise along the surface becomes too large. On a stream-
lined body the separation, if it takes place at all, occurs near the rear. On
a bluff body, on the other hand, the point of separation often lies not far
from the leading edge. Beyond the point of separation of the boundary
layer, the fluid in a region near the surface flows in a direction opposite to
the main stream, as shown in Fig. 9-1. The local reversal in the flow
I
\
\
\
--
\ \
Fw. 9-1. Schemu.t ic sketeh of boundary layer

on a circular cylinder near separation point.
results in disturbances which produce turbulent eddies. This is illustrated

in Fig. 9-2, which is a photograph of the flow pattern of a stream flowing
at right angle to a cylinder. We can see that eddies from both sides of
the cylinder extend downstream, so that a turbulent wake is formed in the
rear of the cylinder.
366
==· Digitized by Google _ __ Original from

FORCED CONVECTION OVER EXTERIOR SURFACES 367
Associated with the eparation of the flow are large pressure losses,
ince the kinetic energy of the eddies which pa off into the wake can not
be regained. In flow over a streamlined body, the pressure drop is caused
mainly by the skin-friction drag. For a bluff body, on the other hand, the
~ kin-friction drag i mall compared to the form drag in the Reynolds-
number range of commercial intere t. The form or pres ure drag arises
from the separation of the flow which prevent the closing of the streamline
and thereby induce a low-pressure region in the rear of the body. When
the pressure over the rear of the body is lower than over the front, there
xis a pre ure differenc which produces a drag force over and above the
kin friction. The magnitude of the form drag decreases as the separation
moves farther to\·vard the rear.
FIG. 9-2. Flow pattern in crossflow over a

single horizontal cylinder. (Photograph by H. L.
Rubach, Mitt. Fors hungsarb, 185, 1916)
The geometrical hapes which are most important for engineering work
are the long circular cylinder and the phere. The heat-tran fer phe-
nomena for the e two hape in cro sflow have been tudied by a number
of inv tigators, and repre entativ data are ummarized in Sec. 9- 2. In
ddition to the average urface conductance over a cylinder, the variation
f conductance around the circumference will be con idered. A knowledg
of the peripheral variation of the heat tran fer a ociated with flow ov r
cylinder i important for many practical problem uch as heat-tran fer
calculation for airplane wings, who e leading-edge contour are approxi-
mately cylindrical. The interr lation b t\\ n heat tran fer and flow phe-
nomena will also be tre d becau e it can be applied to the mea urement
of the velocity and it flu tuation in a turbulent tream by means of a
hot-\vire anemome r. Heat transfer to or from pherical bodies is of
importance in y tern where particle u pended in a fluid tream are
heated or cooled. Examples of uch ystem are met in fluidization
proc es, ettling operation , and c ment preheater ·.

368 FORCED CONVECTION OVER EXTERIOR SURFACES
Flo. 9-3. Photographs of air flowing over a sphere. In

low r picture a "tripping" wir indue d arly transition
and d :layed s p ration. (Courtesy of L. Prandtl and the
J O"Urnal of the Ro-yal A ercmautical Society)
Original from
~===D==ig:::iti:ze=
:; d=by~ Ie~!!!ii!iii-~~~~--....- N IVERSJIY OF MICHIGAN_
G~Q=Q~~
Section 9-3 deals with heat transfer to or from bundles of tubes in

crossflow, a configuration which is widely used in boilers, air-preheaters,
and conventional shell-and-tube heat exchangers. Representative experi-
mental data are presented and applied to typical engineering problems.
9-2. CYLINDER AND SPHERE IN CROSSFLOW
Photographs of typical flow patterns for flow over a single cylinder and
a sphere are shown in Figs. 9-2 and 9-3 respectively. The most forward
points of these bodies are called stagnation points. Fluid particles striking
there are brought to rest, and the pressure at the stagnation point Po rises
approximately one velocity head above the pressure in the oncoming free
stream Poo· The flow divides at the stagnation point of the cylinder, and a
houndary layer builds up along the surface. The fluid accelerates when it
fto,vs past the surface of the cylinder, as can be seen by the crowding of the
~treamlines shown in Fig. 9-4. This flow pattern is for a non viscous fluid in
irrotational flow, a highly idealized case called poteni1·az flow. The velocity
F1o. 9-4. Streamlines for poten-

tial flow ovPr a circular cy1inder.
reaches a maximum at both sides of the cylinder, then falls again to zero at
the stagnation point in the rear. The pressure distribution around the
cylinder corresponding to this idealized flow pattern is shown by the solid
line in Fig. 9-5. Since the pressure distribution is symmetrical about the
vertical center plane of the cylinder, it is clear that there will be no pressure
drag in irrotational flow. However, unless the Reynolds number is very
lo\v, a real fluid will not adhere to the entire surface of the cylinder but, as
mentioned previously, the boundary layer in which the flow is not irrota-
tional will separate from the sides of the cylinder as a result of the adverse
pressure gradient. The separation of the boundary layer and the resultant
wake in the rear of the cylinder give rise to pressure distributions shown for
different Reynolds numbers by the dotted lines in Fig. 9-5. It can be seen
that there is fair agreement between the ideal and actual pressure distribu-
tion in the neighborhood of the forward stagnation point. In the rear of the
cylinder, however, the actual and the ideal distribution differ considerably.
The characteristics of the flow pattern and of the boundary layer depend on

the Reynold number, V ooDoP! JJ. which for flow over a cylinder or a phere
is based on the velocity of the oncoming free tream V and the ou ide CD
diameter of the body D 0 • The flow pattern around the ~ylinder underg
I I
I I I I
I I
t.O --Theoret Prenure Distribution Cylind r Diameter d=25.0 em.
~ I
- -aupercrit , / ""'\. It• =6.7 )( 1o5
L
I~ I \ JUpet'UII
/
I ~.
- - - -1ubcrit • I \ It aubcrrt=l.B6x lOS $
I I \' I I 1 l I \ ~
0
I I ~ I I I I I i/1
I l \~. : I I
- Y' \ .~1
_1 I
1' \ I j
I / 7 r-- 'II
I I I' \ I I I \ tJ!
1\\ 1\ : I I \ \ II
--- '
I I
I I
I
I I \ \j I LV ............ J l \ I lr/J
I
I
I I \\ '~' I - _f= --- ---- e- -r-- -, '../ II
I
I
I \\ I :
I
I \ I
I I
I I I
I 1\ I I I \ I If/
I I I I \ l\ I
I \ I l
,,
1
- 2.0
I
I I
\' I I If \ fiJ
I I I I \ \ I / I /J
I I I I \ I '~ I I \ \ /I
I I I
I
\ I
1-
\ I
I I
: I 1\ 1 I \ I
-3.0
I I I I
1 \.. / '\.. /
1 l _1 I I
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 2~0 270 300 330 360
e-
FIG. 9- 5. Pr ure di tribution around circul r vlinder in ro flow a
variou Reynolds numb r. ; p, local pr ure; p V ro 2 / 2gc, free- tream impact
pre ure · 8, angl me ured from tagnation loint. (By permi ·ion from L.
Fla. h bart, Handbuch der Experimenta Physik, Vol. 4, P~o rt 2)
a ries of chang s as the Reynold number i incr as d, and ince the h t

tran fer depend largely on the flow, we shall consider first the efT ct of
Reynold number of the flow and then interpret the heat-transfer data in
the light of thi information.
The sketches in Fig. 9-6 illu trate flow patterns typical of the ch rac-
t ri tic range of .Reynolds number . The letter symbol of th sketch
in Fig. 9-6 corr pond to the flo" r gim indi a ted in the curve of Fig. 9-~
where the total drag coefficient of a cylinder and a phere, v are plotted
a function of the Reynold numb r. The total drag coefficient is the
urn of the pre sure and frictional force ; it is defined by the following
equation
Cv = drag fore / unit length
( Poo V ro 2 / 2gc) Do
where Poo - free-stream d nsity in lbrn / cu ft;

V oo - free- tream velo ity, in ft/ ec;
Do - out ide diam t r, in ft.

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN J
leD<1.0
(a)
Turbulent
Eddi.s Wake
l.ominar Boundary &.ay.r 1ol c 1e11 c 1os
(d)
Small
Turbvlent Wake
Laminar 1
Boundary l.crpr a., "" 10
(e)
Fla. 9-6. Sketches illustrating flow pattern for crossflow over
a circular cylinder at various Reynolds numbers.
The following discussion strictly applies only to long cylinders, but it also
gives a qualitative picture of the flow past a sphere. The letters a to e
refer to Figs. 9-6 and 9-7.
a) At Reynolds numbers of the order of unity or less, the flow adheres
to the surface and the streamlines follow those predicted from potential-flow
theory. The inertia forces are negligibly small and the drag is caused only
by viscous forces, since there is no flow separation. Heat is transferred
by conduction alone.
b) At Reynolds numbers of the order of 10, the inertia forces become
appreciable and two weak eddies stand in the rear of the cylinder. The
pressure drag accounts now for about one-half of the total drag.
c) At a Reynolds number of the order of 100, vortices separate alter-
nately from both sides of the cylinder and stretch a considerable distance
downstream. These vortices are referred to as von Karman vortex-streets
in honor of the scientist Theodore von Karman, who studied the shedding
of vortices from bluff objects. The pressure drag now predominates.
d) In the Reynolds-number range between 103 and 1()6, the skin-friction
drag becomes negligible compared to the pressure drag caused by turbulent
eddies in the wake. The drag coefficient remains approximately constant
because the boundary layer remains laminar from the leading edge to the

372 FORCED CONVECTION OVER EXTER IOR SURFACES
point of paration, wh ich lie throughout thib R, ynold numb r rang a

an angular position, 8, b tw n 80 and 85 d g measured from the dire ion
of the flow.
e) At R ynold numbers larg r than about 1()6 (the exact value depen
on th turbulenc level of the tr am) th kinetic energy of he fluid in
the laminar boundary lay r over th forward part of the cylinder is uffi-
cient to overcom the unfav r ble pr ure gradient without parating.
The flow in the boundary layer becom turbul nt while it i till attach d
100
80 ~
60 \
40
\
+-- f-- 0 \ b J
1
C I
r d e - ___.
\
20
"\
10 ~
'\. \.
8
6 "', \.
2
"' "~ \
~
1
~
~ - -........ .......... t--
Cylinders
"'\
0 .8
0.6 " "' .....
~ "-
'
0.4
Spheres_ ~ ~ r-----
0.2
\·
0.1 \
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
ReD
FIG. 9- 7. Drag o lfici nl v . R ynold , numb r for long ir ular cylind<'
and ph re in ro fl w.
and the eparation point mov to\\'ard the r ar. The clo ing of the tream-
lin r du th iz of the wak and th pre , ure drag i ther fore al u
tantially reduc d . xp riment y Fag and Falkner (1 2) indi th
nc th boundary layer ha b c m turbul nt, it will not · parat efor it
h · r ach dan angular p ition corT ·ponding to a 0 of about 130 d g.
Analy of th boundary-lay r O'rowth and th variation of th 1 al
unit- urfac condu an e \\ ith angular po ition ar und ci r ular cylinde
nd ph r h \ ·· h n _only partially ucce ful. Squir (3) h soh
t h .quation of m tion and en rg) f r a rylind r at constant m rature
Digitized by Goo le Original from

in crossflow over that portiQn of the surface to which a laminar boundary

layer adheres. He showed that, at the stagnation point and in its im-
mediate neighborhood, the convective unit-surface conductance can bP
calculated from the equation
Nun = h;~· = cV vOOD.;., (~1)

'I
where C is a constant whose nunwrical value at various Prandtl number~

is tabulat.~d he low:
Pr 0.7 0.8 1 1.0 5.0 10.0

(' 1.0 1 . 05 1 . 1-l 2. 1 1.7
'
Over the forward portion of the cylinder (O < 8 < 80 deg), the ernpirieal
equation for he,, the local value of the unit-surface conductance at 0,
h ]) 0
cB
h't
= 1.14 ( v [)
00
,,,
0 )lPr 1°· 4( 1 - (8 / 90)3] (9-2)
has been found to agree satisfactorily (4) with experimental data. For air,
Eq. 9-2 can be written in the form
(9-2a)
where T 1 is the arithmetic average of the absolute temperatures of the

free :stream and of the surface in degrees Rankine R. Giedt (5) has mea.~
ured the local pressures·and the local unit-convective conductances over the
entire circumference of a long, 4-in.-OD cylinder in an air stream over a Rey-
nolds-number range from 90,000 to 220,000. Giedt's results are shown in
Fig. 9-8, and similar data for lower Reynolds numbers are shown in Fig. 9-H.
If the data shown in Figs. 9-8 ~nd 9-9 are eompared at corresponding Rey-
nolds nurnbers with the flow patterns and the boundary-layer character-
istics deseribed earlier, some important observations can be made .
.\t Hcynolds numbers below 100,000, separation of the laminar bound-
ary layer occurs at an angular position of about 80 deg. The heat transfer
and the flow characteristics over the forward portion of the cylinder re-
~mble those for laminar flow over a flat plate which were discussed
earlier. The local conductance is largest at the stagnation point and
decreases with distance along the surface as the boundary-layer thickness
increases. The conductance reaches a minimum on the sides of the
cylinder near the separation point. Beyond the separation point the
local conductance increases because considerable turbulence exists over the
rear portion of the cylinder where the eddies of the wake sweep the surface.
However, the conductance over the rear is no larger than over the front,

37 4 FORCED CONVECTION OVER EXTERIOR SURFACES
because the eddies recirculate part of the fluid and, despite their high
turbulence, are not as effective in mixing the fluid in the vicinity of the
surface with the fluid in the main stream as a turbulent boundary layer.
At Reynolds numbers large enough to permit transition from laminar
to turbulent flo\v in the boundary layer "·ithout separation of the laminar
n
800
700
fl
600
f\
\
Reo 219,000 /)
soo
186,000-.......
/ I
., ~ Iff/
17~..............
" \\ r
Ll
140.~
'"' r''\\. J ~~
'w
IJ
~ .........,
"' '\\\
~
-\
I
v
300
1~.3~
~ \\ ~~ \/
70,800
b..L....,. )o.
~~
"\ \ ~v ~
L..--'
200
1\' / v
1\\ {~ ).-oO-
.,.., /
~
100
\\ v r-~
0 80 120 160
&- De9ree from StoQnotion Point
FIG. 9-8. Circumferential variation of the unit-surface conductance at high
Reynolds numbers for a circular cylinder in crossflow. (Extracted from "In-
vestigation of Variation of Point Unit-Heat-Transfer Coeffi('ient Around
a Cylinder Normal to an Air Stream,'' by \\'. H. Giedt, publishoo in Trans.
ASME, Vol. 71, 1949, with permission of the publishers, The American Society
of l\lechanical Engineers)
boundary layer, the unit-surface conductance has t\vo minima around the
cylinder. The first minimum occurs at the point of transition. As the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow progresses, the unit conductance
increases and reaches a maximum approximately at the point where the
boundary layer becomes fully turbulent. Then the unit-surface conduc-
tance begins to decrease again and reaches a second minimum at about 130

___...;;;;;;;;;;;iiiiioiii--------·
d~g, the point at which the turbulent boundary layer separates from the
cylinder. Over the rear of the cylinder the unit conductance increases to
another maximum at the rear stagnation point.
E:umple 9-1. To design a heating system for the purpose of preventing ice forma-
tion on an aircraft wing it is neceRSary to know the unit-surface conductance over the
outer surface of the leading edge. The leading-edge contour may be approximated hy
a half cylinder of 12-in. diameter. The ambient air is at -30 F and the surface tem-
perature is to be no less than 32 F. The plane is designed to fly at 25,000 ft altitude
at a. speed of 500 fps. Calculate the distribution of the convective unit-surface conduc-
tance over the forward portion of the wing.
Solution: At an altitude of 25,000 ft the standard atmospheric air pressure is

785 pounds per square foot {psf) and the density of the air is 0.034 lbm/cu ft (see Table
A-7 in the Appendix).
FIG. 9-9. Circumferential variation of the

local Nusselt Number Nu,..hc,Do!k1 at low
Reynolds numbers for a. circular cylinder in
crossflow. (According to \V. Lorisch from l\1. ten
Bosch, "Die Warmetibertragung," 3d ed.,
Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1936)
The unit-surface conductance at the stagnation point, i.e., at (J -= 0, is, according

to Eq. 9-2a,
= 0.194 (461)o.4v(500 X 0.034)0.1

1.0
= 16.2 Btu/hr sq ft F
The variation of he with 6 is obtained by multiplying the value of the unit-surface

conductance at the stagnation point hy 1 - (8/90) 3• The results are tabulated below.
8 (deg) 0 15 30 45 60 75
hc8 (Btu/hr sq ft F) 16.2 16.1 15.6 14.2 11.4 6.88
AnB.

3
•
Diameter Oiometef v
Wire No.1
1-- • Wire No. 2
0.0 189mm
0 .0245mm
o Tube
.
..
Tube
No.8
No. 9 25.0
2.99mm
'""'
v
/
•..
Wire No.3 0 .050 '""' Tube No. 10 44 .0 """
•
Wire No.4
Wire No.6
2 1- .. Wire No.7
0. 099 """
0.500 mm
1.000 '""'
0 Tube
D Tube
No. 11
No. 12
90.0
150.0
'""'
""" /
/
,../
A, ~
/
I
1/ • 1
~
~·,..
~
0 2 3 s 6
log leD
FIG. 9-10 Average heat-transfer coefficient vs. Reynolds number for a

circular cylinder in crossflow. (After R. Hilbert, "Wii.rmeabgabe von
geheizten Drilhten and Rohren," Forsch. Gebiete Jngenieunresen, Vol. 4,
1933, Ah.9, page 220)
It is apparent from the foregoing discussion that the variation of tlw

unit-surface conductance around a cylinder or a sphere is a very complex
problem. For many practical applications it is fortunately not necessary
to know the local value ~r 9 , but sufficient to evaluate the average vahw
of the conductance around the body. A number of observers have nlea."'-
ured mean conductances for flow over single cylinders and spheres. Hil~rt
(6) accurately measured the average conductances for air flowing OYt•r
cylinders of diameters ranging from 0.008 to nearly 6 in. His results arP
shown in Fig. 9-10, where the average Nusselt number he Do/k1 is plotted
as a function of the Reynolds number V JJo!v1 . The data shown in
Fig. 9-10 can be correlated by the equation
hcDo = C (V Do)" 00
(9-3)
kl ,,
where C and n are empirical constants whose numerical values vary with
TABLE 9-1
Cm·:FFICI~NTS I-'OR CALCULATION oF AVERAGE HEAT-TRANSFER CoEFFICIENT oF A
CIRCUI.AR CYLINDER IN A GAs FLoWING NoRMAL To ITS Axrs, BY Ec.~. ~l-3.
H('Df (,' tl
0.4-4 0.8Hl 0.330

4-40 0 .821 0. 38f)
40-4,000 0 .615 0.466
4,000-40,000 0 . 174 0.618
40,()()()-400,000 0.0239 0.805

the Reynolds number as shown in Table 9-1. It should be noted that,

if the turbulence level in the oncoming air is increased by placing a grid
or some other type of turbulence promoter upstream of the cylinder, the
surface conductance may increase by as murh as 50 per cent.
For liquids flowing over a single tube or wire 1\Ic.Adams (9) suggests
that either the right-hand side of Eq. 9-3 be multiplied by the factor
1.1 Pr1°· 31 , that is,
(9-3a)
or that the equation
(9-3b)
he used to calculate the average unit conductance.

Hot-wire anemometer. The relationship between the velocity and the
rate of heat transfer from a single cylinder in crossBow is used to measure
velocity and velocity fluctuations in turbulent flow and in combustion
processes by means of a hot-wire anemometer. This instrument consists
basically of a thin (0.001 to 0.005-in.-diam) electrically heated wire
stretched across the ends of two prongs. 'Yhen the wire is exposed to a
cooler fluid stream, it loses heat by convection. The temperature of the
wire, and consequently its electrical res~tance, depends on the temperature
and the velocity of the fluid and the heating current. To determine the
fluid velocity, the wire is either maintained at a constant temperature by
adjusting the current and the fluid speed determined from the measured
value of the current, or the wire is heated by a constant current and the
speed deduced from a measurement of the electrical resistance or the
voltage drop in the wire. In the first method the hot wire forms one arm in
the circuit of a \Vheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 9-lla. The resistance
of the rheostat arm Re is adjusted to balance the bridge when the tempera-
ture, and consequently the resistance, of the wire has reached some desired
value. When the fluid velocity increases, the current required to maintain
the temperature and resistance of the \vire constant also increases. This
change in the current is accomplished by adjusting the rheostat in series
with the voltage supply. When the galvanometer indicates that the bridge
is in balance again, the change in current, read on the ammeter, indicates
the change in speed. In the other method the fluctuations in voltage drop
caused by variations in the fluid velocity are impressed across the input of
an amplifier, the output of which is connected to an oscilloscope. Figure
9-11 b illustrates schematically an arrangement for the voJtage measure-
ment. Additional information on the hot-wire method is given in Refs.
7 and 8.

-----4 Amplifier To o.cillo.cope
(•) {b)
FIG. 9-11 Hchematic circuits for hot-wire probes and associated cquipmen t.
Example ~2. A 0.005-in.-diam polished platinum wire 0.25-in. long is to be u~J

for a hot-wire anemometer to measure the velocity of 70 F air in the range bet w~n
4 and 20 fps. The wire is to be placed into the circuit of the \Vheat.stone bridg~ ~hown
in Fig. 9-lla. Its temperature is to be maintained at 450 F by adjw~ting the curn~nt
by means of the rheostat. To design the electric circuit it is necessary to kno\v the
required current as a function of air velocity. The electrical resistivity of platinum
at 450 F is 17.1 microhms-cm.
Solution: Since the wire is very thin, conduction along the wire can be negl~et<-d;
also, the temperature gradient in the wire at any cross section may be disregnrdPd.
At the mean film temperature of 260 F the air has a thermal conductivity of 0.0 I ~l.=;
Btu/hr ft F and a kinematic viscosity of 2.81 X I0-4 sq ft/sec. At a velocity of 4 fp~
the Reynolds number is
Re = (4 ft/sec)(0.005/12 ft) =- _
5 92
2.81 X l0- 4 sq ft/sec
The Reynolds-number range of interest is therefore from 6 to 30. In this range t.h<>
equation
\~· = 0.821 Re 0 · . ,
applies according to Table 9-1 and Eq. 9-3. The average conve<'tive unit-~urfnce
conductance is therefore
0
/i - (0.0195 Btu/hr ft F) (O 821 ) [
0
O.OOS ] ·"' , o.•
0.005/12 ft . (12) (2.81 X I0- l 4) CD
= 44.7 V 00°·385 Btu/hr sq ft F

At this point it is necessary to estimate the unit-surface conductance for radiant heat
flow. According to Eq. 1-6 we have
1'~)
4
f&
r
qr
= A (1', - 1'00 )
= C1E (T.• - _Too
T, - T 00
) = 0.173 X I0- 8 E (7', 2 + TooZ)(T, ..j_
1
~

or, s1ncc (T, + TaJ 2 (T, +Too) ""'4 (T, ~Too)'

''"e have approximately
hr == 0.173 X Io-s E X 4 (T• ~
1
Too)
'The emissivity of polished platinum from Table 5-1 is about 0.073, so that hr is about
0.01 Btu/hr sq ft F. This shows that the amount of heat transferred by radiation is
negligible compared to the heat transferred by forced convection. The rate at which
heat is transferred from the wire is therefore
= heA (T I - T CD ) = 44 7 V o.w (1r) (0.00 5 )(0. 25 ) 380

q . • CD 144
- 0.46 V CDo.w Btu/hr
\\•hich is also the rate at which heat must. be generated electrically to maintain equi-
librium. The electrical resistance of the wire i~
R' = (1 "
0.25 in.
7 1 X 10-4 0 h m em) [ (1r) 0.0025 2 sq in.
J( 1 in.)
2.54 em
== 0.0858 ohms
A heat balance with the current i in amperes gives

i 2 R, watts (3.413 Btu/watt-hr) = 0.46 V 00°·*
~olving fori we get the expression
i == 0.46 v
CDO.l9U = 1.25 v CDO.lllli amp
(0.0858) (3.413)
from which the current can be readily calculated for any velocity within the specified
range. Ans.
Spheres. A knowledge of heat-transfer characteristics to or from
spherical bodies is important to predict the thermal performance of systems
'vhere clouds of particles are heated or cooled in a stream of fluid. When
the particles have an irregular shape, the data for spheres will yield satis-
factory results if the sphere diameter is replaced by an equivalent diameter,
i.e., if Do is taken as the diameter of a spherical particle having the same
surface area as the irregular particle.
The total drag coefficient of a sphere is shown as a function of the free-
stream Reynolds number in Fig. 9-7 1 and corresponding data for heat
transfer between a sphere and air are shown in Fig. 9-12. In the Reynolds-
number range from about 25 to 100,000, the equation recommended by
l\1cAdams (9) for calculating the average unit-surface conductance for
spheres heated or cooled by a gas is
hc~o =
0 6
0 _37 ( V roProDo) " (9-4)
kt ~I
1 When the sphere is dragged along by a stream, u.s for example a liquid droplet in
a ga.~ stream, the pertinent velocity for the Reynolds number is the velocity difference
between the stream and the body.

For Reynold num r b t w n 1.0 and 25 th quation
fi, = .vmPm(~·~ + ~~:~ .) ( 9-6
may be used for heat transfer in a gas. For h at tran fer in a liqui
quation
fi~~· Prr•·• = 0.97 + 0.68 ( V.,~D. ) "·' 9-6
recommend d in the Reynold -num r rang b twe n 1 and 200

In the limiting e wh n th R ynold numb r i l th n y.
.J hn ton t al. (10) have hown from th oretical consid rati n h t
1000 P,ATM
I== Key Observer Do em
~ b. Bider and I.Dhmeyer 7.5 1 'I j I
I i
•
~
f- V.D. 8ome 5.9 1.0 j j
~
0 Buttner 5.0-5 .2 1.0 ~
I-- A 7.5 0 .8
~-~ ~J+r
Dorno
~
•c Meissner ond Buttner 4 .7-12.0 1-1.5
~['
~ ....
Johnstone, Pigford and Chopin 0.033 -0 .055 1.0
100 ~
v
y
Schimdt
Vyroubo¥
7.5
1-2
1.0
1.0
-~
f- - loy%onslcy ond Schwab 7-15 1.0
•
f-
f-
---- Johnstone, Pigford ond Chopin
Theoretical line !Ref 10 I
0
12"
lA(. ~
ll
,. !
i
I
,.I•
f- · Recommended Approximate line

1- - - Vyroubov 0 .24-1 .5 1.0 ~I"'
10
L.t' ~ ~·
~
v
j
•
j
,
, (! _,..,...
.., ,/
- /
~ ~
1.0
1.0 10 10 2 10 3
,.
10 10,~
[I{
Y., PaJJo/#t Reynolds Number,
FIG. 9- 12. rr lat.ion of exp rimental av rage h at- ran f r ffi i n t

f r flow ov r a ph " f . {By p rmi i n fr m \V. H . .\-1 dam , Heal 7 rans"tn · -
sion 3d . N \V York : l\f raw-Hill Bo k mpa ny, Inc., 1 ... 4)
Nus lt numb r approach a on tant valu of two for a Prandtl num r

of unity unl th pher hav diam ter of the ord r of the mean fr
path of th mol ul in th ga .
9-3 . TUBE BUNDLES IN CROSSFLOW
Th valuati n f t h c n\ tiv c nductance b t" een a bank of tu

and a fluid flowing at right angl to th tub i an important t p in he
de ign and p rf nnance analy 'i f many typ of c mmercial h t
hang r . Th re ar , for exampl , large number f ga heat rs in '"·hi h
a hot fluid in ·i t h tube h a · a ga pa · ·ing o' r the ou ·id f th
tub . Figure 9- 13 h w · · ' r l arran m nt f t ubular air hen. m
Oollil!.t
l Ccu
~
'I
.
I
'--
"'·~· .,
0 0
tO :::0
!:!".
N
(!)
Cull. I
n
m
a.
0"
'<
0
CJ n
0 0
AJt Ovtlet z
~,....... Co1 Ovtlot
Cotlnlot
<
m
n
('iJ ~
'"'-' 0
eo. Oo-w nl\ow
IUt ond Co• Counooollo-
,..;,
Co,Upllow
Ai• C.O..W.ftrftow . Thrte -,a.u
Cot Upl\o• ond O......A-
IUt C.O.,.,terllow, ~lo - Pon
z
S.•;'- Pou
eo.tn ... 0
<
m
eo, :::0
Cot
m
,.,. X
...... ~
m
c :::0
z 0
<
m
...lw A" O~~tl ot
:::0
:::0
VlO (J)
~~: c
::::l
.,....,
0~
1<1• Ovtlet
.,
:::0
:s:o
-3
()
>
n
:r: m
Cotlnl (J)
Cl
)> Got Ovt...
GotO...Iet
z Co• Upf\ow ond Oownii- Cot Upllow Goo Oownllow
/4M C"""torllow. ~'- ·'ou AI• C.O....terllow, Two·P'o u lUI ' otOIIolflow, Thr o~u
Fro . 9- 13. Some arrangements for tubular air heaters. (Courtesy of The Babcock & \Yilcox Company) w
00
__,
which the products of combustion, after they leave a boiler, economizer,

or superheater, are used to preheat the air going to the steam-generating
units. The shells of these gas heaters are usually rectangular and the
shell-side gas flows in the space between the outside of the tubes and the
shell. Since the flow cross-sectional area is continuously changing along
the path, the shell-side gas speeds up and slows down periodically. A
similar situation exists also in some unbaffied short-tube liquid-to-liquid
heat exchangers in which the shell-side fluid flows over the tubes. In these
units the tube arrangement is similar to that in a gas heater except that
the shell cross-sectional area varies where a cylindrical shell is used.
The heat transfer in flow over tube bundles depends largely on the
flow pattern and the degree of turbulence, which in turn are functions of
the velocity of the fluid and the size and arrangement of the tubes. The
photographs of Figs. 9-14 and 9-15 illustrate the flo\v patterns for \Vater
flowing in the low turbulent range over tubes arranged in hne and staggered
respectively. The photographs were obtained ( 11) by sprinkling fine
aluminum powder on the sur~ce of water flowing perpendicularly to the
axis of vertically placed tubes. We observe that the flow patterns around
tubes in the first transverse ro\vs are similar to those for flow around single
tubes. Focusing our attention on a tube in the first row of the in-line
arrangement, we see that the boundary layer separates from both sides of
the tube and a wake forms behind it. The turbulent wake extends to the
tube located in the second transverse row. As a result of the high turbu-
lence in the wakes, the boundary layers around tubes in the second and
subsequent rows become progressively thinner. It is therefore not unex-
pected that, in turbulent flow, the heat-transfer coefficients of tubes in the
first row are smaller than the heat-transfer coefficients of tubes in subse-
quent rows. In laminar flow, on the other hand, the opposite trend ha..,
been observed ( 14).
For a closely spaced staggered-tube arrangement (Fig. 9-15) the size of
the turbulent wake behind each tube is somewhat smaller than for similar
in-line arrangements, but there is no appreciable reduction in the over-all
energy dissipation. Experiments on various types of tube arrangement
(12) have shown that, for practical units, the relation between heat transfer
and energy dissipation depends primarily on the velocity of the fluid, the
size of the tubes, and the distance between the tubes. However, in the
transition zone the performance of a closely spaced, staggered tube ar-
rangement is somewhat superior to that of a similar in-line tube arrange-
ment.
The equations available for the calculation of heat-transfer coefficients
in flow over tube banks are based entirely on experimental data because
the flow pattern is too complex to be treated analytically. Experiments
have shown that, in flow over staggered-tube banks, the transition from
_oigi~z~~ by _
Original from
G<?ogle___ _ UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
FIG. 9- 14. Flow patterns for in-line tube bundle . (By permi ion from
R. D . Wallis, "Photographic t udy of Fluid F low Between Bank of Tubes,'
Engineen"ng, 148, 1933)

q . - 15. Flow pat rn for · gg r tu e bundl . (By p rm' ion fr m

R. D. Walli , ''Phot gr phic tudy of Fluid Flow B tw n Banks of Tu ..
Eng1'n ering, 14 , 1933)
Digitized by Goo le Original from

laminar to turbulent flow is more gradual than in flow through a pipe,

whereas for in-line tube bundles the transition phenomena resemble those
observed in pipe flow. In either case the transition from laminar to turbul-
ent flow begins at a Reynolds number based on the velocity at the minimum
flow area, of about 200, and the flow becomes fully turbulent at a Reynolds
number of about 6000.
For engineering calculations the average heat-transfer coefficient for
the entire tube bundle is of primary interest. The experimental data for
heat transfer in flow over banks of tubes arc usually correlated by an
equation of thEl form N u = const (Re)"' (Pr)' which has previously been
1
,
used to correlate the data for flow over a single tube. To apply this equa-
tion to flow over tube bundles it is necessary to select a reference velocity.
since the speed of the fluid varies along its path. The velocity used to
Direction
of flow
.....
F1o. 9-16. Sketch illustmting nomeneluture for

in-line tube arrangements.
build the Reynolds number for flow over tube bundles is based on the
minimum free area available for fluid flow, regardless of whether the mini-
mum area occurs in the transverse or diagonal openings. For in-line tube
arrangements (Fig. 9-16), the minimum free-flow area per unit length of
tube A min is always A min = S T - Do, where S r is the distance between
centers of the tubes in adjacent longitudinal rows (measured perpendicu-
larly to the direction of flow), or the transverse pitch.
For staggered arrangements (Fig. 9-17) the minimum free-flow area
may occur, as in the previous case, either between adjacent tubes in a
row or, if SL/ST is so small that VST 2 + Sr 2 < 2Sr, between diagonally
opposed tubes. In the latter case, the maximum velocity, V max, is
2Sr/(vfSL2 + Sr2 - Do) times the free-flow velocity based on the shell
area without tubes. The symbolS r denotes the center-to-center distance
between adjacent transverse rows of tubes or pipes (measured in the direc-
tion of flow) and is called the longitud1"nal pitch.

To account for the effect of the tube arrangement on the heat-transfer

coefficient, it is convenient to write a dimensionless correlation equation
either in the form
(~7)
or in the form
j - Cp;~.. Pr•l (::)""" = q, (Gm:.D•) (~)

where he is the average heat-transfer coefficient for a tube bank of 10 or
more transverse rows, Gmax is the mass flow rate per unit of minimum fn~~
area, Do is the outer diameter of the pipes or tubes, C nand 111 are empirical
~- SL :
fb~---~- 0·
-~ ~·- \- - q?-- -~ ~ - ----e
. (})-. -- :- (])- - r- -
- - - !_~ - ~- -Eb---- ---- ~----e-
--+----11 -- --j---$-
Do
FIG. H-17. Sketch illw.,trating nomenclature for
stH.ggered tuhe arrangement~.
coefficients whose value depends on the tube arrangement, c1> is a functional

relationship dependent on the tuhe arrangement, and the subscripts s, f,
and b refer to conditions at the wall surface, the film, and the bulk re-
spectively.
A relation of the type represented by Eq. 9-8 has been found to cor-
relate data in the laminar-flow range (GmaxDo/ JJ.b < 200) and in the tran-
sition-flow range (200 < Gmnx Dol JJ.b < 6000), whereas Eq. 9-7 is used in
the turbulent range. Experimental data for oil in laminar and transition
flow over several different tube arrangements have been obtained by
Bergelin et al. ( 12, 13) in a research program sponsored by the Heat Trans-
fer Division of ASl\fE. The averaged results of this study are shown in Fig.
9-18 where the upper series of curves represent the friction data which will
be discussed later, and the lower series of curves represent the heat-transfer
data. The ordinate for the lower curves in Fig. 9-18 is the dimension-
~oig~iz~d by Google-~- __
Original from
- ---
1 olburn j fact r f E . 9- and the ab i · · i th bulk Reynold

num r Gms.x Do/ J.Lb· Th tub in model 1 and 4 w r arrang d tagger d
in uilateral triangl ; in mod I 3 the tub w r arrang d in tagg r d
u r ; and the tub of model 2 and 5 were arrang d in in-line quar .
The out ide diameter of the ub wa l! in.; the pit h-t -di meter rati
"\ \ Mod I Rows D 0 in. Pikh / Do

1 10 3/ 8 1.25
~
"\ 2 10 3/ 8 1.25
3 1-4 3/ 8 1.25
2 1\.
'\. ~ •5
10
10
3/ 8 1.50
1.50
"'""' ~ ' "~

3/ 8
Transition Zone
A
'""0 ' ""-/"' "'"' .......
........
~ ""-
Mod11)
~
~~
Oil~
Flow
v" " '"' ' ~
Model 2 ' -
.........
.........
~
..........
...........
..............
frict ion
2
~~ ' "'-'
Oil~ ~
~~ ........ .....
r'-... r--..
.......
............ ......__
'"' ----
flow
~
~
~
~
' -. J
;;;; ~
' "' "'

Hr1 1
8
6
~
~ ~ "-
~~
........_ ~ ~
~
~ ~~
./PJ .......
"" Model 3
..............
.._
Model
.
Orl Flow(3'._.
./
4G
,'~ " Model 5
~~Q -
~~'~::--......... E!)
Flow
I t
~ ..........
.::::: :::;;;;
2
Heat Transfer ~
...........
"--..
~
'\;
~~
I
....... /
\ ~~
~
~"'"'
2 .. 6 8 1 2 ... 6 8 1 2 .. 6 8 1
102 lOl 10 4
. m n n 1
f r ach mod 1 i hown f r a h un Fi . 9- 1 . In p tion of th

h w th t at a R vn ld. f 200 th xp rim ntal d
d viat mark ly fr m h rai h lin "hi h r pr nt the d t
vi ou r gion. ~t R yn ld ' numb r f b ut 0 th h t-
r curve for in-lin nd 'ta er d tub ppr h n an th rand th
.
1 sum d to be turbul nt at high r valu of th R ynold numb r .

It will be noted that the form of the curves for in-line and staggered tube~
are different in the transition zone. There is a dip region, similar to that
observed in pipe flow, for the curves of in-line tubes, but not for staggered
tubes. It is believed that the flow in the free channels between the ~..akes
(Fig. 9-14) of in-line tubes resembles flow in a pipe or a duct and the onset
of turbulence occurs throughout the tube bank. In simple cross flo'-v over
staggered tubes, on the other hand, turbulence begins at the exit end,
gradually works upstream as the flow is increased, and finally spreads
throughout the tube bank. These general remarks apply only to simple
crossfiow and may not be true for baffled arrangements where no similar
experiments have as yet been performed.
The effect of the number of transverse tube rows on the heat-transfer
coefficient has been investigated for the laminar regime by l\Ieece (14)
with square in-line tube arrangements having one, two, four, six, eight.
and ten rows of j-in. tubes with a pitch-to-diameter ratio of 1.25. ::\Ieece
found that, for a given Reynolds number, the average heat-transfer coeffi-
cient for a single row of tubes was 50 per cent larger than for 10 ro,vs.
For the tube arrangements used, the variation of the heat-transfer coeffi-
cient with N, the number of tube rows in the direction of flow, can be
generalized by the equation
• I.
J Nrows / }10 rows =
NO ·18 (9-9)
when the flow is laminar. Figure 9-18 shows the results for 10 ro\vs oi
tubes and can be combined with Eq. 9-9 to predict the average heat-transfer
coefficient at Reynolds numbers below 1000 when the number of tube ro,\·s
is less than 10. For more than 10 tube rows it is suggested that no cor-
rection be applied to the value of iin obtained from Fig. 9-18.
Experiments similar to those described above have also been perfonned
by I{ays et al. (15,16) with air fio\ving over banks of i- and j-in. tulx~s
in various arrangements. The Reynolds numbers in these tests cove~d
the transition regime and the low range of the turbulent regime, but did
not extend into the laminar region. In the transition range the ~~lt~
obtained by Kays et al. are in fairly good agreement \\~th those shol\~ in
Fig. 9-18 for similar geometries. A summary of the results of these tests
is presented in Ref. 17.
For turbulent flow (i.e., Remax > 6000) over banks of tubes or pipes.
irrespective of whether they are staggered or arranged in-line, the experi-
mental heat-transfer data agree well with the equation
hcDo = 0.33Cn ( GmaxDo )0.6Prl·• (9-10)

kt ~I
if the tube bundle has 10 or more transverse rows. The value of the empiri-
cal coefficient C 11 depends on the tube arrangement and the Reynolds
Coogle=-~--=-==
Original from
=--=- ----=-- -=Digiti zed by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
number. Fishenden and Saunders (18) evaluated C H from extensive

experiments by Huge (19), Pierson (20), Grimison (21), Kuznetzkof and
Lokshin (22) for longitudinal and transverse pitch-to-diameter ratios
ranging from 1.25 to 3.0. They found that, for pitch-to-diameter ratios
between 1.25 and 1.5, the range of practical interest for heat exchangers,
the value of C n did not deviate by more than 10 per cent from unity for
any of the tube arrangements tested. For preliminary calculations,
Eq. 9-10 is therefore satisfactory. \Vhen high accuracy is desired, it is
recommended that the correlation of Kays ( 17) be used in the Reynolds-
number range between 1000 and about 15,000 and the correlation of
Grimison (18 or 21) be used for the Reynolds-number range between
10,000 and 40,000.
The variation of the average heat-transfer coefficient of a tube bank
'vith the number of transverse rows is shown in Table 9-2 for turbulent
Ho\v. To calculate the average heat-transfer coefficient for tube banks
with less than 10 rows, the ii'" obtained from Eq. 9-10 should be multiplied
hy the appropriate ratio ii'" lh'".v.
TABLE 9-2
RATIO OF he FOR N TRA!Il'SVER!-\E Rows TO fir f'OR TE!Il TR.\S:o;VER:-;E RowR
-
N
RATIO
1
I
I
2
I
I
3 I
I
I
4
'
i
5 I
I
(j
I
I
!
7 I ~
I
!I
, to
1
___
Stagger«"d I i I I I I
'
tube-s ...... 0.68 0.75 0.83 0. 8~) 0.92 0.95 0.97 O.H8 o.mJ 1 .0
In-line I
tubes .... . . 0.64 0.80 0.87 0.90 I O.H2
I I O.H4 0.96 O.H8 O.H9 1.0
- - ---
~t:RcE: Ref. 15.
The frictional pressure drop in lbrlsq ft for flow o\·er a bank of tub~s
.lp can be calculated from the equation
~ f 'Gmax 2N (II )0.14~~

(9-11)
p = p(2.09 X 10 8) J.Lb
where Gmax =
mass velocity at the minimum area, in lhm/hr sq ft;
p = mass density, in lbm/cu ft;
~v = number of tran~verse rows;
and f' iH an empirical friction factor which can be estimated, according to
.Jakob (23), for values of Reynold~ number hu·ger than 1000 from the
<·quation
(9-12)

for staggered tube arrangements and by the equation

0 16
f' = [ 0.044 +
l)
0.08SL/Do
( S~~ 0.43+1.UD,ISL
]( Gmu.Do)-
P.b
· (9-13)
for in-line tube arrangements.

For laminar flow the friction factors from the upper series of curves
shown in Fig. 9-18 should be used in Eq. 9-11, but the exponent of 0.14
of the viscosity ratio (JJ.a/P.b) in Eq. 9-11 should be replaced by 0.25 (13).
Liquid metals. Experimental data for the heat-transfer characteristics
of liquid metals in crossftow over a tube bank have been obtained at the
Brookhaven National Laboratory (28 and '29). In these tests mercury
(Pr c: 0.022) was heated while flowing normal to a staggered tube bank
consisting of 60 to 70 !-in. tubes, ten rows deep, arranged in an equilateral
triangular array with a 1.375 pitch to diameter ratio. Both local and
average heat-transfer coefficients were measured in turbulent flow. The
average heat-transfer coefficients in the interior of the tube bank are well
correlated by the equation
Nu = 4.03 + 0.228 (Remax Pr)/· 67 (9-14:)
in the Reynolds number range from 20,000 to 80,000.
The measurements of the distribution of the local unit-surface con-
ductance around the circumference of a tube indicate that for a liquid
metal the turbulent effects in the wake upon heat transfer are small com-
pared to the heat transfer by conduction within the fluid. \\rhereas with
air and water a marked increase in the local heat-transfer coefficient occurs
in the wake region of the tube (see Fig. 9-8), with mercury, the unit-surface
conductance decreases continuously with increasing 8. At a Reynolds num-
ber of 83,000 the ratio hc 8v'hc was found to be 1.8 at the stagnation point,
1.0 at 8 = 90, 0.5 at 0 = 145, and 0.3 at 8 = 180 degrees.
Grosh and Cess (30 and 31) have recently developed a theoretical and
an analogical method for predicting heat-transfer coefficients for liquid
metals flowing across a single cylinder on a tube bank. The procedure for
obtaining these coefficients rests on the assumption that in a fluid with a
small Prandtl number eddy transport of heat is negligible in comparison to
molecular conduction. At low velocities this approach yields results in
good agreement with measurements. At higher velocities, however, the
theory yields low results because it neglects the contribution of eddy con-
duction.
9-4. APPLICATION TO HEAT-EXCHANGER DESIGN
In the design and selection of a stationary commercial heat exchanger,
the power requirement and the initial cost of the unit must be considered.

The results obtained by Pierson (20) show that the smallest possible pitch
in each direction results in the lowest power requirement for a specified
rate of heat transfer. Since smaller values of pitch also permit the use
of a smaller shell, the cost of the unit is reduced when the tubes are closely
packed. There is little difference in performance between in-line and
staggered arrangements, but the former are easier to clean. The Tubular
Exchanger Manufacturers Association recommends that tubes shall be
spaced with a minimum center-to-center distance of 1.25 times the outside
diameter of the tube and when tubes are on a square pitch, a minimum
clearance lane of i in. shall be provided.
Example 9-3. Atmospheric air at 58 F is to be heated to 86 F by passing it over a
bank of bra.~s tubes inside which steam at 212 F is condensing. The unit-surface
conductance on the inside of the tubes is about 1000 Btu/hr sq ft F. The tubes are
2 ft long, ! in. OD, B\VG No. 18 (0.094-in. wall thickness). They are to be arranged
in-line in a square pattern with a pitch of i in. in~ide a reetangular shell 2 ft wide and
15 in. high. If the total mass rate of flow of the air to be heated is 32,000 lbm/hr,
(•stimate (a) the number of transverse rows required, and (b) hte pressure drop.
Solution: (a) Since the thermal resistance on the air side will be much larger than
the combined resistance of the pipe wall and the steam, we shall first assume that the
outside surface of the pipe is at the steam temperature. The mean film temperature
of the air Tt will then be approximately equal to
The mass velocity at the minimum cross-sectional area, which is between adjacent
tubes, is calculated next. The shell is 15 in. high and consequently holds 20 longi-
tudinal rows of tubes. The minimum free area is
Amtn = (20) (2) [(0.75 - 0.50)/12] = 0.833 sq ft
and the maximum mass velocity is
Gmax = 32,000/0.833 - 38,400 lbm/hr sq ft

Hence, the Reynolds number is
Remax = Gmax Do = (38,400 lh/hr sq ft) m.5/12 ft) = 33 000

~~ 0.0485 lb/hr ft '
Assuming that more than 10 rows will be required, the unit-~urface conductance is
calculated from Eq. 9-10, since the flow is turbulent. \Ve get
== (
0.016 Btu/hr ft
O.S/l ft
F) (0.33)(33,000°· )(0.905)
6
= 64.2 Btu/hr sq ft F
2
\Ve can now determine the temperature at the outer tube wall, which was originally

a.·;;~umed
equal to the steam temperature. There are three thermal resistances in serie:-o
between the ~team and the air. The resistance at the steam side per tube i.s
R1 = J;.1 rD,L = ( 1 ) 3.14 ( 0.402) 2 = 0.00474 hr F /Btu

1000 12
The resistance of the pipe wall (k = 00 Btu/hr ft F) h~ approximately
0
R! = ·~49 r (Do~ D,) L =- .( :
0 9
) (3.14)(0.451)(2) = 0.000287 hr F/Btu
The resiHtancc at the outside of the tube is
R3 = 1
ho r DoL 1 ) 3.14 (0.5)
= ( H-1. -f2 2 = 0.0595 hr F /Btu
2
The total resiRtanee is then
R1 + R-z + R3 = 0.06453 hr F /Btu

~ince the Rum of the resi!'tance at the st~m ~ide and the resi~tance of the tube wall
are about 8 per cent of the total resistance, about 8 per cent of the total temperatuN>
drop occurs between the steam and the outer tube wall. The mean film temperature can
now be correct{~~~ ami we get
T1 = 137 F
This will not change the values of the physical properties appreciably, and no adjust-
ment in the previously caleulated value of ii< is nece~stuy.
The mean temperature difference between the steam and the air can now be calcu-
lated. Using the arithmetic average we get
T8 wam -
,.
Talr = 212 - (58 +2 86) = 140 F
The specific heat of air at constant pre:f-!~ure is 0.241 Btu/Ibm F. Equating the rate of
heat flow from the ~team to the air to the rate of enthalpy rise of the air gives
20.N.:.\Tuvg
R
1
+ Rz + R 3 = Gcp(Tout - Ttn)atr
Solving for N, the number of transverse rows, yields
N = (32,000)(0.24) (86 - 58)(0.0645) =
5
(20)(140)
Since the number of tubes ii leRS than 10, it is necessary to correct lie in accordance with
Table U-2, or
hc 0 rowe = 0.92 he 10 rowe = (0.92) (64.2) = 59 Btu/hr sq ft F
Repeating the calculationH with the corrected value of the average unit-surface condur-
tancc on the air side we find that six transverse rows are required for heating the air
according to the specifications. An.~.
b) The pre~sure drop is obtained from Eqs. 9-11 and 9-13. \Ve first calculate the
frict.ion factor f. For the arrangement of the heater, SL = 1.5 Do, and we get from
Eq. 9-13
!, = [
0.044 + (1.5 co.o 8 )(1. 5 )
- l)O.U + 1.13/1.1'1
J 33 ooo-o.u -
' -
o 067
•

Taking he d nsity of the air p at 72 F a 0.075 Ibm / u ft th pre" ure drop i fr m

Eq. 9-11
_ (0.067) (32,0<XP) (6) o.u = 26 8 I f
llp - (0.075 )(2.09 X 10 ) 1. 2 · br/ q t
r about 5 in. of water. Ans.

In many c mmercial hell-and-tube heat exchanger , baffle are u ed to
in rea the v I city and con equ ntly th h t-tran f r c ffi i nt on th
hell jde. Figure 9- 19 i a phot graph of a larg baffied x hanger f r
\'egetable- il ervice. The flow f the hell- id fluid in baffi d h at x-
hang r i partly perpendicular and partly parall 1 to th tub . The
Fxa. 9-19. H at exchang r tub bundle with baffi . (Courtesy of the

Aluminum ompany of m Prica)
heat-tran fer coefficient on the h 11 ide in thi · ype of unit d pend not
nly on th iz and pacing f th tub , the v lo ity and phy ·i al prop-
.rti of the fluid, but al o on th pacing and hap of th baffi ·. In
addition, ther i alway leakag through th tub h l in the baffi and
tween the bafl:l and the in ide f th hell, and th r i · bypa in tw n
the tube bundl and the h ll. B cau of th mplic ti n , th h at-
transfer coeffici nt can b ·timat d only by appr xim t m th d r fr m
xperience with imilar unit . Ac ording to on ppr ximat m th d
which i widely u ed for d ign al ul ti n (24), th av rag h t-tr n ·f r
coefficient calcul t d for the c rr ponding tub arrang m nt in ·impl
cro flow i multiplied by 0.6 t all w f r I akag and oth r d vi ti n ·

from the simplified model. For additional information the reader !:-
referred to Refs. 24, 25, 26, and 27.
REFERENCES
1. A. Fage, "The Air Flow Around a Circular CyJinder in the Region ~~ere the
Boundary Layer Separates from the Surface," Brit. Areo. Res. Comm'., R and ...ll 11 i~!.
1929.
2. A. Fage and V. l\1. Falkner, "The Flow Around a Circular Cylinder," Brit. Aem
Res. Comm., Rand M 1369, 1931.
3. H. B. Squire, Modern Developments in. Fluid Dynamic&, 3d ed., Vol. 2. (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1950.)
4. R. C. l\Iartinelli, A. G. Guibert, E. H. 1\-lorin, and L. M. K. Boelter, "An Investi-
gation of Aircraft Heaters VIII-A Simplified Method for Calculating the Unit-Surf:H't·
Conductance over Wings," N ACA ARR, 1\larch, 1943.
5. W. H. Giedt, "Investigation of Variation of Point Unit-Heat-Transfer Coefficient
Around a Cylinder Normal to an Air Stream," Trans. ASME, Vol. 71 (1949), pp. 375-
381.
6. R. Hilpert, "W~rmeabgabe von gehcizten Drahten und Rohren," For8ch.. Gebult
lngenieurw., Vol. 4 (1933), p. 215.
7. H. Dryden and A. N. Kuethe, "The l\leasurement of Fluctuations of AirS~
by the Hot-Wire Anemometer," NACA Report 320, 1929.
8. C. E. Pearson, "Measurement of Instantaneous Vector Air Velocity by Hot-\Vin·
1\fethods," J. Aero. Sci., Vol. 19 (1952), pp. 73-82.
9. W. H. 1\-lcAdams, Heat Transmission, 3d ed. (New York: l\lcGraw-Hill Book
10. H. F. Johnston, R. L. Pigford, and J. H. Chapin, HHeat Transfer to Clouds of
Faliing Particles," Uuiv. of Ill. Bull., Vol. 38, No. 43 (1941).
11. R. D. \Vallis, ''Photographic Study of Fluid Flow Between Banks of Tul:)(·~<·
Engineering, Vol. 148 (1934), pp. 423-425.
12. 0. P. Bergelin, G. A. Brown, and S. C. Doberstein, "Heat Transfer and Fluid
Friction During Flow Across Banks of Tubes," Trans. ASME, Vol. 74 (1952), pp. 953-
959.
13. 0. P. Bergelin, A. P. Colburn, and H. L. Hull, "Heat Transfer and PN>.s.~ure
Drop During Viscous Flow Across UnbatHed Tube Banks," Bull. 2, Univ. of Delawar•·
Eng. Exp. Sta. (1950).
14. W. E. l\1eece, The Effect of the Number of Tube Rows Upon Heat Transft!r aT1~'I
Pressure Drop During Viscous Flow Across In-line Tube Ba11ks, 1\l.S. Thesis, Univ. of
Delaware, 1949.
15. W. l\1. Kays and R. J{. Lo, ''Basic Heat Transfer and Flow Friction Design
Data for Gas Flow Normal to Banks of Staggered Tubes-Use of a Transient Tech-
nique," Tech. Rep. 1.5, Navy Contract Xf>-onr-251 T. 0. 6, Stanford Univ., 1952.
16. \V. :\1. Kays, ''Basic Heat Transfer and Flow Friction Design Data for Flow
X ormal to Bank~ of I n-li1w Circular Tulws ~ lJ:-:;p of n. Transient Technique," Tech. Rep.
21, Navy Contraet ~6-onr-251 T .0. 6, Stanford Uuiv., 1954.
17. W. :\L Ka.yH and A. L. London, "Compact Heat Exchangers-A Sun1mary of
Basic Heat Transfer and Flow Friction D<•sign Data," Tech. Rep. 23, N a.vy Contract
:\6-onr-2.51, T.O. 6, Stanford lJniv., 1!}5-l. (.\lso published in book form under same
title by 1\ a.tionul Pr('s:-<, Palo Alto, Calif., 1U;);').)
18. :M. Fislwndt~n a.nd 0. A. Saunders, An lntroductum to Heat Transfer. (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1950.)

19. E. C. Huge, "Experimental Investigation of Effects of Equipment Size on Con-

vection Heat Transfer and Flow Resistance in Cross Flow of Gases over Tube Banks,"
Trans. ASME, Vol. 59 (1937), pp. 573-582.
20. 0. L. Pierson, "Experimental Investigation of Influence of Tube Arrangement
on Convection Heat Transfer and Flow Resistance in Cross Flow of Gases over Tube
Banks," Trans. ASME, Vol. 59 (1937), pp. 563-572.
21. E. C. Grimison, "Correlation and Utilization of New Data on Flow Resistance
and Heat Transfer for Cross Flow of Gases over Tube Banks," 1'rans. ASME, Vol. 59
( 1937), pp. 583--594.
22. N. V. KuznetzkofJ and V. A. Lokshin, "Conventional Heat Transfer for the
Cross Flow of a Fluid over Tube Banks," Teplo i Sila, Vol. 13, No. 10 (1937), p. 19.
23. M. Jakob, "Heat Transfer and Flow Resistance in Cross Flow of Gases over
Tube Banks," Trans. ASME, Vol. 60 (1938), pp. 384-386.
24. T. Tinker, "Analysis of the Fluid Flow Pattern in Shell-and-Tube Heat Ex-
changers and the Effect Distribution on the Heat Exchanger Performance," I mt. M ech.
Eng. and ASME Proc. of the General Discussion on Heat Transfer, September, 1951, pp.
89-115.
25. B. E. Short, "Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop in Heat Exchangers," BuU.
3819, Univ. of Texas, 1938. (See also revision, Bull. 4324, June, 1943.)
26. D. A. Donohue, "Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop in Heat Exchangers," Ind.
Eng. Chem., Vol. 41 (1949), pp. 2499-2511.
27. A. C. ~fueller, "Thermal Design of Heat Exchangers," Eng. BuU. 121, Res.
Series, Purdue Univ., 1954.
28. R. J. Hoe, D. Dropkin, and 0. E. Dwyer, "Heat Transfer Ratee to Crossflowing
1\fercury in a Staggered Tube Bank-I," Trans. AS~\1 E, Vol. 79 (1957), pp. 899-908.
29. C. L. Richards, 0. E. Dwyer, and D. Dropkin, "Heat Transfer Rates to CroRS-
ftowing ~Iercury in a Staggered Tube Bank-11," A SAlE-A /ChE Heat Transfer
Conference Paper No. 57-HT-11, 1957.
30. R. J. Grosh and R. D. Cess, "Heat Transfer to Fluids With Low Prandtl Num-
bers for Flow Across Plates and Cylinders of Various Cross Sections," ASM E Paper No.
57-F-29, 1957.
31. R. D. Cess and R. J. Grosh, "Heat Transmission to Fluids \Vith Low Prandtl
Numbers for Flow Through Tube Banks,'' AS,.U E-A/ChE Heat Transfer Conference
Paper No. 57-HT-12, 1957.
PROBLEMS
9-1. Determine the unit-surface conductance at the stagnation point and the
average value of the conductance for a single 2-in.-OD, 24-in.-long tube in cross flow.
The temperature of the tube surface is 500 F, the velocity of the fluid flowing perpen-
dicularly to the tube axis is 20 fps, and i~ temperature is 100 F. The following fluids
are to be considered: (a) air, (b) hydrogen, and (c) water.
9-2. A spherical water droplet of -h-in. diam is freely falling in atmospheric air.
Calculate the average convection heat-transfer coefficient when the droplet has reached
its terminal velocity. Assume that the water is at 130 F, the air is at 70 F and neglect
mass transfer and radiation.
H. A mercury-in-glass thermometer at 100 F (OD = 0.35 in.) is inserted through
the duct wall into a 100 fps air stream at 150 F. Estimate the unit-convective conduc-
tance between the air and the thermometer. Ans. he ""73 Btu/hr sq ft F
9-4. Steam at 1 atm and 212 F is flowing across a 2-in.-OD tube at a velocity of
20 fps. Estimate the Nus..~elt number, the heat-transfer coefficient, and the rate of heat
transfer per foot length of pipe if the pipe is at 400 F.

9-6. Repeat Prob .. -4 for a tub bank in whi h all f th tul

their center line 3.0 in. apar .
9-6. Determin th average unit- urfac ondu tance for air at 142 F flowin
velocity of 200 fpm over a bank of 2.37- -in.-OD tuh , arr nged as hown in the ac-
companying sketch. The tube-wall temperature i 242 F.
Pin fin
r-3~
-.-4+.-t---
Air--- !. ~-e--
L$0
0 Flot-Piote Temperature
1200 F
PROB. 9-6. PR B. 9-7.
9-7. A tainl - teel pin fin 2-in. long, -in. OD extend from a flat pl t in t
-100 mph air r am a hown in the ac mpanying ketch. (a ) E tima the av
heat-tran fer coeffi ient betw en the air and th fin. (b) E timate the temperat-ur
t.he end of the fin. ( ) E timate the rate f hea flow from the fin.
9-8. Repeat Prob. 9-7 with glycerin fl wing over he fin at 7 fps.
9-9. n inventor claim hat pumping power can be r du d if the tub tn a
in cro flow ar r pla d by hollow tr mlin d b di wh e r E.' ti n h v .
hape of an cllip . H cl:tim hat. nergy lo s in th wak would b r du(·
affecting th rate of h at tran f r adver ly. A t h accompanying k t h.
your evaluation of he inv n tor'. claim in t.he form of a hort r p rt, and ub n i
your conclu ion by order-of-magni ude alculat.ion . tate all of your umptio ..
PROB. 9- .

9-10. The instruction manual for a hot-wire anemometer states that "Roughly
~peaking, the current varies as the fourth power of the average velocity at a fixed wire
resistance." Check this statement, using the heat-transfer characteristics of a thin
wire in air and water.
9-11. In a lead-shot tower, spherical f-in.-diam BB shots are formed by drops of
molten lead which solidify as they descend in cooler air. At the terminal velocity, i.e.,
when the drag equals the gravitational force, estimate the total unit-surface conductance
if the lead surface is at 340 F (e = 0..63) and the air temperature is 60 F. Assume CD =
0. 7 5 for the first trial calculation.
9-12. Water at 350 F and at 10 ft/sec enters a bare, 50 ft long, l-in. wrought-iron
pipe (1.05-in. ID, 1.32-in. OD). If air at 50 F flows perpendicular to the pipe at 40 ft/se<·,
determine the outlet temperature of the water. (Note that the temperature difference
between the air and the water varies along the pipe.)
9-13. Estimate the unit-surface conductance for liquid sodium at 1000 F flowing
over a 10-row staggered-tube bank arranged in an equilateral-triangular arrow with a
1.5 pitch to diameter ratio. The entering velocity is 10 ft/sec, based on the area of the
shell, and the tube-surface temperature is 400 F. '\Vhat is the outlet temperature of the
. ?
sod IUID.
9-14. Estimate (a) the unit-surface conductance for a spherical fuel droplet injected
into a. diesel engine at 180 F and 300 ft/sec. The oil droplet is 0.001 in. in diam, the
eylinder pressure is iOO psia, and the gas temperature is 1iOO R. (b) What is the time
n~quired to heat the droplet to its self-ignition temperature of 580 F?

10 Heat Transfer with
Change in Phase
10-1. FUNDAMENTALS OF BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer to boiling liquids is a convection process involving a

change in phase from liquid to vapor. The phenomena of boiling heat
transfer are considerably more complex than those of convection \Vithout
phase change because, in addition to all of the variables associated with
convection, those associated with the change in the phase are also relevant.
Whereas in liquid-phase convection, the geometry of the system, the
viscosity, the density, the thermal conductivity, the expansion coefficient,
and the specific heat of the fluid are sufficient to describe the process, in
boiling heat transfer, the surface characteristics, the surface tension, the
latent heat of evaporation, the pressure, the density, and possibly other
properties of the vapor play an important part. As a result of the large
number of variables involved, neither general equations describing the
boiling process nor general correlations of boiling-heat-transfer data are
available to date. Considerable progress has been made, however, during
the last few years in gaining a physical understanding of the boiling mech-
anism. By observing the boiling phenomena with the aid of high-speed
photography, it has been found that there are various distinct regimes of
boiling in which the heat-transfer mechanisms differ radically. To cor-
relate the experimental data it is therefore necessary to describe and analyze
each of the boiling regimes separately.
Until about fifteen years ago, processes involving heat transfer to boiling
liquids were found primarily in the tubes of steam boilers, various types
of kettles, in evaporators of air-conditioning and refrigeration systems, and
in certain chemical processes. The emphasis in these applications is on
transferring heat for the purpose of converting liquid into vapor. The
over-all thermal resistance which controls the rate of heat transfer in these
systems is composed of a number of individual resistances in series. Com-
pared to the thermal resistances of single-phase fluids, especially gases or
vapors, and the surface scales which usually form during operation, the
thermal resistance of a boiling liquid under normal operating conditions is
398

HEAT TRANSFER WITH CHANGE IN PHASE 399
usually small and does not control the rate of heat flow. A very different
problem, however, has been encountered recently in high-performance
machines such as nuclear reactors and rocket motors (1). In these devices
very large quantities of heat are released in relatively small volumes, and
if boiling heat transfer is to be used to cool the structural components,
its mechanisms and limitations must be known accurately to ensure reliable
operation. The cooling problem in these devices is illustrated by com-
paring the rate of heat release per unit volume in a conventional boiler
with that in a rocket motor and a nuclear reactor. A heat release of about
40,000 Btu/hr cu ft is considered good practice in a modern boiler, but in
a rocket or a nuclear reactor it may be 1,000,000,000 Btu/hr cu ft. A
characteristic common to nuclear reactors and jet engines is that the rate
of heat generation is essentially constant, and if the cooling is inadequate,
the surface transferring the heat will fail by melting or, possibly, by very
rapid corrosion caused by its high temperature.
To acquire a physical understanding of the phenomena which are
characteristic of the various boiling regimes we shall first consider a simple
system consisting of a heating surface, such as a fiat plate or a wire, sub-
merged in a pool of water at saturation temperature without external agita-
tion. This is called pool boiling. A familiar example of such a system is
the boiling of water in a kettle on a stove. As long as the temperature of
the surface does not exceed the boiling point of the liquid by more than a
few degrees, heat is transferred to liquid near the heating surface by free
convection. The convection currents circulate the superheated liquid, and
evaporation takes place at the free surface of the liquid. The heat-transfer
mechanism in this process, although some evaporation occurs, is simply
free convection, because only liquid is in contact with che heating surface.
As the temperature of the heating surface is increased, a point is
reached where, in certain places, the energy level of the liquid adjacent to
the surface becomes so high that some of the molecules break away from
the surrounding molecules, are transformed from liquid into a vapor
nucleus, and final1y form a vapor bubble. This process occurs simulta-
neously at a number of favored spots on the heating surface. The vapor
bubbles are at first small and condense before reaching the surface, but as the
temperature is raised further, they become more numerous and larger
until they finally rise to the free surface. These phenomena may be
observed when boiling water in a kettle. They are also illustrated by the
sketches of Fig. 1Q-1 for a horizontal \vire heated electrically in a pool of
distilled water at atmospheric pressure and corresponding saturation tem-
perature of 212 F (2). In the curve accompanying the sketches of the
various boiling regimes, the heat flux is plotted as a function of the tempera-
ture difference between the surface and the saturation temperature. This
temperature difference, 6. T :c, is called the excess temperature above the boiling

400 HEAT TRANSFER WITH CHANGE IN PHASE
3 4
~ dT.,.=II - 65 F
6
dTx=65-<400 F
~
~
~ng
dTx=<400-tOOO F dT1 1000 F
f4-- Interface Evaporation _ ...,..._ Bubbles Film

3 -~- 4 - 5 --~---
Cl
6 /.
a ----.g
::c - --- --------- - x b
.... c
0
til - =>e
2 -olE 01 01
t: c: ~ c:
Pure Convection Heat ~ ~ o ~ ·s .E
Transferred By ~g'~ cO 0
u
v:.= v E
Superh ated liquid
R1$ing to the liquid-
2:82 lE g >-
-~~
Vapor Interface Where :.Co
0>
0 Evaporation Tokes ~.£
...J Place, X-
C
--------- - -- xd ---------
0.1 I 0 10 100 1000 10.000
dTx,F - - -- -
FIG. 10- 1. Typical iling da ta for 1'\ wir h ted 1 rtri ally in a p 1
f wat r at atm pheri pr ur . (Extr ct d from "H a Traru f r t
'Yat r B iling UndPr Prr.:. ure ' by . A. Farb r and R. L . ._' · r~, pub-
li h diu Tran . A k ME, V I. 79, 194 , wi ·h p rmi ion of th pu lishers.
Th Am ri an oci ty of l\'lecha ni 1 Engine r )
point or exce s temperature for hort. observ that, in regim 2 and 3. vV

h heat flux incr a · rapidly with in r a ing -urface temperatur . Th
pr in the ·e tw r gim i call d nu I at boiling. M · of th h
1·· ran ·f rr d from th heating urfa dir ctly to the urrounding liqui
int n e nv tion curr nt whi h ar induced by the motion f th
bubbl A the bub I form at the urface, they di pla e liquid aboY ,
which ru h a k to fill th void when the vapor bubble leave th urf c ..
Digitized by Gooole Original from

UNIVERSLIY...OF MICl:ilGAN _
.-·======~====::=-""""'~
~---=~-
The vapor bubbles receive only a small fraction of the total heat dissipated,
hut they create intense turbulence and mechanically pump hot liquid from
the vicinity of the heating surface into the cooler pool.
'\Vhen the excess temperature is raised to about 100 F, we observe that
the heat flux reaches a maximum of about 500,000 Btu/hr sq ft, and a
further increase of the temperature causes a decrease in the rate of heat
flow. The reason for the inflection point in the curve may be found by
examining the heat-transfer mechanism during boiling. At the onset of
hoiling, bubbles grow at certain favored spots on the surface until the
huoyant force or currents of the surrounding liquid carry them away.
Although the product of the size of the departing bubbles times the fre-
quency of their formation at any particular spot does not vary appreciably
with heat flux (3,4,5), the number of spots at which bubbles form increases
nearly in direct proportion with the excess temperature (6). The increase
in bubble population per unit area promotes the heat transfer by convection
to the liquid, but since the thermal conductivity of the vapor is so much
smaller than that of the liquid, the portion of the surface covered by vapor
bubbles at any instant is effectively insulated. Thus, increasing the
number of bubbles promotes the flow of heat by virtue of the agitating
motion of the bubbles, but at the same time the area available for heat
transfer to the liquid diminishes. As long as the agitation effects pre-
dominate, the heat flux rises with increasing surface temperature, and
nucleate boiling prevails. However, when the number of spots at which
bubbles form becomes so large that an appreciable portion of the surface
is covered by vapor, the insulating effects overshadow the beneficial effects
of fluid agitation and the heat flux decreases with increasing excess temper-
ature. The regimes in which vapor blankets all or an appreciable portion
of the heating surface are'k:no\vii"as j{lln boiling.- Tlie maximum heat flux
occurs just before the-transition from nucleate to film boiling takes place.
The photographs in Figs. 10-2 and 10-3 illustrate the nucleate and film-
boiling mechanisms on a wire submerged in water at atmospheric pressure.
Note the film of vapor which completely covers the wire in Fig. 10-3. A
phenomenon which closely resembles this condition is also observed when
a drop of water falls on a red-hot stove. The drop does not evaporate
immediately but dances on the stove because a steam film forms at the
interface between the hot surface and the liquid and insulates the droplet..
The film-boiling regime is usually subdivided according to the behavior
of the vapor film. Just beyond the peak heat flux, in regime 4 of Fig. 10.:_1,
an unstable film forms over the heating surface and large vapor bubble~
originate at its outer surface. The film periodically collapses and form~
again under the action of circulating currents. In regime 5, vapor cover~
the surface continuously and only the shape of the outer film surfacC'
changes. At values of AT x larger than 1000 F, radiation hecomc~ in-

Flo. 10- 2. Photograph hawing nu 1 at boiling on a wire in wa r.

(Courte v of J. T. C tl )
creasingly eff ctive. In thi regime, 6 in Fig. 10-1, the film is very stable
and large bubble form on it outer urface.
The characteri tic boiling curve hown in Fig. 1Q-1 can be readil
obtained in a y tern when the urface temperature can be controll
A urface heated by hot ga es or by vapor conden ing at variou pre ur ·
would co titute uch a y tern. However, there are many applicatio
in which the h at flux i the indep ndent variable and the urfa.ce temper -
ture adju t to provide the c ndition nece ary to tran fer the heat from
the surface. A wire heated by 1 ctric current, in which the heat gener -
Flo. 10- 3. Ph tograph h wing film boiling on a wir in ~at r.

(Co urte y of J. T. tl )

tion is controlled by the voltage imposed, or a fuel rod of a nuclear reactor,

in \Vhich the rate of heat generation is adjusted by controlling the rate of
fission, are examples of systems in which the heat flux determines the
excess temperature. \Vhen the peak heat flux is reached in such a system,
any further increase in heat generation i:; accompanied by a decrease in
the rate of heat flow from the surface. The difference between the energy
input and the energy output causes an increase in the internal energy.
This re8ults in a rise of the temperature of the heating surface and further
reduces the heat flow. Thus, a constant heat-input system is unstable in
regime 4 and, unless the heat flux is quickly reduced when the peak is
reached, equilibrium can be established only at point b in Fig. 10-1. The
surface temperature corresponding to this operating condition is very high,
since most of the heat is transferred by radiation when the surface is
covered by a vapor blanket. In fact, the equilibrium temperature b
generally exceeds the melting point of most metals, and the system fails
usually before reaching equilibrium. The condition of maximum heat
flux in the nucleate regime is often referred to as vapor binding or as the
burnout point.
If the rate of heat flow from a surface is sufficiently large, local boiling
in the vicinity of the surface may take place even when the bulk temperll--
ture is below the boiling point. The boiling process in a liquid whose
bulk temperature is below the saturation temperature but whose boundary
layer is sufficiently superheated that bubbles form next to the heating
surface is usually called heat transfer to a subcooled boil·ing liquid or surface
boiling. The mechanisms of bubble formation and heat transfer are similar
to those described for liquids at saturation temperature. However, the
bubbles increase in number while their size and average lifetime decrease
with decreasing bulk temperature at a given heat flux (8). As a result of
the increase in the bubble population, the agitation of the liquid caused
by the motion of the bubbles is more intense in a subcooled liquid than in
a pool of saturated liquid, and much larger heat fluxes can be attained
before vapor binding occurs. The mechanism by which a typical bubble
induces turbulence in subcooled and degassed water is illustrated by the
sketches in Fig. 10-4, (9). The letters for the sequence of events described
in the following paragraphs correspond to the designations of the sketche:o;.
a) The liquid next to the wall is superheated.
b) A vapor nucleus of sufficient size to permit a bubble to grow has
formed.
c) The bubble grows and pushes the layer of superheated liquid above
it away from the wall. The resulting motion of the liquid is indicated by
arrows.
d) The top of the bubble surface extends into cooler liquid. The
temperature in the bubble has dropped. "I'he bubble continues to grow by

virtue of the inertia of the liquid, but at a slower rate than during stage c
because it receives less heat per unit volume.
e) The inertia of the liquid has caused the bubble to gro\V so large that
its upper surface extends far into cooler liquid. It loses more heat by
evaporation and convection than it received by conduction from the heat-
ing surface.
f) The inertia forces have been dissipa~d and the bubble begins to
collapse. Cold liquid from above follows in its wake.
g) The vapor phase has been condensed, the bubble has disappeared,
and the heat wall is splashed by a stream of cold liquid at high velocity.
h) The liquid film has settled and the cycle repeats.
The foregoing description of the life cycle of a typical bubble also
applies qualitatively through stage e to liquids containing dissolved gases.
THt _______________ Vapor Nucleus

,f/
~////7//7/7/7/7 cmv;;/ //7/,~/,//7/, v/;,v ;//T//;7,;;-Q--;;;/,:/,.,;:
{a) {b) (c)
{h)
FIG. 10-4. Sk<'tehcs illu!-itmting tlw flow puttPrn induced hy a bubble in a
suhC'oolPd boiling liquid.
to solutions of more than one liquid, and to saturated liquids. In these

cases, however, the bubble does not collapse but is carried away from the
surface by buoyant forces or convection currents. A void is created all
the same and the surface is swept by cooler fluid rushing in from above.
\Vhat eventually happens to the bubbles, whether they collapse on the
;,urface or are swept away, has little influence on the heat-transfer mech-
anism, which depends mostly on the liquid agitation.
The primary variable controlling the bubble mechanism is the excess
temperature. It should be noted, however, that, in the nucleate boiling
regime, the total variation of the excess temperature, irrespective of the
fluid bulk temperature, is relatively small for a very large range of heat
flux. For design purpo~e~ the conventional heat-transfer coefficient, which
is based on the difference in tctnperature between the bulk of the fluid and

the surface (Eq. 6-1), is therefore only of secondary interest as compared

to the maximum heat flux attainable in nucleate boiling and the wall
temperature at which boiling begins.
The generation of steam in the tubes of a boiler, the vaporization of
fluids such as gasoline in the chemical industry, and the boiling of a refrig-
erant in the cooling coils of a refrigerator are processes which closely
resemble those described above, except that, in these industrial applications
of boiling, the fluid generally flows past the heating surface by forced
convection. The heating surface is frequently the inside of a tube or a
duct, and the fluid at the discharge end is a mixture of liquid and vapor.
The foregoing descriptions of bubble formation and behavior a]so apply
to forced convection, but the heat-transfer mechanism is further aided by
the motion of the bulk of the fluid.
10-2. CORRELATION OF BOILING-HEAT-TRANSFER DATA
The dominant mechaniHm by which heat is transferred in forced con-

vection is the turbulent mixing of hot and cold fluid particles. As shown
in Chapter 6, experimental data for forced convection without boiling can be
correlated by a relation of the type
Nu = q, (Re) ,Y (Pr) [8-2]
where the Reynolds number Re is a measure of the turbulence and mixing
motion associated with the flow. The increased heat-transfer rates at-
tained with nucleate boiling are the result of the intense agitation of the
fluid produced by the motion of vapor hubbies. In fact, the agitation
caused by the bubbles in fully developed nucleate boiling is so vigorou~
that, in comparison, the turbulence due to ordinary convection currents
is only of secondary importance.
Photographic observations (10) have shown that the latent heat re-
quired to form the bubbles represents only a very small fraction of tht>
total energy transferred in boiling and that, despite the presence of vapor
bubbles, the major portion of the heat is still transferred directly from the
heating surface to the liquid by convection currents. To correlate experi-
mental data in the nucleate-boiling regime it is, therefore, appropriate to
replace the conventional Reynolds number in Eq. 8-2 by a modulus
significant of the turbulence and mixing motion for the boiling process.
A type of Reynolds number Reb, which is a measure of the agitation of the
liquid in nucleate-boiling heat transfer, is obtained by combining the
average bubble diameter Db, the mass velocity of the bubbles per unit
area G6, and the liquid viscosity J.Lz to form the dimensionless modulus
DbGb
Reb=--

This parameter is often called the bubble Reynolds number and it takes, in
nucleate boiling~ the place of the conventional Reynolds. If we use thC'
bubble diameter Db as the significant length in the Nusselt number, Eq .
8-2 can be modified for nucleate boiling into the form
T lzbDb
Nub = k = ct>(Reb)~(Prt) (10-11
•l
where Prz is the Prandtl number of the saturated liquid and hb is the nu-
cleate boiling heat-transfer coefficient defined as
q/A
Ilb = - -
~Tr
In nucleate boiling the excess temperature ~T r is the physically significant

temperature potential. It replaces the temperature difference between th£·
surface and the bulk of the fluid ~ T used in single-phase convection.
Numerous experiments have shown the validity of this method, \Vhich
obviates the need to know the exact temperature of the liquid and can
therefore be applied to saturated as well as subcooled liquids.
Pool boiling. Using experimental data of pool boiling as a guide.
Rohsenow (4) modified Eq. 10-1 by means of simplifying assumptions.
The equation he found most convenient for the reduction and correlation
of experimental data is
(10-2)
where cl = specific heat of saturated liquid, in Btu/ Ibm F;

q/ A = heat flux in Btu/ hr sq ft;
h1 u = latent heat of vaporization, in Btu/Ibm;
gc = conversion factor, 4.17 X 10 8 Ibm ft / lbr hr2 ;
g = gravitational acceleration, in ft / hr2 ;
pz = density of the saturated liquid, in lbm/cu ft;
Pv = density of the saturated vapor, in lbm/cu ft;
u = surface tension of the liquid-to-vapor interface, In lbr.'ft:
Prt = Prandtl number of the saturated liquid;
J.Lt = viscosity of the liquid, in lbm/hr ft;
and c.,is an empirical constant which depends upon the nature of the
heating surface-fluid combination and whose numerical value varies from
system to system. Probably the most important variable affecting C.1 i~
the angle of contact between the bubble and the heating surface, which is
a measure of the wettability of a surface \vith a particular fluid. Thr
~ketches of Fig. IQ-5 show that the contact angle decreases 'vith greater

:;;-;· ' / /, // % ;;.:;/,

(b) Partially W•H•d (c) Totally W.tt.d
Fro. 10-5. ~ketches illustrating the effect of surface wettability on the
bubble contact angle.
wetting. A totally wetted surface has the smallest area covered by vapor
at a given excess temperature and consequently represents the most
favorable condition for efficient heat transfer. In the absence of quanti-
tative information on the effect of wettability and surface conditions on the
constant C•h its value must be determined empirically for each fluid-
surface combination.
2 X 106
106
(qjA)p;/1/
I II 1
7t~ L l.l
I 11 J 1 _l
-~ I 'I I I I
~,~/I I I
l
~!~~/ :
lJ ~ ~~- IR v~
"'
r ~0 I
..
....
17
..•
I Jv I
v;v I I
I Jv
If
1:.
~ I
':I
m
LI J
I ./ I i I
I I I I I
I I 1 I
I I II . I 1
I I. I v I
I II I I
1
/ I r/ v I
I j, 'I v /j
~I
104
2
t'I
..
47'1 ,F
6
v 8 10
I 20 40 60
FIG. lo-6. Heat flux vs. exc<>ss temperature for nucleate boiling of watPr
on a 0.024-in.-diam electrically-heated platinum wire. (Extracted from "A
.\lethod of Correlating Heat-Transfer Data from :-5urface Boiling Liquid!'," h~·
\V. ~1. Rohsenow, published in Trans. AS l\1 E, Vol. 74, 1B55, with permission of
t lw publishers, ThP AmPrienn Soriet y of l\ Iechanical Engineer")

Figure lQ-6 shows experimental data obtained by Addams (11) for

pool boiling of water on a 0.02-l-in.-diameter platinum wire at various sat u-
ration pressures. These data, plotted as heat flux vs. excess temperatun'
in Fig. 10-6, are replotted in Fig. lQ-7 using
as the ordinate and c 1 ~Txlh 10 Pr 1 1 · 1 as the ahsrissa. The slope of the
o 14.7 psio
(>. 38.3 II
• 1205
A
no "II
X 1602 a
0 2465 •
0.01 0.1 1.0

ctL1Tx I
ht 1 Pr ll1
Frn. 10-7. Correlation of pool-boiling heat-transfer

da.ta by method of Rohscnow. (Extracted from
"A :\h•thod of Corn·lating HPat-Transfer Data from
Hurfaee Uoiliug Liquids,'' hy \V. :\1. Hohs('llow, pub-
lislwd in Trans. AS .ll E, Yol. 74, 1955, with }X'rmis-
sion of the puhlishPrs, The American Society of
l\l<>chauical Engineers)
straight line faired through the experimental points is 0.33; for water
boiling on platinun1, the value of (·~~,is 0.013. For comparison the experi-
mental values of C sJ for a number of other fluid-surface combinations are
listed in Table 10-1.

TABLE 10-1
VALUEs OF THE CoEFFICIENT C,1 IN EQ. 10-2 FoR VARious
LIQL"ID-StrRF:\('E CoMRIN ATIONS
Fluid-Heating Surfa£'e Combination C,1

\Vater-copper (12)• ....... .... ............ 0.013
Carbon tetrachloride-copper (12) . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 013
35% K2COa-copper (12) ..... . ............. 0. 0054
n-Butyl alcohol-copper (12). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . 00305
50% K2COs-copper (12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . 0027 5
Isopropyl alcohol-copper ( 12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 00225
n-Pentane-chromium (13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 015
\Vater-platinum (1 I) ...................... 0 . 013
Benzene-chromium (13) ..... . ............. 0. 010
\Vater-brass (14). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 0060
Ethyl alcohol-chromium ( 1:3) . ... . .. .. ...... 0. 0027
• Numbt'rs in parentheses are thot~e of reference:; listed nt end of chapter.
The principal advantage of the Rohsenow correlation is that the per·

f ormance of a particular fluid-surface combination in nucleate boiling at
any pressure and heat flux can be predicted from a single test. One value
of the heat flux q/ A and its corresponding value of the excess temperature
difference dT z are all that are required to evaluate C1, in Eq. 1o-2. It
should be noted, however, that Eq. 10-2 applies only to clean surfaces.
For contaminated surfaces the exponent of Pr, has been found to vary
bet,veen 0.8 and 2.0. Contamination apparently does not influence the
other exponent in Eq. 1Q-2.
The geometrical shape of the heating surface has no appreciable effect
on the nucleate-boiling mechanism (15,16). This is not unexpected, since
the influence of the bubble motion on the fluid conditions is limited to a
region very near the surface.
Boiling with forced convection. The foregoing method of correlating
data for nucleate pool boiling has also been applied successfully to boiling
of fluids flowing inside tubes or ducts by forced (4) or natural convection
(12).
Figure 10-8 shows curves faired through boiling data, typical of sub-
cooled forced convection in tubes or ducts (17, 18). The system in which
these data were obtained consisted of a vertical annulus containing an elec-
trically heated stainless-steel tube placed centrally in tubes of various diam-
eters. The heater was cooled by degassed distilled water flowing upward at
velocities from 1 to 12 fps and pressures from 30 to 90 psia. The scale of
Fig. 1G-8 is logarithmic. The ordinate is the heat flux q/ A, and the ab-
scissa is AT, the temperature difference between the heating surface and the
bulk of the fluid. The dotted lines represent forced-convection conditions
at various velocities and various degrees of subcooling. The solid lines in-

3xto6..-----~=y,.........,__,__,.__,_~-----,---.....-~
Surnout Points f p • 1
a 12
· - - - ·-+---~1
1-----+- r
I ,
:: ,.··~' /
i
~/
';•/ '. ~ :~
/,/'I
l/
I ' - ~+-,
~ ,~-------
,--+---+-t-------l
'
~
/ /
1/I ~-~i
I
,'/ -c- l j -----,-_.___ _.......__--l
,.....__.__.___
_/ Jl,,/ 1-----L_m_e-+--S_ubc_oo_lin-=-g- - i
/~ / / ,,Q;~?
41
--- 20 F
.L ~ %i-~ ---------- 50
_(:--·" ' ---- 100
10 4 /./1 ! .,..___
! ~1----L..'"'T"""""-~--.--~
10 2 ... 6 8 100 ...
dT.F
FIG. 10-8. Typical boiling data for sulwool<>d
forced convection-heat flux vs. temJWrature
difference hetwPerl surface and fluid hulk. (Bv
permission from\\'. :vr. l\lc:\dams, \Y. E. Kennei,
C. S. l\Iinden, R. Carl, P. :\L Picarnell, and .J. E.
Drew from "Hent Transfer at High Rates to \\·ater
with Rurface Boiling," lnrl. Eng. Cllem., Yol.
41, 1945)
dicate the deviation from forced convection caused by surface boiling. \Yc
note that the onset of boiling caused by increasing the heat flux depends on
the velocity of the liquid and the degree of subcooling below its saturation
temperature at the prevailing pressure. At lower pressures the boiling
point at a given velocity is reached at lower heat fluxes. An increase in
velocity increases the effectiveness of forced convection, decreases the sur-
face temperature at a given heat flux, and thereby delays the onset of
boiling. In the boiling region the curves are steep and the wall tempera-
ture is practically independent of the fluid velocity. This shows that the
agitation caused by the bubbles is much more effective than turbulence in
forced convection without boiling. The heat flux data with surface boiling
are plotted separately, in Fig. 10-9 vs. the excess temperature. The result-
ing curve is similar to that for nucleate boiling in a saturated pool ~hown in

.VB
/'1 ~0
~~ p
JA I
_r ~ i
Velocity
D. ~ -
Key
8
rJ 12
0: 0
6 .6 -4 -
;6fJ
0 1 F9 ~ I
-.. 0
L. oo~
i ..
0
0 ~
)-
rt
60~ 0 6. lA
0
2 u 0
6. :.::. 0
0
000
0
10 5 f ,
--u
I 0 I
- 1---- - -
0
Ib
v o I·- -- - I
10 20 40 60 80 100
dTx = T1 -Tsu, F
Flo. 10--9. Approximate correlation of data for
nucleate boiling with forced-convection obtained
by plotting heat flux vs. excess temperature.
(By permis.c;ion from \V. 1\l. McAdams, \V. E.
Kennel, C. S. l\Hnden, R. Carl, P. l\L Picarnell,
and J . E. Drew from "Heat Transfer at High Rates
to \Vater with Surface Boiling," Ind. Eng. Chem.,
Vol. 41, 1945)
Fig. IQ-1 and emphasizes the similarity of the boiling processes and their
dependence on the excess temperature.
To apply the pool-boiling correlation to forced-convection boiling, the
total heat flux must be separated into two parts, one a boiling flux qb/ A, the
other a convective flux qc/ A, or
qtotal = qb + qc
The boiling heat flux is determined by sub,tracting the heat- flow rat(\
accountable for by forced convection alone, from the total flux, or
(10-3)
Di git ized by Coogle Orig inal from

412 HEAT TRANSFER WI TH CHANG E IN PHASE
50 I
40
Rq
(I
r\.~ ,cP
cjl"' ':!:-0
0~
1-
c· ,.<-o 0 o
R<f
(., ~ ~oq o ,cP
oq o
20 '<; 0
0
0
~
~(,0
f§>'S
c::>~
o ,)~ c·
~ 1-
0 0 ~ (.,"
0
,~
Rq
10 ,cP
.....
~'~
...;- OQ
ct 8 ,() 0
fi I ~
)o(
~0 ,o
xf
---
~- 6
~""
d 0
~
0 0
I . .§"' c..P
~
o"-; 0 o (\~ (
-..;;:.. ~o o ~Q 0
~ cs0'\. 0
. ~P
·~
o
o c ·
1- - e
,u 0 ~~o<'
\," ~0 ....
~
~l.l
0"' -
2 ~~
•\• 0
~0
~o
0
· ~~
.,.;-
(.,"
G·a1-
c·
f§>
h...
-~''0(., "1-
I
<J.cP c~
~
.·~~
. . <~
c..l
~' ·,<-
~~
, d'Q ,.~'4>
e' fi
~0 ~0
0
0
0 0
0
.8
0
0
.6
.5
.006 .01 .02 .06 .08 .1 .1
FIG . 10- 10.

by th R h
where he is d tcrmin d from Eq. - 1 1 or .Jq. - 22. Thi valu of Qb i '

then u ed in Eq. lQ-3 in th arne mann r as th t tal h at flux in nucl t
pool boiling. Th r ult of thi m thod of orr lating data f r oilin
superimpo d on conv ction ar hown in Fig. lQ-10 for a numb r of
fluid-surface combination . om of th data sho,vn in Fig. lQ-10 w re
obtain d with u cool d liquid oth r with aturat d liquid con inin
variou amount of vapor.
M aximum heat flux with nucleate boiling. Th R.o now m h
unifie th orr lation of d ta for all type of nu 1 ate-boiling prot;c~·c->J
1 If Eq. - 18 i u cd, R h enow (4) re omm nd th at th . co .ffi i nt 0.023 N '"
I Ia d .v 0.01 .

Original from
including pool boiling of saturated or subcooled liquids and boiling of

subcooled or saturated liquids flowing by forced or natural convection in
tubes or ducts. Specifically, the correlation equation (Eq. 10-2) relates the
heat flux to the excess temperature, provided the relevant fluid properties
and the pertinent coefficient C1, are available. The correlation, although
it is restricted to nucleate boiling, does not reveal the excess temperature
at \vhich the heat flux reaches a maximum; nucleate boiling breaks down,
and an insulating vapor film forms. As mentioned earlier, the maxi-
mum heat flux attainable with nucleate boiling is sometimes of greater
interest to the designer than the exact surface temperature because, for
efficient heat transfer (19) and operating safety (1, 17), particularly in high-
p.
Liquid Surface
lbt /sq in.
Condition
•0 • abs
- -.,
u
u qchelli and Bonilla 1131 , !
~
0
.... I
-- 1 o C2H50H Clean 928
V) ~ I
• n-C5H12 .C85
,"
c
0 >-
u•
t • C,Ha 617
0 I
' • n-CsHa2 Dirty .C85
....0 ....0 ,
! I • C3 H1 617
' ! I 167 Mol% N-CsHu , 60.C

• 33%CJHa -
• bT .f+ •133 Mol % N-C5Hz 2 ,

- 668
:t: 67"/o C,Ha
1~ ........ ~ ~
t4-~ I
~·• r-.... + • C.Ha
, 704
"' ~· ~·
,
280 u
v n-C.,Hl& 474
-
lA. 200
,Ji
_r • ~0~ • I
I
fT
1/)
~ ·-
..... a.
&.
~
120
f
I ., rn•
~~·
I
iii .co I ~~ I
' I 1'\. I
0 .1 .2 .3 ..c .5 .6 J .8 .9 1.0
P.jpc
Fw. 10-11. Peak heat flux in nucleate boiling at various pres-
sures-correlation of Ciechelli and Bonilla. (By permission
from ~1. T. Ciechelli and C. F. Bonilla, ''Heat Transfer to Liquids
Boiling under Pressure," AIChE Trans., Vol. 41, 1945)
performance constant-heat-input systems, operation in the film-boiling

regime must be avoided. The maximum heat flux attainable with nucleate
boiling depends on many factors. At the present time, the individual
effects of each of the variables causing vapor binding can not be described
quantitatively, but the qualitative effects of the more important variables
are known from experiments.
For fluids boiling on a surface submerged in a pool of liquid at its
saturation temperature, the maximum heat flux increases with increasing
pressure until the pressure on the system reaches about one-third of the
critical pressure. A further increase in pressure causes a decrease in the
::eat flux attainable with nucleate boiling. Figure 1G-11 illustrates this
trend for a number of different fluids at their respective saturation pres-

sures (13). The ordinate is the n1aximum heat flux (q/..4 )max in Btu hr
sq ft divided hy the critieal pressHre p, in psia while the ahsci:;sa is tlw
ratio of the systen1 pressure to the critical pres..~ure p. ip,. The cur,·e fa ire]
through the exrwrin1ental points represents an average for clean surfact.~~.
If the surfarP is dirty or otherwise contaminated. the maximum hClat flux
is increased h~' about 15 per cent. All of the data shown in Fig. 1{}-11.
as well as thosP presented in Refs. 11 and 20. arP also correlated within
about 10 per cent (21) h~· the dimensional equation
(q/A)mux = 14.3 ('!__!__ - 1)0.6 (1()-4)

P•hlu P~
where (qlA )max maximum heat flux, in Btu hr sq ft;

-
P~ - density of the vapor, in lbrn / cu ft;
htu - latent heat of vaporization at the system pressure, in
Btu / Ibm;
p 1 = density of liquid, in lbm/cu ft.
If the temperature of the bulk of the liquid is below the saturation tern-
perature, considerably higher heat fluxes than those shown in Fig. 1Q-11 can
ht> obtained without vapor binding. Figure IQ-12 illustrates the influence of
6
~·
o Degassed Water
X Degassed Water-A.rotOI Solution
.5
j
£ .. ~
l
:II
§3
X
X
X X
~
~ ><f. Ellion Theory
1IC
:;)
I(~ ~ ""'
~ r--....
ii: (9)
I2 I( /
l
-·
..............
< I(~
'-...,x ~
"-~ 0
.50 70 90 110 130 1.50 170 190 200

Water Temperature·f
Fw. 10-12. Effeet of hulk temperature on peak

heat ftux in pool boiling. (By permis.~ion from l\t. E.
Ellion, "A Study of the ~lerhanism of Boiling Heat
Transfer," l\lemo No. 20-28, Jet Propulsion Lab-
oratory, Calif. Inst. of Tech., ~larch, 19.54)
the bulk te1nperature on the peak heat flux for disti11ed water and a 1 per
eent aqueou:s ~olution of a surface-active agent boiling on a stainless-steel
heatPr. The addition of the ~urface-active agent decreased the surface
ten~ion of \YatC'r from 72 to 3--l dyne~ 1 cn1. This caused an appreciable de-

crease in the peak heat flux, an effect which is in agreement with a theo-
retical analysis by Ellion (9). The presence of dissolved gases also reduces
the peak heat flux at a given bulk temperature.
The superposition of forced convection on boiling has a similar effect
on the peak heat flux as a reduction of the bulk temperature. Table 10-2
shows a summary of some recent correlations (22) which have been pro-
TABLE 1(}-2
FoRCED-CoNVECTION BuRNOUT CoRRELATIONs FOR W.-\TER
Formula• Her. Range of Yariables

---------------------------------- -- · ~ --------------------
(q/A)max = (400,000 + 4800 .1T ub)ut

8 16 ll from 1 to 20 fps
p from 30 to 90 psia
ATaub from 20 to 100 F
(q/ A)max == 7000ul .1Tsub 8 V from 5 to 40 fps

p from 14 to 160 psin
.1Taub from 20 to 280 F
(q/A)max == C (G/108)m .1T8 ub 0•12 22 ~Tsub from 3 to 160 F
Pressure (psi) m c
500 0.16 0.817
1000 0.28 0 .626
2000 0.50 0.445
• (q/ A) m&X in Rtu/hr 8Q ft l" in fps 41T1 ub in F G in lhm l hr sq ft
posed to predict the peak heat flux in forced-convection boiling. The

experimental data were obtained in long heated tubes or ducts, and the
burnout occurred at the outlet where the subcooling was the least. All of
the correlations are based on the subcooling ~Tsub = Tsat - Tb at th<:'
outlet. The fluid temperature is a calculated value based on the mas~
flow rate, heat input, and inlet temperature.
Although the experimental data are meager and the agreement between
different investigators is not good, it appears that the most important.
variables are the velocity and the subcooling. An increase in either or
both of them also increases the maximum heat flux attainable with
nucleate boiling.
A moderate amount of data has also been obtained on burnout with
net steam generation (22), but no general correlation of the results has so
far been proposed. Heat fluxes as high as 3,000,000 Rtu/hr sq ft have:'
been obtained with exit qualities up to 30 per cent (22). It is, however,
not recommended to design for such high heat fluxes, and a value of
500,000 Btu/hr sq ft is sometimes suggested as an upper limit for water
with substantial vapor generation. Another factor which may impo~c

limitations in design is the pressure drop in two-phase flow, which can he

many times larger than the pressure drop calculated on the basis of liquid
flowing at the same mass-flow rate. Under some extreme conditions.
choking of the flow caused by compressibility effects in two-phase flow han·
been observed (24), and it has been suggested that these phenomena may
cause burnouts (25). Complete summaries of the available information
on the pressure drop and fluid-flow phenomena associated with boiling
are presented in Refs. 1 and 16. The reader is referred to these sourc~
for detailed information and a complete bibliography.
Film boiling. The unstable film-boiling region is of little practical im-
portance, and the meager information available for this regime has not
been correlated. The stable film-boiling regime, however, has been studied
both experimentally and analytically by Bromley (26,27). His experi-
mental results for stable film boiling on the out~ide of horizontal tubes oi
0.188 and 0.35 in. in diameter can be correlated with satisfactory accuracy
by the equation
1
iib = 0.()2 [k,'p,(p, - p,)g'A' ] (1~6)
J)of.J.v~T z
where k. = thermal conductivity of saturated vapor, in Btu ;hr ft F;

Do = outside diameter of tube, in ft;
p.., = viscosity of saturated vapor, in lbm/hr ft;
while, except for "A', the other symbols are the same as those used in Eq. 10-
2. The symbol "A' is deflned as
h ( 0.4~ T .r Cpt')
"A
I
= /D 1 + }· /u
1
(10-6)
where c,. is the specific heat of the saturated vapor.

The average unit-surface conductance iib in Eq. 10-5 accounts only for
the heat which is transferred by conduction through the vapor film and
by boiling convection from the surfare of the film to the surrounding liquid.
Superimposed on this heat-flow path is the contribution of radiation to tlw
total heat transfer. Since the heat transfer by radiation causes an increase in
the thickness of the film, the coefficient hb for conduction and convection in
the presence of appreciable radiation is less than in the absence of radia-
tion. The total surfare conductance wh~n radiation is appreciable can br
estimated from the empirical relation
-
h =
-)i
( -t- hr-
- hb
hb h (1~7)
by trial and error. The radiation conduetanre hr ran be evaluated with

the aid of Eq. 1-11. To det<_>nnine the heat-transfer ro<_>ffieient when the

liquid is flowing past the surface of the tube, Bromley (27) suggests the
equation
nb = 2.1 fvcnk ,.pf!'A' (10-8)

\j[Jo~T%
if the velocity V is larger than 2y'fil5"o.
CD The total conductance, including
radiation, is then
(lo-9)
under these conditions. At velocities less than 2Vii'/)o, the flow is not
fully developed turbulent and the conductance may be evaluated from
data in Ref. 27.
Practical aspects of boiling heat transfer. As mentioned before, in
most industrial applications it is desirable to avoid film boiling. This is
accomplished by providing adequate circulation and by keeping the heat
flux below the maximum value attainable with nucleate boiling. It is,
however, advantageous in many cases to allow the formation of a limited
number of vapor bubbles in order to reduce the surface temperature with
a minimum of pressure drop. An important application of this technique
is the regenerative cooling of rocket motors, where the combustion chamber
is cooled by its own fuel or oxidizer. In this application the liquid is
pumped past the hot wall at a velocity which is low enough to permit
:-ourface boiling, but high enough to keep the bulk of the liquid sufficiently
subcooled to condense the vapor and prevent failure by burnout.
Several industrial applications of forced convection with progressive
vaporization have been cited previously. A few conventional high-pressure
boilers are also designed on this principle, hut natural circulation is more
common. Boiling and progressive vaporization of a Jiquid flowing by
natural circulation is a very complicated process, and despite considerable
research that has been done on this problem, natural-circulation systems
can not be analyzed without making simplifying assumptions of question-
able validity. An extensive review of the experimental and theoretical
work in the field is given by l\,f cAdams (16), and a simplified method of
analysis with particular emphasis on the design of conventional boilers is
pre.-;ented in Ref. 19. \Ye shall restrict our discussion here to a qualitative
analysis of a natural-convection evaporator typical of the type used in
conventional boilers (Fig. 10-13).
In natural circulation the difference in density of the fluids in the
dou:ncomer (i.e., the unheated downflow pipe) and the riser (i.e., the heated
upflow pipe) produces the motion. Ideally, the water in the downcomer
is slightly below its saturation temperature, and the water entering the
upflow pipe at the bottom is subcooled. As it flows upward the water is

heated and brought to saturation conditions by two mechanisms: (1) the

temperature of the liquid increases as a result of the heat transferred t.o it.
and (2) the saturation temperature decreases because the pressure on the
fluid diminishes as a result of wall friction and reduction in the hydrostati<"
head. In the lower part of the tuhe the heat-transfer mechanism is simplt)
convection unless the heat flux is high enough to cause surface boiling. In
the upper portion of the riser, the fluid is saturated, heat is transferred to thr
fluid Ly nucleate boiling, and vaporization occurs progressively. A two-
phase mixture of water and steam emerges at the top, where the steam is
removed and make-up water is added to maintain steady flow. 'Vhen the
Steam Out
Steam Separator
-
-
--
l=ted - Heated Riser
~Comer
l-
--
-
--
FIG. 10-13. :'.J' at ural cireulation system.
system is in equilibrium, the mass flow rates and the pressure drops in tht_)
downcomer and in the riser are equal. The rate of flow depends on the
difference of the densities of the respective fluids in the riser and down-
comer. Since the density of the fluid in the riser is a function of the heat
transfer, there exists a complicated interaction between the pressure drop
and the heat transfer.
The heat-transfer coefficient at any point in the riser depends on the
local temperature, the pressure, and the velocity. The rate of heat transfer
is therefore not only a function of these quantities but also of the source
tPmperatur<' nnd thP thPrmal re:-;i~tanc<'~ at thP outer Rurface of thf' pipe

and the pipe itself. As the rate of heat transfer to the riser is increased,
more of the water evaporates. This, in turn, increases the density differ-
ence of the fluids in the riser and the downcomer, which tends to accelerate
the rate of flow. However, as more of the fluid turns into vapor, the
velocity of the mixture increases and, for a given mass flow rate, a larger
pressure gradient is necessary to overcome the frictional drag. Since the
pressure losses increase with the square of the velocity, a point will he
reached 'vhere a further increase in heat flux causes the pressure losses to
increase faster than the available pressure difference. \Vhen the heat
flux is increased beyond this point, the flow rate begins to decrease and the
~ystem may become unstable. A properly designed natural-circulation
system should therefore operate in the region where the flow rate rises
with an increase in heat flow (19).
10-3. HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSATION
When a saturated vapor comes in contact with a surface at a lower
temperature, condensation occurs. Under normal conditions a continuous
flow of liquid is formed over the surface and the condensate flows downward
under the influence of gravity. Unless the velocity of the vapor is very high
or the liquid film very thick, the motion of the condensate is laminar and
heat is transferred from the vapor-liquid interfuce to the surface merely
hy conduction. The rate of heat flow depends, therefore, primarily on the
t.hickness of thecondensate filml \vnich ·in
ttlt~i} - ·depends on-
the- ·r ate ·at
which vapor is condensed and-ti1e r~teat~vhi~h ti1(~- c(nitlell"sate-is ·-reniov-ed·.
a
On vertic.alstirf~ce_-the fiim thickne~~iit~~~~s -coritiil:t~~~~sl)~ from top to
bottom, ~s sho~y_njn_Fig. 10-14. As the plate is inclined from the vertical
position, the drainage rate decreases and the liquid film becomes thicker.
This, of course, causes a decrease in the rate of heat transfer.
Filmwise condensation. Theoretical relations for calculating the heat-
transfer coefficients for filmwise condensation of pure vapors on tubes and
plates were first obtained by Nusselt (28), in 1916. To illustrate the
('lassieal Nusselt approach we shall consider a plane vertical surface at a
constant temperature T, on which a pure vapor at saturation temperature.
T,. is condensing. As shown in Fig. IQ-14, a continuous film of liquid
flows do,vnward under the action of gravity, and its thickness increases as
more and more vapor condenses at the liquid-vapor interface. At a dis-
tance x from the top of the plate the thickness of the film is 8. If the flow
of the liquid is laminar and is caused by gravity alone, we can estimate
the velocity of the liquid by means of a force balance on the element dxol.
The downward force acting on the liquid at a distance greater than y from
the surface is (8 - y) dxpg. The foree retarding the do\vnward motion:-;
consists of the drag of the vapor at the liquid-vapor interfare and the drag
at the inner houndary of the element. Pnless the vapor Ao\\"s at a vPr:v

%•1 / /
!'
I
xi
'
-Y I
~ \W /
/
Film Growth Velocity Profile Temperature Pro~ I•
Fw 10-1-t. Filmwise rond<>nsation on a vertical surfac<>-film

growth, tt•mpPrat ur<> distribution, and velocity profile.
high velocity, the shear at the free surfare is quite small and may he nr~
lectcd. The retarding force will then simply be the viseous shear (JJ du . d!f)-
d~r at the vertiC'al plane y. rnder equilibrium conditions the upward and
downward forces are equal, or
du
(o - y)pg - J.L- (1G-10)
dy
The velority u at y is obtained hy sPparating the variables in Eq. 10-10
and intPgrating. This yields the expre:--sion
u(y) = 7 (Oy- ~y') + const (1G-11)
The constant of integration is zero lwrausc thf' velority u is zero at th<'

surface, i.e., u = 0 at y = 0.
The ma~s rate of flow of condensate per unit breadth r,. is obtained by
intf'grating; the local mass flow rate at the ele\·ation .r, pu(y), bet,n~en thP
limits y = 0 and y = o, or
(1G-12)
Since heat is transferrf'd through the condensate film solely by conduction.

the rate of heat flow through the elPment of liquid ldxo to the wall i~
kd:r T ."· T~~ (lG-13)

HEAT TRANSFER WITH CHANGE IN PHASE .421
,,~here k is the thermal conductivity of the condensate. Equation to-13

assumes that there is no temperature difference between the vapor and
the liquid at their interface. Actually the temperature of the liquid has
to be slightly below the saturation temperature to allow energy transfer,
but because of the very intense molecular motion at the interface, the
temperature difference is negligible under ordinary conditions (29).
The film thickness ~(x) is zero at the top and increases in a downward
direction. Between the distances x and x + dx the film thickness increases
by an amount d~ as a result of condensation. The liquid condensed in the
distance dx increases the flow rate by the amount
!__ (p2g~3) = pg~2d~
a~ 3.u .u
..:\ t the same time there must be maintained a rate of heat flow to the cold
wall equal to
pghfg ~2d~
,u
the rate at which latent heat of condensation is released between x and
x + dx. An energy balance between the rate of heat liberation as a result
of condensation at the free surface of the film and the rate of heat conduc-
tion through the film gives the equation
pgh,u 2d -
--~~- k·(T
- n - T)
• dx (10-14)
,u ~
Integration between the limits ~ = 0 at x = 0 and ~ - oat x = x yields
k(T.. - T,)x = pg~,. ( ~) (10-16)
Solving for the film thickness ~ at a distance x from the top we get
~ = [4,ukx(T~~· -: T
ghfuPM
5 )]1 (10-16)
According to Eq. tH>, the local heat-transfer coefficient hr is k/ o. Substi-

tuting in Eq. 6-6 the expression for~ from Eq. 1G-16 gives the unit-surface
conductance as
p2gh I ok3 ]1 (10-17)
hx = [ 4,ux(T(Il' - Til)
and from Eq. 6-4 the dimensionless local Nusselt number at xis
_ _hxT _
Nu ; r - -
[ p2nh
Y fa :1·3 ]1 (10-18)
k 4,uk(T~v - Til)

Inspection of Eq. 10-17 shows that the unit conductance for condensation
decreases 'vith increasing distance from the top as the film thickens. The
thickening of the condensate film is similar to the growth of a boundary
layer over a flat plate in convection. At the same time it is also interesting
to observe that an increase in the temperature difference (T" - T.) causes
a decrease in the surface conductance. This is caused by the increase in
the film thickness as a result of the increased rate of condensation. :K o
comparable phenomenon occurs in simple convection.
The average value of the conductance ii for a vapor condensing on a
plate of height L is obtained by integrating the local value hz over the
plate and dividing by the area. For a vertical plate of unit width and
height L we obtain by this operation
- = L1
he 1L 0
hxdX = 4 h:r:-L
3
(10-19)
or (10-20)
It can easily be sho'vn that, for a surface inclined by an angle 1/; \\;t.h the
horizontal, the average conductance is
he = 0.94 [ p2gh,ak3 sin 1/1
JJ.L(T,. - T,)
]1 (10-21)
The corresponding equation for the average conductance of a pure saturat(>d

vapor condensing on the outside of a single horizontal tube of diameter Dis
•
(10-22)
If condensation occurs on N horizontal tubes so arranged that con-

densate from one tube flows directly onto the tube below, the averagfl
unit-surface conductance for the system can be estimated by replacing the
tube diameter D in Eq. 1Q-22 by (DN). This method 'vill in general
yield conservative results because a certain amount of turbulence is un-
avoidable in this type of system (31).
In the preceding equations the unit-surface conductance will be in Btu.·
hr sq ft F if the other quantities are evaluated in the units listed below:
k, thermal conductivity of liquid, in Btu/hr ft F.
p, density of liquid, in lbm/cu ft.
g, gravitational force, in ft/hr 2 ( 4.17 X 10 8 ft/hr2 under normal con-
ditions).
h!fn latent heat of condensation or vaporization, in Btu/Ibm.
f.J., vis('osity of the liquid, in lbm / hr ft.

HEAT TRANSFER WITH CHANGE IN PHASE '423
D, tube diameter, in ft.

L, length of plane surface, in ft.
T,., temperature of saturated vapor, in F.
T., wall surface temperature, in F.
The physical properties of the liquid film in Eqs. Io-16 to 1o-22 should
be evaluated at the arithmetic average of the vapor and wall temperature.
\Vhen used in this manner, Nusselt's equations are satisfactory for esti-
mating surface conductances for condensing vapors. Experimental data
are in general agreement with Nusselt's theory when the physical condi-
tions comply with the assumptions inherent in the analysis. Deviations
from Nusselt's film theory occur when the condensate flow becomes turbu-
lent, when the vapor velocity is very high, or when a special effort is made
to render the surface nonwettable. All of these factors tend to increase
the surface conductance, and t~1e Nusselt film theory will therefore always
yield conservative results.
Example 1~1. A ~-in.-OD, 5-ft-long tube is to be used to condense steam at 6 psiu.
Estimate the unit-surface conductances for this tube in the (a) horizontal and (b) vertical
positions. Assume that the average tube-wall temperature is 130 F.
Solution: (a) At the average temperature of the condensate film [ T 1 = ( 170 + 130 l /
2 = 150 F), the physical-property values pertinent to the problem are
61.2 lbm/cu ft.
p =
h1 = 996.3 Btu/lb (from steam tables)
(1
P.l = 1.06 lb/hr ft

T,, = 170 F
For the tube in the horizontal position Eq. 10-22 appliesand theunit,..surfaceconductanee
18
ii = O
725
[ (0.383 3 )(61.2 2 )(4.17 X 1()11)(996.3)]1
c • (0.5/12) (1.06)(170 - 130)
= 1920 Btu/hr sq ft F Ans.
b) In the vertical poHition the tube may be treat~d as a vertical plat~ of area 1rDL
and, according to Eq. 10-20, the average unit-~urface conductance i~
ii, == 0. [ (61.2 2 )( 4.17 X 10S)(996.3)(0.3833)Jt
94
c (1.06)(5)(170- 130)
= 730 Btu/hr sq ft F An~.
Effect of turbulence in the film. The results of the preceding calcula-

tions show that, for a given temperature difference, the average unit con-
ductance is considerably larger when the tube is placed in a horizontal
position where the path of the condensate is shorter and the film thinner
than in the vertical position where the path is longer and the film thicker.
This conclusion is generally valid when the length of the vertical tube i:;

larger than 2.87 times the outer diameter, as can be seen by a compari~on
of Eqs. 10-21 and 1Q-22. However, both of these equations are based on
the assumption that the flow of the condensate film is laminar and conse-
quently do not apply \Vhen the flow of the condensate is turbulent. Turbu-
lent flow is hardly ever reached on a horizontal tube but may be established
over the lower portion of a vertical surface. When this occurs, the average
heat-transfer coefficient becomes larger as the length of the condensing
surface is increased because the condensate no longer offers as high a
thermal resistance as it does in laminar flow. This phenomenon is some-
what analogous to the behavior of a boundary layer.
Just as a fluid flowing over a surface undergoes a transition from laminar
to turbulent flow, so the motion of the condensate becomes turbulent when
its Reynolds number exceeds a critical value of about 2000. The Reynold~
number of the condensate film Re 4, when based on the hydraulic diameter
(Eq. 8-1), can be written as Re 4 = 4Arc! P~" where P is the wetted per-
imeter equal to 1r D for a vertical tube and A is the flow cross-sectional aren
equal to PtJ. According to an analysis by Colburn (30) the local heat-
transfer coefficient for turbulent flow of the condensate can be evaluated
from the equation
(10-23)
To obtain average values of the conductance, integration of hz over the

surface by means of Eq. 10-17 for values of (4rc!P~1 ) less than 2000 and
Eq. 10-23 for values larger than 2000 is necessary. The results of such
calculations for two values of the Prandtl number are plotted as solid lines
in Fig. 1Q-15, where some experimental data obtained with diphenyl in
turbulent flow are also shown (31). The heavy dashed line shown on the
same graph is an empirical curve recommended by l\1cAdams (16) for
evaluating the average unit-surface conductance of single vapors condensing
on vertical surfaces.
1.0
0.8 ....
...... ~
v. ~
.......
-. 0.6
.....
~ - Pr 1•5
I \.I~ ~
I
~
.....• v-
Recommended Curve1
-- - - :---
.... ~ ~
io""
Q,
""" 0.3
:;-
0.4
:--/:. for Film Type Conden1atlo
on Vertical Surface ~ '.
\ ...... ~
e ~ ~
~
...::t.
-o.2
~~~
'-i;,,..,, 1- ...
leo' . . . ~ ....
r--~
....... .......
~ .:-~....
~~
.
e.
~~
~ !.. i-"' ~~ r"( ,.,
Stream liM
~~l/ Turbulent
0.1
10 2 2
I I
3 4 6 8 10 3 2 3
I
4 6 8 104 2 34 6110S
(4rc/P 1)
FIG. lQ-15. Effect of turbulence in film on heat transfer with condensation.

Example lG-2. Determine whether or not the flow of the condensate in Example
I 0-1 b is laminar or turbulent at the lower end of the tube.
Solution: The Reynolds number of the condensate at the lower end of the tube can
he written with the aid of Eq. 10-12 a.~
4r c 4p 2g~a
Re a= -
Pp 1 2 3,.,.1 1
Substituting Eq. 10-16 for 8 yields
1
Rea = 4p g[4,.JcL(T," - Ts)JI
2 2
3JJJ gh!aP
== ~ [4kL(T," - T,)plgl]t
3 ,.,.,h/a
Inserting in the expression above the numerical values for the problem yields
Re _ ! [ (4 X 0.383 Btu/hr ft F) (10 ft) (40 F) (61.2 lbm/cu ft)l (4.17 X 1()8 ft/hr')l]t
a 3 (1.06 lbm/hr ft)§(996 Btu/Ibm)
= 960 (dimensionless)
~incethe Reynolds number at the lower edge of the tube is below 2000, the flow of the
condensate is laminar and the result obtained from Eq. 10-20 is valid. Am.
Effect of high vapor velocity. One of the approximations made in

Nusselt's film theory is that the frictional drag between the condensate and
the vapor is negligible (Eq. 10-10). This approximation ceases to be
valid when the velocity of the uncondensed vapor is substantial compared
\vith the velocity of the liquid at the vapor-condensate interface. When
the vapor flows upward, it adds a retarding force to the viscous shear and
causes the film thickness to increase. With downward flow of vapor, the
film thickness decreases, and surface conductances substantially larger
than those predicted from Eq. IQ-20 can be obtained. In addition, the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at condensate Reynolds
numbers of the order of 300 when the vapor velocity is high. Carpenter
and Colburn (33) determined the heat-transfer coefficients for condensa-
tion of pure vapors of steam and several hydrocarbons in a vertical tube,
8 ft long and ! in. ID, with inlet vapor velocities at the top up to 500 fps.
Their data are correlated reasonably well by the equation
(10-24)
where Pr 1 = Prandtl number of liquid;

pz = density of liquid, in lbm/ cu ft;
p" = density of vapor, in lbm/cu ft;
Cp = specific heat of liquid, in Btu/Ibm F;

ii = average unit conductance, in Btu/hr sq ft F;

J= Fanning pipe-friction coefficient evaluated at the average
vapor velocity;
G,. = mean value of the mass velocity of the vapor, in lbm/hr sq ft.
The value of G,. in Eq. lG-24 can be taken as
where Gt = mass velocity at top of tube;

G2 = mass velocity at bottom of tube.
All physical properties of the liquid in Eq. lG-24 are to be evaluated at a
reference temperature equal to 0.25 T,., + 0.75 T,. These results have
not been verified on other systems but may be used generally as an indi-
cation of the influence of vapor velocity on the heat-transfer coefficient
of condensing vapors when the vapor and the condensate flow in the same
direction.
Condensation of superheated vapor. Although all of the preceding
equations strictly apply only to saturated vapors, they can also be used
with reasonable accuracy for condensation of superheated vapors. The
rate of heat transfer from a superheated vapor to a wall at T, will therefore
be
q = Aii (T,. - T,) (10-26)
where ii - average value of unit conductance determined from equation

appropriate to the geometrical configuration with same vapor
at saturation conditions;
T '" = saturation temperature corresponding to the prevailing system
pressure.
Dropwise condensation. '\Vhen a condensing surface is contaminated

with a substance which pr-events the- cqndensate from wetting the surfa:Ce,
the vapor will condense in drops rather than as a continuous ·nlrii -134).
This is known as dropwise condensation. A large part of_th~ - su~ace is
not covered by an insulating film under these conditions, and the heat-
transfer coefficients are four to eight times as high as in film\vise condensa-
tion. So far, dropwise condensation has been reliably obtained only with
steam. For the purpose of calculating the unit conductance in practice,
it is recommended that filmwise condensation be assumed because, even
with steam, dropwise condensation can be expected only under carefully
controlled conditions which can not always be maintained in practice.
Dropwise condensation of steam may, however, be a useful technique in

Pxperimental work when it is desirable to reduce the thermal resistance on
one side of a surface to a negligible value.
Condenser design. The evaluation of the surface conductance of
eondensing vapors, as can be seen from Eqs. 10-20, 10-21, and 10-22,
presupposes a knowledge of the temperature of the condensing surface.
In practical problems this temperature is generally not kno\vn because its
value depends on the relative order of magnitudes of the thermal resistances
in the entire system. The type of problem usually encountered in practice,
whether it be a performance calculation on an existing piece of equipment
or· the design of equipment for a specific process, requires simultaneous
evaluation of thermal resistances at the inner and outer surfaces of a tube
or the wall of a duct. In most cases the geometric configuration is either
specified, as in the case of an existing piece of equipment, or assumed, as
in the design of new equipment. '\Vhen the desired rate of condensation is
specified, the usual procedure is to estimate the total surface area required
and then to select a suitable arrangement for a combination of size and
number of tubes that meets the preliminary area specification. The per-
formance calculation can then be made as though one were dealing with
an existing piece of equipment, and the results can later be compared with
the specifications. The flow rate of the coolant is usually determined by
the allowable pressure drop or the allowable temperature rise. Once the
flo\\. rate is known, the thermal re:.;istances of the coolant and the tube
wall can be computed without difficulty. The unit-surface conductance
uf the condensing fluid, however, depends on the condensing-surface tem-
perature, which can be computed only after the conductance is known. A
trial-and-error solution is therefore necessary. One either assumes a sur-
face temperature or, if more convenient, estimates the unit conductance
on the condensing side and calculates the corresponding surface tempera-
t.ure. \Vith this first approximation of the surface temperature, the
unit-surface conductance is then recalculated and compared with the
assumed value. A second approximation is usually sufficient for satisfac-
tory accuracy.
The orders of ma.gnitude of unit-thermal conductances for various
vapors listed in Table 10-3 will aid in the initial estimates and reduce
the amount of trial and error. We note that, for steam, the thermal
resistance is very small, whereas for organic vapors it is of the same order
of magnitude as the resistance offered to the flow of heat by water at a
lo\\. turbulent Reynolds number. In the refrigeration industry and in
some chemical processes, finned tubes have been used to reduce the thermal
resistance on the condensing side. A method for dealing with condensation
on finned tubes and tube banks is presented in Ref. 32. \Ye shall here
(·on~ider only a simple example to illustrate the trial-and-error approach.
\Yhen repeated calculations of thP conductane<' for condensation of pure

TABLE 1G-3
APPROXIMATE VALUES OF UNIT-StrRFACE
CoNDl1 CTANcEs FOR CoNDENSATION oF Pt·RE V .o\PORS
Approximate :\pprnximate Range

Vapor System Ranp;t> of of Av~ra~e Unit
T"- T, Cond net an<.'e
( Btu/ hr sq ft Fl
Steam ...... Horizontal tubes,

1-3 in. OD 5-40 2000-4000
Steam ...... Vertical surface
10ft high 5-40 1()()(}-2000
Ethanol .... Vertical surface
~ ft high 20-100 200-340
Benzene . ... Horizontnl tube,
1 in. OD 30--80 250-350
Ethanol .... Horizontal tube,
2 in. OD 1{)-40 300-450
Ammonia .. . Horizontal 2-to-
3-in. annulus 2-7 250-450*
* Over-alllu:• at-tmnsfcr coefficient U for water velocities between 4 and 8 fps (35) inside the tube.
vapors are to be made, alignment charts devised by Chilton, Colburn,

Genereaux, and Vernon, reproduced in Ref. 15, are convenient.
Example lG-3. Estimate (a) the heat-transfer surface area required and (b) sugge:-:t
u. suitable arrangement for the condenser of a 10-ton refrigeration machine. Thr
working fluid is ammonia condensing on the outside of horizontal pipes at a preRSurt> of
170 p~ia. The conden~er i~ to be constructed with l-in. steel pipes ( 1.00-in. OD .
0.834-in. ID), cooling water is available at 79 F, and the average water velocity in the
pipes is not to exceed 6 fps.
Solution: (a) Ten tons of refrigeration are equivalent to 10 X 200 (Btu/min) = 2000
Btu/min of heat removal in the system. Neglecting losses, this is also the steady-st.att>
rate of heat flow from the ammonia to the water in the condenser. The rise in thr
temperature of the cooling water is therefore
(2000) (144) 23.6

!lT = q
- ----------------------- = ---
pl'AcN (62.3)(6)(0.546)(1.0)(60)(N) N
where N is the number of condenser tubes in parallel. For a preliminar~· estimate.

assume that there arc 10 parallel tubes arranged in 2 rows. The bulk Heynolds number
nf the water is
ReD= VDp = (6)(0.06fl5 )i62.3)(3600)

J.' 2.22 = 42,200
The average water temperature is about 80 F, the Prandtl number is 2.3, and the
heat-transfer coefficient, according t.o Eq. 8-20, is
- k
he= D ReD 0 ·8 Przl = 760 Btu/hr sq ft F
Digiti zed by Google ..

Original from
- - . . ..,.... :
The thermal resistance of the pipe wall, based on the outer surface area, is
Do In (Dol D,) 1.0 X In 1.2
R,,. == k == (12 )(2 )(25 _8 ) ::a 0.000294 hr sq ft F /Btu
2
To estimate the temperature at the outer surface of the tube, refer to Table 10-3 and
a~-.1~ume that the over-all heat-transfer coefficient is 400 Btu/hr sq ft F, or
1 1 1 1
U = 400
·
= h.ammonia + R," pipe +cn water D-/D
' o
The unit-surface conductance of the condenRing ammonia (saturation temperature =

SH.3 F) i~ therefore approximately
1
hammonta = - -.-- - - --.-- - - _ --_- - - = 1600 Btu/hr sq ft F
0 0025 0 000294 0 00 158
T'he temperature drop between the ammonia and the wall surface is
T .. _ T surf = (Tu - Twater)l/hammonta

1/U
= (6.3)(400) =
1600 2· l F
~ow apply Eq. 10-22 to calculate the unit-surface conductance on the outside of the
1ubes. Using property values of ammonia at 85 F, Eq. 10-22 for 2 tube rows gives
h- c = O•725 [ (37.21)(4.18 X 108 )(493.6)(0.29 3 )

(0.24)(2)(1.0/12)(2.1)
]t =
2200 B tu /h r sq f t F
Since this value is larger than that assumed in the first approximation, we correct the
calculations and obtain
1 1 1
U - + 0.000294 + = 0.00234 hr sq ft F /Btu
2200 630
T..: - T. = 1.22 F
liammonia = 2500 Btu/hr sq ft F
The second iteration will not change the value of the over-all heat-transfer coefficient
appreciably because the thermal resistance at the condensing side is less than one-fifth
of the total resistance. It yields
U = 440 Btu/hr sq ft F
and with this value of the over-all heat-transfer coefficient, the required total area is
q (2000)(60)
Ao = U(Tllt' - Twater) = (440)(6.3) = 43 ·5 sq ft Ans.
b) If there are 10 pipes, each muRt have a length of
L = 4.35 = (4.35) (12) = 165 ft

1rD (3.14)(1) .
The shell of such a condenser is probably too long. The large surface area-to-volume
ratio would make it difficult to insulate the shell and give a clumsy appearance. It is
therefore suggested that 30 parallel tubes be arranged in 5 rows. This will reduce the
length of the unit to about 6 ft. A ns.
The details of this calculation are left as an exerciRe to the reader.

Mixtures of vapors and noncondensable gases. The analysis of :1

eondensing system containing a mixture of vapors, or a pure vapor n1ixt=>d
with noncondensable gas, is considerably more complicated than th('
analysis of a pure-vapor system. The presence of appreciable quantitie:-
of a noncondensable gas will in general reduce the rate of heat tran:3frr.
If high rates of heat transfer are desired, it is considered good practire tn
vent the noncondensable gas, which otherwise will blanket the coolin~
surface and add considerably to the thermal resistance. It will also hr
shown in Chapter 13 that non-condensable gases inhibit the mass tran~fer
by offering a diffusional resistance. A complete treatment of problems in-
volving condensation of mixtures is beyond the scope of this text, and tlw
reader is referred to Refs. 16 and 30 for a comprehensive summary of avail-
able information on these topics.
10-4. FREEZING AND MELTING
Problems involving the solidification or melting of mat~rials are of

considerable importance in many technical fields. Typical examples in
the field of engineering are the making of ice, the freezing of foods, or th(·
solidification and melting of metals in casting processes. In geology tht·
solidification rate of the earth has been used to estimate the age of our
planet. \Vhatever the field of application, the problen1 of central inten~~t
is the rate at which solidification or melting occurs.
\Ve shall here consider only the problern of solidification, and it is left
for the reader as an exercise to show that a solution of this problem is abo
a solution to the corresponding problem in melting. Figure 10-1 () ~ho'r~
r.
/!Ur Acting
en Heat Sink
9 ke.
<.J
fa, ~~~"'~==~~~
--- ~ ~ -~ ~Water -==--rtr ~-- :: Interface
• r•
-· - - -- ·-- -
. -- · --- -- - ---- -- -----
· -·-- - ----
- -- -- ·--- - - -
- . -- --- - -- --- ..
T, T,
Fw. 10-16. Tt'rnperature di~trihution for ieP forming on water with air
actin~
m; IH"at :-iink, tl.lld simplified tlwrmnl C'irt'uit for tht:> HyHtem with lwat
capaeit y of :-;olid eonsidered to IH' negligihll·.
the temperature distribution in an ice layer on the surface of a liquid.

'
The upper face is exposed to air at subfreezing temperature. Ice forination
oecurs progressively at the solid-liquid interfaee as a result of heat transfer
through the ice to the cold air. Heat flo\\·s by convection from the water

to the ice, by conduction through the ice, and by convection to the sink.
'l'he ice layer is subcooled except for the interface in contact with the
I iquid, which is at the freezing point. A portion of the heat transferred
to the sink is used to cool the liquid at the interface SL to the freezing
point and to remove its latent heat of solidification. The other portion
:--:erves to subcool the ice. Cylindrical or spherical systems may be des-
cribed in a similar manner, but solidification may proceed either inward
(a..'; for freezing of water in~iide a can) or outward (as for water freezing
c )n the outside of a pipe).
The freezing of a slab can be formulated as a boundary-value problen1
in "·hich the governing equation is the general conduction equation for the
~olid phase
-=--
~uhject to the boundary conditions that
at x = 0 lk ~ · - ,-~0 (T T (.() )
ax I=O -
at X = E
where E - distance to the solid-liquid interface which is a function of

time, 8;
L1 - latent heat of fusion of the material;
a = thermal diffusivity of the solid phase (cp / k);
p - density of the solid phase;
T1 - temperature of the liquid;
Too - temperature of the heat sink;
T 1r - freezing point temperature;
f~_o = unit ('ondurtanrc at x = 0, the air-ice interface:
ii, = unit conductance at x = E, the water-ice interface.
The analytic solution of this problem is very difficult and has only been
obtained for special cases. The reason for the diffi('ulty is that the go\·-
Prning equation is a partial-differential equation for whi('h the particular
. tiolutions are unknown when physically realistic boundary conditions are
imposed.
An approximate solution of practical value can however he obtained by
considering the heat capacity of the subcooled solid phase as negligible rela-
ti\·e to the latent heat of solidification. To simplify our analysis further we
:-;hall assume that the physical properties of the ice, p, k, and c, are uniform,
that the liquid is at the solidification temperature (i.e., T 1 = T 1, and

1/ii, = 0), and that iio and Too are constant during the process.
The rate of heat flow per unit area through the resistances offered hy
the ice and the air, acting in series, as a result of the temperature pott:>n tial
( T fr - T is 00 ) ...
q
-= (10--26)
A
This is the heat-flow rate which removes the latent heat of fusion nece&.."3rv
for freezing at the surface x = E, or
q
-= (10--27)
A
where (dE/dO) is the volume rate of ice formation per unit area at tlw
growing surface in cu ft/hr sq ft, and pL 1 is the latent heat in Btu/ cu ft.
Combining of Eqs. 10-26 and I0-27 to eliminate the rate of heat flow
yields the equation
T,r - Too L dE
- = p ,- (10-28)
1/ho + E/ k dO
which relates the depth of ice to the freezing time. The variables E and 8
can now be separated and we get
(10-29)
To make this equation dimensionless let
hoE
E+ = -
k
- T/r - Too
and o+ = Oh/· ----
pLtk
Substituting these dimensionless parameters in Eq. 10-29 yields
dE+ (I + E+) = d(J+ (10-301
If the freezing process starts at 0 = o+ = 0 and continues for a time fJ.

the solution of Eq. I0-30, obtained by integration between the specified
limits, is
E+ + (E+) 2/ 2 = (}+ (10-31~
or + = -
E I + v 1 + 20+- (10-32)
\Vhen the temperature of the liquids T z is above the fusion t~mperature
and the convective resistance at the liquid-to-solid interface is Ft,, th(•

dimensionless equation corresponding to Eq. 1Q-30 in the foregoing
simplified treatment becomes
- d8+ (10-33)
1 + R+T+(l + x+)
\Vhere R+ = h,lho;
r+ = (Tz - T,,)/(T,, - Too);
'vhile the other symbols represent the same dimensionless quantities used
previously in Eq. 1Q-30.
For the boundary conditions that, at o+ = 0, E+ = 0 and, at(}+ = o+,
E+ = E+, the solution of Eq. lQ-33 becomes
1 ( R+T+E+ ) E+
o+ = - (R+T+)'l In 1 - 1 - R+T+ - R+T+ (10-34)
The results are shown graphically in Fig. 10-17 where the generalized
thickness E+ is plotted VS. generalized time 9+ With the generalized potential-
resistance ratio R+r+ as parameter.
Example 10-4. In the production of "Flakice, '' ice forms in thin layers on a hori-
zontal rotating drum which is partly -Rubmerged in water. The cylinder is internally
2.0
-
~
..,
,.,f 1.0~-~---+---~::.___,~-+---~~+--~~F----+---::::J-;;~-j
II
0.4
0.3
+.., 0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.S 3.0 3.0 4.0
e+=&iao2(T,,-TIIl)/PLt lc
FIG. 10-17. Solidification of slah-thicktw~~ vs. time. (Ex-
tracted from "Rates of Icc Formation,'' by A. L. London and
R. A. Hehun, Trans. ASME, Vol. 65, 1943, with pPrmis..;:ion of t}u-.
puhlishPr-:-;, Th(' :\rnPrif":Ul ~ocif't~· of ~l(•ehunical En~illPPr:-:)

refrigerated with a brine spray at 12 F. Ice formed on the exterior surface is peeled r, ;-:-
as the revolving-drum surface emerges from the water.
For the operating conditions listed below, estimate the time required to fonn a.n ic•·
layer 0.1 in. thick.
\Vater liquid temperature .... 40 F
Liquid-surface conductance .... 10 Btu/hr ~q ft F
Conductance between brine and
ice (including metal wall) ...... 100 Btu/hr sq ft F
Solution: For the conditions stated above we have

h. 10
R+ = ho = 100 = 0 •1
Tt - TJr 40 - 32
T+ = T1r - Too = 32 - 12 = 0.4
e+ = hoE = (100 Btu/hr sq ft)(0.1/12 ft) =

0 622
k1ce 1.34 Btu/hr sq ft F /ft ·
\Ve assume now that the ice is a sheet. This is justified because the thickness of thr
ice is very small compared to the radius of curvature of the drum. The boundar_\·
conditions of this problem are then the same as those assumed in the solution of Ec1-
10-33. Hence, Eq. 10-34 is the solution to the problem at hand. Substituting num~·r·
ieal values for n+, T+, and E+ in Eq. 10-34 yields
0+ - - 1 ( 1 - 0.0245 ) - 0.622 - 0 615

- (0.04) 2 In 1 - 0.04 0.04 - ·
From the definition of o+, the time 0 is
o= 0.615 X pL,k/ho2 (T,r - T 00 )
= (0.615) (57.3) (143.6) (1.34) /(10,000) (20)
= 0.034 hr or about 2 min An~.
Equations for the rate of ice formation on the inside and outside of
cylinders of radius r o have been solved by London and Seban (3G) und('r
the same assumptions used to derive Eq. lQ-33 for the slab. Their result:-:
are shown in Fig. 10-18 for freezing outside a long cylinder containing a
heat sink and in Fig. 10-19 for freezing of a liquid in a long circular cylin-
drical container immersed in a medium at a temperature belo\v the freezin~
point of the liquid. The dimensionless time for complete solidification of
the liquid in the latter case corresponds to the abscissa intercept r+ = r ro =0
at the appropriate value of the system parameter horo / k. The din1en~ion
less time parameter 8* plotted as the abscissa in Figs. 1Q-18 and 10-19 i:'
defined as
(Tfr - T crJk8
8*
Ltpr o 2

10 5 2 0.75
3.0
~ 0.5
~
11 2.5
..
+
0.3
2.0
t.oo~----~----~2~----~
3 ----~~------~
5 ----~
6------7~----~
8--~
B*=(T,, -Too) lc8/L,pr0 2

F10. 10-18. 'olidification n ut. ide f ylinder. (Extracted
from "Rat of Ice F rmation, ' b A. L. London and R. A. eba.n,
Trans. A ME, Vol. 65, 1943, with _p rmi ion of th publi hers,
Th American oci ty of Mechanica~ Engin r )
~ 0 .61---\~-\-: ~-;-~,..-c"'c--t--.3o~f-----+-----'::a......:t-----+----+----+-------t
-.::-
u
+.
.. 0.-41-----'c:--t'i~---\---i\----~--3-+----"t----_._
0 0.2 0. ~ 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1 .~ 1.6 1.8 2.0

6* :a (T,,- TfJtJ)k8jL, pro2
· lidification of cylind r in a ol r m 1um.
(Extrac d fr m "Rat f I F rmati n, ' I y A. L. L ndon
nd R. A. ' han, Tran . A '!11 E, V 1. 65, 1 43, with p rrnis-
k
ion of h l uhli h r. Th m ri n .·o i tv f l\'f chanir 1

Engin er ) ·

An estimate of the error caused by neglecting the heat capacity of the

solidified portion has been obtained hy means of an electrical network
simulating the freezing of a slab originally at the fusion t{l.mperature (37).
It was found that the error is not appreciable when t.ho / k is less than 0.1
(:37) or when [LJ / (T 1r - Tmkl is larger than 1..5 (:38). In the intermediak
range, the freezing rat('S predicted by the simplified analysis are too large.
The solutions presented here arc valid for ice and other substances which
have heats of fusion whieh are large compared to their specific heats. An
approximate method for pr<:'dicting the freezing rate of steel and other
rnetals, where [L 1 /(T 1r - TcxJcJ may be less than 1..5, is presented in Ref. 3S.
REFERENCES
1. \V. H. Jens a.nd G. Leppert., "Reeent Devdopments in Boiling R~careh," Purb
I, II. J. Am. Soc. Naval Engrs., Vol. 67 (W55), pp. 137-155; Vol. 66 (1955), pp. 437--t56.
2. E. A. Farber a.nd R. L. Seorah, "Heat Transfer to Wa~cr Boiling under Pressun•, .,
Trans. ASM E, Vol. 70 <lH-18 ), pp. 3fiU -384.
3. l\1. Jakob, Heat 'l'm11.-;fer~ Vol. l. (New York: John \Viley & Son..~, Inc., 194!l. 1
4. W ..M. Rohstmow, "A Method of Correlating Heat Transfer Data for Surfaee
Boiling Liquid~," Trans. ASJJ E, Vol. 74 (1 H52), pp. H6H-975.
5. M. Jakob, "1\ondensation unJ Verdampfung,'' Z. Ver. Deutsch. lng., Vol. 7ti
d932), pp. 1161-1170.
6. l\:1. Jakob, ''Local Temperature Differences as Occurring in Evaporation, Con-
densation, and Catnlyt.ic Heactionl"," Temperature, Its illcasurement and Control at!d
Science and Industry, (New York: Rdnhold Publishing Corporation, 1941 ), p. 834.
7. J. T. Castles, S. Jf. Thesis in Chern. Eng., l\Iassachusetts Institute of Technology,
1947.
8. F. C. Gunther, "Photogru.phic Study of Surface Boiling Heat Transfer with
Forced Convection," Trans. ASME, Vol. 73 (1951), pp. 115-123.
9. M. E. EIJion, ''A Study of the :\leehanism of Boiling Heat Transfer," Afemora11-
dum 20-88, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Calif. Inst. of Tech., :\larch, 1954.
10. F. C. Guut ht'r and F. Kn•ith, "Photographic Study of Bubble Formation iu
Heat Transfer to Subcooled Water," Prog. Rept. 4-120, Jet Propulsion Lab., Calif. Inst.
of Tech., l\larch, 1950.
11. J. N. Addoms, //eat Transfer at High Rates to Water Boiling OuhJide Cyli11ders,
D.Sc. The~is, Dept. of Chern. Engrg., Mu.ssachusetts Institute of Technology, 1948.
12. E. L. Piret and II. S. lsbin, "~atural Circulation Evaporation Two-phase Heat
Transfer," Chern. Eng. Progress, Vol. 50 ( 1954), p. 305.
13. rvi. T. Cichclli and C. F. Bonilla, ''Heat Transfer to Liquids Boiling under Pre.'-
sure," Tran~. A.IChE, Vol. 41 (1U45), pp. 755 - 787.
14. D. S. Cryder a.nd A. C. Finalhargo, "Heat Transmission from ~fetal Surface~
to Boiling Liquids: Effect of Temperature of the Liquid on Film Coefficient," Tra11~t..
A/ChE, Vol. 33 (1937J, pp. 3-tt>-362.
15. W. H. l\leAdams ct. al., ''Heat Transfer from Single Horizontal Wires to Boiling
\Vater," Chern. Eng. Progress, Vol. 4-l ( l \l-l8l, pp. 639-646.
16. \V. H. :\lcAdam~. Heal Trrtnsm£s~ion, 3d ed. (New York: 1\lcGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., 1H54.)
17. F. KrPith and :\1. J. SummerfiPid, "He:l.t Transfer to Water at High Flux Densi-
ti<·s \Vith and \Vithout Surfaee BoilinF;," Tran.'i. ASME, Vol. 71 (HHH), pp. 805-815.
18. W. H. :\le.-\dam:-: ct al., "Heat Tra.n~fer at High Rates to \Vater \\;th Surfare
Boiling," l11d. Eng. Chcm., Vol. 41 ( HHUl, pp. 1U45-1953.

19. Steam-Its Generation and Use. (New York: The Babcock & \Vilcox Com-
pany, 1955.)
20. E. A. Kazekov, ''l\laximum Heat Tran:-;ft·r to Boiling \Vater at. High Pressures,"
Izvestia Adakmii Nauk USSR, September, UJ50, pp. 1:377-1387. (Reviewed in Engrg.
Digest, Vol. 12 (1951), pp. 81-85.)
21. W. Rohsenow and P. Griffith, "Corr-elation of .Maximum Heat Flux Data for
Boiling of Saturated Liquids." (Preprint, Heat Transfer Symposium, Am. lnst. Chem.
Engra., Louisville, Ky., ~larch, 1955.)
22. W. H. Jens and P. A. Lottes, "Analy8is of Heat Transfer, Burnout, Pressure
Drop and Density Data for High-Pressure Water," Argonne Nat. Lab. Rpts. ANL--4627,
l\lay, 1951.
23. W. H. Jens and P. A. Lottes, "Two Phase Pressure Drop and Burnout Using
Water Flowing in Round and Rectangular Channels," Argonne Nat. Lab. Rpts. ANL-
4915, October, 1952.
24. J. L. Schweppe and A. S. Foust, "The Effect of Forced Circulation Rate on
Boiling Heat Transfer and Pres:mre Drop in a Short Vertical Tube," Chern. Eng. Progress
Symp., Series !\o. 5, Vol. 1944 (19!)3).
25. F. Kreith and A. S. Foust, "Remarks on the Stabilit.v and Mechanism of Surface
Boiling Heat Transfer," ASME Paper !)4-A-16, August, JH54.
26. L. A. Bromley, "Heat Transfer in Stable Fjlm Boiling," Chem. Eng. Progress,
Vol. 46 (1950), pp. 221-227.
27. L. A. Bromley et al., "Heat Transfer in Foreed Convection Film Boiling," Ind.
Eng. Chern., Vol. 45 (1953), pp. 2639-2646.
28. W. Nusselt, "Die Oherfliichenkondensat.ion des Wa.~scrdn.mpfes," Z. Ver.
Deut8ch. lng., Vol. 60 (HH6), pp. 541, 569.
29. A. P. Colburn, ''Problems in Design on Research on Cond<msers of Vapours and
Vapour ~Iixturcs," Inst. l\fech. Eng. and AS:\IE, Proc. General Discussion on Heat Trans-
fer, September, 1951, pp. 1-11.
30. A. P. Colburn, "The Calculation of Condensation where a Portion of the Con-
densate Layer is in Turbulent Flow," Trans. Am. lnst. Chem. Engrs., Vol. 30 (1933),
p. 187.
31. C. G. Kirkbridge, "Heat Transfer by Condensing Vapors on Vertical Tubes,"
TraTUJ. Am. lnst. Chem. Engrs., Vol. 30 (1933), p. 170.
32. D. L. Katz, E. H. Young, and G. Bolekjinn, ''Condensing Vapors on Finned
Tubes," Petroleum Refiner (November, 1B54), pp. 175-178.
33. E. F. Carpenter and A. P. Colburn, "The Effect of Vapor Velocity on Conden-
sation-inside Tubes," Inst. ~lech. Eng. ASl\fE, Proc. General Discw~sion 01l Heat Trans-
fer, 1951, pp. 20-26.
34. T. B. Drew, \V. l\1. NagiP, n.nd W. Q. Smith, "The Conditions for Drop,,.·jgp
Condensation of Steam," Trans. Am. lnst. Chem. Engrs., Vol. 31 (193.)), pp. 605-621.
35. A. P. Katz, H. J. l\.facintire, and R. E. Gould, "Heat Transfer in Ammonia
Condensers," BuU. 209. Univ. Ill., Eng. Expt. Sta., H)30.
36. A. L. London and R. A. Seban, "Rate of lee Formation," Trans. ASME, Vol.
65 (1943), pp. 771-778.
37. F. Kreith and F. E. Romie, "A Study of the Thermal Diffusion Equation with
Boundary Conditions Corresponding to Freezing or l\lclting of l\latcrials at the Fusion
Temperature," Proc. Phys. Soc., Vol. 68 (195.5), pp. 277-2Hl.
38. D. L. Cochran, "Solidification Application and Extension of Theory," Tech.
Rep. 24, Navy Contract N6-onr-251, Sta.nford Univ., 1955.
39. W. H. ~IcAdams, W. E. Kennel, C. S. l\Iinden, R. Carl, P. :\L Picornell, and
J. E. Dew, "Heat Transfer at High Rates to \Vater with Surface Boiling," Ind. Eng.
Chem., Vol. 41 (1944), pp. 1945-1953.

PROBLEMS
1o-1. Show that the dimensionless equation for ice formation at the out:side of s
tube of radius ro is
where
E +To
r*- - - -
O* - (1', - Too) kiJ
pLro 1
.\ssume that the ·.vatcr is originally at the freezing temperature T" that the cooling
medium inside the tube surface is below the freezing temperature at a uniform tempera-
ture T 00 , and that ho is the total conductance between the cooling medium and the
pipe-ice interface. Also show the thermal circuit.
1o-2. In the manufacture of can ice, cans having inside dimensions of 11 by Z2
by 50 in. with l-in. inside taper are filled with water and immersed in brine having a
temperature of 10 F. !For details of the process see The Refrigerating Data Boo!.- .
ASRE, Vol. II (1H40), pp. 9,56). For the purpose of a preliminary analysis, the actual
ice can may be considered as an equivalent cylinder having the same cross-sect ionnl
n.rea as the can, and end effects may be neglected. The over-all conductance h<'t ween
the brine and the inner surface of the can is -10 Btu/hr sq ft F. Determine the time
required to freeze the water and compare with the time necessary if the brine-circulatio11
rate would be increased to reduce the thermal resistance of the surface to one-tenth of
the value specified above.
lo-3. Estimate the time required to freeze vegetables in thin, tin, cylindrical coll-
tainers of 6-in. diameter. Air at 10 F is blowing at 15 fps over the cans, which are
stacked to form one long cylinder. The physical properties of the vegetables may he
taken as those of water and ice respectively.
lo-4. Develop the Nusselt film-condensation relation for condensation inside smalJ
vertical tubes where the film builds up an annulus.
lo-G. Consider a !-in.-ID vertical tube at a surface temperature of 150 F with
atmospheric saturated steam inside. Determine the tube length at which the con-
densate fills the tube and chokes the flow.
1()-6. Calculate the average heat-transfer coefficient for film-type condensation of
water at pressures of 1 in. Hg abs and 14.7 psia for (a) a vertical surface 5 ft high; (b) th<'
outside surface of a 1-in.-OD vertical tube 5 ft long; (c) the outside surface of a 1-in.-OD
horizontal tubes 5 ft long; and (d) a 10-tube vertical bank of i-in.-OD horizontal tube~
5 ft long. In all cases, assume that the vapor velocity is negligible and that the ~nr
face temperatures are constant at 20 F below saturation temperature.
lo-7. Predict the nucleate-boiling heat-transfer coefficient for water boiling at
atmospheric pressure on the outside surface of a 1-in.-OD vertical tube 5 ft long.
Assume the tube-surface temperature constant at 20 F above the saturation temperature.
lo-8. Estimate the maximum heat flux obtainable with nucleate pool boiling on a
clean surface for (a) water at 1 atm on brass, (b) water at 10 atm on bras-3, and (c) n-butyl
alcohol at 3 atm on copper.
lo-9. Determine the excess temperature at one-half of the maximum heat flux for
the fluid-surface combinations in Prob. 10-8.
1o-10. Estimate the time required to freeze a l-in. thickness of water due to
nocturnal radiation with ambient air and initial water temperatures at 40 F. l\eglect
evaporation effect.

11 Heat Exchangers
11-1 . DESIGN AND SELECTION

A heat exchanger is a device which effects the transfer of heat from
one fluid to another. The simplest type of heat exchanger is a container
in \Vbich a hot and a cold fluid are mixed directly. In such a system both
fluids will reach the same final temperature, and the amount of heat trans-
ferred can be estimated by equating the energy lost by the hotter fluid to
the energy gained by the cooler one. Open feed-water heaters, desuper-
heaters, and jet condensers are examples of heat-transfer equipment em-
ploying direct mixing of fluids. 1\Iore common, however, are heat ex-
changers in which one fluid is separated from the other by a wall or a
partition through which the heat flows. These types of exchangers are
called recuperators. There are many forms of such equipment ranging
from a simple pipe-within-a-pipe with a few square feet of heat-transfer
surface up to complex surface condensers and evaporators with many
thousands of square feet of heat-transfer surface. In between these ex-
tremes is a broad field of common shell-and-tube exchangers. These units
are \videly used because they can be constructed with large heat-transfer
surfaces in a relatively small volume, can be fabricated from alloys to resist
corrosion, and are Ruitable for heating, cooling, evaporating, or condensing
all kinds of fluids.
The complete design of a heat-exchanger can be broken down into
three major phases:
1. The thermal analysis.
2. The preliminary mechanical design.
3. Design for manufacture.
The emphasis in this chapter will be on the thermal design. This
phase of the design is primar·ily concerned with the determination of the
heat-transfer surface area required to transfer heat at a specified rate for
given flow rates and temperatures of the fluids.
The mechanical design involves considerations of the operating tem-
peratures and pressures, the corrosive characteristics of one or both fluids,
the relative thermal expansions and accompanying thermal stresses, and
the relation of the heat exchanger to other equipment concerned.
The design for manufu.cture reqtnres the translation of the physical
439

440 HEAT EXCHANGERS
characteristics and dimensions into a unit which can be built at a lo\v cost.
Selections of materials, seals, enclosures, and the optimum mechanical
arrangement have to be made and the manufacturing procedures must he
specified.
To achieve maximum economy the majority of manufacturers have
adopted standard lines of heat exchangers. The standards establish tube
dian1eters and pressure ratings and promote the use of standard drawing~
and standard fabrication procedures. Standardization does not mean, how-
ever, that heat exchangers can be delivered off the shelf, because service
requirements vary too much. Some engineering design is necessary for
almost every exchanger, but if service conditions permit, the use of ex-
changers built to standard lines saves money. The engineer concerned
with the installation of heat exchangers in power plants and process equip-
ment is therefore often called upon to select a heat-exchanger unit which
is suitable for a particular application. The selection requires a thermal
analysis to determine whether a standard unit of specified size and geometry
can meet the requirements of heating or cooling a given fluid at a specified
rate. In this type of analysis the initial cost must be weighed against such
factors as life of equipment, ease of cleaning, and space required. It is
also important that the requirements of the safety codes of ASl\lE be met.
and for this purpose the Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manu-
facturers Association (TE:\lA) should be consulted.
11-2. BASIC TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGER
The simplest type of shell-and-tube heat exchanger is sho'vn in Fig. 11-1.
It consists of a tube· or a pipe located concentrically inside another tube
which forms the shell for this arrangement. One of the fluids flows
through the inner tube, the other through the annulus formed between the
inner and the outer tube. Since both fluid streams traverse the exchanger
only once, this arrangement is called a sZ:ngle-pass heat exchanger. If both
fluids flow in the same direction, the exchanger is a pa1'aUel-fl.ow type; if
the fluids move in opposite directions, the exchanger is of the counterflow
T,. in
FIG. 11-1. Ding ram of a simplP tulw-wit hi n-a-t ulw eounterflow heat exchanger.

HEAT EXCHANGERS 441
type. The temperature difference between the hot and the cold fluid is,
in general, not constant along the tube, and the rate of heat flow will vary
from section to section. To determine the rate of heat flow one must
therefore use an appropriate mean-temperature difference, as shown in
Sec. 11-3.
\Vhen the two fluids flowing along the heat-transfer surface move at
right angles to each other, the heat exchanger is of the crossflow type.
Three separate arrangements of this type of exchanger are possible. In
the first case each of the fluids is un-mixed as it passes through the exchanger
and, therefore, the temperatures of the fluids leaving the heater section are
not uniform, being hotter on one side than on the other. A flat-plate type
heater (Fig. 11-2), a design used for turbine regenerators to reclaim the
energy of the exhaust gases, or an automobile radiator approximates this
type of exchanger. In the second case, one of the fluids is unm1'xed and
FIG. 11-2. Flat-plate type hea.t ex-

changer illustrating crossflow with
both fluids unmixed.
the other is perfectly 1nixed as it flows through the exchanger. The

temperature of the mixed fluid· will be uniform across any section and will
vary only in the direction of flow. An example of this type is the crossflow
air heater shown schematically in Fig. 11-3. The air flowing over the bank
of tubes is mixed, while the hot gases inside the tubes are confined and
therefore do not mix. In the third case, both of the fluids are nn'xed as they
flow through the exchanger; that is, the temperature of both fluids will be
uniform across the section and will vary only in the direction of flow. This
type of arrangement is less important than the other two and will not be
discussed here.
In order to increase the effective heat-transfer surface urea per unit
volume, most commercial heat exchangers provide for more than a single
pass through the tubes, and the fluid flowing outside the tubes in the shell
is routed back and forth hy means of haffies. Figure 11-4 is a cross section

442 HEAT EXCHANGERS
AJrOut
AJr In
---~
AJrln
Flo. 11-3. ro Aow air heate r ill u trating crossBow with one
fluid mixed, the oth r unmixed.
of a heat exchanger with two tube pas es and one cro -baffled hell p '"".
Th baffie · are of the egmental typ Thi and oth r typi l typ f
baffle are hown in Fig. 11- 5. In a baffled exchang r, the flo\\ patt rn
on the hell side i compl x. A shown by th arrow part of the tim tb
flow i p rpendicular, and part of the time parallel, to the tube.
The heat exchanger illu trated in Fig 11- 4 ha fix d tube pla a.
each end and the tube are welded or expanded into the plate . Thi t yp
of c n truction ha the lowe t initial co t but can only b u ed f r ll
t mperature difference between the hot and the cold fluid b cau e n
provi ion i made to pr vent thermal tre es due to the cliff r ntial exp -
. ion b tween the tube and the hell . Another di advantage i that th
tube bundle can not 1 e removed for cleaning . Th e dTawbacks c
O\ ercome by the modification of the ba ic de ign hown in Fig. 11
In thi arrangem nt one tube plat is fixed but the other i b lted a
fl ing-h ad cover which p rmit the tube bundle to mov r lutiv the
~ ~ ~ ~
t::E~ ~ ·~ g
~ rn~
r ~
~ I
..
I - i~]
~
~ I I I I I I I I ~
'
l "'\(
r-.."l "'-"\1 )
1m~ ~ fz ~
1:?22 ~ ~ ~
Ft . 11 . ' h 11-an -tube h a xcha ug r \ ith s gm ntal 1 affi tw

tub pa f', ,on h 1l p

HEAT EXCHANGERS 443
Baffie
••
•••••
••••••
•••••••
•••••••
••••••
•••••
••
Free Ar.a BetwHn Baffles
frH Ar.a at Baffle
ORIFICE BAFFLE
Free Area ot Doughnut
DISK-AND-DOUGHNUT BAFFLE
I' ,,)
(
\ I
~
,
~ ~ ~
I
}
Free Area at Baffle Shell
SEGMENTAl BAFFLE
Fro. 11-5. Three typ of afu s u ed in shell-and-tube
heat exchangers. (After C. B. Cramer, Heat Transfer, 2d
ed. International T extbook Company, Scranton, Pa.)
hell. The floating tube heet is clamped between the floating head and
a flange so that it i po ible to remove the t ube bundle for cl aning. Th
heat exchanger sho" n in Fig. 11- 6 ha one hell pas and two t ube pa . e .
For certain pecial application uch as regenerator for aircraft or
automobile gas turbine , the rate of heat tran f r per unit weight and unit
volume is the prime con ideration. Compact, lightweight heat exchang r
for thi type of servic have be n inve tig t d by Kay and London (1).
A typical de ign i shown in Fig. 11- 7. For a c mplet de cription and
analy ·i of compact h at exchang r p cially forth application of fins t
incr a e the effectivene of uch unit , the reader i referred to the origin 1
paper (1 ,2,3,4,5) .

444 HEAT EXCHANGERS
Fw . 11- 6. h ll-and-tu h at x hang r with floating h ad. ( urt of

th Tul ular .. x hang ~1anufac ur r' i tion )
F1 . 11- 7. T y pi l mp v f
h H a rrii" n R a liat

HEAT EXCHANGERS 445
11-3. MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
The temperatures of fluids in a heat exchanger are generally not eon-
stant, but vary from point to point as heat flows from the hotter to th<•
colder fluid. Even for a constant thermal resiHtanee, the rate of hcnt
flo\V will therefore vary along the path of the exchangers because its value
depends on the temperature difference between the hot and the cold fluid at
the section. Figures 11-8, 11-9, 11-10, and 11-11 illustrate the changes in
temperature that may occur in either or both fluids in a simple shell-and-
tube exchanger (Fig. 11-1). The distances between the solid lines are
proportional to the temperature differences AT between the two fluids.
a b
~--------T---------~~
Tc.n
0 Atotol
Area
FH:. ll ·-S. TPmperalun· dist ribu-

tion in :-;ingle-pa,"\:o; conden~er.
a b
Tc ~----'------------~
0
---Area
Fw. li-B. TempPrat urt• dist rihu-

tion in singh·-pa...;:- evaporator.
Figure 11-8 illustrates the case where a vapor is condensing at a eon-

stant temperature while the other fluid is being heated. Figure 11-9 is
representative of a case where a liquid is evaporated at constant tempera-
ture while heat is flowing from a warmer fluid whose temperature decreases
as it passes through the heat exchanger. For both of these cases the
direction of flow of either fluid is immaterial and the constant-temperature
medium may also be at rest. Figure 11-10 rPpresents conditions in a
parallel-flow exchanger, and Fig. 11-11 applies to eounterflow. No chang~
of phase occurs in the latter two cases. lnspeetion of Fig. 11-10 shows
that, no matter how long the exchanger is, the final temperature of the

446 HEAT EXCHANGERS
colder fluid can never reach the exit temperature of the hotter fluid in
parallel flow. For counterflow on the other hand, the final temperature
of the cooler fluid may exceed the outlet temperature of the hotter fluid,
since a favorable temperature gradient exists all along the heat exchanger.
An additional advantage of the counterflow arrangement is that, for a
given rate of heat flow, less surface area is required than in parallel flow.
a b
_t_Thout
AT
11Tout
__UJd~----~-~ T Tcour
0 Jftolal
Area
FIG. 11-10. Temperaturt~ di~trihut ion in

single-pass parallel-flow heat exchanger.
b
Tcour-
lThout
11T
0
Area
FIG. 11-11. Temperature distribution in

singlf'-pn.ss counterflow heat exchanger.
To determine the rate of heat transfer in any of the aforementioned

cases the equation
dq = UdAtlT ( 11-1)
must be integrated over the heat-transfer area A along the length of the ex-
changer. If the over-all unit conductance U is constant, if changes in
kinetic energy are neglected, and if tue shell of the exchanger is insulated,
Eq. 11-1 can easily be integrated analytically for parallel or counterflow.
An energy balance over a differential area dA yields
(11-2)
where m is the mass rate of flow in lbm/hr, Cp is the specific heat at constant

HEAT EXCHANGERS 447
pressure in Btu/lbmF, and Tis the average bulk temperature of the fluid in
F. The subscripts h and c refer to the hot and cold fluid respectively ;_the
pl~~__sjgn. i_~ the ~hird term appHe~_ j;_Q_parallel flow, and_the minus ~J.o
-- ·
- ~ -- - - - .... - - · ·- .
~ounterflow. If the specific heats of the fluids do not vary with tempera-
ture, "'e can write a heat balance from the inlet to an arbitrary cross section
in the exchanger, or
- CA(Tia - T1a in) = Cc (Tc - Tc in) (11-3)
'vhere C.,. = rn.,.cp~.,
the hourly heat-capacity flow rate of the hotter fluid
in Btu/hr F;
Cc = rnce,c, the hourly heat-capacity flow rate of the colder fluid
in Btu/hr F.
Solving Eq. 11-3 for T~a gives
(11-4)
from .,vhich we obtain
(11-6)
Substituting Eq. 11-5 for T~a - Tc in Eq. 11-2 yields after some rearrange-
ment
dTc UdA
--------------------------------- - ---- (11-6)
Integrating Eq. 11-6 over the entire length of the exchanger (i.e., from
A = 0 to A = Ato~l) yields
In j- [1 + (Cr / C11)] Trout + CqclG__h) Tc in - T, in~
1- [1 + (Cc/C~a)] Tc in + (Cc / Ch) Tc in - T1a in~
= - (__!_ + __!_) UA (11-7)

Cc C11
Equation 11-7 can he simplified to read
ln [(1 + Cc/CA)(Tc in - Tc out) + T1a in - Tc in J
T" in - Tc in
= -(_!_Cc + ~)
(,,
UA (11-8)
From Eq. 11-3 we obtain for the total length of the exchanger
Thout- Thin
(11-9)
Tc out - Tc in

448 HEAT EXCHANGERS
which can be used to eliminate the hourly heat capacities in Eq. 11-8.
After some rearrangenH~nt we get
[!A
= [(1',, out - Trout) - (Thin - Tc in)J - - (11-10)
q
since
Letting T" - Tc = AT, Eq. 11-10 ran he written

. ATa- A7\
q =VA -ln (a 7la /;,a T) (11-11)
b
where the subscripts a and b refer to the respective ends of the exchanger
(see Figs. 11-10 and 11-11). In practice it is convenient to use an a\·erage
effective temperature difference ~ 1' for the entire heat exchanger defined by
q = UAXT (11-12)
Comparing Eqs. 11-12 and 11-11, one finds that, for parallel or counterflow
, ATa - aTb
A7 = - -- · - --- - - (11-13)
ln(ATa / a7\)
which is called the logarithn1ic mean over-all temperature difference oft<•n

designated by L~ITD. The Ll\ITD also applies when the temperature of
one of the fluids is constant, a.'3 shown in Figs. 11-8 and 11-9. \\.hen
m,cph = mcCpn the temperature difference is constant in counterflow and
~1' = ATa = D.Tb.

The use of the logarithmic mean temperature is only an approximation
in practice herause l/ is generally not constant. In design work, howevrr.
the over-all conductance is usually evaluated at a mean section, usually
halfway between end~, and treated as constant. If U varies considerably.
a numerical step-by-step integration of Eq. 11-1 may be necessary.
If the temperature difference AT a is not more than 50 per cent greah•r
than AT b, the arithmetic mean temperature difference will he within l per
('Pnt of the Ll\ITD and may he used to simplify calculations.
For more complex heat exchangers such a.'3 the shell-and-tube arrang(>-
rnent~ with several tube or shell passes and with crossflow exchangeN
having mixed and unmixed flow, the mathematical derivation of an expre~
sion for the mean temperature difference becomes quite complex. Tht'
usual procedure is to modify the simple Ll\1TI) by correction factor~
which have hPen published in chart form by Bowman, ~tueller. and
Xagl(> (tl) and h~~ the Tubular Exchanger l\lanufa<'turer's Association (7l.

HEAT EXCHANGERS 449
ur of th graph 1 ar hown in F ig . 11- 12, 11-13 11- 14, and 11-15.

The ordinate of each i the orre tion factor F . To obtain th tru mean
t mperatur for any of th e arrang m nt th L1VITD cal ulat d for
aunt rflow must be multipli d by the appropriate orr tion fa tor that i
!:l.Tt rue mean = Ll\IITD X F (11-14)
The valu hown on th ab ci a are for th dim n ionle temperatur -
iff r n ratio
(11-16)
1.0
~'i~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
\-1\" ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~t'--.. ~
~~ :::::::::::- ..:-::::: 2::: 6:::-
-- r--
...........
~ I"-.
1-
0 .9
' \ \ \ 1\ \~0:'\~~ 10~ ~'~~ ""'~""" \

\ \
\\.\1\\\[\\;'\ 1\ "f\ 1\ 1\ \ 1\
F
0 .8 ....,
0
0
-v.
0
(I)
0
Oo
0 •0 1\b \t-)u.
t.)
I
\t-)·o -:\ _,·a-
'<"
\ ~
0\1\
~'j ~·~
v ~R~ I\ '
u~~
\ \0
·-!·~-·~\0 ~
\
-
......
0.7
-0
· ~~ ~ f ~~I\ \ \\ V\
II
0 \ \
\
06
- f- -
\ \ \ \ \ \' \ _·-f - \ -1 1-
o..s
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0... 0.5
\ I
0.6
\
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
P =(T, out - T t in)/(T 1 in -T r in)
-~~--+--+-........,Tt out
'-+---+-----+-,.._ Tt In ·
T, our
Fxo. 11-12. orr

on h 11 p .
where th ubscript t and r f r to the tub and h 11 fluid r p tiv ly,

and th ub cript in and out r f r to th inl t and utl t condition
r pectively. Th ratio P i an indi ation of th h ating r c oling ff -
tiv n and can vary from z ro f r a c n tant t mp ratur of on of th
fluid t unity for the wh n inl t t mp ratur f t h h tt r fluid qual
the outl t t mp ratur of th c ld r flu id . Th param t r f r a h of th
urve Z i equal to th rati of h pr du f th m -ft w rat tim
J Corr - v r I oth r n. rrangem nt ar pre nt d in R f. .
I I
..
450 HEAT EXCHANGERS
O . S L-..-l...~.l..-.1'--'-~~_.....__ ____. _ L_ L_ _ j J_ ..J..__.ll_ - 1 - _.• L--L--L-~ 1..-l- ~J__L...L.L--JLJ....U

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 .~ 0.5 0.6 0.7 08 1.0
P=(T,ou, -Tt in)/ (T, In-Tt in )
Taln
I l
!
( I Ttout
I I
i I I
(
I I
I
- Tr In
T 1 out
T
F I G. x hanJ!er wi h
two f th Tu ular
1.0
t--,..--= ~
""""' '\ ~ ""' ............
f\.. ~ ~ r--..._
~ t::::::: t-- t-- -
.......
t - r--...
........_
"'
Ts ln
i'-.
0.9
\' \ I" 1'\. "\
......,
~ ~ "' ~
0.8 \ ~ 1\ i\ \ \ 1'\ \
F \ \ \ \ i\ 1\
r,ou
0.7
2 ... .c .o 3.0\ 2.0\ U.\ 1.o\ o.8\ o.6\ 0.~ 0.2\
\ \ \ y.,, \
\ \ 1\
0 .6
I i \ 1\ -, Ts ou t
0 .5 [J 1\ \ 1
0 0.1 0.2 O.J O..c 0 .5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
T , out- Tt ,~
T, ,~- T, in
FIG . 11-14.
m n an ci

HEAT EXCHANGERS 451
1.0
~~~
.......
~ ['..
-...;;
l""oo.. - ......
~ ::-:::: ['.... t-..... -- -r---......
0.9
\ .'\
~"'i'--
r---.. ......
.... ,
": "",''"
.........
~ ,\ r\.
0.8
II
I ' \
' ""'\ ",1\ ~
~ ~
...... ['...
.... "{ 1\
\
f
i z ::: <4.0 3.0 2.0~ u\ 1.0\ 0.~\. 0.~ o.~\o.2\
0.7
~ i\ 1\ \ 1\\ \ \
I
\ \I \ i\
0.6 l l
i ! \ ' \ ,\ T, OVI
1\ \ \ \ \
0 .5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.<4
7i
'
0 ..5
oyt -7j in
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0.
T,;n-2'tin
FIG. 11-15. Correction factor to counterflow Ll'viTD for crossflow heat ex-
changer, both fluids unmixed, one tube pass. (Extracted from "1\lean Tem-
perature Difference in Design," by R. A. Bowman, A. C. 1\Iueller, and \V. M.
~agel, published in Trans. ASJIE, Vol. 62, 1940, with permission of the pub-
lishers, The American Society of l\lechanical Engineers)
the heat capacity of the two fluids m,cptfm,cp,. This ratio is also equal to
the temperature change of the shell fluid divided by the temperature
change of the fluid in the tubes, or
Z = 'mtCpt = Tain- Tsout
(11-16)
m,c,, Tt out - Tt in
In the application of the correction factors it is immaterial whether the

warmer fluid flows through shell or tubes. If the temperature of either of
the fluids remains constant, the direction of flow is also immaterial, since
F' equals 1 and the Ll\1TD applies directly.
Example 11-1. Determine the heat-transfer surface area required for a heat
exchanger constructed from 1-in.-OD tube to cool 55,000 lb/hr of a 95 per cent ethyl
alcohol solution (ep = 0.91 Btu/lb F) from 150 to 103 F, using 50,000 lb/hr of water
available at 50 F. Assume that the over-all coefficient of heat transfer based on the
outer-tube area is 400 Btu/hr sq ft F and consider each of the following arrangement~:
a) Parallel-flow tube and shell;

b) Counterflow tube and shell;
c) Reversed-current exchanger with two shell passes and 72 tube passes, the
alcohol flowing through the shell and the water flowing through the t uhe~;
d) Crossflow, with one tube pass and one shell pass, shell-side fluid mixed.
Solution: (a) The outlet temperature of the water for any of the four arrangements
l'an he obtained from an over-all energy balance, assuming that the heat loss to the
atmosphere is negligible. \\'riting the energy halance as
and substituting the data in the above equation we obtain

(55,000) (O.Hl) (150- 103) = (50,000i (l.Ol (Trout -50)

452 HEAT EXCHANGERS
from which the outlet temperature of the water is found to be 97 F. The rate of heat
flow from the alcohol to the water is therefore
q = Tn~t.C 1 ,1t.(Th in - T11. out) = (55,000) (0.91) (150 - 103) = 2,350,000 Btu/br
From Eq. 11-13, the L~ITD for parallel flow is
Ll\ITD = !lTa - !lTb - 100 - 6 = 33.4 F

In (ATa/llTb) In (100/6)
From Eq. 11-12 the heat-transfer surface area is
c;
q 2,350,000
A = (U)(Ll\'ITD) = (1:00) (33.4) = 703 sq ft
'\
The length of the exchanger for a 1-in.-OD tube would be too great to be practical. .4n.~.
b) For the counterflow arrangement, the appropriate mean temperature difference
is 150 - 97 = 53 F because meepe = m,.cp,.. The required area is
A = . q :::o:: 2,350,000 - 444 sq ft

(UHL~ITD) (100)(53) - I
which is 40 per cent less than the area necessary for parallel flow. Ans.
c) For the reversed-currt>nt arrangement, we determine the appropriate mean
temperature difference by applying the correction factor found from Fig. 11-13 to the
mean temperature for counterflow.
p = Tc out - T r In _ 97 - 50 = 0.47
T11. In - 1'c In 150 - 50
and the hourly heat capacity ratio i:-~
Z = _rr_l_cC_
·pc_ = l
11l~aCplt.
From the chart of Fig. 11-13, F = O.~H and the heat-transfer area is
44
A =
0.97
.! = 4f>O sq ft Am.
The length of the exchanger for 72 l-in.-00 tubes in parallel would be

A /72 6.4
L = 1rD = (;)(1/12) ~ 24.4 ft
This length is not unrea.~onable, but if it is desirable to shorten the exchanger, more
tubes could be used.
d) For the crossftow arrangement. (Fig. 11-3), the correction factor i~ found from
the chart of Fig. ll-14 to be 0.88. The required Rurface area is thus 504 sq ft, about
10 per cent larger than that for the reversed-current exchanger. A.n.'l.
11-4. HEAT-EXCHANGER EFFECTIVENESS
In the thermal analysis of the various types of heat exchanger presented

in the preceding section, an equation of the type
q = UA~Tmean [ 11-12]
was used. This form will be found convenient when all of the terminal

HEAT EXCHANGERS 453
temperatures necessary for the evaluation of the appropriate mean tem-

perature are known, and Eq. 11-12 is widely employed in the design of
heat exchangers to given specifications. There are, however, numerous
<~casions when the performance of a heat exchanger (i.e., U) is known,
or can at least be estimated, ut the tern erature f th uids leavin he
Pxchan~r are not k_wwn. T is type of problem is encountered in the
s~ction of aheat exchanger or when the unit has been tested at one flow
rate hut service conditions require different flow rates for one or both
fluids. The outlet temperatures and the rate of heat flow can only be
found by a rather tedious trial-and-error proc~dure if the charts presented
in the preceding section are used. In such cases it is desirable to circum-
vent entirely any reference to the logarithmic or any other mean tempera-
ture difference. A method which accomplishes this has been proposed by
Nusselt (8) and Ten Broeck (9).
To obtain an equation for the rate of heat transfer which does not in-
volve any of the outlet temperatures, we introduce the heat-exchanger
('Jfectiveness E. The heat-exchanger effectiveness is defined as the ratio
of the actual rate of heat transfer in a given heat exchanger to the maximum
possible rate of heat exchange. The latter would be obtained in a counter-
flow heat exchanger of infinite heat-transfer area. In this type of unit, if
there are no external heat losses, the outlet temperature of the colder fluid
Pquals the inlet temperature of the hotter fluid when mcCpr < mhcp~a; when
m,.cp~a < mcCpc, the outlet temperature of the warmer fluid equals the inlet
tPmperature of the colder one. In other words, the effectiveness compares
the actual heat-transfer rate to the maximum rate whose only limit is
t hP second law of thermodynamics. Depending on which of the hourly
heu t c-apa<'it ies is smaller, the effectiveness is
Ch(Th in - Th out)
0 = (11-17a)
Cmin(Th in - Tr in)
or
Cc(Tc out - Tr in)
0 = ---- - --- - - - (11-17b)
ern in ( 7\ in - T,. in)
where Cmtn is the smaller of the mhcp~a and mccp,. magnitudes.
Onc-e the effectiveness of a heat exchanger is known, the rate of hf'at
transfer can be determined directly from the equation
'7 = E('lllin (7\ in - T,. in) (11-18)
.
Slnc-e
Tr in) = (\ (7\ in - 7\ out) = ('c (Tc out - Tc in)
Equation 11-18 is the basir relation in thi~ analysis lwcause it expresses

the rate of heat tran:;fpr in terms of thP pffpcti n•rws:-;, t lw srnaller hourly

454 HEAT EXCHANGERS
heat capacity, and the difference between the inlet temperatures. It re-
places Eq. 11-12 in the L~ITD analysis but does not involve the outlet
temperatures. Equation 11-18 is of course also .suitable for design pur-
poses instead of Eq. 11-12.
We shall illustrate the method of deriving an expression for the ef-
fectiveness of a heat exchanger by applying it to a parallel-flow arrange-
ment. The effectiveness can be introduced into Eq. 11-8 by replacing
(Tc in - Tc out) / (Th in - Tc in) by the effectiveness relation from Eq. 11-17.
We obtain
or
Solving for 8 yields

1 - e-ll+<Ch/Cc))U A!Ch
8= (11-19)
(Cmin / Ch) + (Cmin / Cc)
\Vhen C~a is less than Cc, the effectivcnc~~ hecornes
8= (11-20)
and when Cc < C"' we obtain

1 - e-lt+<Cc!Ch))UA!Cc
e= ---------------- (11-20a)
1 + (Cc!Ch)
The effectiveness for both cases can therefore be written in the form
1 - e-ll+<Cmln/Cmax)]U A/Cmtn
e= --------------------- (11-21)
1 + (Cmin/Cmax)
The foregoing derivation illustrates how the effectiveness for a given flow
arrangement can be expressed in terms of two dimensionless parameters, the
hourly heat-capacity ratio Cmin/Cmax and the ratio of the over-all conduct-
ance to the smaller hourly heat capacity, U A / Cmin· The latter of the two
parameters is called the number of heat-transfer units, or NTU for short. The
number of heat-transfer units is a measure of the heat-transfer size of the
exchanger. The larger the value of NTU, the closer the heat exchanger
approaches its thermodynamic limit. By analyses which in principle are
similar to the one presented here for parallel flow, effectivenesses may lw
evaluated for most flow arrangements of practical interest. The results
have been put by Kays and London (1) into convenient graphs from which
the effectiveness can be determined for given values of NTU and C min ·em&:'( .

HEAT EXCHANGERS 455
Parallel-Flow Exchanger Performance
Hot Fluid (mc)h=Ch

~
L. Cold AuHI (mc),•C,

eat-Transfer Surface
00
.1 .1 I ..--
r-- ~Cmin/Cmo•=O
~
V
80 / 0.25
/ ./
~0
....... ~ _,. -
1
0.75
/; ~ .--
......
! 40 ~~ - 1.00
r
·.::
u
/V
•
II:
w 20 /'
I
1/
0 2 3
No. of Transfer Units, NTU,.0 a=AU/Crnln
Fw. 11-16: Heat-exchanger effectiveness for parallel flow. (By pennis-
sion from \V . .M. Kays and A. L. London, Compact Heat Exchangers, National
Press, 1955)
The effectiveness curves for some common flow arrangements are shown in
Figs. 11-16 to 11-20. The abscissas of these figures are the NTU's of the
heat exchangers. The constant parameter for each curve is the hourly
heat capacity ratio Cmin/C max, and the effectiveness is read on the ordinate.
Note that, for an evaporator or condenser, Cmin/Cmax = 0, because if one
fluid remains at constant temperature throughout the exchanger, its effec-
tive specific heat, and thus its capacity rate, is by definition equal to
infinity.
Example 11-2. From a performance test on a well-batHed single-shell, two-tube-
pass heat exchanger, the following data. are available: oil (cp = 0.5 Btu/lb F) in turbulent
flow inside the tubes entered at 160 Fat the rate of 5000 lb/hr and left at 100 F; water
flowing on the shell side entered at 60 F and left at 80 F. A change in service conditions
requires the cooling of a similar oil from an initial temperature of 200 F but at three
fourths of the flow rate used in the performance test. Estimate the outlet temperature
of the oil for the same water rate and inlet temperature as before.
Solution: The test data may be used to determine the hourly heat capacity of the
water and the over-all conductance of the exchanger. The hourly heat capacity of the
water is from Eq. 11-9
(5000)(0.5) (
1
: =~O ) = 7500 Btu/hr

456 HEAT EXCHANGERS
Counter-Flow E.-changer Performance
Hot Fluid (rnc)h=Ch

~
2 3 5
No. of Transfer Units, NTUmoa=~U/Cmin
FIG. 11-17. llcat.-cxchangPr effectiveness for countorAow. (By permis-

sion from \V. ~1. Kaysand A. L. London, Compart 1/eat En·hangers, 1'\atioual
Press, 1955)
1-2 Parallel-Counterflow bchon9er Performance
+I Shell Avid (mc)1 = C1
/
" Tube Fluid
-
(nac),-=Ct ql
I
One Shell Pan 2, 4, 6, etc. Tube Panes

100
- Cm.~/C~)~ ~ -
/
1
.,.-0. 25-
-
80 v
/v -
I
0.50 -
~~
~
~ ~o-0.75
...... 60 ·-
•c:
• ~ ~ ~ r-1.00
.~
v
40
Vfjj v
...."
~
1f'
20 Jl
/_
I
0 l
0 1 2 3 4 5
No. of Transfer Unih, NTUmoa =..4U,t;min
Fw. 11-18. Hen.t-exehangf'r effectiveness for shell-and-tube heat exchau~t r

with one w<•ll-haftled slwll pa~~ nnd two, or a. multiple of tl\·o, tube pa..~st>s. (B~
I>Prmission from \V. :\1. Ka:vs and A. L. London, Compact Heat E.rchangers,
~at ionn.l Press, H) 55)

HEAT EXCHANGERS 457
Cross-Flow Exchanger With Fluids Unmixed
(•e)c
/i ~old Flui_d
-4'r/HP- L-:~~:
100
~ --+
I I I
l!;mtn/Cmoa =~
/ / .....v~ ~o.~- b-----'
~
~
80
I ~ / v o.75 ~_1.oo- -
~ V-: t:...- v
.....
w
:::60
•c
.•
~
ID ~ v
ti
~
-,
: 40
Iw
....
20
I
1/
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
No. of Transfer Units, NTUmoa =~V/Cmll'l
F((i. 11-19. Heat-exchanger effectiveness for crossflow with both fluids

unmixPd. (By permission from \V. ~-1. Kays and A. L. London, C01npact Heal
Exchangers, National Press, 1955)
Crou-Fiow bchonger With One Fluid Mixed
A ~
j ~ M;,od Flu;d
100
' ~
~mixed Fluid
Cml ..,
c..-i..d v
I
0
I
-,jJ""
v
/.. ~
~ P'""
~-
--
~--- r-
-0.25
·4 r--
0.5
80
I / ~~
~- ~- - ~ ·2
r--
0.75
r--
~~ ~ 1.33
/
It ~ v 1\ Cmiaed
1
20
.,
J
'Iff
jJ'
Cunm•aed
0
v
0 2 3
No. of Transfer Units, l'IT'Vmoa • .A V,tt;nun
FIG. 11-20. Heat-exehanger effectiveness for crossflow with onP fluid mixed,
the other unmixe-d. \Vhen CmixcJ / Cun~iu.t > 1, :'\TUmu is htl.$ed on ('unmixeJ ·
(By permission from \V. l\1. Ka.ys and A. L. London, Com pad II cal E.rchangcrs,
....
'\.T
atwna
• . l I> re ~s,
, 1(I,,<>~
r: -)

458 HEAT EXCHANGERS
and the temperature ratio P is from Eq. 11-15
p -= Tt out - T, In = 60 =- 0. 6
T, ln - T 1 In 100
z 20
= 60 -= 0.33
'
From Fig. 11-12, F == 0.94 and the mean temperature difference is
' ·" .. - 80-40

'" llT - F X Ll\ITD =- 0.94 In (80/40) = 54.2 F
From Eq. 11-12 the over-all conductance is
UA =- q/tlT = (7500) (20)/54.2 =- 2760 Btu/hr F
Since the thermal resistance on the oil side is controlling, a decrease in velocity to 75 per
cent of the original value will increase the thennal resistance roughly by the velocity
ratio raised to the 0.8 power. This can be verified by reference to Eq. 8-17. Fnder
the new conditions the conductance, the NTU, and the hourly heat capacity ratio will
therefore be approximately
UA ~ (2760) (0.75°·t~) = 21 HO Btu/hr F
NTU = UA = 2190 - 1.17

Con (0. 75)(2500)
and Coii/Cwater = rmin / Cmax = (0.75) (2500)/7500 =- 0.25
From Fig. 11-18 the effectivcnel's is equal to 0.63. Hence from the definition of S. the
oil outlet temperature iR
Coli
Toll out - Ton In - -- -- - e!lTmu = (160 - 0.25)(0.63)(100) = 144.3 F Ans.
Cwater
Enmple 11-3. A flat-plate-type heater (Fig. 11-21) is to be used to heat air with
the hot exhaust gases from a turbine. The required air-flow rate is 6000 lb/hr, enterin~
at 60 F; the hot ga.qes are available at a temperature of 1600 F and at a rate of 5000 lbjhr.
Determine the temperature of the air leaving the heat exchanger.
Sol?dwn: Inspection of Fig. 11-21 shows that the unit is of the cross-flow type.
both fluids unmixed. As a first approximation the end effects will be neglected. The
flow systems for the air and gas streams are similar to flow in straight ducts having the
following dimensions :
Length of air duct, La = 0.583 ft
Hydraulic diameter of air duct DHa = 4Aa/ P 11 = 0.0427 ft
Length of gas duct La = 1.13 ft
Hydraulic diameter of gas duct DHa = 4Au!Pa = 0.0516 ft
Heat-transfer surface area A =- 23.6 ft
The unit condurtances may be evaluated from Eqs. 8-23a and 8-18 for flow in ducU!
(La/DHa = 0.583/0.0427 == 13.7, LuiDHa = 1.13/0.0516-=- 21.9). A difficulty ari~!l,
however, because the t.emperature8 of both fluids vary along the duct. It is therefore
necessary to e8timate an average temperature and refine the calculations after t.he outlet
temperatures have been found. Selecting the average air temperature at 160 F and

HEAT EXCHANGERS 459
the average gas temperature at 1500 F, the ab~olute vi~cositie~ at tho~ temperatures
are from Table A-3:
~air = 1.4 X I0- 5 lbrn/ft sec
~ Jt&ll (assuming air propertie~) - 3.0 X 10- 5 lbm/ft sec
The mass rates per unit area are :
(m /A) air = (6000/1 Hl <0.02-t()) - 12,8-!0 lb / hr sq ft
(m/ A),•• = (5000/18) (0.0158) - 17,550 lh/hr sq ft
Gas Out
Air In
Gas In
Air Out
0.03" Thick
0.324"
11
0.264
Enlarged Portion of Section A· A

CNot to Scole)
FIG. 11-21. Flat-plate-t ypP heater.

Dimensions at Sect ion A -A
P. = \Vetted perimP.ter on air side 2.3 ft
P ~e == \Vetted perinwter on gas side 1.22 ft
A. =- Cross-sectional area of air passage (per passage) 0.0246 sq ft
. 1 11 - Cross-sectional area of gas passage (pPr passage) 0.0158 sq ft
Heat-trunsfPr area 23.6 sq ft.
Air passagf's 1n
Gas passagf•s 18

460 HEAT EXCHANGERS
The Heynolds numbers are:

Realr = _(m/ A )aD II a_ = _ (12,840 H>m/hr sq fth0.0427 ft) == ,
11 100
P.a {3600 scc/hr)l1.4 X to-• lbm/ft sec)
Rep.e = (m/ A ) 11 DH 0 == _ (17,550 lbm/h_r sq ft)(0.0516 ft.2_ =

8200
JJ.g (3600 sec/hr) (3.0 X 1Q-ll lbm/ft sec)
Vsing Eqs. 8-18 and 8-23a the average unit condu('tances are:
== [ (0.023) ( 0.0185)
_
0 0427
(1720)(0.87) J (1 + 0.16) == 17.3 Btu/hr sq ft F
h"u = [ (0.023) ( ~~186 ) (1340)(0.84) J (1 + 0.116) == 26.8 Btu/hr sq ft F
If the thermal re~istance of the metal wall is neglected, the over-all conductance i~
1 1
VA == - -- - - - ar 250 Btu/hr F
fi-~A + -li:-A ( 17.3 ~ 23.6) + (26.8 ~ 23.6)

The number of transfer units, based on the warmer fluid which has the smaller heat
capacity rate, arc
NTU == U Ajf', min = (250/5000) (0.24) == 0.208
the hourly heat capacity ratio is
ell
- == (5000~ (0.24) == 0 833
Ca (6000) (0.24) .
and from Fig. 11-19 the effectiveness is 0.15. Finally, the average outlet t~mperature
of the air is
Talr out = Talr ln + g: f,fl.T max == 60 + (0.833)(0.15)(1540) = 247 F An~.

A check on the mean air temperature gives
247 60
T mean = +
2
= 153.5 F
which is sufficiently close to the assumed value of 160 F to make a second approximation
unnece&.,ary. To appreciate the usefulne~s of the approach based on the concept of
heat-exchanger effectiveness, it is ~uggested that this same problem be worked out by
trial and error, using Eq. 11-12 and the chart of Fig. 11-15.
The effectiveness of the heat exchanger in Example 11-3 is very low

(15 per cent) because the heat-transfer area is too small to utilize the
available energy efficiently. The relative gain in heat-transfer performance
which can be achieved by increasing the heat-transfer area is well repre-
sented on the effectiveness curves. A fivefold increase in area would raise
the efTC'et.iv<'ncss to 60 per cent. If, however, a particular design falls near

HEAT EXCHANGERS 461
or above the knee of these curves, increasing the surface area will not
itnprove the performance appreciably, but may cause an undue increase
in the frictional pressure drop.
11-5. FOULING FACTORS
The performance of heat exchangers under service conditions, especially

in the process industry, cannot often be predicted from a thermal analysis
alone. During operation with most liquids and some gases, a dirt film
gradually builds up on the heat-transfer surface. This deposit may be
rust, boiler scale, silt, coke, or any number of things. Its effect, which is
referred to as fouling, is to increase the thermal resistance. The manu-
facturer cannot usually predict the nature of the dirt deposit, nor the rate
of fouling. Therefore, only the performance of clean exchangers can be
guaranteed. The thermal resistance of the deposit can generally be ob-
tained only from actual tests or from experience. If performance testR
are made on a clean exchanger and repeated later after the unit has been in
service for some time, the thermal resistance of the deposit can be de-
termined from the relation
1 1
Rd =---
Ua U
where U = unit conductance of the clean exchanger;
ll a = conductance after fouling has occurred;
Rd = thermal resistance of the scale.
Fouling factors for various applications have been compiled by the Tubular
Exchanger lVIanufacturers Association and are available in their publica-
tion (7). A few samples are given in Table 11-1. The fouling factors
TABLE 11-1
TAnLI·: oF ~ OR~tAL FouLING FAcToRs
Types of Fluid Fouling Re~istnnce

(hr F sq ft/Htu)
:o;ea water below 125 F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 000.5

Sea water above 125 F ................ 0 . 001
Treated boiler feed water above 125 F ... 0 . 001
East River water below 125 F. . . . . . . . . . 0 . 002-0. 003
Fuel oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . 005
Quenching oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 004
Alcohol vapors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 0005
Steam, non-oil-hearing . ................ 0. 0005
Industrial air ......................... 0. 002
Refrigerating liquid ........ . ....... . .. 0. 001
so tT Rn; : Ref. 7.

462 HEAT EXCHANGERS
should be applied as indicated in the following equation for the over-all

design heat-transfer coefficient U d of unjinned tubes:
(11-22)
where Ud = design over-all coefficient of heat transfer in Btu/ hr F sq ft

outside tube surface;
ho = average unit-surface conductance of the fluid on the out-
side of tubing, in Btu/ hr F sq ft;
ii, = average unit-surface conductance of fluid inside tubing. m
Btu / hr F sq ft;
Ro = fouling resistance on outside of tubing, in hr F sq ft / Btu;
R;. = fouling resistance on inside of tubing, in hr F sq ft. / Btu;
Rk = resistance of tubing in hr F sq ft outside tube surfare ."Btu;
A ol A, = ratio of outside tube surface to inside tube surface.
For preliminary estimates of heat-exchanger sizes and performance param-

eters, it is often sufficient to know the order of magnitude of the over-all
transmittance under average service conditions.
Typical values of over-all heat-transfer coefficients recommended for
preliminary estimates by ~lucller (13) are given in Table 11-2.
11-6. CLOSURE
In this chapter we have studied the thermal design of heat exchangen-

in which two fluids at different temperatures flow in spaces separated by a
wall and exchange heat by convection at and conduction through the wall.
Such heat exchangers, sometimes called recuperators, are by far the mo:-'t
common and industrially important heat-transfer devices. In addition to
recuperators there are, however, two other general types of heat exchnngers
in use. In both of these types the hot and cold fluid streams occupy the
:-;arne space, a channel with or· without solid inserts. In one type, the re-
yenerator, the hot and the cold fluid pass alternately over the same heat-
transfer surface. In the other type, the cool1:ng tower, both fluids flow
through the same passage simultaneously.
In a cooling tower the transfer of heat is accompanied by simultane-ou~
transfer of mass. The discussion of the transfer mechanism will therefon·
be taken up in Chapter 13 in conjunction with the principles of rna:'.'
transfer.
Periodic flow regenerators have been used in practice only with ga~£':'.
The regenerator consi~t:;\ of one or more flow passages which are partially

HEAT EXCHANGERS 463
TABLE 11-2
APPROXIMATE OvER-ALL CoEFFICIENTs FOR
PRELIMINARY EsTIMATBS
Duty Over-a II ('oeffieien t

(Btu/hr sq (t F)
Hteam to water
Instantaneous heater . ................ . 400-600
Storage-tank heater .................. . 175-300
:';team to oil
Heavy fuel. ......................... . IQ-30
Light fuel. .......................... . 3Q--60
Light petroleum distillate ............. . 50-200
~team to aqueous solutions ............... . lQ0-600
Steam to gases . ......................... . 5-50
\Vater to compressed air .................. . 10-30
\Vater to water, jacket water coolers ....... . 15Q-275
\Vater to lubricating oil. .................. . 2Q-60
\Vater to condensing oil vapors ............ . 4Q-100
\Vater to condensing alcohol . . . . .......... . 45-120
\Vater to condensing Freon-12 .. ........... . 80-150
\Vater to condensin~ ammonia ............. . 15Q-250
\Vater to organic solvents, alcohol ......... . 5Q-1.50
\Vater to boiling Freon-12 ................ . 5Q-150
\Vater to gasoline ........................ . 6Q-90
\Vater to gas oil or distillate .. . ............ . 35-60
\Vater to brine .......................... . lOQ-200
I . . ight organics to light organics ............ . 4G-7.5
:\Iedium organics to medium organics ...... . 20-60
Heavy organics to heavy organics .......... . lQ-40
Heavy organics to light organics ........... . lQ-60
Crude oil to gas oil ......... . ............. . 3Q-55
souRcE: Ref. 13.
filled either with solid pellets or with metal matrix inserts. During one
part of the cycle the inserts store internal energy as the warmer fluid flows
over their surfaces. During the other part of the cycle internal energy is
released as the colder fluid passes through the regenerator and is heat-ed.
Thus, heat is transferred in a cyclic process. The principal advantage of
the regenerator is a high heat-transfer effectiveness per unit weight and
space. The major problem is to prevent leakage between the warmer and
cooler fluids at elevated pressures. Regenerators have been used success-
fulJy as air preheaters in open-hearth a.nd blast furnaces and in gas liqui-
fication processes.
The theories of the regenerators are very difficult and involved. The
reader interested in the design and operation of these units is referred to
Refs. 14 to 16 for detailed information. Reference 14 contains a summary

464 HEAT EXCHANGERS
of the design theory with particular emphasis on the exhaust-gas thermal-

energy regenerator in gas turbine power plants. Reference 15 presents
calculated values for the effectiveness of regenerators and Ref. 16 gives a
complete and detailed treatment of regenerator theory and practice.
REFERENCES
1. W. 1\I. Ku.ys and A. L. London, Compact Heat Exchangers. (Palo Alto, Calif.:
Kational Press, 1955.)
2. W. :M. 1\:ays, A. L. London, and D. W. Johnson, "Gas Turbine Plant He!lt
Exchangers," ASME Research Publication, April, 1951.
3. W. :\1. Kays and A. L. London, "Remarks on the Behavior and Application of
CtOmpact High-Performance Heat Transfer Surfaces,'' Inst. l\Iech. Eng. and A.S~IE,
Proc. General Discuss-um on Heat Transfer, 1H51, pp. 127-132.
4. L. l\1. K. Boelter, R. C. l\lartinelli, F. E. Romie, and E. H. :Morrin, "An Inve~ti
gation of Aircraft Heaters XVIII-A Design ~lanual for Exhaust Gas and Air Heat Ex-
ehangers," N ACA Wartime Report, ARR 5 A06, August, 1945.
5. A. L. London and \V. l\1. Kays, "The Ga.'i Turbine Regenerator-the Use oi
Compact Heat Transfer Surfaces," Trans. ASME, Vol. 72 (1950), p. 611.
6. R. A. Bowman, A. C. ~vlueller, and W. l\1. Nagle, "l\'lean Temperature Difference
in De~ign," Trans. ASME, Vol. 62 (1940), pp. 283-294.
7. Tubular Exchanger l\'lanufacturers Association, Standards T EM A, 3d ed. (K t>W
York, 1B52.)
8. \V. Xusselt, "A New Heat Transfer Formula for Cross-Flow," Teclwisclu: Jlr-
chanik and Thermodynamik, Vol. 12 ( 1930).
9. H. Ten Broeck, "l\lultipa.ss Exchanger Calculations,'' Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol. 30
(1~38), pp. 1041-1042.
10. K. A. Gardner, "Efficiency of Extended Surface," Trans. ASME, Vol. 67 (ln45J,
pp. 621-631.
11. W. P. Harper and D. R. Brown, "l\tlathematical Equations for Heat Conduc-
tion in the Fins of Air Cooled Engines," N ACA Report 158, 1922.
12. Townsend Tinker, "SheJI Side Characteristics of Shell and Tube Heat Exchang-
ers," lust. l\Iech. Eng. and AS:\IE, Proc. General Discussion on Heat Transfer, Hl51,
pp. 89-116.
13. A. C ..MueJier, "Thermal Design of SheJI-a.nd-Tube Heat Exchangers for Liquid-
to-Liquid Heat Transfer," Eng. RuU., Res. St•r. 121, Purdue Univ. Eng. Exp. Stn., 1954.
14. J. E. Coppage and A. L. London, ''The Periodic-Flow Regenerator-A Summary
of Design Theory,'' Trans. ASi\1 E, Vol. 75, 1953, pp. 779-787.
15. T. J. Lambertson, ''Performance Factors of a Periodic-Flow Heat Exchanger,"
i\L S. Thesi~, USN Postgraduate School, l\lonterey, Calif., 1957, also AS11l E Paper ~o.
57-SA-13, Hl57.
16. 1\L Jakob, Heat Transfer, Vol. 2. (New York: John \\'iley & Sons, Inc., Hl57.)
PROBLEMS
K oTE. The problems marked • require the direct or indirect evaluation of heat-
transfer coefficients before the heat exchanger can be analyzed.
11-1. In a tubular heat exchanger with two shell passes and eight tube p~, 100,000
lb/hr of water are heated from 180 to 300 F. Hot exhaust gases having roughly the
!'arne physical properties as air enter at. 650 F and leave at 350 F. The total surface.
baS(>d on the outer tube surface is 10,000 sq ft. Determine (a) the log-mean temp<>rs-

HEAT EXCHANGERS 465
ture if the heat exchanger were a simple counterflow type, (b) the correction factor F
for the actual arrangement, (c) the effectiveness of the heat exchanger, (d) the average
over-all heat-transfer coefficient.
11-2. • Design (i.e., determine the over-all area and a suitable arrangement of slwll
and tube pa.~qeR) for a tubular feed-water heater capable of heating 5000 lh/hr of watf'r
from 70 to 100 F. The following specifications arc given: (a) saturated steam at 13-t
psia is condensing on the outer tube surface, (b) unit-surface conductance on Mtcam shiP.
is 1200 Btu/hr sq ft F, (c) tubes are of copper, l-in. OD, 0.9-in. ID, 8-ft long, and
(d) water velocity is 3 fps.
11-3. • Repeat Prob. 11-2, but a.·~sume that the design should contain a safety factor
to allow for scale formation on the steam side which could add an additional thermal
resistance of 0.02 hr sq ft F /Btu.
11-4.* A small space heater is constructed of ~-in., IS-gauge brass tubes, 2ft long.
The tubes are arranged in isosceles, staggered triangles on 1!-in. centers, four rows of
15 tubes each. A fan blows 2000 cfm of atmospheric air at iO F uniformly over the
tubes (see sketeh). Estimate: (a) heat-transfer rate; (b) exit temperature of the air;
(c) rate of steam condensation, assuming that saturated steam at 2 psig inMide the tubes
is the heat source. State your a.._~umptions. NOTE. \Vork parts a, b, and c of this
problem by two methods. First use the Ll\1TD, which requires a trial-and-error or
graphical solution; then use the effectiveness method. (d) Also, estimate pressure drop
of the air, in inches of water; (e) size motor required to drive the fan.
--$- 1
¢
'
cb ' 22.5 11
Pnoa. 11-4.
11-1. • Calculate the over-all conductance and the rate of heat flow from the hot
gases to the cold air in the cross-flow tube-bank type of heat exchanger shown in the ac-
companying illustration for the following operating conditions:
Air flow rate = 3000 lb/hr.

Hot-gas flow rate = 5000 lb/hr.
Temperature of hot gases entering exchanger = 1600 F.
Temperature of cold air entering exchanger = 100 F.
Both gases are approximately at atmospheric pressure.

466 HEAT EXCHANGERS
Air In
Air In
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Minimum Flow Ar.a
shown by Heavy Line 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Air In 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
~-----------JJF"----------~~1
Section at A-A
PRon. 11-5.
11-6. In a Ringle-pass counterflow he.at exchanger, 10,000 lb/hr of water enter at

GO F and cool 20,000 lb/hr of an oil having a specific heat of 0.50 Btu/lb F from 200 to
150 F. If the over-all heat-tran:.,fcr coefficient iR 50 Btu/hr sq ft F, determine the sur-
face area required.
11-7. Determine the outlet temperature of the oil in Prob. 11-6 for the same
initial temperature!' of the fluid~ if the flow arra.ngcment is one shell pass and two tub('
pa~ses, but with the same total area and average over-all heat-transfer coefficient as
the unit in. Proh. 11-6.
11-8. Carhon dioxide at 800 F is to he u~ed to heat 100,000 lb/hr of water from
100 F to 300 F whih~ the gas temperature drops ·lOO F. For an over-all heat-transfer
coefficient of 10 Btu / hr t-:q ft F. compute the required area of the exchanger in square
feet for (u.) parallel flow, (b) counterflow, (el a 4-8 reverHed current exchanger. and
(d) crosH flow, ~aR mixed.

- - - -- -- --
HEAT EXCHANGERS 467

11-9.• A double-pipe oil-water heat exchanger is constructed of a 10-ft-long brass
tube, BWG No. 18 (0.52i in. ID, 0.625 in. OD), concentric within a well-insulated
standard !-in. wrought-iron pipe (0.824 in. ID). Water flows in the annulus, entering
at 60 F. A light oil flows in the tube, entering at 200 F. The flow arrangement is
counterflow. For the velocities specified, determine (a) the exit temperature of the oil,
(b) the rate of heat flow, and (c) the frictional pressure losses of the water and the oil.
The velocities specified are: (1) water rate -= 1 gpm, oil rate = 1 gpm; (2) water
rate = 10 gpm, oil rate = 1 gpm; (3) water rate == 1 gpm, oil rate ,... 20 gpm; (4) water
rate = 10 gpm, oil rate = 20 gpm.
11-10. An economizer is to be purchased for a power plant. The unit is to be
large enough to heat 60,000 lb/hr of water from 160 to 360 F. There are 100,000 lb/hr of
flue gases (cp = 0.24 Btu/lb F) available at 800 F. Estimate (a) the outlet temperature
of the flue gases, (b) the heat-transfer area. required for a. counterflow arrangement if
the over-all heat-transfer coefficient is 10 Btu/hr sq ft F.
11-11. Saturated steam a.t 5 psi condenses on the outside of a.n 8.5-ft length of
copper tubing heating 0.6 gpm of water flowing in the tube. The water tempera.ture8,
measured a.t 10 equally spaced stations along the tube length are:
Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Ten1perature (F) 65 109 135 152 163 lI 172 179 I 186 190 195 198
-
Calculate (a.) average over-all heat-transfer coefficient Uo based on the outside tube
area; (b) average water-side heat-transfer coefficient li~ (assume steam-side coefficient
at fi. == 2000 Btu/sq ft hr F), (c) local over-all coefficient U z based on the outside
tube area for each of the 10 sections between temperature stations, and (d) local wa.ter-
~ide coefficient~ hvz for each of the 10 sections.
Plot all items vs. tube length. Tuhe dimensions: ID = O.i90 in., OD = 0.985 in. ,
l~nJ(th = 8.5 ft. Temperature Rtation 1 is at tube entrance and station 11 at tube exit.
PRoD. 11-12.
11-12. • A one-tube pass cross-Bow heat exchanger is considered for recovering

energy from the exhaust gases of a. turbine-driven engine. The heat exchanger is
constructed of flat plates, forming an egg-crate pattern. The velocities of the entering
air (50 F) and exhaust gases (800 F) are both equal to 200 fps. Assuming that the
properties of the exhaust gases are the same as those of the air, estimate, for a path
length of 4 ft the over-all heat-transfer coefficient U. neglecting the thermal resiRtance

468 HEAT EXCHANGERS
of the intermediate metal wall. Then determine the outlet temperature of the air.
comment on the suitability of the proposed design, and if possible, suggest improvement :-o.
11-13. \Vater is heated while flowing through a pipe by steam condensing on thr·
outside of the pipe. (a) Assuming a uniform over-all conductance along the pipe, derin·
an expression for the water temperature as a function of distance from the cntranN'.
(b) For an over-all conductance of 100 Btu/hr sq ft F, based on the inside diameter of
2 in., a steam temperature of 220 F, and a water-flow rate of 500 Ibm/min, calculate thr·
length required to raise the water temperature from 60 F to 150 F. An.s. 475 f1
11-1~. An oil having a specific heat of 0.50 Btu/Ibm F enters an oil cooler at 180 Fat
the rate of 20,000 Ibm/hr. The cooler is a counter-flow unit with water as the coolant.
the transfer area being 300 sq ft and the over-all heat-transfer coefficient being 100 Btu
sq ft F hr. The water enters the exchanger at 80 F. Determine the water rate requir('tl
if the oil is to leave the cooler at 100 F.
11-16. Steam is to be condensed at atmospheric pressure in a shell-and-tuhe he:1 :
exchanger consisting of 72 eight-foot lengths of standard l-in. 18 B\VG copper conden&>r
tubing (0.902 in. ID, 0.049 in. wall thickness). Water is available at a rate of 500,00l
lhrn/hr; it flows inside the tubes, entering at 60 F. For the average unit-surfaee ~on
du<'tances listed below, estimate the pounds of steam per hour conden~. The unit-
~urface conductances (based on actual area) are:
\Vater side 800 Btu/hr sq ft. F

Steam side 2000 Btu/hr sq ft F
Scale on steam side 1800 Btu/hr sq ft F
Scale of water side 2000 Btu/hr sq ft F
11-16. Show that the effectiveness for a counter flow arrangement is

1 - e- [1- (Crnln-cmax>l NTUmax
b = ----------------~~~~~---=~--
· /C max ) e - [ l -
1 - ((;-' min <Crnln Cmax>l NTUmax
11-17.• The following data were obtained with an experimental parallel-flow he.nt
exchanger that consisted of a horizontal steel tube (0.053 in. ID and 1.002 in. OD) ~ur
rounded by a concentrically-arranged steel tube (1.263 in. ID) well insulated externall~·
A high pressure steam (2400 lb/hr) at an absolute pressure of 1643 lb/sq in. and at 821 F
entered the inner tube and left with an absolute pressure of 1523lb/sq in. and a tempera-
ture of 722 F; 953 lb/hr of low pressure steam at an absolute pressure of 189 lb/sq in. at
424 F entered the annular space and left at an absolute pressure of 122 lb/sq in. with s
t~mperature of 744 F. Predict the heat-transfer rate if the steam flow in the inner tu~
were reversed, the entering temperatures remaining the same as before.
11-18. One hundred thousand lb/hr of benzene are to be cooled continuously from
180 to 130 F by 80,000 lb/hr of water available at 60 F. Using Table 11-2 estimate the
surface area required for (a) cross Bow, six tube passes, one-shell pass, neither of the
fluids mixed; (b) reversed current exchanger, two-shell passes and eight tube passes,
colder fluid inside of tubes.
11-19.• An oil is being cooled by water in a double-pipe parallel-flow heat P:t-
changer. The water enters the center pipe at a temperature of 60 F and is h~.ated to
120 F. The oil which flows in the annulus is cooled from 270 to 150 F. It is proposed to
cool the oil to a lower final temperature by increasing the length of the exchanger.
Neglecting external heat loss from the exchanger, determine: (a.) the minimum t.empers-
ture to which the oil may be cooled; (h) the exit-oil temperature as a function of the frs("-
tional increase in the exchanger length; (c) the exit temperature of each stream if the
exiHting exchanger were switched to counterflow operation; (d) the lowest temperature

HEAT EXCHANGERS 469
to which the oil could be cooled with counterflow operation; (e) the ratio of the required
)pngth for counterflow to that for parallel flow as a function of the exit-oil temperature.
.lns. (a) 130 F, (b) 270 - 140 (1 - e

ti.Bfz·
), (e) i
()
n
75 + 0.5 T,.'l
T,. _
2 60
I) n
75
+210
1. T,.
5 2
)
11-20. In gas turbine recuperators the exhaust gases are used to heat the incoming
air and CmJ 0 /Cmax is therefore approximately equal to unity. Show that for this ease
e - 1 - e-NTU for counterflow and 6 - i (1 - e-2 NTU) for parallel flow.
11-21. In most ga.~ turbine regenerators the heat capacity ratio Cmt 0 /Cmax is near
unity. For rapid cost e8timates it is desirable to have performance curves for thiR con-
dition showing the effectiveness, 6, as a function of the Number of Transfer Units, NTC.
Prepare a series of such curves on one graph for counterflow, parallel-flow, 1 shell-2 tube
p~~e~. and unmixed cros8 flow. \Vhat conclusions can you draw?
11-22. It is proposed to preheat the water for a boiler with flue gases from the staek
lcp - 0.24 Btu/Ibm F). The flue gases arc available at 300 F, at the rate of 2000
lbm/hr. The water entering the exchanger at 60 F at the rate of 400 lbm/hr is to be
heated to 200 F. The heat exchanger is to be of the reversed current type, one shell pass
and 4 tube passes. The water ftowM inside the tubes which are made of copper (1 in. ID,
1.25 in. OD). The heat-transfer coefficient at the gas side is 20 Btu/hr sq ft F, while the
heat-transfer coefficient on the water side is 200 Btu/hr sq ft F. A ~ale on the water
side offers an additional thermal resistance of 0.01 hr sq ft F /Btu. (a) Determine the
over-ull heat-transfer coefficient based on the outer tube diameter. (b) Determine the
appropriate mean temperature difference for the heat exchanger. (e) Estimate the re-
quired tube length. (d) What would be the improvement in the effectiveness if the
water flow rate would be doubled, giving an average-unit conductance of 320 Btu/hr
!o!Q ft F?
11-23. The heater arrangement of Prob. 9-6 is to heat air from 65 to 220 F with
steam at 11 psig condensing inside the tubes. If the bank i~ 40 rows deep with 30 pipes
in each row, estimate the capacity of the heater in pounds per hour of air and the pressure
drop in inches of water. The pipes are 6 ft long and the free cross-sectional flow are.a is
60 ft'? A ns. 83,000 lbm/hr

12 Heat Trans!er in
High-Speed Flow
12-1. AERODYNAMIC HEATING
Problems related to heat transfer in high-speed flow have become

in1portant in recent years as speeds of airplanes and missiles have reached
and exceeded sonic velocity and satellites circle the globe at speeds of th(>
order of 20,000 ft/sec. In fact, the thermal barrier is at present the major
obstacle to high-speed flight and to the safe re-entry of satellite vehicle~.
The term "thermal barrier" includes problems associated with physical
properties of aircraft material at elevated temperatures and the temperature
limitations on personnel and instruments in the aircraft, but it refers pri-
marily to the problems related to the dissipation of the energy generated in
the boundary layer at high speeds. As mentioned previously, the viscou~
~tresses within the boundary layer do shearing work on the fluid and at high
,·elocities raise its temperature appreciably. This process, often caUt:'<l
aerodynamic heating, also raises the surface temperatures of bodies placed
in a high-speed fluid stream or of bodies moving at high speed through a
stagnant fluid. An example of the latter is the heating of the skins of high-
speed airplanes and missiles. Aerodynamic heating becomes a seriou~
problem at very high speeds because the rate of heat flow to the skin in-
ereases roughly in proportion to the flight velocity if the surface is main-
tained at a constant temperature. At a 1\Iach number of 2 for example, tht)
rate of heat flow to a surface at 120 F has been estimated to be as high a..'
10,000 Btu/hr sq ft at 30,000 ft altitude. At the satellite velocity of 26.000
ft h;ec the stagnation point heat-transfer rate is of the order of I 00,000
Btu/hr sq ft at an altitude of 300,000 ft, giving rise to a surface temperature
of about 3000 R according to Kemp and Ridell {24).
For the fio\v of most liquids and gases in commercial heat exchanger-:'.
the 1\-lach numbers are low and aerodynamic heating is negligible. On the
other hand, at Mach numbers of the order of 1 and larger, the aerodynamic
heating of the boundary layer affects the heat transfer and the friction
appreciably, and it becomes necessary to re-examine the definition of tlu·
unit-surface conductance used heretofore. Additional complications arist>
.00

HEAT TRANSFER IN HIGH-SPEED FLOW 471
when the temperatures become so high that the gas dissociates ( 19) or when
the gas is so rarefied, as for example at very high altitudes, that the mean
free path of the molecules becomes of the order of magnitude of the bound-
ary-layer thickness.
12-2. FLOW REGIMES
In convectional analyses of heat transfer by forced convection the nature

of the flow can be described by the Reynolds number which is a measure of
the ratio of inertial to viscous forces. In high speed flow at least two arl-
ditional parameters must be considered. As soon as the velocity of a ga.""
becomes comparable in magnitude to the local sound speed a a new 00
,
dimensionless parameter must be introduced to describe the influence of

con1pressibility on heat transfer and flow phenomena. This parameter is
the l\1ach number 1\'Ioo, defined as the ratio of the gas or flight velocity l'm
to the local speed of sound in the gas, a When the l\fach number reache:-'
00 •
a value of about 0.5, compressibility phenomena exert appreciable influene0

on the flow pattern and on the heat transfer by convection.
The Reynolds, Prandtl, ancll\·fach numbers are the parameters govern-
ing the convective-heat transfer as long as the transferring medium may be
treated as a continuum. This is permissible as long as the mean free
molecular path is small when compared with significant dimensions of the
body to whom the heat is transferred. Under normal conditions even in
gases where the distances between molecules are much larger than in
liquids and solids, the mean free molecular path is very small when coin-
pared with those dimensions which are of immediate concern in heat-trans-
fer calculations. The condition of a small mean free-path len~th to si~
nificant body-dimension ratio is therefore usually satisfied.
A continuum treatment may fail, howeyer, when the gas is at very low
pressure as, for example, at extremely high altitudes. Then the effect of
the coarseness of the molecular structure on the flow and heat transfer mu~t
be considered. Under such conditions, i.e., when the ·molecular mean free
path 1 A is of the same order of magnitude as some significant dimension of a
body in the flow field L, the flow is called rarefied. The ratio X./ L, called
the Knudsen number J(, is a measure of the degree of rarefaction. It is re-
lated (10) to the Reynolds number and l\fach number by the equation
I~ = 1.26V'Y l\1/Re
where 1( and Re are both based on the same characteristic length.
Tentative limits for a subdivision of gas dynamics into various flow
regimes, based on characteristic ranges of values of an appropriate I~nudsen
number, were originally proposed by Tsien (10) and later revised by Schaaf
1 The mean free path i:-; the average distance tmvPlled h~· a mole<>uiP hPtW<'<'Il <'olli-
~ions-it is not the dist aiH'P het WPPil moiP<'HlPs.

472 HEAT TRANSFER IN HIGH-SPEED FLOW
and hambre (16). The ubdivision are hown in Fig. 12-1 a olid lin
while the dotted line indicate the corre ponding altitude for a body h in
a characteri tic dimen ion L of unity.
The conventional continuum regime of fluid mechanics and ga dynami
is limited to M/ VRe <0.1 and Re>> 1.0. At the other end of the cal f r
valu s of M/ Re larger than 3, the mean free path is much larger than L .
Thi is called the free-rnolecule flow regime in which molecule to mol ul .
colli ion can be neglected in compari on with molecule to body- urfa
collision . No boundary layer xi ts in thi regime.
In the transition reg 'me the colli ions between molecule and tb
collisions between molecule and the body are of equal importance. Th
regime of mall, but not negligible Knudsen number i called the sli p fl
regtme. As the name implies, in thi regime the mol cule imm i t 1y
I
I
~ =3 I
Re
8~----4-----~-
I
Region Investigated in Refs. I
10, 16, 20, and 22
I
I
6,~----4-----~~----+--,--~------~
z Free Molecule Flow Transition Slip Flow

-5
This Region Investigated

I
SuperiOIUC
in Ref. 12, 13, and 14
I
for Cones, Spheres, and Cylinden I I
2~----+----, ~~---- ~~--~;---T-t ;-----~-- · ~4-----~----~
Region Investigated
in Ref. 11 !Sphered\
/
, "'
Reynolds Number
•w. 12- 1. Tb flow r gim . fg dynamics.
adja nt to a urface do not tick to it, but lide over it with a d fini
t~ ng ntial v l city. The m an fr path in lip flow i of the order of 1 t
10 p r c nt of th boundary lay r thickne or the characteri ic b '
dim n ion L. The flow and h at tra f r phenom na in the tr i i n and
·lip flow r im ar xc dingly com pi x. Our kno\\ ledg about them i ,
till limit d nd they will not be di cu d here. Figure 12-1 how th
r ng in which data hav b n obtain d and the p rtinent r f r n
In addition to the ubdivi ion cited abo\ e, the field of ga dynami
al o ubdivid d c rdin to the value of the Mach number. If the M h
numb r i I · th n unity, th flow i ub onic. When the Mach number ex-
d unity, the flow i up r onic, but at xtrem ly high Mach numbe w

speak of hypersonic flow .. Hypersonic flow is defined (7) as supersonic

fio,v with small perturbations for which Mao t/ Lis of the order of unity or
greater, t/ L being the thickness to length ratio of the body in the flow field.
Recent experiments have shown that at hypersonic speeds all bodies
must be blunt-nosed to reduce heat-transfer rates and to allow for sufficient
internal heat conduction. Otherwise the forward section is likely to melt
as a result of the large temperature rise caused by the shock at or in front of
the leading edge. A detached bow shock wave just ahead of a blunt-nosed
body in hypersonic flight converts most of the kinetic energy associated
\vith the flight velocity into thermal and chemical energy. At the satellite
escape velocity of 26,400 ft/sec, for example, this energy amounts to about
14,(X)() Btu/lb air (19), which is sufficient to dissociate almost all of the
nitrogen and oxygen molecules.
For the case of laminar heat transfer over blunt-nosed bodies at hyper-
sonic speeds, Lees (19) and Stalder (18} have calculated the rate of heat
transfer under extreme conditions. First it was assumed that complete
thermodynamic equilibrium in which the gas properties and concentrations
of atoms, molecules, and ions correspond to their equilibrium values at each
point in the flow exists; then (19}, that diffusion across streamlines (see
Chapter 13} is the rate governing mechanism; and finally (18), that the air is
a perfect gas. In the absence of experimental data it is not clear which of
these assumptions is most realistic; but since the results do not differ by
more than 50 per cent they are satisfactory for preliminary estimates of the
heat-transfer rates as hypersonic speeds. The details of the calculations
are quite involved and the reader interested in them is referred to the
original papers. The preceding comments are only intended to call atten-
tion· to some of the complicated phenomena encountered in hypersonic flow
which are at present under intensive study.
The subdivisions shown in Fig. 12-1 are of course not rigid, but the
transition from one regime into the next will always be gradual. For
example, a missile having a characteristic length of 10 ft and flying at a
!\fach number of 4 away from the earth will gradually encounter slip phe-
nomena at an altitude of 30 miles and will reach the free molecule flow
region at about 100 miles elevation.
A complete treatment of heat transfer in supersonic flow requires a pre-
vious knowledge of supersonic gasdynamics, in particular an understanding
of shock phenomena. 1,he reader interested in this field is referred to Refs.
7, 17, and 18 for a detailed treatment of these problems. Ho,vever, as far
as heat transfer analyses for forced convection in a continuum are con-
cerned, they depend mostly on the flow near the surface and are applicable
to subsonic as well as supersonic flow. The following prm;entation will he
restricted to an analysis of heat transfer in high speed flo\v to or from a ga:-;
flowing over a shock free surface. To simplify the treatment we shall

assume, that the gas behaves as an ideal gas which has a constant specific
heat and obeys the perfect gas law.
12-3. FRICTION AND HEAT TRANSEFER IN LAMINAR HIGH-SPEED FLOW
To gain a qualitative picture of high-speed flow in a continuum, con-
sider first a laminar boundary layer in high-speed flow over an insulateJ
plate. The velocity distribution is qualitatively similar to that observed at
low Mach numbers but the temperature profile (Fig. 12-2) is quite different.
'\Ve observe that the temperature increases in a direction toward tht·
insulated surface and reaches at the wall a value only slightly less than tlw
total temperature of the free stream. This temperature rise is a result of
the viscous forces in the boundary layer which slow down the gas anJ
dissipate the kinetic energy of the free stream. The shape of the tem-
perature profile depends on the relation between rate at which shear work
increases the internal energy of the fluid and the rate at which heat is
conducted toward the free stream.
Temperoture Profile
I
I
r - - - - t -- YCID --~
I
I
/ - - Velocity Profile
I
~...;--_,o;...c.~------r-~~+--~ r~~~~ Plate Surface

-_ :' - T., // -/ .J -
- ~- -~
Fw. 12-2. Velocity and temperature

distribution in high-speed flow over an
insulated plate.
Although the processes in the boundary layer are not adiabatic, it is

general practice to relate them to adiabatic processes because the lattPr
are much simpler to analyze. According to basic thermodynamic princi-
ples, when a flo,ving gas is slowed down adiabatically to zero velocity, it~
temperature rises to the stagnation temperature To oo· The stagnation or
total temperature in a ga.~S having a constant specific heat cP is related to
the local temperature T and velocity V by the equation
(X) (X)
v 00
2
Tooo =Too+ (12-1)
21
• YcCp
where the last term is called the free-stream dynanl1'c-temperaiure rise.

Using the definition of the 1\-lach number of the flowing gas 1\'Icn and the
specific heat ratio 'Y = cp/c.,, Eq. 12-1 can be written
(12-2)

------ -- ----- -

where 1\:f(X) = voo/ aco, and
aoo = velocity of sound, equal to V -yffigcTco in a perfect gas.
\Vhen a gas flows past an insulated or adiabatic surface, the temperature
at the surface will rise above the temperature of the gas, but will not quit(•
reach the total temperature. The temperature at an adiabatic surface
T cu is called the adiabatic wall te1nperature.
In practice it has been found convenient to relate T 08 and To oo by the
recovery factor RT, which is a measure of the fraction of the free-stream
dynamic-temperature rise recovered at the wall. We define RT as
--- --- - - - - - - ·· -
(12-3)
Tooo- T 00
~------~~~------~~~
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Temperature Profile for Heat flow ' '<" Temperature Profile for Heat Flow
To the Surface ' from the Surface
''
- - Tas - - - ___,
FIG. 12-3. TPmpNature profiles in high-spePd
boundary layer for lwat ing and c·oolin~.
Experiments with air in laminar flow (1) have shown that, for practical
purposes,
(12-4)
over wide ranges of velocity and temperature, whereas for turbulent
boundary layers, the recovery factor can be approximated (1) by the
relation
(12-6)
'\\-1len a surface is not insulated, the rate of heat flow between the gas
and the solid surface q. is governed by
qtJ /A = -kaT
ay
y=O
The influence of heat transfer to or from the plate on the temperature

distribution is illustrated in Fig. 12-3. \Vc oh:-;erve that, at high ~pepd:-;,
heat can flow to the surface even when the ~urfa<'c temperature is higher

than the free-stream temperature. This rather unexpected phenomenon i:-o

a result of the aerodynamic heating in the boundary layer. To calculate
heat-transfer coefficients in high-speed flow we must therefore re-examine
the analysis of the boundary layer for low-speed flow, taking into account
the effects of the viscous shearing work and heat conduction.
As shown in Sec. 6-7, the energy equation for a laminar boundary layt-r
can be written in the fonn
pu ( c11 a To) pv ( c, a
- To) = -a( k aT) 1 -a ( J.LU. au)
-
ax + ay ay -
ay + -J
Yc ay
-
ay
[ 6-22]
If c, and k are assumed constant and the approximation that u >> v is

introduced, we have
and
Rearranging Eq. 6-22 with the aid of the above relations and dividing by
cp yields
pu aT
- -o
ax + pv-
ay ay - 0) +-
aT o= -a ( ,.,. aT
ay
a [( k -
ay c,,.,.
aT
1) J.L-
ay
J (12-6)
The energy equation in this form may be used to illustrate, at least quali-
tatively, the effect of high velocities on the heat transfer and the tempera-
ture distribution in a laminar-boundary layer. Since high-sp~d-flow
phenomena are of practical importance only in gases where the Prandtl
number c, J.L!k is not too far from unity, we shall further simplify Eq. 12-ti
by assuming that Pr = I. This will make it possible to point out important
practical results with a minimum of mathematical difficulties.
~laking this simplification, the energy equation takes the form
aTo- + paTo
pu v-=a- ( ,.,.-
oTo) (12-7)
ax ay ay ay
for which one particular solution is
(12-8)
Physically, Eq. 12-8 states that the total temperature equals the ffe<l-
stream stagnation temperature throughout the boundary layer. The tem-
perature at the wall is therefore equal to To since u = 0 at y = 0. Th~
00 ,

rate of heat flow from the wall to the fluid is zero for the solution given by
Eq. 12-8 since, at y = 0
q, /A = _kaT ku
---
au
==0
ay
.,-o
This condition is satisfied when the wall is insulated. We note, however,
that the temperature gradient for y > 0 is finite, and heat flows from fluid
in the vicinity of the wall toward the outer edge of the boundary layer.
According to Eq. 12-8 this is only possible when the rate of heat conduction
in the fluid across any plane parallel to the wall is equal to the rate at which
shear work crosses this plane in the opposite direction, or
-kaT I
ay lat II
Dividing by k and rearranging gives
~
oy
(r + Pr 2JgcCp
u
2
) = 0 (12-9)
Equation 12-9 shows that the stagnation temperature in the boundary

layer is constant \vhen Pr = 1 and the wall is insulated. The term
Pr u 2/2J gceP represents physically the kinetic energy "recovered" in the
boundary layer where the viscous forces slow down the fluid particles from
the free-stream velocity U to zero at the wall. It is apparent from Eq.
00
12-9 that, for a Prandtl number less than unity, not all of the kinetic
energy is converted into enthalpy and the temperature at an adiabatic
wall T"' is therefore less than the total free-stream temperature Tom·
However, for Pr = 1 the total energy is constant throughout the boundary
layer even when the flow is not frictionless and the energy equation for
adiabatic temperature changes applies. This simplification is a result of
that particular combination of cp, JJ., and k for which the Prandtl number is
unity. Results obtained from this analysis apply, however, qualitatively to
air with Pr = 0. 7. Hence, the analysis confirms the observation made
previously that the temperature at the surface of a body in high-speed
flight is much closer to the free-stream stagnation temperature than to
the free-stream static temperature.
To avoid unnecessary complications we shall restrict our subsequent
consideration to parallel flow over a flat plate at a constant temperature T(J.
The results obtained from this analysis apply approximately to flow
over curved surfaces M long as the pressure gradient is not so large that it
causes separation of the boundary layer.
The momentum equation developed in Sec. 6-7 applies also to high-

~peed flow, but the frictional-work term cannot be neglected. For flow
over a flat plate we have
pu -
au + pv au
- = -a ( ll au)
- [ 6-16]
ax ay ay ay
Inspection of Eqs. 6-16 and 12-i shows that they are quite similar. They
can be reduced to the same equation if we assume that the total temperature
is related to the velocity by the relation
u2
To = T + 2c,gJ = a + bu (12-10)
where a and bare constants. The boundary conditions demand that

at y = 0, where u = 0
aty = ~~ whcreu = v·(D
Substituting these conditions into Eq. 12-10 yields
To - T. u
-
Tuoo-T• Vco
or in terms of the static tempPrature, T, we get
T = Ta + (To 00 - T,) Yuco - 'Y - 1 l\loo2 Too ( Vuco)' (12-11)

2
This solution applies only to a constant wall temperature since at the
wall, where the velocity u is zero, the temperature must be constant to
satisfy the boundary conditions. A physieal interpretation of this solution
shows that the dimensionless temperature profile (To- T.)/(Toco - T,)
and the dimensionless velocity profile u i l'oo are similar.
The rate of heat flow from the plate is now obtained by applying the
conduction equation at the wall. \Vith the aid of Eq. 12-10 we get
q.
-=
A
-k~Tl
ayl II = 0
--n--, '· aT au!
au ay
u=O
(12-12)
but at the wall (i.e., at u = 0) the velocity u is zero and the last term drop~
out. Since by definition
au!
- J.l.-
ay:
11""0

- -- - --- -- - - · - - -
the velocity gradient in Eq. 12-12 can be eliminated by substituting

YeT,/ JJ. for it and we obtain
(12-13)
Since for Pr = 1, To oo = Ta!, the above equation can also be written as

q,_ = YeT, (T _ T ) (12-14)
A V c,
CD
' a.a
Experiments have verified that, in high-speed flow, the direction of heat

flo"· at the surface does not depend on the difference between the wall temper-
ature and the free-stream temperature a~ in low-speed flow, but rather on
the d(fference between the wall temperature and the adiabatic wall temperature.
To correlate experimental data it is therefore convenient to define the unit-
~urface convective conductance for high-speed flow he as
(12-16)
Substituting the unit-surface conductance defined by Eq. 12-15 in

Eq. 12-14 yields
or in dimensionless form
_h!_ = St = ! -_YrTtJ -
c, (12-16)
2
V ooCPPro 2 Poo V oo /2 2
\Ve recognize that also for high-speed ftow the Stanton number equals
one-half the skin friction cocffici~nt if ( 1) the unit-surface conductance is
defined according to Eq. 12-15 and if (2) the physical properties remain
constant. Figure 12-4 shows the variation of the skin-friction coefficient
with l\'l ach number, Reynolds nun1ber, and heat transfer as calculated by
Van Driest (9). The factor T s/ T is an indication of the effect of heat
(X)
transfer on the friction by virtue of the property variations with tempera-

ture. The last assumption in Eq. 12-16 is obviously unreasonable for
high-speed flow, but the relation between skin friction and heat transf~r
expressed by Eq. 12-16 is still useful even when the property values vary
with temperature because it yields results of acc~ptable accuracy if tlw
properties are evaluated at an appropriate reference temperature T*.
Rubesin and .Johnson (6) have shown that the local Nusselt numb~r
for laminar flow over a plane surface can be calculated from the equation
Nuz = 0.:332 Re) Pr\ (12-17)

if the properties are introduced at the reference temperature T* defined by

(12-18)
The same reference temperature should also be used (4) for the specific
heat in Eq. 12-3 to obtain the appropriate value for the recovery factor.
The average value of the surface conductance over a surface of length L
is obtained by integration of the local value of hcz, or
he = 2 hc(z- L) (12-19)
With a slight modification, Eq. 12-17 can also be used to calculate the
heat-transfer coefficient for a conical nose at supersonic speed. In level
flight there will be a shock in front of the cone. As long as this shock is
attached to the nose (7), the boundary conditions for flow over a cone and
Mach Number, Me
FIG. 12-4. Mean skin-friction coefficient for high-speed flow over a flat plate
with heat transfer, based on calculations of Van !>riest (9) for Pr .. 0.75
and a viscosity-tem~rature relation of the type p./llo:J - 1.505(T /Tm)l/
[(T /Tco) +0.505]. (Courtesy of the National Advisory Committee for Aero-
nautics, TN 597)
for flow over a flat plate are similar. Hantsche and Wendt (8) showed
that the laminar-flow flat-plate heat-transfer coefficient equations apply
when modified by a multiplication factor determined by the geometry of
the flow. The factors are v'3 and 2/ v'3 for the local and average heat-
transfer coefficients, respectively. From Eqs. 12-17 and 12-19 we obtain
therefore the relations
(12-20)
and
(12-21)
for the local and the average Nusselt number respectively for a cone with
an attached shock if x and L are measured along the surface from the tip.
The physical properties and the velocity in the dimensionless parameters of

- -- - - -- - - --. - -- . - - -·
Eqs. 12-20 and 12-21 must be based on the conditions behind the shock.
The flow conditions behind the shock can be determined from charts or
tables (e.g., see Ref. 7).
The equations for laminar flow are appropriate only up to the transition
point where the flow becomes turbulent. The problem of determining the
transition point is a very difficult one, and the information available to
date is insufficient for accurate predictions. Gazley (5) has surveyed the
available data and theories and Fig. 12-5 presents a summary of some
experimental results on the effect of the 1\Iach number on the transition
Reynolds number. Other factors such as heat transfer, shocks, pressure
gradients, and surface roughness influence the transition phenomena.
101
5·107
--- .... "- .... ...
_.,.
-_ ----
-- -- -
.... ' .... ... """- .... , .
B _
_
~
....... ~
...... 6.,. ....
j
.. .... -~ '-6 ~~ ' 'b
~ 2·101
- _...., rJ'
·- > '"~ -
-- . _.,.. . J?b~ .. ~.,.
z.. ~
"- -
l•• _ '..Jr..A ... r-o
~
J: ......
......
-
101 --a
~
...
~- -
2·101
10~
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Mach Num~. M•
Fw. 12-5. The effect of :\'lach number on boundary-layer transition in firing

range (1'c ~ T 00 ) and in rocket flight (7', ~ 1.37'00 ). o == cones in firing range;
0, \1, 6 = V-2 flights (3) ; and 0 roeket flight. OpPn points denote beginning,
solid points, end of transition region. (By permission from Carl Gazley, Jr.,
Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 20, 1953, p. 26)
Figure 12-5 is therefore only useful for a qualitative estimate of the

transition Reynolds number. For additional information the reader is
referred to Refs. 5 and 7.
12-4. FRICTION AND HEAT TRANSFER IN TURBULENT HIGH-SPEED FLOW
Our knowledge of flow and heat-transfer phenotnena in turbulent

boundary layers is not yet sufficient to calculate the friction and heat-
transfer coefficients by a direct analysis. To arrive at relations for the skin
friction, heat transfer, and the boundary-layer thickness, it is necessary to
resort to semi-empirical relations describing the behavior of fluid in the
boundary layer. Analyses available to date usually employ the ba..';ic con-

eept of a mixing length which i~ outlined in Sec. 6-9 for incompressible flow.
Fur engineering calculations it is preferable to rely on experimental result:-o.
Eckert (-l) has made an extensive survey of the available data, and hi~
recommendations for calculating the skin friction and heat transfer in
turbulent high-Hpeed flow are summarized belo\L
The local skin friction coefficient for flow o\·er a plane surfa~P at T~
ran be calculated at Reynolds numbers up to 10 9 and :\lach numbers below
5 from the equation
0.370
Cfz = ------
(logl0Re.rro)2.b8
and the average value from
CI L = 0.029_6_ ( :co•
(logiORe Lco)2.6s ,_
)0.2 (PPco*)0.8 (12-22)
where the subscript oo denotes that the properties are to be evaluated at

the free-stream temperature T co and the superscript * denotes that th('
properties are to he evaluated at the temperature T*, which is defined hy
Eq. 12-18. The average heat-transfer coefficient can be estimated from
the equation
(12-23)
where all property values are to be introduced at the reference temrx)ra-

ture T*. The heat-transfer coefficient in the Nusselt number is defined
by the same equation used previously for laminar flow, that is
he = - ___q_,. _ _
A (Ta;; - T,)
where
for turhulent flow.

The foregoinJZ; relations are strictly applicable only to flat plates at constant
temperature, but they will also yield results of acceptable accuracy when
the wall temperature is Yariable and the surface is curved. Calculations
rnade with these relation~ a.re also useful as approximations of sufficient
ac·(·urary fur a slender body at zero or small angles of attark. For the
san1e \·alues of tlw frec-strPam :\[ach nun1her, the Reynolds number, the
wall temperature, and free-st ream temperature, the local friction coefficient

- -- -- - --- - - ··--- · - -- ·· - __ ----- --~-~~-
and the Nusselt number for a cone are approximately 15 per cent larger
than the corresponding values for the flat plate.
Turbulent heat transfer and friction in fully developed high speed sub-
sonic flow through tubes have been investigated by Lelchuk (23). The
results of his experiments, involving simultaneous heat transfer and friction,
\\·ith the 1\-lach number varying along the length of the tube, are in good
agreement with Reynolds analogy. The pipe friction coefficient for di-
ameter Reynolds numbers up to 106 can be represented with satisfactory
aecuracy by
f = 0.079 Hen- 0 •25 (12-24)
Reynolds analogy yields t_herefore
NU = 0.0395 Ren°·75 Pr (12-26)
which can be written for air (Pr = 0.72) in the form
Nu = 0.0364 (RenPr) 0 · 7c, (12-26)
Experimental results for Mach numbers varying between 0 and 1 (23) are in
good agreement with Eq. 12-26, thus indicating that the Reynolds analogy
i~ not appreciably influenced by compressibility if the heat-transfer co-
efficient is evaluated in accordance with Eqs. 12-.5 and 12-15.
12-5. CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER IN FREE MOLECULE FLOW
In the free-molecule flow regime the relations governing the convective

heat transfer to or from a body in the gas can he deduced from fundamental
principles. When the molecular mean-free path is much larger than the
characteristic dimension of the body, molecules which impinge on the body
and are then re-emitted will on the average travel a long distance before
colliding with other molecules. It is therefore permissible to assume that
the incident stream of molecules is completely unaffected by the presence
of the body. Consequently one can treat the flow of incident and reflected
or re-emitted molecules ~eparately. Detailed calculations presuppose
familiarity with the kinetic theory of gases (21) but one can gain a physical
understanding of the method of approach used in these calculations and
apply the results in practice, without following the details.
The convective rate of heat transfer to a body in a free-molecular flow is
governed by the energy balance
(12-27)
e
where i is the energy transport rate of the incident molecules per unit area
and er is the energy transport rate of there-emitted molecules per unit area.
The number of re-emitted molecules depends on the interaction proces!"
between the impinging particles and the surface. This interaction proces~

can be described quantitatively by defining the thermal accommodation

efficient as
(12-28)
e,
where is the energy flux which would be reflected from the surface if all
the incident molecules were re-emitted with l\Iaxwellian distribution ( 17) at
the body surface temperature T,. Values of a can be determined only hy
experiment and Table 12-2 lists some of them for various air-surfaee
combinations.
TABLE 12-2
THERMAL Accn~BIODATIOX CoEFFICIEXT!' a FOR AtR•
SurfucP a
Fln.t laequer on bronze . . . ... .. . . . . . .. . . . . ......... .. . o.ss-o.sn

PolisiH'd bronze ... .... . .. . . . ... . . .. . . . .. . . .. .. . .... . 0.91-o.94
1\Iaehined bronze . .. . .. . .... .. . . . ...... ... . . . . .. . . .. . 0 . 89~.93
Polislwd ca~t iron . ... . . .. ..... .. ... .... . . .. .. .. .. .. . 0 .87-o .93
Polished nluminum . . . ... . .. .. . . ... . ... . . ........ . .. . 0.87~ . 95
1\Iachined aluminum . . .. . .. .. . .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . .. . O.H5-o.97
Et<'lwd aluminum . .. .. . ... ...... .. . . . . . . .. . . . O.SH-0.97
• From M. L. \\'icdmann n.nd P. H. Trurnpler, "Thermal Accommodation Coeffi<'ieuta," Tmr~s . •-t.,.\1 E.
Vol. 68 (1946), pp. 57-64.
Combining Eqs. 12--27 and 12- 28 yields
q/ A = a(i~, - ei) (12-29)

The incident and re-emitted energy fluxes have been calculated, among
others, by Stalder and Jukoff (22), Oppenheim (20), and Tsien (10). For
. the purpose of these calculations the energy fluxes are broken up into two
components. The first is due to the translational motion of the molecule~ .
the second is due to the internal degrees of freedom such as rotation or
vibration, if present. Assuming a l\-laxwellian distribution of velocities for
the incident molecules and making use of other concepts derived from the
kinetic theory of gases the number of the molecules incident on and issuing
from the surface, as well as their energies can be calculated as shown in
detail in Refs. 10, 16, 20, and 22. The results of these calculations are sum-
rnarized in Figs. 12-6 and 12-7 for a number of geometrical configurations of
bodies at uniform surface temperature T,. Figure 12-6 shows the recovery
factor R r multiplied by ("Y + 1) I "Y as a function of the molecular speed ratio
s, defined as the ratio of the flight speed l'en to the most probable molecular
speed r m· Since according to kinetic theory V"' = vf2gcffi T, it can easily
he shown that s = :\:J=VY/2. In Fig. 12-7 the high-speed Stanton numher
mltlt ipliPd h~· 'Y I a( "Y + 1) is plottPd a~ a fnn<·tion of s. In both figures

Flat Plate Parallel to Flow
10
Speed Ratio, I
Fw. 12- 6. Recovery factor for free-molecule flow.
-.:
~
:J
8
Cl. 0.6
~
-..... Cylinder in Cross-flow
, ; 0 ..5 Flat Plate Perpendicular
Y.,
• to Flow
.,
Jr
~
0 6 7 8 9 10
Speed Ratio, I
FIG. 12-7. High-speed Stanton number for fref>-molecule ftow.
curves for a flat plate, parallel and perpendicular to the flow, a cylinder in
cross flow, and a sphere are shown. It will be observed that in free molec-
ular flow, in contrast to a continuum flow, the recovery factors are larger
than unity and consequently the adiabatic surface temperature is larger
than the local stagnation temperature of the gas.
Eumple 12-1. Estimate the equilibrium temperature of an aluminum sphere having
a diameter of 0.2 ft and travelling at a 1\'lach number of 12 at an altitude of 390,000 ft
where the molecular mean free path is about 1.0 ft, the temperature about 200 F, and t hP
density of the air 2.4 X 1o-8 Ibm/ cu ft.

Solution: Since the ratio 'A/ L is greater than 3, free molecule flow prevails. Th•·
molecular speed ratio i~
s = 1\Iro ~/"Y /2 -= 10
and from Fig. 12-7 St"Y /a ("Y + 1) - 0.125
For aluminum a is about 0.9 according to Table 12-2. The flight velo<'ity i!' ~l-;
V-yffigr7' == 15,000 ft/sec and the unit-tmrface convective conductanee i:-o therefof"('
he - 0.125a{"Y + 1)p VCp/"Y
= 0.125 X OJ) X 2.4 X 2.4 X 10-11 (ll>m/cu ft l X 15,000 X 3.ti00
(ft/hr') X 0.24 rBtu ; lh F)/1.4
= .06 Btu/hr sq ft F
The adiabatic ~urfacc temperature i~ obtained with the aid of Eq!". 12-3 and Fig. l2-4i
from which
Rr = 2 X 1.4/2.4 = I. Hi
1'cu = 660(1 + I. H) X 0.2 X 122 ) == 22,600 H

A heat hnlnnce for the in('oming convection and outgoing rndintion yields
iiATa,- T,) = E<T1','
if it it-1 a8sumed that the incident radiation is negligible. From Table 5-1, E il' about 0. ~1
for anodized aluminum so that at equilibrium we have
uT.~(E/hr) + 1', = 22,600 H.
Solving for T, by trial and error give!' H55 H or 495 F for the equilibrium temperatmr.
12-6. CLOSURE
In this chapter we have surveyed briefly some phenomena 8.88ociated

with heat transfer at very high speeds. It is important to emphasize that
the material presented is merely a cursory introduction into a vast and im-
portant area of heat transfer. The field of heat transfer at high spftlds ha=--
only rc{'ently become of pra('tical significance and is therefore still in it~
infancy. It is apparent from an inspe{'tion of Fig. 12-1 that there are many
ranges of Knudsen, ~Iach, and Reynolds number combinations in which nn
experimental data are available. Numerous experimental studies are, how-
ever, in progress and their results will in the near future supply the inform:l-
tion necessary for the thermal design of ultra high-speed missiles and ~nt
ellites. Since the problems arising from aerodynamic heating are at thr
present time the major obstacles to high speed flight and the safe re-entr~·
of satellites and space ships, their solution is a challenge to science which
undoubtedly will soon be met successfully.
A compl~te analysis of problems associated with heat transfer at high
speeds requires consideration of the dynamics and thermodynami(':-:
simultaneously with the phenomena of heat transfer. In the region of con-
ventional aerodynan1ics shock and rarefaction waves play an important
role. In t.hP free-molecule and hypersonic flow regimes an understandin~

--~' - -- ---== =-- -~
HEAT TRANSFER IN HIGH-SPEED FLOW .487
of the kinetic theory of gases, the dissociation and ionization of gas mol-
ecules, and of the catalytic interaction between the molecules and the body
surface is necessary for a complete analysis. Readers interested in follow-
ing the development in these fields are referred to the current literature, in
particular to the Journal of the American Rocket Society, the Journal of the
Aeronautical Sciences, and the publications of the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics. An up-to-date survey is presented in the
High-Speed Aerodynamics and Jet Propulsion Series of the Princeton U ni-
versi ty Press.
REFERENCES
1. J. Kaye, "Survey of Friction Coefficients, Recovery Factors, and Heat Transfer
Coefficients for Supersonic Flow," J. Aeronautical Sci., Vol. 21, No.2 (1954), pp. 117-12H.
2. E. R. Van Driest, "Turbulent Boundary Layer in Compressible Fluids," J. Aer-
Ottauiical Sci, Vol. 18, No.3 (1951), pp. 1-15-161.
3. W. W. Fisher and R. ~1. Xorris, "Supersonic Convective Heat Transfer Corn·-
lation from Skin Temperature l\lea8urements on a V-2 Rocket in Flight," Trans. ASM E,
Vol. 71 (1949), pp. 457-469.
4. E. R. A. Eckert, "Engineering Relations for Heat Tran~fer and Friction in High-
Vt'locity Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow over Surface with Constant
Pressure and Temperature;' Trans. ASJ/ B, Vol. 78 (1956), pp. 1273-1284.
5. Carl Gazley, ''Boundary-Layer Stability and Transition in Subsonic and Super-
sonic Flow," J. Aeronautical Sci., Vol. 20, No. 1 (1H53), pp. 19-28.
6. l\1. W. Rubesin and H. A. Johnson, ''A Critical Review of Skin-Friction and
I I eat-Transfer Solutions of the Laminar Boundary Layer of a Flat Plate," Trans.
ASltiE, Vol. 71 (194H), pp. 383-388.
7. A. H. Shapiro, Compressible Fluid Flow, Vol. II. Ci'\ew York: The Ronald Pres;;
Con1pany, 1954.)
8. W. Hantsche and H. Wendt, ''The Laminar Boundary Layer of a Circular Con<'
in Supersonic Flow at Zero Angle of Attack," Jahrbuch der Deutschen Luftfahrtforschw,g,
1941, Part 1, pp. 76-77.
9. E. R. Vun Drie~t, "Investigation of Laminar Boundary Luyer in Compressible
Fluids Using the Crocco !\Iethod," N ACA T.V 597, 1952.
10. H. S. Tsien, "Supraerodynamics, l\1echanics of Rarefied Gases," J. of the Aero.
Sci., Vol. 13 (1946), pp. 653-664.
11. L. L. Kavanau, "Heat Transfer from Sphere to a Rarefied Gas in Subsonic
Flow," Trans. ASJJ E, Vol. 77 (1955).
12. R. l\1. Drake and G. H. Backer, ''Heat Transfer from Spheres to a Rarefied Gas
in Supersonic Flow,'' Trans. AS.~U E, Vol. 74 (1952).
13. F. 1\f. Sauer, "Convective Heat Transfer from Spheres in Free :Molecule Flow,"
J. of the Aero Sci., Vol. 18 (1951 ), pp. 353-354.
14. J. R. Stalder, G. Goodwin and ~1. 0. Creager, "Heat Transfer to Bodies in a
High Speed Rarefied Gas Stream," N ACA TN 2438, 1951.
15. R. l\·1. Drake and G. J. ~Iaslach, "Heat Transfer from Right Circular Cones to a
Rarefied Gas in Supersonic Flow," Univ. of Calif. lnst. Eng. Res. Rep. Jri.E., {1952) pp.
150-191.
16. S. A. Schaaf and P. L. Chambre, Flow of Rarefied Gases, High ~peed Aero-
dynamics and Jet Propulsion Series, Vol. IV, Part G, Princeton University Press, Hl5f>.
17. ~1. \V. Liepman and A. Roshko, Elements ofGasdynamics. (New York: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

18. J. H. Stalder, '·A Survey of Heat Transfer Problems Encountered by Hyper-

~">onic Aircraft," Jet Propulsion, Vol. 27 (Hl57), pp. 1178-1188.
19. L. Lees, "Laminar Heat Transfer over Blunt-Nosed Bodies at Hypersonic
Hpeeds," Jet Propulsion, Vol. 26 (1956), pp. 259-264.
20. A. K. Oppenheim, "Generalized Theory of Convective Heat Transfer in a Free--
~lolecule Flow," J. of the Aero. Sci., Vol. 20 (1953), pp. 49-57.
21. E. ::\L Kennard, Kinetic Theory of Gases. (New York: 1\tcGraw-Hill Book
22. J. H. Stalder and D. Jukoff, ''Heat Transfer to Bodies Travelling at High Speed~
in the Upper Atmosphere,'' NACA Rep. No. 944, 1944.
23. V. L. Lelchuk, ''Heat Transfer and Hydraulic Flow Resistance for Stream8 of
High Velocity,'' N ACA T.l'tf 1054, 1943.
24. N. H. Kemp and F. R. Ridell. ''Heat Transfer t.o Satellite Vehicles R~ntering
the Atmosphere,'' Jet Propulsion, Vol. 27 (1957), pp. 132-139.

13 Mass Transfer
hy L. Bryce Andersen
13-1. INTRODUCTION
The transport of one constituent of a fluid solution from a region of

higher concentration to a region of lower concentration is called mass
transfer. The mechanism of mass transfer can be most readily understood
by drawing an analogy to heat transfer. Heat is transferred in a direction
\\"hich reduces an existing temperature gradient; mass is transferred in a
direction which reduces an existing concentration gradient. Heat transfer
eeases when there is no longer a temperature difference; mass transfer
ceases when the concentration gradient is reduced to zero. The rates of
both heat and mass transfer depend on a driving potential and a resistance.
Other similarities between heat and mass transfer will be discussed in
connection with mass transfer theory. This chapter will develop the basic
concepts of mass transfer and apply these concepts to a few typical prob-
lems. The detailed design of industrial mass transfer equipment will not
be considered. Those readers who wish to pursue the subject of ma..~s
transfer further are referred to the references listed at the end of this
chapter.
1\Iass transfer may occur either within the gas phase or within the liquid
phase. In many chemical engineering unit operations, transfer of mass
takes place between two different phases. In gas absorption, a soluble gas is
removed from a gaseous mixture with an insoluble gas by transfer to a liquid
phase. In adsorption, one constituent of a fluid phase is transferred to the
surface of a solid adsorbent. In distillation, mass transfer takes place simul-
taneously in two directions: from the liquid to the vapor, and vice versa.
The net effect is to increase the concentration of the more volatile constitu-
ent in the vapor phase and to deplete the liquid phase. Liquid extracticn in-
volves the transfer of a constituent from one liquid phase to another
liquid phase. The two liquid phases must be immiscible to some extent,
or no separation is possible. Leach1'ng, or solid-liquid extraction, is an
operation in which the soluble component of a solid phase is dissolved and
transferred to a liquid solvent. An everyday example of leaching is the
making of coffee, where the soluble component of the ground coffee is
dissolved out by a hot-water phase.
489

490 MASS TRANSFER
In certain mass transfer operations, simultaneous heat transfer must be

considered. For example, humidificat,:on is an operation in which a pure
liquid is evaporated into a bulk gas phase. In the humidification of air,
water is transferred from the liquid phase to the bulk air phase. Sufficient
energy to supply the latent heat of vaporization of the water must be
provided. This energy can be supplied by transferring heat from the gas
to the liquid. Under this condition heat is transferred in a direction
opposite to that of the mass transfer. Thermal effects are often important
in distillation, since the liquid is continually vaporized and the vapor con-
tinually condensed. Other common mass-transfer operations are drying,
evaporation, and condensation.
The mechanism of mass transfer, just as that of heat transfer, depend:;
largely on the dynamics of the fluid phases. Mass can be transferred not
only by random molecular motion in quiescent or laminar-flo,ving fluids,
but also by eddy currents through fluids in turbulent motion. The former
is analogous to conduction heat transfer, the latter, to convection. Before
interphase mass transfer is considered, molecular and turbulent mass dif-
fusion will be discussed.
13-2. MASS TRANSFER BY MOLECULAR DIFFUSION
Mass transfer by molecular diffusion is directly analogous to conduction

heat transfer or to momentum transfer in laminar flow. l\1a.ss transfer
by molecular diffusion may occur in a stagnant fluid or in a fluid in laminar
flow. The transient one-dimensional mass-transfer equation can be writ-
ten in a form identical to the Fourier heat-transfer equation,
(13-1)
where CA = concentration
of component A in a mixture of A and B, in
lb-moles/ cu ft;
8 = time, in hr;
D., = mass diffusivity, in sq ft/hr;
11 = distance in the direction of diffusion, in ft.
In the steady state the concentration at any point does not vary with
time, and
- NA
-D dcA
-
A
- "dy
(13-2)
'
where N A! A is the mass flux in lb-moles/ hr sq ft. The negative sign
appears because the f'oncentration gradient is negative in the direction of
mass transfer.
Digi t ized by Google Original from

- ---==c;_-
==----:--~ - - - --
- ~-
-
- - - -- - -
MASS TRANSFER 491
The equivalent expression for heat transfer is

q __ k dT =
(13-3)
A dy
\Vhere q/ A = heat flux, in Btu/ hr sq ft;

k = thermal conductivity, in Btujhr ft F;
c, = heat capacity, in Btu/Ibm;
p = density,
in lbm / cu ft;
T = temperature, in F;
a = thermal diffusivity, in sq ft/hr.
Similarly, the equation for momentum transfer in laminar flow is

du Jl d(up) d(up)
;gc = - Jl - = - - --- = - ., (13-4)
dy p dy dy
where ;gc = momentum flux, in ft lbm / hr sq ft hr;
Jl = absolute viscosity, in lbm/ft hr;
u = velocity in the x-direction;
., = momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity), in sq ft/hr.
A.n examination of Eqs. 13-2, 13-3, and 13-4 shows that they are all of
the form: Flux = diffusivity X concentration gradient. Equation 13-2
is written for a mass concentration, cA, Eq. 13-3 for a thermal concentra-
tion, c,pT, and Eq. 13-4 for a momentum concentration, up. All three
difiusivities, D,, a, v, have the same dimensions and the concentration
gradients are linear for a uniform medium at steady state.
Equation 13-2 states that mass will be transferred between two points
in a fluid if a difference in concentration exists between the points. l\1a.ss
transfer occurs at an appreciable rate only in gases and liquids. In solids,
mass transfer is suppressed by the relative immobility of the molecules.
In the gas phase, concentrations are usually expressed as partial pres-
sures. If the perfect gas law,
(13-6)
where PA = partial pressure of gas A in a mixture, in atm;

nA = number of moles of gas, in lb-moles;
<R = gas constant, in cu ft atm/lb-mole F;
l' = gas volume, in cu ft;
is assumed to hold, Eq. 13-2 becomes
-Df) dpA
(13-6)
<R1' dy

492 MASS TRANSFER
Jntegration of Eq. 13-6 between any two planes in the fluid gives
fN: = -D.,(PA2 - PAl) J \
rA <RT(y2 - Yt)
(13-7)
where PA 1 is the partial pressure at Yt and PA 2 is the partial pressure at y-:,.

Equation 13-7 is rigorously correct only for equimolar counter _diffusion.
··- - - ~m:lJ)ter diffusion gases
In ---equimolar ...
.A- and- B -- dTffu~~
··--- -- ---.
-~imultaneously
-· ··- -
in
opposite direc~i~~~hr~~~~~-h other. The rate~_ ~f diffusion are equal but
in opposite di_r~~ti_9n~, i.e .• N .A. = - N B· This situation has no count~rpart 1
in heaT-transfer, since heat can be transferred only in one direction at a

time. Of course, gas B will be transferred only if a concentration gradif:lnt
Diflusion of A-----+-
-•
c
l
~
-•...
u
0
..•
~
l!t
Diflusion of B -
Distance, y---
FIG. 13-1. Partial pressure gra-
dients in equimolar counterdiffusion
of two gases.
for B exists. This is shown schematically in Fig. 13-1. For equimolar

counterdiffusion the partial pressure gradients must be equal but of oppositr
~ign. Diffusion of this type can occur in distillation.
Diffusion of a gas through a second stationary gas often occurs in indus-
trial mass-transfer equipment. For example, in the humidification of air.
water vapor must diffuse from the air-water interface through an air layer
which is stationary. Conversely, in the dehumidification of air, watilr
vapor must diffuse from the bulk of the gas phase through stationary air
to reach the surface at which it condenses.
Consider the case of gas A diffusing through a stationary gas B to a
gas-liquid interface where gas A is absorbed but gas B is not (Fig. 13-2).
Sinre gas A is diffusing toward the interface, there must be a partial-

- ------ - --~ -- - - - - - - - --·- .
MASS TRANSFER .493

P~----------------------,P
Diffusion of A -
•I
Gai-Liquid
Interface
Diffusion of I -+---
Diatance, 1 -
FIG. 13-2. Partial pressure gradients

in the diffusion of a gas through a
stationary gas.
pressure gradient for A in the direction of diffusion. The rate of transfer

of A is given by Eq. 13-6
-D, dpA
cnT dy
Since there is a continuous gas phase, the total pressure P must be constant
throughout the gas. Sin~e PA + PB = P, a gradient in PA will cause n
gradient of PB in the opposite direction. This gradient will force diffusion
of gas B away from the interface, at the rate
~\rr""S.'"' N B = -D, dpB _ D"' (13-8)
(3 A ffiT dy ffi'l'
since dpB/dy = -dpA/dy. Since gas B is not being produced at the intel·-
face, even though it is diffusing away from the interface, some other mech-
ani~m must supply gas B to maintain a constant concentration of gas B at
the interface. A bulk flow of gas toward the interface replenishes the gas
B which is diffusing away. The bulk flow will consist of a mixture of A and
B. The bulk flow of B toward the interface must equal - N B! A to balance
the diffusion of B in the opposite direction. The presence of A in the bulk
flow will effectively increase the rate of transfer of A toward the interface.
Since the bulk flow rate of B toward the interface equals - N B! A, the bulk
flow rate of A toward the interface equals
A
moles in bulk flow X bu 11( fl ow o
--------------
moles Bin bulk flow
fB = -PAPB (-N
---B) = - -PA - (-N B)
APA P - A

494 MASS TRANSFER
The total bulk flow rate equals the sum of bulk flow rates of A and B
-NB
A
(l + PA )
p - PA
The total flux of A toward the interface is the sum of the diffusion of A and
the bulk flow of A, or
J - .
NAt= -D. dpA + PA (-NB) (13-9)
A CRT dy p - PA A
Substitution for N B from Eq. 13-8 yields
NAt=
A
-D"(l
CRT
+ PA
p - PA
) dpA
dy
(13-10)
Integration gives
D P p - p ..
= -" In 42 (13-11)
<RT Y2 - Yt P -
but since PB :::z P - PA,
NAt D,P In PB2 (13-12)
A <RT(y2 - Yt) PBl
The definition of the logarithmic mean partial pressure of B is

PB2 - PBt
(13-13)
PB2
1n -
PBl
( 13-14)
Combination of Eqs. 13-12, 13-13, and 13-14 yields
NAt -D.,P(PA?. - PAl)
- (13-16)
A CRT PBm(Y?. - Yt)
Comparison of Eq. 13-15 'vith Eq. 13-7 shows that the factor P / pR,. is
introduced when diffusion through a stationary gas is considered. For a
dilute mixture of A in B, PBm is approximately equal to P and Eq. 13-1.1
reduces to Eq. 13-7. It should be noted that the "stationary" character-
istic of B does not imply that B is not moving, but refers to the nd beha,yior
of B. Since B is supplied by bulk flow at the same rate it diffuses away.

-
MASS TRANSFER 495
there is no net movement of B. The partial-pressure gradients for diffusion

throl!g_h__~_§t~ti9n~_ry gas are not lineru-~!t}l__qista!!_~~l _contr~~d to the
linear gi~dients in ~qqimolar co~_nterdiffusion.
-_:,lass diffusTvities must be evaiuated experimentally. Selected values
for gases and liquids are given in Table 13-1.
TABLE 13-1
1\IASS DIFFt:SIVITIES FOR GASES AND LIQVIDS
GASES AT 77 F, 1 ATM D.,

System Diffusivity
(sq ft / hr)
Ammonia-air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . 08
Water vapor-air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 99
Ethanol-air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 46
COrair. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 64
Orair. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . 8()
Hrair. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 6()
Benzene-air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . 34
LIQUID PHASE AT G8 F, DILUTE SoLUTIONS
Oxygen in water ... .... . .................. . ........ . 7.0 X 10-s

Ammonia in water .............. ...... ... .. ........ . 6.8 x 1o-~
Ethanol in water ..... . ...... . .... .. ... . ......... . .. . 3.8 X 10;
C02 in water .................... . ................ . 6.9 x 1o-r,
H2 in water .... ................. . .. .... . .. .. ..... . 20.0 X 10-6
HCI in water .. ... . . . ......... .. ...... ............ . 10.0 X }0-6
Sucrose in water .................. . ............... . 1. 8 X to-r,
~ aCl in water .... . . .................... . . .... . . . . . 5.3 X 10-r.
CO, in ethanol ... . . .... . . . .. . . . .... ..... .. . .... . . . . 13 .2 X 10-r,
The coefficients for gases in Table 13-1 are for either cotnponent diffusing
through the other. The liquid-pha.r;e diffusivities are several orders of
rnagnitude smaller than the gaseous diffusivities. This is due to the small(•r
anolecular mobilities in liquids. Diffusivities for systems where no dircrt
r·xperin1ental data are available may be predicted by semiempirical equa-
tions (see Refs. 2,6,i). Diffusion coefficients for gases and vapon; var~·
approximately with the 3/ 2 power of the absolut€ temperature and in-
versely with the total pressure.
Example 13-1. Cnl<'nlate the ru.te of diffu1-1ion of water vapor from a pool of watPr
at the bottom of a 20-ft well to dr.v air flowing over the top of the well. Assume thP
air in the well i~ stagnant and that the entire sy~tem is at 77 F and 1 atm.
Soltdion: This is the case of a gas diffm~ing through a second, stationary, gas.
The bottom of the well is taken as point 1 and the top as point 2, and Eq. 13-15 is
applied. Air is nearly insoluble in water. so diffusion of air into water can he ignored.
The diffusivity of water vapor in air is taken from Table 13-1: D, == 0.99 sq ftjhr.
The partial pressure of water vapor ut the water Hurface at the bottom of the well il'
equal to the saturated vapor pressure of water at 77 F. Then•fore. from vapor pressure

496 MASS TRANSFER
tables, PA 1 = 0.031 atm. Since the air at the top of the well is dry, PA 2 = 0. Thega.."
constant CR is 0.730 cu ft atm/lb-mole R.
pB = p - pA = 0. 969
I I
= Plloz - PBL = 1 - 0.969 = _

0 983
In pa.l/ PB1 1
1
n 0.969
NA -(0.99)(1)(0- 0.031)
A
= ------------------------
(0.730)(460 + 77)(0.983)(20 - 0)
= 3.99 X 10-s lb-moles l hr sq ft of well cross section An1.
~ince the water vapor partial pressurE' is small, Eq. 13-7 may be used~ an approxim&-
tion. It yields N AlA = 4.03 X 10-e lb-moles/hr sq ft. The difference is only about
1 per cent.
Ilaminar Subloyer
t--e+--- Buffer layer --~- Turbulent Zone
Diffu1ion of Water Vapor
Yi 1t 1
Oilfance from Air-Water Interface, 1 -
FIG. 13-3. St.eadv-state concen-

tration gradient of water vapor in
air flowing over a horizontal water
surface.
13-3. MASS TRANSFER BY CONVECTION

The mechanism of mass transfer in turbulent flow is similar to that of
heat transfer in turbulent flow. Consider, for example, an air stream flow-
ing over the surface of a pool of water. The velocity distribution in the.
air is the same as for flow over a plate (Chapter 6). Near the surface there
is a laminar sublayer, followed by a buffer layer, and a turbulent main
~tream (Fig. 13-3). The rate of mass transfer of water vapor to the air
is given by the equation
NA -D"P (PAa - p~.,)
(13-16)
A (J{ Tp Bm (y lt1 - Y a)

MASS TRANSFER 497
''"here PA 0 = average partial pressure of the water vapor in the bulk gas
phase (Fig. 13-3);
PA, = partial pressure of water vapor at the gas-liquid interface;
y Jg - y, = effective boundary-layer thickness for mass transfer, 1/ '"'
discussed previously in Sec. 6-3. Its resistance to molecular
diffusion is the same as that offered to total diffusion by the
sublayer, buffer layer, and turbulent region combined.
\Vhile simple theory predicts that the effective film thicknesses for mas~
and heat transfer should be the same, the experimental data available show
that this is only an approximation.
Since the effective film thickness cannot be measured directly, Eq. 13-9
is re\vritten
NA
A = ka(PA, - PAa) (13-17)
where k0 is the gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient, defined by
D,P
ka = T ( ) lb-moles/ hr sq ft atm (13-18)
CR PBm Ylo - Yi
The mass transfer coefficient k 0 is analogous to the heat-transfer coeffi-
cient he.
For mass transfer in the liquid phase
-D"c,(cA i - C..t L)
------- = kL(CAi- C..tL) (13-19)
CBm (y i - Yll)
where C..t, = concentration of the diffusing component at the interface;

C..t L = concentration of the diffusing component in the bulk liquid
phase;
c, = total concentration (c..t + cB)
CB"' = log-mean concentration of component B
y 1 , - y, = thickness of the effective liquid film;
k L = liquid-phase mass-transfer coefficient; defined by
D.,c,
kL = ( ) lb-moles/hr sq ft (lb-mole/cu ft) (13-20)
CBm Yll - Yi
The mass-transfer coefficients defined by Eqs. 13-18 and 13-20 apply to

diffusion of one component through a second stationary component.
Coefficients for equimolar counterdiffusion may be obtained similarly (see
Prob. 13-9). In the humidification of air there is no resistance to diffusion
of water in the liquid phase, since only water is present. Therefore, the
liquid-phase mass-transfer coefficient is infinite, and only the gas-phase
resistance need be considered.

498 MASS TRANSFER
13-4. EVALUATION OF MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
1\'lass-transfer coefficients must be evaluated experimentally. 'Vhere
direct experimental data are lacking, empirical equations are available for
predicting coefficients. These equations are quite similar to the equation:-
derived for predicting heat-transfer coefficients. One would expect the
mass-transfer equation to vary with the fluid properties and the physiral
characteristics of the equipment through which the fluid phases are flowing.
An equation relating the mass-transfer coefficient to the properties of
the system may be derived by dimensional analysis. The coefficient will
be a function of the velocity, density, viscosity, and mass diffusivity of
the fluid, and some characteristic dimension, L, of the system, or
kL = q, (V, p, p., D~, L) (13-21)
Dimensional analysis yields the dimensionless equation
k LL
D~
= </> (L V p) Y, ( pD.
p.
p. ) (13-22a)
Equation 13-22a applies to diffusion through a stationary component if

the ratio CB,,Jc, is inserted, i.e.,
_kL_L_cB_m = </>
l)Pct
(-L~-'p) Y, (-p.
p. pD.
) (13-22b)
For the gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient, Eq. 13-22b becomes

.s :__
kaffi.TPBmL
D.,P
= (LV p) Y, ( pD.
p.
p. ) ( 13-23)
The group on the left of Eq. 13-23 is the Sherwood number, Sh, which i~
analogous to the Nusselt number used in heat transfer. The functions
<1> and Y, are usually taken so that the dimensionless groups are relatrd
exponentially, in the same form as Eq. 8-2 for heat transfer.
From an equivalent analysis for heat transfer by convection it wa~
found that
[8-2]
The heat-transfer coefficient is dependent on the Reynolds number, which

characterizes flow conditions, and the Prandtl number, which is the ratio
of the momentum diffusivity to the thermal diffusivity. Therefore, one
would expect the mass-transfer coefficient to depend on the Reynold:'
number as well as on a dimensionless ratio of the momentum diffusivity
and the mn~s diffusivity . This lntt<:'r group, p. j pD", is calJed the Schmidt

~-- ---
. .. -- - - - ·- --
MASS TRANSFER 499
number Sc. The Schmidt number characterizes mass transfer in the same
manner as the Prandtl number characterizes heat transfer.
Since the mechanisms of mass, heat, and momentum transfer are closely
related, one might expect data taken for one transfer operation to be useful
in predicting the rate of transfer in the other operations. The interrelation
of heat and momentum transfer was discussed earlier in connection with
the Reynolds analogy, where
Nu f he
--=-=-- (13-24)
RePr 2 CppV
A similar analysis for mass transfer yields

Sh f ka<RTpB,.
=- = (13-26)
ReSc 2 VP
Combining Eq. 13-24 with Eq. 13-25 gives
he P
or ka = - - - - (13-26)
Cpp <R.TpB,.
Equation 13-26 is not generally applicable for prediction of mass-transfer

coefficients from heat-transfer coefficients, since it is based on the Reynolds
analogy which holds only for Pr = 1 and Sc = 1.
A more adequate correlation shows that for heat transfer to fluid flowing
turbulently inside tubes
Nu = 0.023 Re 0 · 8Pr0 · 33 (13-27)
The analogous relation for mass transfer in a wetted-wall column (7) is
Sh = 0.023 Re 0 · 83Sc 0 ·n (13-28) /
A wetted-wall column is a simple experimental mass-transfer device.
It consists of a vertical tube with liquid flowing in a thin film down the
inside wall of the tube and a gas flowing upward in the tube. Mass trans-
fer takes place from the liquid film to the gas, or vice versa, depending on
the characteristics of the system being studied. Equation 13-28 may be
used to predict coefficients in wetted-wall columns. Data for industrial
mass-transfer equipment may also be correlated by equations of the form
of Eq. 13-28. A summary of these correlations can be found in Ref. 7.
Colburn's j factors are now defined as
(13-29)

500 MASS TRANSFER
and
.
}M- - -
Sh
(13-30)
ReSc0·:l3
where j u is the J factor for heat transfer and i.1r is the j factor for ma~:
transfer. Combination of Eq. 13-27 with Eq. 13- 29 gives
j 11 = 0.023 Re- 0 · 2 (13-311
and combination of Eq. 1:3-28 with Eq. 13-30 gives
j.,, = 0. 023 Re-o ·17 (13-32)
Experimental data for flow in tube~ show that i 11 - ! f = i.v \vi thin th(>
accuracy of the data. This correlation considers only skin friction. In
How past blunt objects and in typical industrial mass-transfer equipment.
separation of the boundary layer often induce~ additional pressure losses.
and j 11 and i.u are not equal to ! f. However, in many cases, jH is still
approximately equal to JM, and mass-transfer coefficients can be predicted
by the relation
. .
}II - }M
or
So that
ko _ (~)( p
c,p CRTpBm
)[(CpJ.L)(
k
pD.., )]o.87
J.L
(13--33)
If the Prandtl and Schmidt numbers are equal, Eq. 13-33 reduces to
Eq. 13-26. \Vhere direct mass-transfer data for a new system are not
available, Eq. 13-33 may be used to predict mass-transfer coefficients from
heat-transfer data taken in a system of identical geometry and flow
characteristics.
Example 13-2. Predict the mass-transfer coefficient for liquid ammonia vaporizing
into air at 77 F and 1 atm, knowing that the heat-transfer coefficient in the same equip-
ment, at the same gas and liquid flow rates, is 800 Btu/hr sq ft F.
Solution: Equation 13-28 cannot be used, since equipment size and flow rates are
not given. In any event, Eq. 13-28 is valid only for a wetted-wall column. Equa-
tion 13-33 will therefore be used.
For &mmonia at 77 F, Dr = 1.08 sq ft/hr. The physical properties of the gas pha.._'"E'
will be evaluated assuming a dilute mixture of ammonia in air. For a.ir at 77 F and
1 atm:
#-' == 0.018 centipoise == 0.044 lbm/ft hr
p = O.Oi4 lb / cu ft

MASS TRANSFER 501
Cp = 0.25 Btu/lb F
<R = 0.730 cu ft atm/lb-mole F
T =- 460 + 77 = 537 R
For a dilute gas ps,. = P, and
800 ) ( 1 ) ( 0.25 X 0.044 0.074 X 1.08 )O.ST

(
ka = 0.25 X 0.074 0.730 X 537 0.015 X 0.044
- 134 lb-moles/hr sq ft atm
As an exercise, the dimensions of the above equation should be checked. If Eq. 13-26
is used
lea = _!c_ - 800

Cpp(R T 0.25 X 0.074 X 0. 73 X 537
= 110 lb-moles/hr sq ft atm Am.
The difference in the two values of ko is 18 per cent.
13-5. INTERPHASE MASS TRANSFER
All industrial mass-transfer operations involve the transfer of material

from one phase to another. The total resistance to mass transfer in the
t\VO phases may be expressed in terms of an over-all mass-transfer coeffi-
cient similar to an over-all heat-transfer coefficient. There is, however,
an important difference in the evaluation of over-all mass- and heat-transfer
coefficients.
To illustrate the difference between the two over-all coefficients, con-
sider first the transfer of heat from a hot gas to a cold liquid. The gas is
insoluble in the liquid, and the liquid does not vaporize. The gas is
flowing countercurrent to the liquid. The temperature gradient for this
system is shown in Fig. 13-4. The driving potential for heat transfer in
the gas phase is (To - T ,) , and in the liquid phase, (T, - T L). The
over-all driving potential, (To - T L), is the sum of the two. The over-all
heat-transfer coefficient is given by
~=G. . + L..J (13-34)
and the heat flux by

q/A = U(To- TL)
Now consider the transfer of mass from a gas to a liquid, as for example,
the absorption of ammonia. from an air-ammonia mixture by water. In
heat transfer the interfacial temperature T, is identical for each phase, but
as shown in Fig. 13-5, there is an apparent discontinuity in concentration
at the gas-liquid interface which remains even when the concentrations in

502 MASS TRANSFER
each phase are expressed in the same dimensions. If there is no resistance

to heat transfer at the interface, the potentials are equal. In mass transfer.
on the other hand, even if the two phases are assumed to be at equilibrium
at the interface, the interfacial concentrations are not equal. The explana-
tion of this apparent discrepancy lies in the choice of concentration as thP
driving potential for mass transfer. Strictly speaking the concentration
is the driving potential for mass transfer within a phase, but not bettceen
phases. The correct driving potential between phases is a property called
the chemical potential. In a single phase, the chemical potential is related
to the concentration, but this relationship may change from one phase to
another. Since the chemical potential is difficult to evaluate for industrial
applications, it is seldom used in engineering calculations. It will not be
•
~
o._ T I-1-------+-t
!.
....~
,.,, 'i Yn
Distance, 1 - -•
FIG. 13-4. Temperature gradient

for heat transfer from a hot J!:H.S to
a cold liquid.
considered in detail here, but it should be noted that when the chemical po-
tentials of two phases are equal, they are in equilibrium. Thus, the chemi-
cal potentials at the interface in mass transfer are equal.
A simple illustration will show the possible great difference in n1a.--~
concentration of two phases in thermodynamic equilibrium. ConsidPr air
at 77 F and 1 atm in equilibrium with water at the same temperatur(:. If
the air is saturated with water vapor, the partial pressure of the water vapor
is 0.031 atm and the mole fraction of water vapor in the gas phase is 0.0:31.
In the liquid phase the mole fraction of water is 1.0, since only \\·ater i~
present. (Actually a very small quantity of air would be dissolved in thr
water, but this will be ignored here.) Obviously, the concentrations of the
two phases at equilibrium are not equal.
Experimental data for phase equilibria must be gathered for each sy~tem

MASS TRANSFER 503
separately. Fortunately, groups of systems follow general laws, which
facilitate the prediction of the equilibrium concentrations. For example,
Henry's law adequately describes the equilibrium between a gas and a
liquid phase for many gases and liquids,
(13-35)
where PA = partial pressure of component A in the gas phase, in atm;
cA = concentration of component A in the liquid phase in equi-
librium with the gas, in lb-moles/cu ft;
m = Henry's law constant, experimentally determined, in atm
cu ft/lb-mole.
Values for the Henry's law constant for many gases, such as oxygen, nitro-
gen, and carbon dioxide dissolved in water, are given in Table 13-2. Gases
such as sulfur dioxide and ammonia do not follow Henry's law, but data
for these gases are tabulated in Ref. 4.
TABLE 13-2
HENRY'H LAw CoNSTANTs FOR VARious GASES IN WATER AT ~fooERATE PREssuREs
m X 10-4, atm/(lb mole/cu ft)
TC Ail' 02 Xz C02
0 1.25 0.736 1.53 0 .021

10 1.58 O.H44 1.93 0.030
20 1.92 1.16 2.32 0.041
30 2 .24 1.38 2.68 0 .054
40 2.52 1.56 3.02 0.067
,1)() 2 .76 1. 72 3.30 0.083
60 2.96 1.85 3.52 0.100
70 3.10 1.96 3.69
80 3.18 2.04 3.74
00 3.23 2.09 3.77
100 3.22 2.11 3.79
An expression for the over-all mass-transfer coefficient may now be

derived for systems that follow Henry's law. Since it is not practical to
measure concentrations at the gas-liquid interface, PA, and cA, are un-
known. However, Henry's law can be used to determine the partial
pressure of a constituent of a gas in equilibrium with a given bulk liquid
concentration
(13-36)
where the * denotes that PA is the gas-phase concentration in equilibrium
with CAL· Similarly,
(13-37)

504 MASS TRANSFER
\vhere cA* is the liquid-phase concentration in equilibrium \vith a gas of

concentration PAo· It should be noted that cAL and PAo are actual con-
centrations (see Fig. 13-5), while PA* and cA* are fictitious concentrations.
\vhen mass transfer occurs.
Equations 13-17 and 13-19 may be written for mass transfer from the
gas to liquid phase in the form
NA
A = ka(PAa - PA,) [ 13-17]
[ 13-19]
{"lnterfa~
t Gas Uquid
-
~~,
'\
~ -
a' all
r,, ,.1 Yn
Dlatonce, 1 -
FIG. 13-5. Concentrationgradientfor

mass transfer from a gas to a liquid.
Since the interfacial concentrations cannot be evaluated, it is convenient

to define over-all coefficients
N A = Ka(PAa - PA*) (13-38)
and NA = KL(cA* -cAL) (13-39)
where Ka = over-all mass-transfer coefficients based on the gas ph~~
concentrations, in lb-moles,/ hr sq ft atm;
K L = over-all mass-transfer coefficient based on the liquid-phs.~·
concentrations, lb-moles/ hr sq ft (lb mole /cu ft).
In the steady state the rate of mass transfer for 1 t-lQ ft of transfer arPa
1V A is the same in the gas and liquid film~.

MASS TRANSFER 505
Solving Eq. 13-17 for PAi and Eq. 13-19 for cA.: gives
NA
(13--40)
ko
and (13--41)
or (13--42)
~ince PAi - mcAi, Eq. 13-40 may be subtracted from Eq. 13-42, and
NA mNA
PAo - ko = meAL + kL (13-43)
(13-44)
Eliminating PAa- PA* between Eq. 13-38 and Eq. 13-4-! gives the relation
1 1 m
-
Ko
= ko
- +kL- (13-46)
which is equivalent to Eq. 13-34 for heat transfer. In a similar manner,

an expression for the over-all liquid-phase mass-transfer coefficient can
be derived:
1 1 1
-
K
=- - +kL
·m~·a
L
- (13-46)
Combining Eq. 13-45 and Eq. 13-46 gives

KL = rnKo (13-47)
The over-all coefficient based on either phase may be determined and
used in calculations. The interrelation given in Eq. 13-4i is analogous
to the interrelation of over-all heat-transfer coefficients based on different
areas. It is conventional to use the over-all mass-transfer coefficient based
on the phase where the major resistance to mass transfer lies.
In many cases the major resistance to mass transfer lies in one phase.
For example, slightly soluble gases like oxygen and nitrogen have very
large values of nt. For systems having a large value of m, Eq. 13-4()
rPduces to K L ~ k L· Absorption of a slightly soluble gas is therefore
~aid to be "liquid-phase controlling." Similarly, for a very soluble gas, m

506 MASS TRANSFER ,.
is very small and by Eq. 13-45, Ka "" ka. Therefore, the absorption
of a very soluble gas is said to be "gas-phase controlling." ~lany system~
are approximately either gas- or liquid-phase controlled. This approxi-
mation is made whenever possible, since calculations then require knowledge
of only one individual phase coefficient. However, in certain system:'
resistance to mass transfer is appreciable in both phases, and both of the
individual coefficients must be evaluated to calculate the mass-transf ('r
rate. An example of a system where the resistance to mass transfer ap-
pears to be appreciable in both phases is the absorption of sulfur dioxide
in water. The system has an additional complication of a chemical reac-
tion between the sulfur dioxide and water in the liquid phase. The rat(·
of such a chemical reaction may also influence the rate of absorption in
such cases.
In cases of mass transfer where a pure phase is involved, no resi~tatw(·
to mass transfer exists in the pure phase. For example, in the humidifica-
tion of air by water, the liquid is pure water and all resistance to rna:-.:-;
transfer lies in the gas phase where there is a mixture of air and wat{Jr
vapor. If this concept is applied to mass transfer between two pure plut..~:-;.
one concludes that there is no resistance to mass transfer at all for such a
case. An example of this would be the vaporization of "Tater into pun·
steam, with no air present. In this case the rate of vaporization is deter-
mined by the rate at which heat is supplied to the liquid.
13-6. SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Simultaneous heat and mass transfer must be considered in vaporiza-
tion and condensation operations. Operations of particular interest to
mechanical engineers are humidification and dehumidification of air. Thi:--
discussion will he limited to the air-water system, but the theory also
applies to any system of a condensing and a noncondensing gas.
When air is humidified in contact with liquid water, the latent heat of
the water which is vaporized must be supplied by the gas, the liquid, or an
outside source. Conversely, in condensation, heat must be removed hy
one of these agents. A number of cases will be considered from a theoretical
viewpoint.
Humidification where equilibrium is established between water and
air which is at a constant temperature. This is the case of water-cooling
towers in power-plant installations. A limited quantity of liquid \Yater
is contacted with a stream of air. The quantity of air is sufficiently large
so that the air temperature and humidity do not change appreciably, and
it is assumed that no heat is supplied from the surroundings. If the air
and water are initially at the same temperature, vaporization will tend to
lower the temperature of the remaining water. This will establish a
temperature gradient and heat will be transferred from the bulk gas phas<'

MASS TRANSFER 507
to the \Vater. The water will decrease in temperature until it reaches

the temperature where the heat transferred to the water just balances the
heat removed in vaporization. This temperature T wb is known as the wet-
bulb temperature of the gas. The expression for the equality of the heat
transferred to the water and the heat supplied for vaporization is
(13-48)
\vhere q/ A = heat transferred per unit of interfacial area, in Btu/ hr sq ft;

N A/ A = water vaporized, in lb-moles/ hr sq ft;
AM = molar latent heat of vaporization evaluated at T IL'b, the wet-
bulb temperature, in Btu/ lb-mole .
.At equilibrium, the liquid phase will be at a uniform temperature T wb· The
rate of heat transfer is
q
A= ha(Ta- Twb) (13-49)
where ha = gas-phase heat-transfer coefficient, in Btu/hr sq ft F;

T a = dry-bulb temperature of the bulk of the gas, in F;
T wb = temperature of the water at steady state, in F.
The resistance to heat and mass transfer lies only in the gas phase, since
the liquid water is a pure phase, and the rate of mass transfer is
(13-60)
\Vhere ka = gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient, in lb-moles/ hr sq ft atm;

Pwb = partial pressure of water vapor at the air-water interface;
in this case it is the vapor pressure of water at temperature
T wb, in atm;
pa = partial pressure of water vapor in the bulk gas phase, in atm.
Substitution of Eqs. 13-49 and 13-50 in Eq. 13-48 gives
ho
Pwb - Pa = X k (Ta - T wb) (13-61)
Jf G
Since mass and heat are transferred by similar mechanisms, one might
expect the ratio h0 _lk 0 to be constant. It is essentially constant for the
conditions usually encountered in humidification. Equation 13-51 relates
the wet- and dry-bulb temperatures for any mixture of water vapor and
air. It is often written in terms of humidity
1 he
Ywb- Ya = - '· ·l i--P- (Ta- Twb) (13-62)
A hGl " G

508 MASS TRANSFER
where r = absolute humidity of the air, in Ibm water vapor /Ibm dry air;
X = specific latent heat of vaporization of water, in Btu 1lb.n;
},f0 = molecular weight of the gas phase-in this case air, in lh/lb-
mole;
P = total pressure, in atm.
Equation 13-52 follows from Eq. 13-51 when the humidity is defined as
y = Mw Pw ( 13-63)
1lfo P - p,.
where M UJ = molecular weight of water;
pUJ = partial pressure of water vapor in the gas phase.
Usually p. is small compared to P and
y = MwPw (l3-M)
AfoP
may be substituted in Eq. 13-51 to obtain Eq. 13-52.

The group ho/k0 M 0 P has been evaluated for a limited number of
systems. Selected values are given in Table 13-3.
TABLE 13-3
VALUES OF ho/koM oP FOR VARIOUS VAPORS IN AIR
Vapor ha!koMoP
Water 0.26
Benzene 0.41
Carbon tetrachloride 0.44
Methyl alcohol 0.35
\Vhere direct experimental values are not available, the j factor relation
can be used to calculate the group. Rearrangement of Eq. 13-33 give~
h0 ) ( P )
( kopffi.T pn,. = Cp
( p./ pD ..
Cpp.jk
)o.n (13--65)
where the physical properties are those of the gas. For most humidifica-
tion problems PB,./P ~ 1. From the perfect gas law, p(RT = },fGP.
Equation 13-55 then becomes
·ho
- - - - Cp
_ ( J.L! pD" )o.s7 -_ ( Sc )o.e7
Cp (13-66)
koAfoP Cpp.jk Pr
Equation 13-56 gives a value of ho/koMoP of 0.21 for the air-water
system, compared to the experimental value of 0.26.

MASS TRANSFER 509
Humidification where equilibrium is established between water at a

constant temperature and air. In this case the supply of air is limited
and its temperature is. lowered as heat is transferred to the liquid. This
is the case usually approached 1n i.ndustrial air humidification towers when
air is humidified and cooled. The final equilibrium temperature T a•
is called the adiabatic saturation tetnperoture and the operation is called
adiabatic humidification. This implies that no heat is supplied to the air-
water system from the surroundings.
An enthalpy balance can be written around the air and water, since
adiabatic operation is assumed. Assume that the water enters at tempera-
ture T 08 • The quantity of water supplied is large and the quantity vapor-
ized is small so that its final temperature will also be T a•· Therefore, there
is essentially no change in enthalpy of the water phase. An enthalpy bal-
ance for the gas phase gives semantically
Enthalpy of entering dry air) = (enthalpy of leaving dry air)

( + water vapor + water vapor
or
enthalpy of entering dry air) _ (enthalpy of leaving water vapor)
( -enthalpy of leaving dry air -enthalpy of entering water vapor
Then
(13-67)
where C0 = specific heat of air, in Btu/Ibm;
eu, = specific heat of water, in Btu/Ibm;
To = initial air temperature, in F;
T a• = final equilibrium air temperature, in F;
Y0 = absolute humidity of the initial air, in lb,. H20/lbm dry air;
Y a• = absolute humidity of the air at T 08, in lb,. H20/lbm dry air.
Rearrangement of Eq. 13-57 gives
1
Y 0 8 - Yo=);- (ca + Yac"')(To- Ta.) (13-68)
Comparison of Eq. 13-58 with Eq. 13-52 shows that if h0 /k 0 M 0 P =

(ca + Y oCto), the adiabatic saturation temperature T a• is identical to the
wet-bulb temperature T u:b· For air-water systems, the quantities are es-
sentially equal and, therefore, T a• = T tob· However, for any other vapor in
air the temperatures are considerably different. The group (co + Y oCv)
is called the "humid heat," although a more appropriate term would be
the humid heat capacity, which is designated by c,. For the air-water
vapor system c. = 0.24 + 0.45 Y 0 .

510 MASS TRANSFER
Eumple 13-3. A stream of air has a dry-bulb temperature of 120 F and a wet-bulb
temperature of 90 F. \Vhat is the humidity of the air?
Solution: At 120 F, Y, = 0.08 lb water vapor/lb dry air (from the saturation
curve on a humidity chart, Ref. 4) and X = 1025 Btu/lb. From Table 13-2, ha/kGJfcP
= 0.26. \Vith Eq. 13-52
Ya = 0.080- ( . )i~~~-
1 0 26
90) = 0.0721bH20/lbdryair AnB.
If the air has a dry-bulb temperature of 120 F and an adiabatic saturation temperature
of 90 F, Y G may be evaluated from Eq. 13-58
Y _ Ya$ - Ca ( Tu - Ta.)/X _ 0.080 - 0.24(120 - 90)/1025

G - 1 + C1£(.1'u - Ta~) /X - 1 + 0.45(120 - 90)/1025
= 0.072 lb H~O /lb dry air Am.
'Vithin the limits of accuracy of the calculation in Example 13-3, th~

answers are identical and Ta.~ = Twb for water. This coincidence simplifie~
calculations for the air-water system. However, the adiabatic saturation
temperature and the wet-bulb temperature are generally not equal for
other systems.
Both of these cases are for conditions existing at the equilibrium of an
air stream flowing past a water stream. In actual humidification unJ
water-cooling equipment, equilibrium is only approached. An infinitely
high tower would be required to give true equilibrium between the two
~treams. The wet-bulb temperature and the adiabatic saturation temper-
ature may be considered as limiting values beyond which no equipn1ent
ean go.
Adiabatic humidification-cooling. The calculation of the size of
industrial equipment for adiabatically humidifying and cooling an air
stream requires integration of the rate equation over the height or length
of the equipment. L'sually in such equipment the quantity of water rfl'cir-
culated is large, so that the water remains constant at the adiabatic satura-
tion temperature of the air, T as·
The rate equation for n1ass transfer can be rewritten in terms of
humidity
(13--69)
where ky - gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient, in lb of water transferred

/hr sq ft unit~}·;
N ./ - mass flux, in lb /hr sq ft of transfer area;
F = absolute humidity of the air, in lb H20 / lb dry air.
Since the water ten1perature is constant at T as, and since there is no resis-
tance to mass transfer in a pure water phase, the driving potential is

MASS TRANSFER 511
( Y oa - Y), in which Y o• is the saturated humidity of air at the water-air

interface where the temperature is T oa·
To determine the rate of mass transfer, it is necessary to kno'v the
air-water interfacial area A. It is often impossible to estimate accurately
the interfacial area available in industrial equipment. The water flows or
is sprayed downward over wood slats or irregular packing to achieve a
large interfacial area. This interfacial area may vary with liquid or gas
flow rate. Because of the difficulty in estimating interfacial area for mass
transfer, it is usually redefined as
A= aV = aSZ (13-60)
where A =total interfacial area for mass transfer in the humidification
tower, in sq ft;
a = interfacial area per unit volume of tower packing, in sq ft / ('u ft;
S = cross-sectional area of the tower, in sq ft;
Z = height of the tower, in ft.
Combination of Eqs. 13-59 and 13-60 gives

N A 1 = kya(Y 0 , - Y)SZ (13-61)
Since a is difficult to evaluate, it is combined with ky to form a new masH-
transfer coefficient, kya, which can be evaluated experimentally for a
given tower packing and fluid flow rates.
Figure 13-6 is a schematic picture of a humidification tower. The
water ~ enters at the top of the tower and flows downward over packing
to the bottom. The ·air G with a humidity }\ enters at the bottom of the
tower, flows countercurrent to the water, and leaves the top of the tower
at humidity Y2• The mass velocity of air G is expressed as the lb dry air /
hr sq ft of tower cross section; therefore it is constant through the tower,
even though the humidity varies. The mass velocity of water Lis given
as lb water / hr sq ft of tower cross section, and it varies from ~ at the top
of the tower to £1 at the bottom. A material balance on the water over
the total height of the tower gives
(13-62)
i.e., the rate of vaporization from the liquid phase equals t,he rate of mass
transfer to the gas.
Consider a differential height dZ as shown in Fig. 13-6. The change
in humidity in the height dZ is dl"" and therefore the rate of transfer of
water to the gas per square foot of tower cross-section is given by the
equation
dL = GdY (13-63)

512 MASS TRANSFER
Therefore, the rate of mass transfer across height dZ is
dNA'= SGdY (13--64)
since G is based on a square foot of tower cross section.

Water In, £2
y2 t G, Air Out
L+dL c
Y+dY
_j
dZ
z
1 y
T
L c
Mak•Up
Water
Water Out L1
Y1 G, t /~tAr In
aecirculating Water
FIG. 13-6. Adiabatic humidification tower.
Combining Eqs. 13-61 and 13-fl4 yields

GdY = kya(Y 0 , - Y)dZ (13--Q)
Integration from the bottom to the top of the tower, assuming k}·a i~
constant, gives.
Z- ( 13-66)
Di gitized by Coogle Original from

MASS TRANSFER 513
Equation 13-66 may be used to calculate the height of an adiabatic humidi-

fication to\ver required to humidify air from Y1 to Y 2• The coefficient
k ya must be evaluated experimentally or by an empirical correlation.
Example 13-4. Three thousand cu ft/min of air at 100 F and an absolute humidity
of 0.003 lb water /lb dry air is to be adiabatically humidified and cooled in a packed tower
by contacting it with 20 gal/min of recirculated water. The fluid flow rates dictate a
cross-sectional area of 25 sq ft and the kya for the packing used has been determined
as kya - 0.45 G L 0• 2 (Ref. 8). (a) Calculate the height required to cool the air to 70 F
(corresponding to a humidity of 0.016 lb/lb). (b) Calculate the height of tower re-
quired to cool the gas of (a) to 62 F (corresponding to a humidity of 0.019).
Solution: (a) First calculate kya. Neglecting the humidity of the incoming air,
G - (aooo cuminft) (601 min)

hr
(492 R) ( 1 lb mole
560 R 359 cu ft at STP
) ( 29 lb air ) (
lb mole air
1
25 sq ft
)
= 513 lb dry air /hr sq ft of tower cross section
L _ (20 ~)
mm
(601 min)
hr
(8.34 Ibm
gal
H20 ) ( 1 )
25 sq ft
.. 400 lbm/hr sq ft of tower cross section

kya - (0.45) (513)(400)0.1
Therefore
- 764 lbm/hr cu ft unit .1Y
The adiabatic saturation temperature T ,., and humidity Y a• may be evaluated from
Eq. 13-58 or from a humidity chart; Ta, =- 62 F and Ya, = 0.019. Use of Eq. 13-66
gives a height of
z- 513 In 0.019-0.003 == 1.1 ft
764 0.019 - 0.016
b) For cooling to 62 F,
z- 513 In 0.019 - 0.003 ... 00

764 0.019 - 0.019 Am.
This shows that an infinitely tall tower is required to reach the equilibrium condition
of saturation.
Adiabatic humidification is a simple case of the more general humidifi-

cation problem. In adiabatic humidification the enthalpies of both the
liquid and gas are nearly constant; but, in general, this is not the case and
energy transfer across an enthalpy potentia] must be considered. An
equation similar to Eq. 13-65 can be written with enthalpy driving forces
and it may be integrated graphically. A discussion of this method, with
examples, is given in Ref. 3. Use of the enthalpy potential is necessary
whenever the enthalpy of either phase changes appreciably. For example,
it would be required in the calculation of a water-cooling tower.

514 MASS TRANSFER
Dehumidification. Air conditioning often involves the removal of

water vapor from air by direct cooling with cold \Vater or by indirect
cooling by contact with a cold metal wall. Although spray towers are
widely used for direct cooling, little data have been published on their
performance.
The contact of humid air with a cold metal wall results in mass and
heat transfer from the air to the liquid layer flowing do,vn the metal "·all.
The heat transferred across the liquid layer must equal the heat transferre<J
across the gas film plus the latent heat given up at the gas-liquid interface
Gas Liquid Cooling Medium
Man Transfer -r-+--

T Cooling
Heat Transfer Medium
F10. 13-7. Simultaneous heat and

mass transfer in the dehumidifica-
tion of air by indirect cooling.
on condensation of the mass transferred across the gas film. Figure 13-7
represents such a system. An expression for the heat transferred acros~
a unit area is
(13-67)
where T, = temperature at the gas-liquid interface;

Ta = temperature in the bulk-gas phase;
T L = temperature in the liquid layer;
h L = liquid-phase heat-transfer coefficient;
ha = gas-phase heat-transfer coefficient;
ky = gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient.
The use of this equation for dehumidification calculations involves a

trial-and-error procedure, since the interface conditions are not known.
The method of calculation is outlined in Ref. 2.

MASS TRANSFER 515
13-7. MASS-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT
The theoretical relationships which have been discussed can be applied
to the design of industrial equipment. However, the calculations are
usually complex and are beyond the scope of this brief discussion. Detailed
design methods and illustrations of industrial equipment can be found
in Refs. 4, 5, 6, and 7.
Mass-transfer equipment can be classified as batch or continuous flow.
The tendency in industry has been toward continuous-flow equipment,
where steady state is reached and material is fed and withdra\vn continu-
ously. Calculation of batch equipment involves the consideration of
transient mass transfer.
Continuous-flow equipment can be further classified as to whether it is
stage-contact or continuous-contact. In stage-contacting, the two phases
are brought together, mass is transferred between the phases, and finally the
phases are mechanically separated. In continuous countercurrent stage-
contacting, the resultant two phases are then sent in opposite directions to
other stages for further contacting. Usually calculations are based on the
assumption that the two phases leaving a stage are in equilibrium with
each other. The number of equilibriu-m stages required to give the specified
purity and recovery of product is determined from equilibrium and stoi-
chiometric relationships. In such a calculation the rate of mass transfer
is not considered, since it is assumed that transfer was rapid enough to
establish equilibrium.
In an actual stage, for example a plate in a distillation column, the two
phases are not usually in contact long enough to reach equilibrium. There-
fore, more actual stages are required than equilibriu-m stages. A stage effi-
ciency is applied to the number of equilibrium stages calculated to obtain
the number of actual stages required. Stage efficiencies depend on many
factors, including the physical configuration of the equipment, the phase-
flow rates, and the rate of mass transfer. Experimental data on stage
efficiencies for many systems are available. Correlations have been made
on certain systems, such as petroleum distillation columns. (Refs. 5
and 7.)
An example of a continuous countercurrent stage-contacting device is
a multiple-stage petroleum distillation column. A typical crude petroleum
distillation column is shown with its accessory equipment in Fig. 13-8.
A schematic diagram of the column, Fig. 13-9, shows the individual stages,
the crude oil intake, and the points of withdrawal of the various products.
The withdrawn products increase in volatility from the bottom to the top
of the tower. Since the less volatile components may decompose when
heated to their boiling points at atmospheric pressure, the lower part of
the column may be operated at less than atmospheric pressure to reduce
the temperatures required for vaporization. The column shown in Fig.

516 MASS TRANSFER
13- 8 has been plit into two part which are placed side by side to reduce
the over-aU height of the unit.
In equipment uch a pack dab orption, di tillation, or humidifi ti n
towers the contact betw n th Jiquid nd ga i cont1:nuou throu h th
quipm nt. Th r i n m
quipm nt. F r thi '
In rat d ov r h h i h
illu r t d in c. 13 nc unter d in p

-- - - - ·- - - - --=-== --=---:-.-:-.:-::.-=-;- :-_ ~=::::::::;;:-::.
MASS TRANSFER 517
towers include variation in mass-transfer coefficients with flow rates and

tower packing size and shape, unknown interfacial area for mass transfer,
and variations in the flow pattern through the equipment. A natural-draft
water-cooling tower is shown in Fig. 13-10. Water-cooling towers are
used to conserve water by permitting reuse of cooling water. Warm
water is distributed across the top of the tower. It flows downward through
wood-slat gratings, continuously contacting air which is flowing upward hy
I.IC.IH <iASES
C.PIUO£ OIL
,,.u" t:
H[4V'f ~U(L. OIL.

AIIO ASP., AI. l
Fw. 13-H. CruUl' petrolPum distil-

lation column. (Courtt'~Y of Stan-
dard Oil Compu.ny of Cu.li"fornia and
California Research Corporation)
natural convection. As the water contacts the air, it humidifies the mr

and is cooled.
In many cases existing mass-transfer equipment is evaluated to deter-
mine its performance under new operating conditions or for a new separa-
tion. The principles involved are identical with those required for de:-;ign
of new equipment.

518 MASS TRANSFER
FIG. 13- 10. Nat ural-draft wa r-cool-

ing t w r. ( /ourt y of tandard il
Company f alif rnia and alif rnia
R arch orporation)
REFERENCES
1. W. L. Bad er and J. T. Ban h ro, 1 ntroducl:ion to Chemical Engin ering. (. ew

York: lVIcGraw-Hill Bo k Compa.ny, Inc., 1 5 .)
2. A. P. l urn an d 0. A. H ug n, I nd. E ng. hem., V l. 26 (1934), pp. 117 - 11 2.
3. H. . lVIi kley, Chem. E n g. P rog., VoL 4.5 (194 .
4. J. H. P rr), Ed., Chemical Engi11 .rs' Handbook, 3d d. (N w York: M Gra\\"-
Hill Bo k ompany In c., 1 -o. )
5. C. . R bin on and E. R. li lliland, Elem nt of Fractional Di tillat'l'on 4th ed.
(New York: lVl cGr w-Hill Book ompa ny, Inc., 1 -o. )
6. T. K. h n od nd R. L. Pi rf rd Ab orplion and E.rtraction, 2d d. ( w
York: lVIcGraw-Hill D ok omp a n~' , In·., 1 -2. )
7. R. E. Tr ybal, Mass T raru;f er Operations. ( w •ork: lVl Graw-HilJ Book
Company, Inc., 1 55. )
8. F. Yo hida and T. J anaka I nd. E ng. Chem., Vol. 43 (1951 ) p. 1467.

MASS TRANSFER 519
PROBLEMS
13-1. An open circular tank 10 ft in diamet~r which contains ethanol is expo8ed
to the open air at 77 F and atmospheric pre~sure. As..•mming that there is a stagnant
layer of air 6 in. thick over the surface of the ethanol, calculate the weight of ethanol
lost. by evaporation in 24 hr. Vapor pre~sure of ethanol at 77 F = 58 mm Hg.
13-2. Calculate the rate of diffu~ion of ammonia across a water film 0.1 in. thick
at. 77 F. The concentration of ammonia is 2 per cent (by weight) on one side of the
film and 1 per cent (by weight) on the other side.
13-3. Calculate the mass-transfer coefficient for the vaporization of water into air
in a wetted-wall column under the following conditions.
C{)lumn diameter = 1.0 in.
Air and water temperature = 77 F
Average partial pressure of wat~r vapor in air = 5 mm Hg
Total pressure = 7.53 mm Hg
Air flow rate = 2 cu ft/min
Calculate the effective film thickness for mass transfer.
13-4. Air at 100 C flows over a streamlined naphthalene body. Naphthalene
~ublimeH into air and its vapor pressure nt tOO C is 20 mm Hg. The heat-transfer
C'oefficient for this system wa..., previously found to be 3 Btu/hr sq ft F. The ma.li\...,
diffusivity of naphthalene vttpor in air u.t 100 C i:-: 0.32 sq ft / hr. The concentration of
naphthalene in the bulk air stream is nPgligibly small. Calculat~ the mas8-transfer
coefficient and the mas~ flux for the system.
13-6. Ammonia is being absorbe<.J from air by water at 77 F in an absorption
column. At a point in the column the follow in~ condition!'! exist:
kL = 0.95 lb-mole/hr sq ft (lb-mole/cu ft)
ka = 0.15 lb-mole/hr sq ft atm
Gas composition = I per cent ammonia (hy volume)
Total pr·essure = 1500 mm Hg
Liquid ('omposition = 0.02 lb-moles NHa / eu ft
ps H 3 = 0.38 CN 11 3 at. 77 F for dilute solutions
Calculate: (a) over-all gas-phu::-e mn~s-tmnsfcr C<){'ffieicnt.; (b) over-all liquid-phase
mas."l-tran!-lfer eoefficicnt; (el percentage of total re~il-ltnnee to mass transfer which lies
in the g~ pha~; (d) int.erfaeial composition~ of both phases; (e) mass flux of ammonia;
! f) effective film thickness for each pha...;<'.
13-6. Air at 200 F and 1 atm ha~ a humidity of 0.12 lb 11!!(}/lb dry air. Calculat~:
!a) the wet-bulb temperature; (h) the adiahn.ti(' saturation temperature.
13-7. Air at 100 F and 1 atm eontains cu.rhon tetrachloride vapor such that the
wet-bulb t~mperat.urc is 8.5 F. \Vhat is the adiabatic· saturation temperature? At
tOO F the vapor pressure of carbon tetrachloride iR 200 mm Hg and the lat.ent heat. of
vaporization is 83 Btu / lb.
13-8. Air at 120 F dry bulb and 70 F wPt bulb is to be cooled and humidified
adiabatically in a tower filled with packing which is the Rame as that in Example 13--t.
The tower hnfl a cross-scdinnal urea of I 7 sq ft. Air is supplied at a rate of 110 lh/min
u.nd water at 10 gal / min. Calculate and plot the hei~ht of tower required to cool the u.ir
to final temperature:-; between 70 F and 80 F.
13-9. Derivp Pxpressions for the liquid and gas phu~e mass-transfer coefficients for
equimolar counterdiffusion. How do they differ from those for diffusion through a
!i!tagnant film?
13-10. Derive Eq. 13- 22a by dimensionless analysis.
13-11. Derive Eq. 13-23 by dimensionless analysis.
13-12. Derive Eq. 13-46.

'
Di git ized by Google Origina l from
Appendix I
NOl\IENCLA TURE
SYMBOL QUANTITY PREFERRED

UNITS
LEnER SYMBOLS
a velocity of sound ft/sec

a thermal diffusivity = k I cp sq ft./hr
a interfacial area per unit volume of tower packing in
Chapter 13 sq ft/cu ft
A area; A c, cross-sectional area; A p, projected area of a
body normal to the direction of flow; Aq, area through
which rate of heat flow is q; A,, surface area; Ao, out-
side surface area; A,, inside surface area; ,i, loga-
rithmic mean area defined by Eq. 3-8 sq ft
A azimuth of the sun dcg
b breadth or width ft
c specific heat; Cp, specific heat at constant pressure; c.,,
specific heat at constant volume; c,, humid heat ca-
pacity in Chapter 13 Btu/Ibm F
CA concentration of component A in Chapter 13 lb-moles/cu ft
c constant
c thermal capacity Btu/F
c hourly heat capacity rate in Chapter 11; Cc, hourly
heat capacity rate of colder fluid in u heat exchanger;
c~~., hourly heat capacity rate of warmer fluid in a heat
exchanger Btu/hr F
electrical capacitunee farads
total drug coefficient
skin friction coefficient; c,.r, local value of c, at dis-
tance x from leading edge; C1 , average value of C,
defined by Eq. 6-20
D diameter; Dn, hydraulic dianwter; Do, out~ide diame-
ter; n,, inside diameter ft
D., mass diffu~ivity sq ft/hr
e base of Nat ural or 1\ apierian logarithm
E electric potential volt
E emissive power of a radiating body; Eb, emissive power
521

522 APPENDIX
SYMBOL QL\NTITY PREFERRED
UNITS
of a black body; E>., monochromatic emissive power

per micron at wavelength A Btu/hr sq ft
~ heat exchanger effPetiveness defined by Eq. 11-17
f Fanning friction coefficient for flow through a pipe or
a duct, defined by Eq. 8-12
f' friction coefficient for flow over banks of tubes, defined
by Eq. 9-11
F force lbt
FT temperature factor defined hy Eq. 5-33
F1-t geometrical shape factor for radiation from one black
body to another defined by Eq. 5-19
:f1-2 geometric shape and emissivity factor for radiation
from one gray body to another
g acceleration of gravity ft/sec2 or ft / hr2
Ue dimensional conversion fn.ctor-32.2 ft lbm/lht sec 1 or
4.18 X 1()8 ft lbm/ lbt hr 2
G mass velocity or flow rate per unit area. (G = p V) lbm/hr sq ft
G irradiation incident upon unit surface in unit time Btu/hr sq ft
h enthalpy per unit mass Btu/lbra
h combined unit-surfac<> conductance, li -= he + h"; hb,
unit-surface conductance of a boiling liquid, defined
by Eq. 10-1; h.:, local unit etmveet ivf' eonductance; he,
average unit conveetive conductance; hr, avcrnge unit
conductanc(• for rndia.tion Btu/hr sq ft F
h1 u latent heat of condensation or evaporation Btu/Ibm
ha gas-phast• heat-transfer cot·flicient in Chapter 13 Btu/hr sq ft F
hL liquid-phase hPat-transfer eoeffieieut in Chapter 13 Btu/hr sq ft F
H total hour angle from noon to sunrise or sunset deg
1, angle between sun direetion and surface normal m
Chapter 5 deg
t electric current flow rate amp
I intensity of radiation; I>., intensity per micron at wave-
length A Btu/hr unit
solid angle
J radiosity Btu/hr sq ft
k thermal conductivity; k,, thermal conductivity of a
solid; k" thermal eonduetivity of a fluid Pvaluated at
the mean film temperature Btu/hr ft F
k0 ma~~-trunsfer cocfliei<>nt for the gas phase ddirwd by
Eq. 13-18 lb-moles/hr sq ft
atm
mass-transfer coefficient for thf' liquid phase defined
by Eq. 13-20 lb-moles/hr sq ft
(lb-moles / cu ftJ
[( thermal conduetanee; K~c, thermal ermductanee for con-
duction heat traw;fpr; K,, thermal convt>ctive eonduc-
tance; Kr, thermal conduetanre for radiation heat
transfer Btu/hr F
electrical conductance amp/volt

APPENDIX 523
SYMBOL QuANTITY PRI-~FF.RRED
UNITS
Ka over-a11 mnss-tra.nsft·r codfieient based on the gas phase lb-mules/hr sq ft

atm
KL over-all mass-transfer coeflieient basl'd on the liquid
phase lb-molcs/ht· sq ft
()b-mole/cu ft)
log Jogar·ithm to the base 10
Ill logarithm to the base e
l length, gPneral ft or in.
L length along a heat flow path or characteristic length
of a body ft or in.
L1 latent heat of solidification Btu/lb
m mass flow rate Ibm/sec or lbm/hr
m Henry's law constant in Chapter 13 atm cu ft/lb-mole
Jl mass Ibm
Ill A mass of gas A in Chapter 13 lb-mole
JJ a molecular weight of the gas phast- in Chapter 13 lh/lb-mole
N number in gPneral; uumtwr of tulw-;, etc.
p static pre~suw; p(', critical prcs~ure; PA, partial pressure
of gas A in Chapter 13 psi/or lbr/sq ft or
a.tm
p wetted perimeter ft
p total pressure in Chupter 13
q rate of heat flow; qk, rate of heat flow by conduction;
qr, rate of heat flow by radiation; q(', rate of hf'at flow
by convection; qr,, rate of heat flow by nue1cate boiling Dtu/hr
rate of heat flow per unit arPa or heat flux Btu/hr sq ft
rate of heat generation per unit volume Btu/hr cu ft
quantity of heat Btu
volumetric rate of fluid flow cu ft/hr
electric charge of condenser coulomb
r radius; rH, hydraulic radius; r;, inner radius; ro, outer
radius ft
thermal re!-iistance; Rr, thermal resistan('e t.o convPc-
tion heat transfer; R~c, thl'rma I resi-;t:uwP to conduction
heat transfer; Rr, thermal rcsistanee to radiation heat
transfer hr F /Btu
R, electrical rf'sistance ohm
Rr temperature reeovery faetor defined by Eq. 12-3
(R perfect gas constant 15-15.4 ft Jb/lh-molr>
F or 0.730 cu ft
atm/lb-mole F
8 molecular speed rll tio
s cross-sectional a.rcn of mass-transfer tower in Chapter 13 sq ft
s shape factor for conduct ion heat flow
distance between centerlines of tubes in adjacent longi-
tudinal rows ft
Sr distanee between centerlines of tubes in adjacent trans-
verse rows ft
1' temperature; Tb, temperature of bulk of fluid; Tt.

524 APPENDIX
SYMBOL QUANTITY PREFERRED

UNITS
mean film temperature; T., surface temperature; T m,

temperature of fluid far removed from heat source or
sink; T m, mean bulk temperature of fluid flowing in a
duct; T oh., temperature on absolute scale; T,, tempera-
ture at surface of n wall; Tu, temperature of saturated
vapor; T,, temperature of a saturated liquid; T,r,
freezing temperature; T,, liquid temperature; To, total
temperature; Ta., n.diabatic wall temperature or adia-
batic saturation temperature in Chapter 13; T wb, wet
bulb t-cmperut.urc For R
u internal energy per unit mass Btu/Ibm
u time average velocity in x direction; u', instantaneous
fluctuating x component of velocity; u"(X), free stream
velocity ft/sec or ft/hr
U over-all unit conductance, over-all heat-transfer coef-
ficient, or over-all transmittance Btu/hr sq ft F
v specific volume CU ft/lbm
v time average velocity in y direction; v', instantaneous
fluctuating y component of velocity ft/sec or ft/hr
V volume cu ft
V average velocity; V 1, velocity of light; V 00 , free stream
or flight velocity ft/sec or ft/hr
distance from the leading edge; Xc, critical distance
from the leading edge where flow becomes turbulent ft
.x coordinate
!I coordinate
!I distance from a solid boundary measured in direction
normal to surface ft
Y absolute humidity in Chapter 13 Ibm/Ibm
z zenith distance deg
z coordinate
Z ratio of hourly heat capacity rates in heat exchangers
Z height of muss-transfer equipment ft
GREEK LEnERS
a: absorptivity for radiation; a:>., monochromatic absorp-

tivity at wavc~length X
a: thermal accommodation coefficient defined by Eq.
12-28
temperature eoeffic:ient of volume expansion 1/F
temperature coeftleient of thermal conductivity 1/F
specific heat ratio, Cp/ Cr
bod.v foree })('r unit mass Jb,jlhm
mass rate of flow of cond<>nsate per unit. breadth =
mhrD for a V('rtical tulw lbm/hr ft
houndar.v la..ver t hi('kncss; ~,., hrdrodynarnie boundary
la.n•r thi<'kness; ot 11 , tlwrmal boundary la~·<·r thickness;
o,,.', effPI'Live houndar·~·la~·er thiekn<>ss for mass transfer ft

APPENDIX 525
SYMBOL QuANTITY PREFERRED
UNITS
o solar declination in Chapter 5 dcg

~ difference between values
E emissivity for radiation; E>., monochromatic emissivity
at wavelength >.; ~' emissivity in dirc~t.ion of c:
r ratio of thermal to hydrodynamic boundury layer thick-
ness, "'"/""
,1 fin efficiency
8 time hr or sec
X wavelength; Xmax, wavelength at which monoc:hromatic
emissivity Eb>. is a maximum (see Eq. 5-6) micron
latent heat of vaporization in Chapter 13; X.v, molar
latent heat of vaporization Btu/Ibm or
Btu/lh-mole
>. molecular mean free path in Chapter 12 ft
1-' absolute viscosity lbm/ft sec or
lbm/ft hr
" kinematic viscosity, JJ/ p sq ft/hr or sq ft/sec
llr frequency of radiation 1/scc
p mass density, 1/v; Pt, density of liquid; Pe, density of
vapor lbm/cu ft
p reflectivity for radiation
r shearing stress; T., shearing stress at surface; Tw, shear
at wall of a tube or a duct lhr/sq ft
.,. transmissivity for radiation
u Stefan-Boltzmann constant Btu/hr sq ft R4
u surface tension lbr/ft
<P phase lag angl(~ radians
,p latitude of location in Chapter 5 deg
1/1 inclination from horizontal deg
"' angular velocity 1/scc
"' solid angle steradian
DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS 1
Bi Biot number - hL/k, or hro / k,

Fo Fourier modulus = afJ/ L 2 or n0/ ro2
Gz Graetz number = mcp/k1 L
Gr Grashof number = {3gL 3:lT j .,
J Colburn j factor for heat transfer - (Nu/Re PrJ Pr1; j 11 , j factor for mass
transfer =- (Sh/Re Sc) Sc 4
K Knudsen number = X/ L
:\1 l\1ach number = V fa
~u Nusselt number = hcL/k1 : ~uz, local vahw of ~u at point x
~u average value of Nu over surface = he L/k1 ; ~tiD, diametPr !\ussclt num-
ber ..,. he D /kt
Pe Peclet. numher = Rt· Pr

526 APPENDIX
Pr Prandtl number = CpJ.L/kt or v/a

Re Reynolds number = VpL/J.L; Re.r, local value of Re at a distance x from leadinJ!
edge; ReD, diameter Reynolds number; Reb, bubble Reynolds number
8 Boundary Fourier modulus = h2a8 /k.2
Sh Sherwood number = kuffi.TpB,.L
Sc Schmidt number p.jpD.,
St Stanton number = he/p l'Cp or N u/RePr
1
The symbols used in this book for the dimensionless groups are generally in accord-
ance with present day engineering usa~e, but differ slightly from those n'emnmt>ndrd
recently by some committ<·es of engineering societiPs who propos£> to usP a capitalS
to denote any dinwnsionh·s~ group and then to id(•ntify tlw specific group hy a suh~t·ript,
e.g., N Nu in~tead of N" u. It is, ho\\'!'VPr, necessary to distinguish betwePn loe:1l and
average quantities and idPntify a si~nificant length dimen:-;ion as W('ll as a tem()('l':lturP
at which physical propPrtil's are to be evalunt<>d. If these ehnrnetPristies :tre indie:1ted
in the usual manrwr, that is, hy sub- and SU(Wrscripts attached to tlw s~·rnbol identifying
the dimensionl<'~S group, combinations of syrnbols become clums~' and diffieuh to read.
In ord(•r to avoid the use of a doubl<> subscript notation, the author deeidcd. nlthough
not without serious misgivings, to omit the capital N from the symbols denoting th!'
dimensionless groups.
l\HSCELLA::\EOUS
a> b a greater than b 0:: proportional sign
a>> b a much greater than b approximately equal sign
a< b a smaller than b co infinity sign
a<< b a much smaller than b summation sign

-----=-- ~ -- _ -_ __ _ ~- -- - -
---- - - - --- -- --
Appendix II
UNITS, DII\IENSIONS, AND CONVERSION FACTORS
Numerical calculations in heat tran~fer, a::i in all other branches of

engineering, require a consistent system of units. In the field of heat
transfer a great variety of different units are encountered because contri-
butions, to this field have been made not only by engineers, but also by
physicists and chemists of various countries. ~Iany of the physical
properties measured in the laboratory have been reported in CGS (cm-gm-
~ec) units, but engineers in this country generally use the engineering or
technical system of units. Before one can proceed with numerical calcu-
lations, it is absolutely necessary to express all quantities in a consistent
system. Several systems exist, each of them is equally correct. The
choice is largely a matter of convenience but confusion between systen1s
must be avoided.
A dimension is a name describing a geometrical or physical property
which can be measured, observed or defined. It would be possible to
:.l..")Sign a separate dimension to each property of interest, but it is mon·
convenient to limit the number of dimensions to a few basic or primary
dimensions and to express all other dimensions in terms of these funda-
rn<.'ntal quantities. The number of prin1ary dimensions must of course be
sufficient to express all derived or secondary dimensions in terms of then1.
The physicist usually selects length, time and mass as his primary set
of dimensions. In engineering, force and temperature are generally added
to this set, and in heat transfer the din1ension of the energy in transit due
to a temperature difference, i.e., heat, is also included.
Dimensions differ from units of measuren1ent. Din1ensions describe a
property qualitatively while units ~ive a qHantitative speeification. For
example, the length of a bar may be !:-ipecified in feet, inches, or centin1eters.
All of these units are a quantitatiYe ~pecification of the primary dimension
of length, L.
To familiarize the reader with the dimensions and units used in heat
527

528 APPENDIX II
transfer, relations between some of the primary dimen:iions and the units
associated with them will be briefly reviewed.
Time, 8, is the dimension of duration. The basic engineering unit is the
second (sec), but in heat-transfer work the hour (hr) is frequently used.
Length, L, is the dimension of diHtance. The basic engineering unit i~
the foot (ft).
AI ass, M, is the dimension of quantity of matter. The basic engineer-
ing unit is the pound (Ibm).
Temperature, T, is the dimension which describes the thermal potential
of a system. It must be referred to an arbitrary datum, being somewhat
analogous to the height above some reference level for gravitational action.
The basic engineering unit is the degree Fahrenheit (F), which is closely
equal to 1/180 of the temperature difference between the boiling and
freezing temperature level of water at atmospheric pressure. For radia-
tion phenomena the temperature is measured above absolute zero and i~
expressed in degrees Rankine (R). One Rankine degree equals one Fahr-
enheit degree, but the relation between the absolute values of the Fahren-
heit and Rankine scales is
degrees Rankine = 4:j9. 7 + degrees Fahrenheit
Force, F, is the dimension describing the action which tends to produce a
change in the motion of a body. The basic engineering unit is the standard
pound (lhr) force, defined as the force necessary to support one pound mass
under standard gravity conditions, corresponding to a gravitational force
which accelerates one pound (Ibm) mass at the rate of 32.17:~9 ft/sec 2 • 1\lis-
understandings often arise because the work pound is used to denote the
fundamental units of both mass and force. It is obvious of course that u.
pound of mass is an entirely different sort of thing from a pound force.
Ileal, Q, is the dimension of energy in transit by virtue of a temperature
difference. The basic engineering unit is the British thermal unit or Btu,
defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
pound mass of water at atmospheric pressure from 59.5 to 60.5 F.
Since heat is a form of energy it can be expressed in terms of its mechan-
ical equivalent by means of the first law of thermodynamics. For a system
whose state is not changed during a process the amount of heat added to the
system Q must equal the work done by the system W, or
w= JQ
where J is a dimensional conversion factor. Since work has the dimen-
sions FL, J must have the dimensions FL / Q. For the system of units
given here the experimentally measured value of the energy conversion
factor J is
J = 778.161 ft-lbrfBtu

APPENDIX II 529
which is often called "the mechanical equivalent of heat."
Newton's second law of motion relates the independent physical quan-
tities, force, mass, length and time, just~" the first law of thermodynamics
relates force, length, and heat. According to the second law of motion
the net force F acting on a body of mass _A,f is proportional to the product
of the mass M and the acceleration a, or
F = _!___A,[ a
gc
where gc is an experimentally determined constant whose dimensions are
always };fL/FfJ2, but whose magnitude depends on the units of force, mass,
length, and time as shown in the following tabulation.
Mau Length Time Force fJ•
lb. ft sec lbr 32.1739 Ibm ft/lbr sec2

slug ft sec lbr 1.0 slug ft/lhr sec2
slug ft hr lbr 1.296 X 107 slug ft/lh 1 hr2
lb. ft sec pounda.l 1.0 Ibm ft/pounda.l sec 2
g em sec dyne 1.0 g-em/dyne-sect
In the engineering system which is used in this text and is shown in the
first line of the tabulation, gc equals 32.1739 Ibm ft/Ib, sec2, but a value of
:~2.2 is a satisfactory approximation in practice. It is important to note
that gc is a universal constant entirely different from the acceleration of
gravity which has the dimensions L/f1l and whose numerical value depends
on the location.
Once Newton's second law of motion, including the proportionality
constant gc, is known, it is possible to redefine any one of the units of
measure in terms of the other three, thus reducing the number of primary
quantities by one. For example, if the mass };f is divided by gc, we obtain
a new mass unit, the slug. In equation form we have then
M' = M
gc
where M' is the mass of the body expressed in slugs. The slug has the
dimension F82 /L in a force-time-length system. The equation of motion
becomes in this case
F = ltf'a
and we note that now the dimension of mass has been eliminated as a pri-
mary dimension.

530 APPENDIX II
TABLE OF CO~VEH~IO~ FACTORS
I.ength: 1 in. = 0.08333 ft.

1 Clll = 0.03281 ft
1 mile = 5280 ft
1 J.L 1micron) = 3.281 X 1Q-& ft
1 A (an~~trom unit) = 10-s em
l\lass: 1 kg (kilogram)= 2.205 Ibm
1 g l.gram) = 2.205 X 10- 3 Ibm
1 slug = 32.1739 lhm
Force: 1 poundal · 0.03108 lbt
1 dyne = 2.248 X 10~ lb 1
1 kg = 2.205 lbr
Energy: v·'"' 1 ft-lb 1
= 0.001285 Btu /
1 kw-hr (kilowatt-hour) = 3413 Btu
\ .~ 0- 1 hp thorsc·pow('r) = 2;).J4 Btu
\ u-
~ 1 kcal ( kilo<"alorie) 3XiT;~rBtu
1 jouh· = H.478 X to-• Btu
Heat flow rate per unit an•a: 1 calj:-;pc sq em = 13,272 Btu/hr sq ft
1 watt /~q em = 3171 Btu/hr sq ft
1 eal / lar sq em = 3.687 Btu/hr sq ft
Pressure: 1 atm = 2116 psf
1 dyne/sq em = 0.00209 psf
1 em Hg = 27.85 psf
1 in. Hg = 70.73 psf
1 in. water = 5.20 psf
1 ft water = 62.43 psf
Density: 1 gm / <'U c·m = 62.-13 11> 01 / eu ft
1 Ibm/gallon = 7.481 ll>m / <'U ft
1 lhm / <'ll in. = 1728 lhm./<'\1 ft
Temperature: 1 R \d<•gn·p Rn.Hki11e) - 1 F (degree Fahrenheit)
1 C (dPgn·e ('en t igrade) - 1 .8 F
~peeific
Ptwrgy pc>r degree:
' 1 1\: tdt•gre<~ 1\:elvin)
1 f'al / g C
- 1.8 F
- 1 Btu/Ibm F
ThNmal conductivity: 1 eal/st·e :sq em (C/cm) = 24l.U Btu/hr sq ft (F /ft)
1 watt~ / sq em (C ; em) = 57.7~) Btu/hr :-;q ft (F / ft)
1 Htu / hr sq ft (F / in.) = 0.08333 Btu/hr sq ft IF.i ft l
Uuit thermal condtwtance: 1 cal / ~ee sq em C = 7373 Btu/hr sq ft F
1 watt / sq c·m C = 1761 Btu/hr sq ft F
1 cal j hr sq em C = 2.048 Btu/hr sq ft F
Visco:-:-:ity: 1 ep (eentipoi..;.;<•) c:: 0.000672 11> 111 /scc ft
1 cp = 2.42 lbm/hr ft
1 lbr SPC / Sq ft. = 32.174 lhm/~ec ft
Volume. 1 gal (t·.s.) = 0.1337 cu ft.
KoTE: To eon vert a givPn quantity from one set of units to another:
1. \\·rite after the magnitudP of the quantity th<' nanws of the units in which it is
measured.
2. HephlC'e pach nnnll' h~: its equival<·nt iu t lw IIPW units, and arithmetically combine
allHumlll'r~ in th1· ra·w PXpn·:-!"ion.
For exam piP, to C'bang<· t lu· dl'n~it y of water from slu~s pc·r ruhic foot into pounds-mass
J><'r cubic foot, "''' havt· (to t hn·<· sig11ifif'allt figun·=-)
p - l.D.J slug~ /eu ft = (1.\)4 slugs/C'U ft) (32.2 lhm/slug)

- 1.!)4 X :32.2 Jl)m 1 C'll ft = 62.4 lh 11 ./('U ft

APPENDIX II 531
Alternately, the dimension of force can be eliminated as a primary

dimension by defining a new force unit, the poundal, and writing
F' = Fgc
The poundal F' has the dimension Jtf L/82 in a mass-time-length system and
the equation of motion becomes
F' = Ma
When one is in doubt which system of dimensions and units is used in a
reference, it is suggested that all of the dimensions and units in one of the
equations be written out and the equation checked dimensionally. The
procedure is illustrated in Sec. 6-6.
In heat transfer calculations it is most convenient to express all quanti-
ties in terms of feet, hours (or seconds), Btu, pound-mass, and degrees
Fahrenheit. This choice of units does not cause trouble until one en-
counters problems in which fluid dynamics is involved. In fluid dynamics
both force and mass are used as primary dimensions. The density of fluids
is commonly expressed in pounds-mass per cubic foot, but the viscosity is
often given in pound-force-second per square foot. The pressure drop and
the shear are always given in pound-force units. Since all physical prop-
erties in this book, including the viscosity, are expressed in pound-mass
units, it is necessary to include the conversion factor g, in equations derived
from Newton's second law.
The Table of Conversion Factors will be helpful in converting the unjts
of a given quantity into the units used in this text. ·

Appendix III
The following tables have been compiled to facilitate the solution of the
problems at the end of each chapter and are not intended to take the place
of a handbook. Whenever answers to problems are given, they have been
obtained with the aid of these tables.
Table A-1 gives the properties of metals and alloys. Table A-2 lis~
physical properties of nonmetals such as insulating and building materials.
Table A-3 presents the property values of several gases at atmospheric
pressure, of some liquids, and of three liquid metals. The property values
have been extracted from various sources. The bibliography following
Table A-3 lists these sources with the exception of some manufacturers'
catalogs which may not be readily available. The reader interested in
additional information on physical properties should consult the publica-
tions listed in the bibliography.
In Table A-4 the radiation functions described in Chapter 5 are tabu-
lated. Tables A-5 and A-6 list the dimensions of tubes and steel pipes
respectively. It should be noted that the schedule number is now used
exclusively to characterize the pipe-wall thickness which was previously
designated by "standard" or "extra strong."
Table A-7 contains selected physical properties of the atmosphere at
altitudes up to 900,000 ft. The values above 300,000 are likely to be re-
vised at the end of the International Geophysical Year.
532

APPENDIX Ill 533
TABLE A-1
THEBIIAL CoNDUCTIVITY k, 8PECU1c HEAT c, DENSITY p, AND THEIUIAL DtrrusiVITY a
OF METALS AND ALLOYS
k (Btu/hr ft F) c (Btu/Ibm F) p(lbm/euft) a (eq ft/hr)

MAT&alAL
32 F 212 F 672 F 932 F 32 F 32 F 32 F
Metals
Aluminum .......... 117 119 133 155 0.208 169 3.33
Bismuth ............ 4.9 3.9 . . . . •• 4 • 0.029 612 0.28
Copper, pure ........ 224 218 212 207 0.091 558 4.42
Gold ............... 169 170 .... . ... 0.030 1203 4.68
Iron, pure .......... 35.8 36.6 . . 0. .... 0.104 491 0.70
l..,ead ............... 20.1 19 18 .... 0.030 705 0.95
Magnesium ......... 91 92 . • 0. .... 0.232 109 3.60
Mercury ............ 4.8 .... . ... . ... 0.033 849 0.17
Nickel ............. 34.5 34 32 .... 0.103 555 0.60
Silver .............. 242 238 .... .... 0.056 655 6.6
Tin ................ 36 34 .... . ... 0.054 456 1.46
Zinc ............... 65 64 59 0 ••• 0.091 446 1.60
Alloys
Admiralty metal ..... 65 64
Brass, 70% Cu,
30% Zn .......... 56 60 66 .... 0.092 532 1.14
Bronze, 75% Cu,
25% Sn .......... 15 .... .... . ... 0.082 540 0.34
Cast iron
Plain ........... 33 31.8 27.7 24.8 0.11 474 0.63
Alloy ........... 30 28.3 27 .... 0.10 455 0.66
Constantan, 60% Cu,
40% Ni 12.4 12.8 .... . ... 0.10 557 0.22
18-8 stainless steel,
Type 304 ....... 8.0· 9.4 10.9- l2.4 0.11 488 0.15
Type 347 . . ..... 8.0 9..3 n.o 12.8 0.11 488 0.15
Steel, mild, 1% C . . .. 26.5 26 25 22 0.11 490 0.49

TABLE A-2
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SoME NONMETALS
Average k c p a
Material Temperature (Btu/hr ft F) (Btu/lbmF) (lbm/eu ft) (8Q ft/hr)
(F)
Insulating Materials
Asbestos 32 ( 0.087 0.25 36 -..0.01
392 qo.i2 · .... 36 "'0.01
Cork 86 tJL.@§_. 0 .04 10 "'0.006
Cotton, fabric 200 0.046
Diatomaceous earth,
powdered 100 0.030 0.21 14 ,_, 0. 01
300 0.036 ....
600 0.046 ....
Molded pipe covering 400 0.051 .... 26
1600 0.088 ....
Glass wool
Fine 20 0.022 ....
100 0.031 I I I I 1.5
200 0.043 ....
Packed 20 0.016 ....
100 0.022 I I I I 6.0
200 0.029 ....
Hair felt 100 0.027 .... 8.2
Kaolin insulating
brick 932 0.15 .... 27
2102 0.26 ....
Kaolin insulating
firebrick 392 0.05 .... 19
1400 0.11 ....
85% magnesia 32 0.032 .... 17
200 0.037 .... 17
Rock wool 20 0.017 .. .. 8
200 0.030 .. ..
Rubber 32 0.087 0.48 75 0.0024
Building Materials
Brick
Fire-clay 392 0.58 0 .20 144 0 .02
1832 0.95
1\'la.sonry 70 Q.38 0.20 106 0.018
Zirconia 392 0.84 .... 304
1832 1.13 ....
Chrome brick 392 0.82 .... 246
1832 0.96
Concrete
......,70 144 0.019
Stone
10% moisture ""70
0.51
0.70
0.20
.-·
... --·
140 "'0.025
Glass, window ""70 ""0. 45 0.2 170 0.013
Limestone, dry 70 0.40 0.22 105 0 .017
Sand
Dry 68 0.20 - .... 95
10% HsO 68 0.60 ••• 0 100
Soil
Dry 70 ""'0. 20 0 .44 . . . . "'0.01
Wet 70 ""' 1 .5
0
. . . . 0 • • • • • --0 .03
Wood
Oak J. to grain 70 0.12 0.57 51 0.0041
II to grain 70 0.20 0 .57 51 0.006H
Pine J. to grain 70 0 .06 0 .67 31 0.0029
II t~ grain 70 0.14 0.67 31 0.0067
Ice 32 1.28 0.46.. 57 0.048
Digitized by Coogle Ongmal from
TABLE A-3
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASE.~, LIQUIDS, AND LIQUID l\IETALS
(All Gas Properties Are for Atmospheric Pressure)
GASES
c., 1-1 X J..!l , X 101 k ufJP'

T p a fJ X 101 -
(Btu/ (ibm/ (sq ft/ (Btu/ Pr J.lt
(F) (lbm/cu ft) (sq ft/hr) (1/F)
lbm F) ft sec)
. sec) hr ft F) (1/F .cu ft)
Air
0 0.086 0.239 1.110 0.130 0.0133 0.73 0.646 2.18 4.2>(§)

32 0.081 0.240 1.165 0.145 0.0140 0.72 0.720 2.03 3.16
100 0.071 0.240 1.285 0.180 O.Oi~ , 0.72 0.905 1.79 1.76 ./
200 0.060 0.241 1.440 0.239 0.0174 0.72 1.20 1.52 0.850
300 O.fi52 0.243 1.610 0.306 0.0193 0.71 1.53 1.32 0.444
400 0.04f) 0.245 1.750 0.378 0.02'12 0.689 1.88 1.16 0.258
500 0.0412 0.247 1.890 0.455 0.0231 0.683 2.27 1.04 0.159
600 0.0373 0.250 2.000 0.540 0.0250 0.685 2.68 0.943 0.106
700 0.0341 0.253 2.14 0.625 0.0268 0.690 3.10 0.862 70.4 X 10'
800 0.0314 0.256 2.25 0.717 0.0286 0.697 3.56 0.794 49.8
900 0.0291 0.259 2.36 0.815 0.0303 0.705 4.02 0.735 36.0
1000 0.0271 0.262 2.47 0.917 0.0319 0.713 4.50 0.685 26.5
1500 0.0202 0.276 3.00 1.47 0.0400 0.739 7.19 0.510 7.45
2000 0.0161 0.286 3.45 2.14 0.0471 0.753 10.2 0.406 2.84
2500 0.0133 0.292 3.69 2.80 0.051 0.763 13.1 0.338 1.41
3000 0.0114 0.297 3.86 3.39 0.054 0.765 16.0 0.289 0.815
Steam
'•'
212 0.0372 0.451 0.870 0.234 0.0145 0.96 0.864 1.49 o.877 x toe
300 0.0328 0.456 1.000 0.303 0.0171 0.95 1.14 1.32 0.459
400 0.0288 0.462 1.130 0.395 0.0200 0.94 1.50 1.16 0.243
500 0.0258 0.470 1.265 0.490 0.0228 0.94 1.88 1.04 0.139
600 0.0233 0.477 1.420 0.610 0.0257 0.94 2.31 0.943 82 X 103
700 0.0213 0.485 1.555 0.725 0.0288 0.93 2.79 0.862 52.1
800 0.0196 0.494 1.700 0.855 0.0321 0.92 3.32 0.794 34.0
900 0.0181 0.50 1.810 0.987 0.0355 0.91 3.93 0.735 23.6
1000 0.0169 0.51 1.920 1.13 0.0388 0.91 4.50 0.685 17.1
1200 0.0149 0.53 2.14 1.44 0.0457 0.88 5.80 0.603 9.4
1400 0.0133 0.55 2.36 1.78 0.053 0.87 7.25 0.537 5.49
1600 0.0120 0.56 2.58 2.14 0.061 0.87 9.07 0.485 3.38
1800 0.0109 0.58 2.81 2.58 0.068 0.87 10.8 0.442 2.14
2000 0.0100 0.60 3.03 3.03 0.076 0.86 12.7 0.406 1.43
2500 0.0083 0.64 3.58 4.30 0.096 0.86 18.1 0.338 0.603
3000 0.0071 0.67 4.00 5.75 0.114 0.86 24.0 0.289 0.293
!
'
Oxygen
0 0.0955 0.2185 1.215 0.1271 0.0131 0.73 0.627 2.18 4.33 X 1()8
100 0.0785 0.2200 1.420 0.181 1 0.0159 0.71 0.880 1.79 1.76
200 0.0666 0.2228 1.610 0.242 0.0179 0.722 1.20 1.52 0.84
400 0.0511 0.2305 1.955 0.382 0.0228 0.710 1.94 1.16 0.256
600 0.0415 0.2390 2.26 0.545 0.0277 0.704 2.79 0.943 0.103
800 0.0349 0.2465 2.53 0.725 0.0324 0.6H5 3.76 0.794 48.5 X 10a
1000 0.0301 0.2528 2.78 0.924 0.0366 0.690 4.80 0.685 25.8
1500 0.0224 0.2635 3.32 1.480 0.0465 i 0.677 7.88 0.510 7.50
'
535
TABLE A-3 (Continued)
c. p X 101 , X 101 k g{Jft'

T
(F)
p
(lb./cu ft) (Btu/ (lb./ (8Q ft/ (Btu/ Pr
a
(eq ft/br)
fJ X 101
(1/F)
,,
- ·
lb. F) ft sec) eec) hr ft F) (1/Jo' eu ft)
Nitrogen
0 0.0840 0.2478 1.055 0.125 0.0132 0.713 0.635 2.18 4.55 X 10'
100 0.0690 0.2484 1.222 0.177 0.0154 0.71 0.898 1.79 1.84
200 0.0585 0.2490 1.380 0.236 0.0174 0.71 1.20 1.52 0.876
400 0.0449 0.2515 1.660 0.370 0.0212 0.71 1.88 1.16 0.272
600 0.0364 0.2564 1.915 0.526 0.0252 0.70 2.70 0.943 0.110
800 0.0306 0.2623 2.145 0.702 0.0291 0.70 3.62 0.794 52.0 X 1()1
1000 0.0264 0.2689 2.355 0.891 0.0330 0.69 4.65 0.685 27.7
1500 0.0197 0.2835 2.800 1.420 0.0423 0.676 7.58 0.510 8.12
Carbon Monoxide
0 0.0835 0.2482 1.065 0.128 0.0129 0.75 0.621 2.18 4.32 X 10'
200 0.0582 0.2496 1.390 0.239 0.0169 0.74 1.16 1.52 0.860
400 0.0446 0.2532 1.670 0.374 0.0208 0.73 1.84 1.16 0.268
600 0.0362 0.2592 1.910 0.527 0.0246 0.725 2.62 0.943 0.109
800 0.0305 0.2662 2.134 0.700 0.0285 0.72 3.50 0.794 52.1 X 1()l
1000 0.0263 0.2730 2.336 0.887 0.0322 0.71 4.50 0.685 28.0
1500 0.0196 0.2878 2.783 1.420 0.0414 0.70 7.33 0.510 8.13
Helium
0 0.012 1.24 1.140 0.950 0.078 0.67 5.25 2.18 77800

200 0.00835 1.24 1.480 1.77 0.097 0.686 9.36 1.52 15600
400 0.0064 1.24 1.780 2.78 0.115 0.70 14.5 1.16 4840
600 0.0052 1.24 2.02 3.89 0.129 0.715 20.0 0.943 2010
800 0.00436 1.24 2.285 5.24 0.138 0.73 25.5 0.794 932
1000 0.00377 1.24 2.520 6.69 0 0. 0. 0 ..... ....... 0.685 494
1500 0.0028 1.24 3.160 11.30 . ... .. •• • 0. • ••••• 0 0.510 129
Hydrogen
0 0.0060 3.39 0.540 0.89 0.094 0.70 4.62 2.18 86600

100 0.0049 3.42 0.620 1.26 0.110 0.695 6.56 1.79 36600
200 0.0042 3.44 0.692 1.65 0.122 0.69 8.45 1.52 18000
500 0.0028 3.47 0.884 3.12 0.160 0.69 16.5 1.04 3360
1000 0.0019 3.51 1.160 6.2 0.208 0.705 31.2 0.685 591
1500 0.0014 3.62 1.415 10.2 0.260 0.71 51.4 0.510 161
2000 0.0011 3.76 1.64 14.4 0.307 0.72 74.2 0.406 59
3000 0.0008 4.02 1.72 24.2 0.380 0.66 118.0 0.289 20
Carbon Dioxide
0 0.132 0.184 0.88 0.067 0.0076 0.77 0.313 2.18 15.8 X 10'
100 0.108 0.203 1.05 0.098 0.0100 0.77 0.455 1.79 6.10
200 0.092 0.216 1.22 0.133 0.0125 0.76 0.63 1.52 2.78
500 0.063 0.247 1.67 0.266 0.0198 0.75 1.27 1.04 0.476
1000 0.0414 0.280 2.30 0.558 0.0318 0.73 2.75 0.685 71.4 X 10'
1500 0.0308 0.298 2.86 0.925 0.0420 0.73 4.58 0.510 19.0
2000 0.0247 0.309 3.30 1.34 0.050 0.735 6.55 0.406 7.34
3000 0.0175 0.322 3.92 2.25 0.061 0.745 10.8 0.289 1.85

TABLE A-3 (Contintud)
LIQUIDS
p c. 1A X 101 , X 101 t a/Jpl

T a X 1()1 /Jf' X 10C -
(lbm/cu (Btu/ (lbm/ (eq ft/ (Btu/ Pr IA2
(F) (eq ft/hr) (1/F)
ft) lbm F) ft sec) sec) br It F) (1/F cu ft)
I I
Water
32 62.4 1.01 1.20 1.93 0.319 13.7 5.07 -0.37

40 62.4 1.00 1.04 1.67 0.325 11.6 5.21 0.20 2.3 X 106
50 62.4 1.00 0.88 1.40 0.332 9.55 5.33 0.49 8.0
60 62.3 0.99<J 0.76 1.22 0.3~0.. 8.03 5.47 0.85 18.4
70 62.3 0.998 0.658 1.06 0.347 6.82 5.57 1.2 34.6
80 62.2 0.998 0.578 0.93 l-JL353 -i.89 5.68 1.5 ~- Q.6Jb
90 62.1 0.997 0.514 0.825 0.359 .13 5.79 1.8 85.0
100 62.0 0.998 0.458 0.740 0.364 4~2 5.8& 2.0 11~ X 10'
~~~:
150 61.2 1.00 0.292 0.477 0~_?8.!_ 6.27 3.1 440.0
'200 60.f f]J{J-- -o-.205 -0.34f 0.394 6.55 4.0 1.11 X 10'
250 58.8 1.01 0.158 0.269 0.396 1.45 6.69 4.8 2.14
300 57.3 1.03 0.126 0.220 0.395 1.18 6.70 6.0 4.00
350 55.6 1.05 0.105 0.189 0.391 1.02 6.69 6.9 6.24
400 53.6 1.08 0.091 0.170 0.381 0.927 6.57 8.0 8.95
450 51.6 1.12 0.080 0.155 0.367 0.876 6.34 9.0 12.1
500 49.0 1.19 0.071 0.145 0.349 0.87 5.99 10.0 15.3
550 45.9 1.31 0.064 0.139 0.325 0.93 5.05 11.0 17.8
600 42.4 1.51 0.058 0.137 0.292 1.09 4.57 12.0 20.6
T I p r, I lAX J0 1 .,XlO' k aX1()1 /Jr X 101

u/Jpl
-
(Ibm/ (Rtu/ (lbm/ (sq ft/ (Btu/ Pr lA I
(F) (sq ft/hr) (1/F)
I Ctl ft) lbm F) ft sec) sec) hr ft F) (1/F cu ft)
Commercial Aniline
60 64.0 0.48 325.0 5.08 0.10 56.0 3.25

100 63.0 0.49 170.0 2.70 0.10 30.0 3.24 0.49 21.6 X lOS
150 61.5 0.505 96.5 1.57 0.098 18.0 3.16 0.492 64.5
200 60.0 0.515 61.1 1.02 0.096 11.8 3.11
300 57.5 0.54 32.5 0.565 0.093 6.8 3.00
Ammonia (Saturated Liquid)
-20 42.4 1.07 17.6 0.417 0.317 2.15 6.94

0 41.6 1.08 17.1 0.410 0.316 2.09 7.04
10 40.8 1.09 16.6 0.407 0.314 2.07 7.08
32 40.0 1.11 16.1 0.402 0.312 2.05 7.03 1.2 238 X 106
I
50 39.1 1.13 15.5 0.396 0.307 2.04 6.95 1.3 266
80 37.2 1.17 14.5 0.386 0.2H3 2.01 6.73
120 35.2 1.22 13.0 0.355 0.275 1.99 6.40
Freon 12, CCI 2 .F',, (Saturated Liquid)
-40 94.8 0.211 28.4 0.300 0.040 5.4 2.00

-20 93.0 0.214 25.0 0.272 0.040 4.8 2.01 1.03 4.6 X 109
0 91.2 0.217 23.1 1
0.253 I 0.041 4.4 2.07 1.05 5.27
20 89.2 0.220 21.0 I 0.238 0.042 4.0 2.14 1.34 7.80
32 87.2 0.223 20.0 0.230 0.042 3.8 2.16 1.72 10.5 /
60 83.0 0.231 18.0 0.213 0.042 3.5 2.19 2.1 14.4
100 78.5 0.240 16.0 0.206 0.040 3.5 2.12 2.5 19.4
120 75.9 0.244 15.5 0.204 0.039 3.5 2.12
- ·-
Digit ized by Coogle ~37 Original from
p Cp 11. X lC' •X 101 k gfJp2

T a X 10• fJXtOI - p.2
(Ibm/ (Btu/ (lbm/ (sq ft/ (Btu/ Pr
(F) (sq ft/hr) (1/F)
cu ft) lbm F) ft sec) sec) hr ft F) (1/F cu ft)
I
n-Buty] Alcohol
60 50.5 0.55 226 4.48 0.097 46.6 3.49

100 49.7 0.61 129 2.60 0.096 29.5 3.16 0.45 21.5 X 10•
150 48.5 0.68 67.5 1.39 0.095 17.4 2.88 0.48 80
200 47.2 0.77 38.6 0.815 0.094 11.3 2.58
300 . .... ..... 19.0
Benzene
60 55.1 0.40 46.0 0.835 0.093 7.2 4.22 0.60 0.3 X 1Q9
80 54.6 0.42 39.6 0.725 0.092 6.5 4.01
100 54.0 0.44 35.1 0.650 0.087 5.1 3.53
150 53.5 0.46 26.0 0.480 ..... 4.5
200 ... 0. . . . . . 20.3 0 • • • • . .... 4.0
I
Light Oil
60 57.0 0.43 5820 102 0.077 1170 3.14 0.38 1.17 X 10

80 56.8 0.44 2780 49 0.077 570 3.09 0.38 5.1
100 56.0 0.46 1530 27.4 0.076 340 2.95 0.39 16.7
150 54.3 0.48 530 9.8 0.075 122 2.88 0.40 1.34 X 10'
200 54.0 0.51 250 4.6 0.074 62 2.69 0.42 6.4
250 53.0 0.52 139 2.6 0.074 35 2.67 0.44 21.0
300 51.8 0.54 83 1.6 0.073 22 2.62 0.45 56.5
T p c, 11. X 10' • X 101 k a X 10 1 fJ X 101

gfJp2
-
(F) Ohm/ I (Btu/ (Ibm/ (sqft/ (Btu/ Pr
(sq ft/hr) (1/F)
p.l
cu ft) lbm F) ft sec) se<') hr £t F) (1/F Cll h)
- -- --
I I
Glycerin
50 79.3 0.554 256 3.23 0.165 31 X 101 3.76

70 78.9 0.570 100 1.27 0.165 12.5 3.67 0.28 56
85 78.5 0.584 42.4 0.54 0.164 5.4 3.58 0.30 332
100 78.2 0.600 18.8 0.24 0.163 2.5 3.45
120 77.7 0.617 12.4 0.16 . . ... ~1.6
LIQUID l\IETALS
T
(F)
p
(Ibm/
~
(Btu/
lbm F)
11. X 101 • X 10'
(lbm/(sq ft/ (Btu/ " Pr
a
(sq ft/hr)
fJr X lQI
(1/F)
g/Jrfl'
- p.'l
cu ft) ft sec) sec) hr ft F) (1/F cu ft)
Bismuth
600 625 I 0.0345 I 1.09 I t.7-t 9.5 0.014 0.44 0.065 0.687 X H~
800 616 o.o357 I o.9o lt.5 9.0 0.013 0.41 0.068
1000 608 0.0369 0.74 1.2 9.0 0.011 0.40 0.070
1200 600 0.0381 0.62 1.0 9.0 0.009 0.39
1400 591 0.0393 0.53 0.9 9.0 0.008 0.39
538
I
I
I
T
(F)
p
{Ibm/
I c.
(Btu/
~£ X 10'
(Ibm/
, X 1QI
(sq ft/
k
(Btu/ I Pr
I.
I
Cl
(sq ft/hr)
{Jr X 10'
(1/F)
ofJTp2
- -
~£'
cu ft)
I Ibm F) ft sec) sec) hr ft F)
I (1/F cu ft)
1\'Iercury
50 847 0.033 1.07 1.2 4.7 0.027 0.17 0.1 2.02 X 109
200 834 0.033 0.84 1.0 6.0 0.016 0.22 0.1 2.02
300 826 0.033 0.74 0.9 6.7 0.012 0.25
400 817 0.032 0.67 0.8 7.2 0.011 0.27
600 802 0.032 0.58 0.7 8.1 0.008 0.31
-
Sodium
. 200 58.0 0.33 0.47 8.1 49.8 0.011 2.6 0.150 73.5 X 106
400 56.3 0.32 0.29 5.1 46.4 0.007 2.6 0.20 243
700 53.7 0.31 0.19 3.5 41.8 0.005 2.5
1000 51.2 0.30 0.14 2.7 37.8 0.004 2.4
1300 48.6 0.30 0.12 2.5 34.5 0.004 2.4
BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. International Critical Table&, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,

1929.
2. L. S. 1\farks, et al., Mechanical Engineers' Handbook, ed. New York: 1\fcGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc.
3. J. H. Perry, ed., Che-mical Engineers' Handbook, 3rd ed., 1\fcGraw-HilJ Book
Company, Inc., 1950.
4. J. L. Everhart, W. E. Lindlief, J. l{anegis, P. G. Weissler, and F. Siegel, l'rfe-
chanical Properties of Metals and Alloys, Circular C447, U.S. Department of Commeree,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., 1943.
5. J. H. Keenan and F. G. Keyes, Thermodynamic Properties of Steam, New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1936.
6. J. H. Keenan and J. Kaye, Gas Tables, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1945.
7. W. H. 1\lcAdams, Heat Transmission, 3rd ed., 1\fcGraw-Hill Book Compan~·,
Inc., 1954.
8. E. Schmidt, Thermodynamic8, Oxford at the Claredon Press, 1949.
9. J. Hilsenrath, C. W. Beckett, W. S. Benedict, L. Fano, H. lVI. Hoge, J. F. 1\:lasi,
R. L. Nuttall, Y. S. Touloukian, and H. W. Woolley, Tables of the Thermal Properties
of Gasu, National Bureau of Standards Circular 564, Washington, D. C., 1955.
10. F. B. Rowley and A. B. Algren, Thermal Conductivity of Building Materials,
Bulletin No. 12, Eng. Exp. St., Univ. of ~Iinnesota, 1937.
11. L. S. Kowalczyk, "Thermal Conductivity and its Variability with Temperature
and Pressure," 1'rans. ASME, Vol. 77 (1955) p. 1021.
12. Liquid-Metals Handbook, 2d ed., U. S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington,
D. C., 1952.
13. C. L. Mantell, ed., Engineering Materials Handbook, 1\'IcGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany., Inc., 1958
539

540 APPENDIX Ill
TABLE A-4
RADIATION FuNCTioNs*
).T E>..• X JQI E•co ->..r> ).T E~ X 10' Et(O-A.f') ).T E~ X 101 E•<•->..~ >
trT• trT• trT• trT• ,ra trT•
~ ; .. :"'~
(
1000 .()()()()394 0 7200 10.089 .4809 13400 2.714 .8317

1200 .001184 0 7400 9.723 .5007 13600 2.605 .8370
1400 .01194 0 7600 9.357 .5199 13800 2.502 .8421
1600 .0618 .0001 7800 8.997 .5381 14000 2.416 .8470
1800 .2070 .0003 8000 8.642 .5558 14200 2.309 .8517
2000 .5151 .0009 8200 8.293 .5727 14400 2.219 .8563
2200 1.0384 .0025 8400 7.954 .5890 14600 2.134 .8606
~400 1.791 .0053 8600 7.624 .6045 14800 2.052 .8648
2600 2.753 .0098 8800 7.304 .6195 15000 1.972 .8688
2800 3.872 .0164 9000 6.995 .6337 16000 1.633 .8868
3000 5.081 .0254 9200 6.697 .6474 17000 1.360 .9017
3200 6.312 .0368 9400 6.411 .6606 18000 1.140 .9142
3400 7.506 .0506 9600 6.136 .6731 19000 .962 .9247
3600 8.613 .0007 9800 5.872 .6851 20000 .817 .9335
3800 9.601 .0850 1()()()() 5.619 .6966 21000 .702 .9411
4000 10.450 . .1051 10200 5.378 .7076 22000 .599 .9475
4200 11. 151 .1267 10400 5.146 .7181 23000 .516 .9531
4400 11.704 .1496 10600 4.925 .7282 24000 .448 .9589
4600 12.114 .1734 10800 4.714 .7378 25000 .390 .9621
4800 12.392 .1979 11000 4.512 .7474 26000 .341 .9657
5000 12.556 .2229 11200 4.320 .7559 27000 .300 .9689
5200 12.607 .2481 11400 4.137 .7643 28000 .265 .9718
5400 12.571 .2733 11600 3.962 .7724 29000 ' .234 .9742
5600 12.458 .2983 11800 3.795 .7802 30000 .208 .9765
5800 12.282 .3230 12000 3.637 .7876 40000 .0741 .9881
6000 12.053 .3474 12200 3.485 .7947 50000 .0326 .9941
6200 11.783 .3712 12400 3.341 .8015 60000 .0165 ·996a
6400 11.480 .3945 12600 3.203 .8081 70000 .0092 .9981
6600 11.152 .4171 12800 3.071 .8144 80000 .0055 -~
6800 10.808 .4391 13000 2.947 .8204 90000 .0035 .9990
7000 10.451 .4604 13200 2.827 .8262 100000 .0023 .9992
CX) 0 1. ()()()
0
• From Dunkle, R. V., Trana. ASME, 76, 549 (19M).

APPENDIX Ill 541
TABLE A-5
A VERAOE PRoPERTIEs oP Tusu
Du.MSTD TIIICKH&M EXTIUIHAL IJCTIUlNAL
Lenath
Volume or of
Surface Uneal Tube
Feet of Trans- Capacity per
Ex- In- NOM Circum- per Lineal Foot Con-
temal ternal BWG Wall ference Lineal Tube per verae
Gap Square ArN tainins
(in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) Foot One
(aq ft) Foot of (aq in.) Cu In. Cu Ft u.s. Cu Ft
SurfaCE' Gal
0.527 18 .049 1.9635 0.1636 6.1115 0.218 2.616 0.0015 0.011 661
~ 0.495
0.459
16
14
.065
.083 1 1 1 0.193 2.316 0.0013 0.010
0.166 1.992 0.0011 0.009
746
867
0.652 18 .049 2.3562 0.1963 5.0930 0.334 4.008 0.0023 0.017 431
0.620 16 .065 0.302 3.624 0.0021 0.016 477
~ 0.584 14 .083 0.268 3.216 0.0019 0.014 537
0.560 13 .095 1 1 1 0.246 2.952 0.0017 0.013 585
0.902 18 .049 3.1416 .2618 3.8197 0.639 7.668 0.0044 0.033 225
1 0.870 16 .065 0.595 7.140 0.0041 0.031 242
0.834 14 .083 0.546 6.552 0.0038 0.028 264
0.810 13 .095 1 1 1 0.515 6.180 0.0036 0.027 280
1.152 18 .049 3.9270 .3272 3.0558 1.075 12.90 0.0075 0.056 134
1.120 16 .065 0.985 11.82 0.0068 0.051 146
13-( 1.084 14 .083 0.923 11.08 0.0064 0.048 156
1.060
1.032
13
12
.095
.109 l l 0.882
1
0.836
10.58
10.03
0.0061
0.0058
0.046
0.043
163
172
1.402 18 .049 4.7124 .3927 2.5465 1.544 18.53 0.0107 0.080 93

1.370 16 .065 1.474 17.69 0.0102 0.076 98
1~ 1.334 14 .083 1.398 16.78 0.0097 0.073 103
--
1.310
1.282
13
12
.095
.109 l l 11.343
1.292
16.12
15.50
0.0093
0.0090
0.070
0.067
107
111
1.620 16 .065 5.4978 .4581 2.1827 2.061 24.73 0.0143 0.107 70

1.584 14 .083 1.971 23.65 0.0137 0.102 73
1~ 1.560 13 .095 1.911 22.94 0.0133 0.099 75
1.532 12 .109 1.843 22.12 0.0128 0.096 78
1.490 11 .120 1 1 1 1.744 20.92 0.0121 0.090 83
1.870 16 .065 6.2832 .5236 1.9099 2.746 32.96 0.0191 0.143 52

1.834 14 .083 2.642 31.70 0.0183 0.137 55
2 1.810 13 .095 2.573 30.88 0.0179 0.134 56
1.782 12 .109 2.489 29.87 0.0173 0.129 58
1.760 11 .120 l 1 l 2.433 29.20 0.0169 0.126 5H

.. .,_--------~
TABLE A-6
STEEL-PIPE DIMENSIONS*
Cross- lm11ide
Nominal Out!!ide Wall Inside sectional Cf088-
pipe dia.m, Schedule thick- diam, area se<-tional
t~i.ze, in. in. :\1 o. ness, in. in. metal, area
Set in. sq ft.
Ys 0 .405 40t 0.06S 0.269 0.072 0 .00040

sot 0.095 0.215 0.093 0 .00025
~ 0 .540 40t 0.088 0.364 0 . 125 0.00072

sot 0.119 0 .302 0 . 157 0.00050
~ 0.675 40t 0.091 0.493 0.167 0.00133

BOt 0 . 126 0.423 0.217 0.00098
~ 0.840 40t 0.109 0.622 0 .250 0 .00211

BOt 0 . 147 0.546 0.320 0.00163
160 0 . 187 0.466 0.384 0.00118
~ 1.050 40t 0 113 0.824 0.333 0 00371

sot 0.154 0.742 0 .433 0 .00300
160 0 .218 0.614 0.570 0 .00206
1 1.315 40t 0.133 1.049 0.494 0.00600

sot 0.179 0.957 0.639 0.00499
160 0 .250 0 .815 0.837 0 .00362
1~ 1.660 40t 0.140 1.380 0.699 0.01040

SOt 0.191 1.278 0.881 0.00891
160 0 .250 1.160 1.107 0 .00734
1~ 1.900 40t 0.145 1.610 0 .799 0.01414

BOt 0.200 1.500 1.068 0.01225
160 0.2S1 1.338 1.429 0.00976
2 2.375 40t 0 . 154 2.067 1.075 0.02330

sot 0.218 1.H39 1.477 0.02050
160 0.343 1.689 2.190 0.01556
272 2.875 40t 0.203 2.469 1.704 0 .03322

SOt 0.276 2.323 2.254 0 .02942
160 0.375 2.125 2.945 0 .02463
3 3.500 40t 0.216 3.068 2.228 0.05130

SOt 0.300 2.000 3.016 0 .04587
160 0.437 2.626 4.205 0.03761
372 4.000 40t 0.226 3 .548 2.680 0.06870

sot 0.318 3.364 3.678 0.06170
4 4.500 40t 0.237 4 .026 3.173 0.08840
SOt 0.337 3.826 4.407 0 .079S6
120 0 .437 3.626 5.57S 0.07170
160 0 .531 3.438 6.621 0.06447
*Based on A.S.A. Standard~ B36.l0.

t Designates former "~;tnndurd" sizes
t Former "extra strong."
5-'2

Croee- Inside
Nominal Outside Wall Inside sectional erose-
pipe diam, Schedule thick- diam, area lle<'tional
size, in. in. No. ness, in. in. metal, area,
8Q in. 8Q ft
5 5.563 40t 0 .258 5.047 4.304 0.1390

sot 0.375 4.813 6.112 0.1263
120 0.500 4.563 7.953 0.1136
160 0.625 4.313 9.696 0.1015
6 6.625 40t 0.280 6.065 5.584 0.2006

sot 0.432 5.761 8.405 0.1810
120 0.562 5.501 10.71 0.1650
160 0.718 5.189 13.32 0.1469
8 8.625 20 0.250 8.125 6.570 0.3601

30t 0.277 8.071 7.260 0.3553
40t 0.322 7.981 8.396 0.3474
60 0.406 7.813 10.48 0.3329
SOt 0.500 7.625 12.76 0.3171
100 0 .593 7 .439 14.96 0.3018
120 0.718 7.189 17.84 0.2819
140 0.812 7 .0()1 19.93 0.2673
160 0.906 6 .813 21.97 0.2532
10 10.75 20 0.250 10.250 8.24 0.5731

30t 0.307 10.136 10 .07 0.5603
40t 0.365 10.020 11.90 0.5475
60t 0.500 9.750 16.10 0.5185
80 0 .593 9.564 18.92 0.4989
100 0.718 9.314 22.63 0.4732
120 0.843 9.064 26.24 0.4481
140 1.000 8.750 30 .63 0.4176
160 1.125 8.500 34 .02 0.3941
12 12.75 20 0.250 12.250 9.82 0.8185
30t 0 .330 12.090 12.87 0.7972
40 0 .406 11.938 15.77 0.7773
60 0.562 11.626 21.52 0.7372
80 0.687 11.376 26 .03 0.7058
100 0 .843 11.064 31.53 0.6677
120 1.000 10.750 36.91 0.6303
140 1.125 10.500 41.08 0.6013
160 1.312 10.126 47.14 0.5592
14 14.0 10 0.250 13.500 10 .80 0.9940

20 0.312 13 .376 13.42 0.9750
30 0.375 13.250 16.05 0 .9575
40 0 .437 13.126 18.61 0.9397
60 0 .593 12.814 24 .98 0.8956
so 0.750 12.500 31.22 0.8522
100 0.937 12.126 38.45 O.S020
120 1.062 11 .876 43.17 0.7693
140 1.250 11.500 50.07 0.7213
160 1.406 11.188 55 .63 0.6827
I
• Baaed on A.S.A. Standards B36.10.
t De3ignates former "standard" sizes.
t Former "extra strong."
543
Digi t ized by Google Origina l from

544 APPENDIX Ill
TABLE A-7
PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE*
Abeo-
Altitude, Altitude, Jute Absolute Pressure Density, Density Speed
ft miles Tern- PreMure, Ratio lh./cu ft Ratio of
pera- lbr/sq ft Sound.
ft/~
ture, R
0 0 518 2,116 1.00 7.65 X lO-t 1.00 1,120

5,000 0.947 500 1,758 8.32 x to-• 6.60 X lO-t 8.61 x to-• 1,100
tO,OOO t.894 483 t,456 6.87 x to-• 5.66 X tO-t 7.38 x to-• t,080
20,000 3.788 447 972 4.59 x to-• 4.08 X tO-t 5.33 x to-• t,040
30,000 5.682 4lt 628 2.97 x to-• 2.88 X tO-t 3.76 x to-• 997
40,000 7.576 392 392 1.85 x to-• 1.88 X lO-t 2.45 x to-• 973
50,000 9.470 392 243 1.15 x to-• 1.16 x to-' 1.52 x to-• 973
60,000 1t.364 392 t5t 7.t3 x to-• 7.32 X to-a 9.45 X tO-t 973
70,000 13.258 392 94.5 4.47 X IO-t 4.5t X to-a 5.90 X tO-t 974
80,000 15.152 392 58.8 2.78 X 10-t 2.80 X to-a 3.67 X tO-t 974
90,000 17.045 392 36.6 1.73 X tO-t t.67 X to-a 2.28 x to-• 974
tOO,OOO 18.939 392 22.8 1.08 X to-a l.t X to-a 1.4 x to-• 975
t50,000 28.409 575 3.2 1.5 X to-a 9.7 x to-• 1.3 X to-a 1,t90
200,000 37.879 623 0.73 3.6 x to-• 2.2 x to-• 2.9 x to-• t,240
300,000 56.8t8 487 0.017 9.0 X tO-t 6.9 X l0-7 9.0 X tO-t t,llO
400,000 75.758 695 O.OOlt 5.2 X t0-7 2.7 X to-s 3.5 X t0-7 1,430
500,000 94.697 9t0 1.2 x to-• 8.5 x to-• 3.1 x to-• 4.t X 10-. ....
600,000 113.64 1,130 4.t x to-• 1.9 X tO-t 5.7 X to-•o 7.5 x to-• ....
700,000 132.58 1,350 t.3 x to-• 6.2 x to-• 1.5 X to-so 1.9 x to-• ....
800,000 151.52 1,570 4.6 X tO-t 2.2 x to-• 4.6 X to-n 6.0 X to-•o ....
900,000 t70.45 1,800 1.9 X tO-t 9.0 X to-so 1.7 X to-u 2.2 X Io-•o • • • a
• Sources of Atmoepheric Property Data:

1. C. N. Warfield, "Tentative Tablee for the Properties of the Upper Atmoephere," N ACA TN
1200, 1947.
2. H. A. Johnson, M. W. Rubeain, F. M. Sauer, E. G. Slack, and L. Fot~aner, "The Thermal Cbarac-
teriatica of High Speed Aircraft," AAF, AMC, Wriaht Field, TR 5632, 1947.
3. J. P. Sutton, Rockel Propulnon Element•, 2d ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc.,
1957.

Index
Abeolute humidity, 508 Baffles, 442--444

Abeolute temperature, 13, 181, 528 Banks of tubes
Absorptivity effect of number of transfer tubes in
definition of, 177 ~,M9 '
and emiBBive power, 179 flow over, 383-385 •
of electrical conductors, 190 friction in, 389-390
of gases, 213 heat transfer in, 380-391
monochromatic, 187 liquid metals in, 390
of nonconductors, 190 longitudinal pitch of, 385
total average, 189, 190 minimum free area of, 385
ADDOMS, J. N., 408 staggered, 384
Adiabatic wall temperature, 475, 479 tr&ll8verse pitch of, 385
Adsorption, 489 BECKMAN, w., 308
Aen>dynamicheating,47G-477 Bernoulli's equation, 272
Air Bessel equation, modified, 54-56
free convection of, 314 Billet cooling, 251
properties of, 535
Air-conditioning, 514 ~modulus, 117, 130, 137, 139
Air spaces, conductance of, 318 Black body
Aircraft wing deicing system, 65 construction, 180
definition of, 179
ALLEN, D. M. DE G., 91 monochromatic emissive power, 177,
AMERICAN EPHEMERIS, 219 181
Analog Field Plotter, 86-88 potential node of, 203
Analogical methods, 85-89, 109 radiation from, 12
electrical-geometrical, 89 BLASIUS, M., 260, 273
electrical network, 18, 21, 89, 119-120,
159 BoELTER, L. M. K., 341
in radiation, 2()()-211 Boiling liquids
in steady-state conduction, 85-89 burnout point of, 403, 414, 415
in transient conduction, 159 characteristic curve of, 402
Analogy; aee aho Reynolds analogy choking of flow of, 416
between heat and momentum transfer, correlation of data for, 407-409
277-290 effect of surface conditions of, 409-412,
between molecular dift'usion and con- 415
duction, 490-491 exceSB temperature difference of, 399
Annular space film boiling in, 401
forced convection, 353 with forced convection, 409-412
hydraulic diameter, 331-332 mechanisms of, 398, 403-405
in natural circulation systems, 418
Area, mean with net steam generation, 415
for hollow cylinder, 28, 62 nucleate, 400, 402, 403-404
for hollow sphere, 29-30 pool boiling, 406
Atmosphere, properties of, 545 subcooling of, 403, 412
Azimuth angles of sun, 220 variAbles of, 398
Orig inal from

Di git ized by Coogle UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
546 Index
Bound2!0" Fourier modulus, 148-149 Coefficients (cont.)
, lJoundary layer mass transfer; see Mass-transfer coef-
approximate analysis of, 243, 269-277 ficients
continuity equation, 254-256 of thermal expansion, 301
energy equation, 263-266 CoLBURN, A. P., 269, 424
in fiO\\' over bluff bodies, 366 Colburn j factor, 346, 386, 499-500
in free convection, 298
in high-speed fiow, 475-483 Composite systems
kinetic-energy recovery in, 477 lumped-capacity method, 123
laminar structures, 30-31
over curved surfaces, 259 temperature-time history, 124
over cylinder. 369-375 thermal circuit, 124
over fiat plate, 254-277 Concentration gradient, 489
frictional work in, 264, 477-478 Condensation
separation of, 369 dropwise, 426
shearing stress of, 258 effect of noncondensables and mix-
temperature distribution in, 258 tures, 430
momentum equation, 256-261, 270- filmwise, 419
272 superheated vapor, 426
separation, 237-238, 366, 369
thickness Condenser design, 427-429
hydrodynamic, 235, 261, 273, 288 Conductance
thermal, 266 combined, 18, 207-211
tr&llBition; see Transition for conduction, 12
turbulent for convection, 15
apparent shear, 279 over-all; see Transmittance
over cy Iinder, 287 for radiation, 13, 207
over fiat plate, 285-288 in relaxation method, 92-95, 107-109
separation of, 375 in thermal circuit, 19
structural flow in, 237 unit-thermal convective; see Convec-
thermal resistance of, 288 tive heat-tran.sfer coefficients
velocity distribution in, 287 Conduction
BowMAN, R. A., 448 cylindrical coordinate system, 73
BROMLEY, L. A., 416 definition of, 6
BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY, Fourier equation, 72
390 general equation, derivation of, 70-72
BROWN, A. I., 220 periodic; see Periodic heat conduction
spherical coordinate system, 73
BROWN, D. R., 58 steady; see Steady-state heat condur-
Bubble Reynolds number, 406 tion
Buckingham pi-theorem, 245-247 transient; see Transient heat conduc-
limitations of, 251 tion
Buffer layer, 289, 345 unsteady; see Transient heat conduc-
tion and Periodic heat fiow
Bulk temperature, 332
Conductor, thermal, 11
Buoyant force, 299-300,304
Contact resistance, 34-35
CARSLAW, H. s.,
130 Continuity equation, 256
Celestial sphere and sun's coordinates, Control volume
219 for continuity, 254-255
for energy balance, 263, 274
Centipoise, 253, 531 for momentum analysis, 255, 270
CEss, R. D., 395 Convection
CHAMBRE, P. s., 472 definition of, 14
CHANG, Y. P ., 241 forced; see Forced convection
free; see Free convection
Chemical potential, 502 heat flow by, 7
CoBB, E. C., 325 Newton's law, 14
Coefficients Convective heat-transfer coefficient; see
friction; see Friction coefficients also Nusselt number
heat tran.sfer; see Convective heat.- average value of, 14-15
tran.sfer coefficienu in boiling; see Boiling liquids

Index 547
Convective heat-transfer coefficient DuNKLE, R. V., 222
(cont.) DusiNBERRE, G. M., 169
determination from boundary layer Dynamic-temperature rise, 474
analysis, 233-238, 254-290
in flow over banks of tubes, 380-393
in flow over cylinders, 367-379 Eckert, E. R. G., 188, 273, 307, 310
average values, 376-377 Effectivene88; au Heat exchangers
circumferential variation, 374-375 Electric circuit, equivalent, 18-21, 89t
in flow over plane surfaces, 235-238, 119-120, 159, 2()()-211
254-290 Electric coils, 38
average value of, 268, 290
local value of, 268, 289 Electromagnetic wave spectrum, 175-176
in flow over sphere, 379-380 ELENBAAS, w., 316
in flow through tubes and ducts, 331- ELLERBROOK, H. M., 89
361 EmiBBive power, 179-186
long conduits, 346-348, 359 black body, 181
short conduits, 349, 358 floating potential, 201
in free convection, 297-377 monochromatic, 181-185
enclosed air spaces, 318-319
horizontal cylinder, 312-314 Emissivity, 179-187
horizontal surfaces, 311 directional variation, 188
in rotating systems, 319-327 gases,213,214,216
sphere, 314 gray surfaces, 13, 190
vertical ducts, 316-317 measurement of, 191
vertical surfaces, 307-310, 315-316 monochromatic, 187-189
in high-speed flow; see High-speed flow total average, 189
limit-s of accuracy, 340 variation with temperature, 190
local value of, 14 variation with wavelength, 187
methods of evaluation, 241-243 of various surfaces, 192
orders of magnitude, 15 ENEAS, A. G., 226
Conversion factors, 244, 530 Energy equation; aee Boundary layer
Cooling tower, 462, 506, 513 Equilibrium temperatures, 223
CoPE, W. F., 345 Equimolar counter diffusion, 492
Critical radius, 37 Equivalent diameter; au Hydraulic di-
Cup-mixing temperature, 332 ameter
Equivalent networks for radiation
in black-body enclosure, 199-202
Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, 343 between gray surfaces, 202-206
DEGBAF, J. G. A., 318 Evaporators, 417
Dehumidification, 514 Excess temperature, 4D0-401, 404
DEISSLER, R. G., 288, 341 Extended surfaces; see Fins
Diffusion, 3
equimolar counter, 492 F AGE, A., 372
of gas, 492
molecular, 490 FALKNER, v. M., 372
Diffusivit.y, mass Film boiling, 401
for gases and liquids, 495 with convection, 417
effect of radiation, 416
Diffusivity, thermal; see Thermal dif- outside of horizontal tubes, 416
fusivity
Filmwise condensation, 420
Dirt deposits; see Fouling effect of high vapor velocity, 425
Dimensional analysis, 243-254 effect of turbulence, 423
conversion factors, 244 local heat-transfer coefficient, 421
correlation of data, 246-249 on single horizontal tube, 422
dimensionless groups, 242, 246-251 on vertical surface, 419-423
limitations of, 243 F~,45-61,396,427
primary dimensions, 244, 527 boundary conditions, 47-48, 5i
Distillation, 489, 515-518 circumferentially attached, 59
DoTsoN, J. P., 310 efJectiveneBB, 59-61
heat loBS from, 49-55
Drop wise condensation; see Condensation optimum spacing, 316
Dry-bulb temperature, 507 over-all conductance of, 59
Original from
548 Index
Fins (cont.) Freezing
selection and design, 58-60 boundary value problem, 431
tapered, 57-58 of cvlinder, 434-435
uniform cr088-8eCtion, 45-53, 58-59, ice formation, 430
396 of slab, 433-434
FJSHENDEN, M., 389 Friction coefficients
Flow of fluids effect of heat transfer on, 361
over flat plate effect of surface roughness, 345
lantinar, 254-262,27Q-273 flow in tubes and ducts, 343-345
turbulent, 278-281, 287-290 flow over banks of tubes, 387, 389-390
in tubes and ducts flow over cy Iinder, 37Q-372
laminar, 333, 338, 354 flow over sphere, 379
transitional, 334 in high-speed flow, 48(}--482
turbulent, 335, 339, 343-345 laminar flow over plate, 262-263
laminar and turbulent, 234 turbulent flow over plane surface, 284-
over long cylinder, 371-374 285
relation to heat flow, 234
over sphere, 369 GARDNER, K. A., 58
Flux plotting; tJU Potential field plotting Gas heaters, 382
Forced convection Gaseous radiation, 211-217
effect~ of free convection, 355-356 effective beam length, 213-214:
entrance effects, 337, 358 emission bands, 212
in flow over tubes; tJte Banks of tubes nonluminous gas, 215
heat-transfer coefficient, 14 Gases
in high-speed flow, see High-speed flow diffusion through, 492-495
inside tube and ducts forced convection over cylinders, 373
compressibility effects, 340, 482-483 forced convection over spheres, 379-
effect of variation in physical prop- 380
erties, 339-340, 346-348 free convection, 301, 304, 314
laminar flow, 354-361 Henry's law constants, 503
Reynolds analogy, 340-343 laminar forced convection in tubes,
thermal boundary conditions, 340 358-359
in transition flow, 361 mass diffusivities for, 495
turbulent flow, 340, 354 perfect gas law, 301, 491
reference fluid temperature, 332 physical properties of, 535-536
Fouling factors, 461-462 turbulent forced convection in due~,
347
FouRIER, J. B. J., 9
Gaussian error integral, 146, 147
Fourier boundary modulus, 148 GAZLEY, c., 324
Fourier equation, 72; tJU alao Heat con- General heat-conduction equation, 131
duction equation Geometrical shape factors; tJee Shape
analytical solution, 73 factort1
Fourier modulus, 121, 136-145 GIEDT, w. H., 373
Fo~er series, 69, 129 GIER, J. T., 222
Free convection, 8 Graetz number, 357
in centrifugal-force fields, 298, 319-324 Grashof ~umbeiJ 304, 306
cooling ot gas turbines, 320-324 Gray -body, 13
enclosed air spaces, 318
equation of motion, 300-302 emissive power, 187
heat-transfer coefficient, 297 GREGG, J L., 310
horizontal cylinders, 305 GRIMISON, E. c., 389
interior surfaces, 317 GROsH, R. J., 390
in nuclear reactors, 297, 329
rotating bodies, 324-327 HANSEN, M., 260
similarity parameters, 299-305
three-dimensional shapes, 306 HARPER, w. P., 58
transition, 306 Heat capacity, hourly, 453
Free-molecule flow, 472 Heat exchangers
convective heat transfer, 483-487 basic types, 440-444
recovery factor, 485 compact, 443-444
Stanton number, 485 design, 331, 390, 439-440
Di gitized by Coogle Original from

Index 549
Heat exchangers (cont.) Irradiation, 180, 202-203
effectiven~,452-460 Isotherms, 76-77
mean temperature difference in, 446-
452 JAKOB, M., 86, 130, 389
pumping requirements, 345
aelection of, 390, 435 JAEGER, J. C., 130
temperature distribution in, 446 JoHNsoN, H. A., 479
types of baffles for, 393, 443 JUKOFF, D., 484
Heat flow lines, 76-77
Heat sources, 30, 38-45 KAYS, w. M., 324, 347, 359, 388, 443
Heat transfer KAYAN, c. F., 89
basic laws, 8 KEENAN, J. H., 253
coefficients of; au Coefficients KEYES, F. G., 253
combined mechanisms of, 15, 209
Kinematic viscoeity, 245, 250
Henry's law, 503 Kinetic theory, 6
HERMAN, R., 312 KING, w. J., 306
Heteropolar gases, 211 Kirchhoff's law, 179, 187
High-speed flow Knudsen number, 471
bounda~layer,476
conical nose, 480 KREITH, F., 362
direction of heat flow, 479 K UZNETZK.OF, N. v., 389
energy equation, 476
flat plate, 477 Lambert's cosine law, 186, 202
heat transfer in laminar, 474 deviations from, 188
heat transfer in tubes, 483
heat transfer in turbulent, 481-482 Laminar flow
laminar boundary layer, 474 definition of, 234
recove~ factor, 475
over flat plate; au Boundary layer,
Stanton number, 479 laminar
temperature distribution, 474 heat-flow mechanism, 234, 354
transition phenomena, 481 in tubes and ducts, 355-359
unit-surface convective conductanee, Laminar sublayer, 287, 345
470,479 thennal resistance, 346
HILPERT, R., 376 turbulent eddies, 335
Hot-wire anemometer, 377-379, 397 LANGHAAR, H. L., 243
HOTTEL, H. c., 213 Laplace equation, 72
analogical methods, 85
HUGE, E. c., 389 for two-dimensional systems, 77, 85
Humidification, 490, 506 transform methodB, 69
adiabatic, 509, 510 uniqueness of solution, 80
for air, 492, 497 Latent heat
tower for, 512 of fusion, 431
Hydraulic diameter, 831 of vaporization, 422, 508
Hyperbolic tangent, 49 Leaching, 489
Hypersonic flow, 472-473 Lead-shot tower, 397
Leading edge, 236
Ice formation; aee Freezing
Legendre polynomials, 69
Ideal gas, 474
LELCHUK, v. L., 483
Insulating materials, properties of, 534
Light, speed of, 7
Insulation
critical thickne88, 36 Liquid extraction, 489
at high temperature, 319 Liquids
aelection, 38 boiling; au Boiling liquids
Intensity of radiation, 185-186 diffusion through, 491
forced convection over cylinders, 377
Interference fringes, 307, 308, 312 forced convection over spheres, 380
Internal energy, 6 laminar forced convection in tubes, 359
Interphase maBB transfer, 501 mass diffusivities for, 495
discontinuity in concentration, 501 physical properties of, 537-539
ga.phase controlling, 506 turbulent forced convection in ducts,
liqutd-phase controlling, 505 =i48
Original from
550 Index
Liquid metals N a vier-Stokes equations, 235
advantages for heat-transfer purposes, NEwToN, IsAAC, 14
349 Newton's law of cooling, 14
croe&-ftow over tubes, 390
forced convection in ducts, 348, 349- Newton's second law of motion, 256-257
351 NIKURADSE, J., 345
heat-traDBfer mechanism, 351 Nocturnal radiation, 224
wetting, 351 Nodal point, 92-94, 98-99, 107, 108
Local heat-transfer coefficient Nonhomogeneous equation, 125
definition of, 14
over fiat plate; see Boundary layer Nonuniform thermal conductivity, effect
in free convection, 308-314 of, 23
in laminar duct flow, 356-359 Nuclear fission, 43
in turbulent regions, 310 Nuclear reactor, 64, 297, 329, 399 ·
Logarithmic mean area, 28 Nucleate boiling
LoKSBIN, v. A., 389 bubble mechanism, 400
LoNDON' A. L., 347, 434, 443 geometrical shape, 409
LYON, R. N., 351
maximum heat ftux, 405, 412
NUNNER, w., 345
M~h number, 340, 471, 472 NussELT, W., 453
MARCO, s. M., 220 Nusselt number
MARTINELLI, R. C., 288, 341 average value for laminar flow over
plate, 268
Martinelli's analogy, 345 definition ~3.9 1 . 241
Mass transfer, 3 derivst1on- t>y dimensional analysis,
concentration, 491 247
by convection, 496-498 in free convection, 305, 308-310, 314,
gas phase, 492-495, 498 317
from gas to liquid, 501 in high-speed flow, 280, 283
interphase; see Interphase mass trans- in high-speed laminar ftow, 479
fer local value for flow over flat plate, 268,
mechanism, 489 277, 285, 289
molecular diffusion, 490-491 in long tubes or conduits, 331,332,343,
resistance to, 501, 505 351,356,358,361
Reynold's analogy, 499 relation to boundary-layer thickn~,
simultaneous heat transfer, 490 241
M888-transfer equipment relation to convective heat-transfer co-
classification of, 515 efficient, 240
distillation column, 515, 517 rotating disks and cylinders, 324, 327
M8.88-transfer coefficients
gas phase, 497, 498 Opaque bodies, 178
liquid phase, 497 OPPENHEIM, A., 484
over-all, 504 Orthogonal functions, 135
evaluation of, 498-501
Over-all temperature potential, 17
Maximum monochromatic emissive pow-
er, 184 Over-all transmittance, 17-18, 207
for composite structures, 33
McADAMs, W. H., 310, 377, 379 for concentric cylinders, 36
Mean-film temJ)era~, 290 for finned surfaces, 61
Mean free path, 471 for heat exchangers, 446
Mean-value theorem, 40, 43
Parallelepiped shells, 30
Mechanical equivakiDt of heat, 529
Partial pressure,· 491, 492
Micron, 175 gradients in diffusion, 494-496
Molecular speed ratio, 484- Perfect gas la_w, 301, 491
MooRE, A. D., 86 Periodic heat -ftow
MUELLER, A. c., 448 in bodies with negligible internal re-
Muffie-type furnace, 206 sistance, 128-130
MuLL, W., 318
definition of, 8
Phase equilibrium, 502
NAGLE, w. M., 448 Pi theorem; see Buckingham pi-theorem

Index 551
PIERSON, 0. L., 389 Radiation (cont.)
Pipes, dimellilions of, 542-543 wavelength of, 175
PLANCK, MAX, 181 quantum theory; see Quantum theory
PoHLHAUSEN, K., 265, 326 Rarefied gases, 235, 471 ; see alBo Free-
Poisson equation, 72 molecule ftow and High-speed ftow
Pool boiling, 399, 406 Recovery factor, 475 ·
Potential field plotting, 77~ Refrigeration, 428-429
with Analog Field Plotter, 86- Regenerator, 462
curvilincar network, 81, 87 REIHER, H., 318
f~hand flux plotting, 80-82 Relaxation method, 89-109
solution of Laplace equation, 77 accuracy of, 97
uniqueness of solution, 80 block operation of, 91-92
Potential ftow, 369 for body with irregular boundary, 106
Pound, 528-531 over-relaxation, 91
ambiguous use of word, 253 in two- and three-dimensional systems,
PRANDTL, Ludwig,235,277, 288,289 97-108
Pnwdt.J ~umber, 477 Resistance, thermal; Bee Thermal resist-
-derivation by dimensional analysis, ance
247 Reynolds analogy, 341
effect on temperature in tubes, 336 extension to ma.ss transfer, 343, 499
liquid metal, 337 ftow in tubes and ducts, 34o-343
ratio of two molecular transport prop- turbulent ftow over flat plate, 283
erties, 250 Rocket motor, 16, 399
turbulent, 283 RoHsENow, W. M., 406
PreB8ure distribution around cylinder, Rotating cylinders, 324-325
369
Pressure drag, 367 Rotating disks, 325-327
Prevention of ice formation, 375 RuBEsiN, 1\tl. W., 479
Primary dimension, 244, 527 Sattelite, 470, 487
Product solution, 74; see also Transient SAUNDERS, 0. A., 325, 389
heat conduction, product solution
ScHAA~, S. A., 471
Quantum theory, 175, 181 ScHLICHTING, H., 243
SCHMIDT, E., 188, 308, 320
Radiation
absorptivity; see Absorptivity Schmidt method, 153-168
black body, 179-185 composite walls, 162-165
between black surfaces, 193-200 cylinders, 165-168
from carbon dioxide, 215-217 plane wall, 153-161
combined with convection and con- time-dependent boundary condition,
duction, 207-211 161
definition of, 7 Schmidt number, 499
emissive power of, 176, 185-186
emissivity; see Emissivity ScHNEIDER, P. J., 86, 130, 169
equivalent networks for, 2()()-205 SCHULTZ-GRUNOW, F., 288
equivalent unit conductance, 204 SEBAN, R. A., 434
in a furnace, 200-201 , 206
from gases, 211-217 Separation; see Boundary layer
geometrical shape factor, 194 Shape factors
between gray surfaces, 203-206 for conduction, 81-83
heat transfer by, 12, 175-231 for radiation, 195-200
intensity, 186 definition of, 195
nocturnal; see Nocturnal radiation determination of, 195-199
radiosi ty, 202-203 mechanical integrators, 196
reciprocity theorem, 195 for various arrangements, 196, 19U
reflection of, 178 Sherwood number, 498
reradiating surfaces, 200-201
shape factors; see Shape factors SIEDER, E. N., 347
shield, 202, 21o-211 Similarity, principle of
solar, 217-224 forced convection, 303-304
from water vapor, 214-216 free convection, 25o-251

552 Index
Single capacity system, 122 TAYLOR, J. H., 326
frequency response, 126-130 Teledeltos paper, 87
temperature respoiUJC, 120 Temperature
thermal-electrical analogy, 119 absolute, 528
time constant, 118 distribution in boundary layer, 239,
Slip flow, 235, 472 266, 309
SoEHNOEN, E., 307 equilibrium, 223
Solar constant, 217 measurements, 50-51, 120-121, 125-
Solar evaporator, 218 128, 188-202, 377-379
of reradiating surfaces, 231
Solar radiation, 217-227 total, 474
diminution by earth atmosphere, 218
equilibrium temperature, 221-224 Temperature factor, 207
spectral distribution, 222 TEN BROECK, H., 453
utilization of, 224-227 Terrestrial coordinates, 219
SouTHWELL, SIR RicHARD, 89 Thermal accommodation coefficient, 484
SPARROW, E. M., 310 Thermal analyzers, 159
Spectroradiometric curves, 176 Thermal barrier, 470
Spheres Thermal ~ircuit, 19, 31, 33, 207
flow over, 372, 379 Thermal conductivity, 9 -
forced convection, 379-380 conversion factors, 530
free convection, 314 of insulating materials, 534
SQUIRE, H. B., 372 of liquids and gases, 535-539
Stagnation temperature, 474 mean value, 25, 29
Stagnation pressure, 369 measurement, 63, 64
orders of magnitude, 11
STALDER, J. R., 484 temperature coefficient, 24
Stanton number variation with temperature, 10
---nrgll-speed fiow, 479 Thermal diffusivity, 69, 71, 121, 131
laminar fiow over fiat plate, 269 of liquids and gases, 535-539
turbulent fiow in tubes, 342, 343, 346, of metals and alloys, 533
347 of nonmetallic solids, 534
turbulent flow over fiat plate, 289
Thermal radiation; see Radiation
Steady-state heat conduction
analogical methods, 85-89 Thermal resistance
analytical methods, 73-76 in boiling, 398
in composite structures, 30-38 in conduction, 11, 25, 31
derivation of heat-conduction equa- contact, 34-35, 36
tion, 7~73 in convection, 15
from extended surfaces, 45-61 in electric circuits, 19-20, 33
in hollow cylinders, 25-29 of insulation, 37, 38
in plane walls, 11-12, 23-25 in radiation, 14
relaxation method; see Relaxation Thermocouple
method correction for, 22
selection of method, 109 errors in temperature measuremen~,
shape factors, 81, 83-84 208
in spherical shells, 29-30 for high temperatures, 202
in systems with heat sources, 38-45 response of, 125
three-dimensional, 108-109 Thermodynamics, 3
two-dimensional, 73-108 classical, 3, 4
Steam, properties of, 535 first law of, 3
Steel-pipe dimensions, 542-543 second law of, 3, 9
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 12 Thermometer
Stefan-Boltzmann law, 181 steady-state error in well, 51
derivation from Planck's law, 182 response, 125-128
Subcooling,403-404 Time lag, 127
Subsonic flow, 472 Transcendental equation, 134
Supersonic flow, 472 Transient heat conduction, 116-12-1,
1~175
TATE, E. c., 347 in bricks, 152
TAYLOR, G. I., 277 in combustion chambers, 148, 163

·- ------ ... _
_......._
Index 553
Transient heat conduction (cont.) Units
in compoeioo walls, 162-165 consisoont sysoom of, 527
in cylinder, 141-143 conversion of, 252-254, 528-531
electrical analog, 159 engineering sysoom, 245
graphical method, 153-168 Unsooady stare, definition of, 8
numerical method, 168-170
product solution for, 132-137, 150-153
m rocket motors, 130 VANDER HZGGE-ZYNEN, B. G., 287
in eemi-infinioo bodies, 145-148 VAN DRIEST, E. R., 245 fn., 479
in&ab, 130-137, 146-148,153-162 Vapor, condensation of, 419-430
in spheres, 141, 144-145 Velocity distribution
in systems with negligible inoomal re- effect of heat transfer on, 359
sistance, 117-124 in free-molecular flow, 484
Transition in high-speed flow, 474
effect of Mach number, 481 in laminar boundary layer, 236, 261
flow in ducts, 334 in laminar flow through tubes, 338
flow over cylinders, 371, 374 in turbulent boundary layer, 236, 287
flow over plane surface, 237 Velocity fluctuation in turbulent flow,
for free convection, 306-314 280
mechanism, 236
Viscosity, 5, 246
Transmissivity, 178 eddy, 281
Transmittance; BU Over-all transmit- units of, 253, 531
tance VON DER HELD, E. F. M., 318
TsiEN, H. S., 471, 484 VON KARMAN, T., 270, 277, 288, 289
Tube banks; Bee Banks of tubes von Karman vortex-streets, 371
Tubes, dimensions of, 541
TuBuLAR ExcHANGER MANUFACTURER's
AssociATION, 391
WAGNER, C., 326
Turbine blade, cooling, 64, 320-322 Water
evaporation of, 399
Turbulence level, 377 freezing of, 430
Turbulent flow, 234 physical properties of, 537
apparent shear, 279 cooling tower, 462, 506, 513
boundary layer; Bee Boundary layer Waoor vapor, radiation from, 214, 216-
over cylinders, 371-373 217
exchange mechanism, 277
in free convection, 310 Wavelength of radiation, 175
at high speeds, 481-483 Wavelengths, visible range of, 182
mixing length, 278-280 Wet-bulb temperature, 507, 509
momentum flux, 280
in a pipe, 341-349 Wetood-wall column, 499
Reynolds analogy; Bee Reynolds anal- Wien's displacement law, 182
ogy Wilson plot, 364
structure of, 237
transfer of energy as heat, 281
velocity fluctuations, 278 Zenith distance, 218
Original from

... 2 31: qm 1 3 o"
r-·vot 02-0I~l ..

Kreith PrinciplesOfHeatTransfer 1958

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Kreith PrinciplesOfHeatTransfer 1958

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Kreith PrinciplesOfHeatTransfer 1958

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Principles of

1958 I n.lernational Textbook Company · Scranton

Digitized by Coogle Original from

COPYRIGHT 1958 BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOJC COMPANY. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Digitized by Coogle Original from

This book is an amplification of lecture notes used by the author in

Digitized by Google Original from

n1agnitude of thermal resistances under various conditions. This is often

Digitized by Coogle Original from

to configurations of widest practical interest, but the effect of variable

Digitized by Coogle Original from

Schneider, University of Minnesota, and Dr. L. B. Andersen, Lehigh

Digitized by Coogle Original from

2. STEADY ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CoNDUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . 23

3. Two- AND THREE-DIMENSIONLEss STEADY-STATE CoNDUCTION. 69

4. CoNDUC'riON oF HEAT IN THE UNsTEADY STATE .••••••.••••••. 116

Sections marked with an • can be omitted in an undergraduate course without in-

terrupting the continuity of the presentation.

Digitized by Google Original from

5. fii~A T TRANI':iFER BY RADIATIOX. . . . . . . . . . • . • . . • • . • • • • • . . • . . . 17 5

(.). F U!\DAMEXTAL:-5 OF CONVECTIO:\'". 2.·1.> .' 1J

7. FREE CoxvECTIO~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2V7

S. FoRCED CoxvEcTIO~ l:\siDE TcnEs A:\'D DucTs ............... 331

Digitized by Coogle Original from

9. FoRCED CoNVECTIO~ OVER ExTERIOR SuRFAcEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

/-10. HEAT TRAXSFER WITH CHANGE IN PHASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

11. HEAT ExcHANGERs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4:~9

. 12.* HEAT TRANSFER IN HIGH-SPEED FLo'v ...................... 470

13. * ~IASS TRAXSFER. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

Digitized by Coogle Original from

Di git ized by Google Original from

Di git ized by Google Orig inal from

1-1. THE RELA liON OF HEAT TRANSFER TO THERMODYNAMICS

\Vhenever a temperature gradient exists within a sy~tem, or when two

Digitized by Coogle Original from

Limitations of classical thermodynamics. Classical thermodynamics

Digitized by Coogle Original from

Digitized by Coogle Original from

The literature of heat transfer generally recognizes three distinct modes

Digitized by Google Original from

it is usually combined with convection, and in some cases with radiation

femperature body to a body at a lower temperature when the bodies are!

Digitized by Coogle Original from

Any meaningful engineering analysis demands a quantitative answer.

Digiti zed by Coogle Orig inal from

equations governing each of the three modes of heat transfer. Later we

Direction of Heat Flow Direct5on of Heat flow

Conduction. The basic relation for heat transfer by conduction was

q" = -kA dT (1-1)

Digitized by Google Original from

FIG. 1-2. Variation of thermal conductivitv of

For dimensional consistency of Eq. 1-1, the rate of heat flow qk is

Btu 'hr ~q ft Btu

Digitized by Coogle Original from

Thermal conductivities of engineering materials at atmospheric pressure

The limits of integration can be checked by inspection of Fig. 1-3, where

In this equation ~T, the temperature difference bet,veen the higher

Digitized by Coogle Original from

The reciprocal of the thermal resistance is referred to as the thermal con-