Bangalore Institute of technology

Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering

Robotics and Automation- 15EI64 / 17EI64

Neethashree N R
Assistant professor
Dept of EIE, BIT
 Teaching Hours Examination – Credits (Marks)
Course Code Course Title
Theory Duration IA Exam Total

Robotics and
15EI64/17EI64 04 Hours/Week 03 Hours 20/40 80/60 100
Automation
Module -1
Fundamentals of Robotics &Automation: Automation and robotics, history of
robotics, robotics market and future prospects, robot anatomy, work volume, robot
drive systems, control systems, precision of movement, end effectors, robotic
sensors, robot programming and work cell control, robot applications,
problems.[Textbook-1]
Automation Concepts: SCADA, introduction and brief history of SCADA,
SCADA systems software, distributed control system (DCS), introduction to the
PLC, considerations and benefits of SCADA system. [Textbook-2]

Module -2
Robot Motion Analysis, Sensors and Control: Introduction to manipulator
kinematics, homogeneous transformations and robot kinematics, manipulator path
control, robot dynamics, configuration of a robot controller, types of end effecters,
mechanical grippers, other types of grippers, tools as end effectors, robot/end
effector interface, consideration in gripper selection and design, problems.

Sensors in Robotics: Transducers and sensors, sensors in robotics, tactile sensors,

proximity and range sensors, uses of sensors in robotics, problems. [Textbook-1]
Module -3
Machine Vision, Robot Programming & Artificial Intelligence: Introduction to
machine vision, sensing and digitizing function in machine vision, image processing and
analysis, training the vision system, robotic applications, problems. Robot Programming:
Methods of robot programming, lead - through programming methods, a robot program as
a path in space, motion interpolation, wait, signal and delay commands, branching,
capabilities and limitations of lead-through methods, problems.

Artificial Intelligence (AI): Introduction & goals of AI in research, AI techniques, LISP

programming, AI & robotics, LISP in factory, robotic paradigms, and problems.
[Textbook-1]

Module -4

Robotics in Manufacturing/Automation , Material Transfer, Machine

Loading/Unloading:
Robot cell layouts, multiple robots and machine interference, considerations in work -cell
design, work cell control, interlocks, error detection and recovery, work -cell controller,
robot cycle time analysis, graphic simulation of robotic work-cells, problems.

Material Transfer, Machine Loading/Unloading: General considerations in robot

material handling, material transfer applications, machine loading and unloading.
[Textbook-1]
Module -5

Robots in Automatic Processing Operations, Assembly & Inspection:

Introduction, spot welding, continuous arc welding, spray coating, other processing
operations. Assembly and robotic assembly automation, parts presentation methods,
assembly operations, compliance and remote center compliance (RCC) device,
assembly system configurations, adaptable programmable assembly system,
designing for robotic assembly, inspection automation. [Textbook-1]

Autonomous Mobile Robots: Introduction, Planning & Navigation: Introduction,

basic control scheme for mobile robots (only basic understanding of perception,
localization, path planning & motion control). [Textbook-3]
Text Books:

1. Mikell P. Groover, Mitchel Weiss, Roger N. Nagel, Nicholas G. Odrey and

Ashish Dutta, “Industrial Robotics: Technology, Programming and
Applications”, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 2012.

2. Srinivas Medida, Pocket Guide on Industrial Automation: For Engineers and

Technicians, 1st Edition, IDC Technologies, 2007.
(http://www.pacontrol.com/download/Industri al-Automation- Pocket-Guide.pdf)

3. Roland Siegwart, Illah R. Nourbakhsh, and Davide Scaramuzza, “Introduction to

Autonomous Mobile Robots”, 2ndEdition, PHI, 2011.

Reference Books:

1. Ghosh, Control in Robotics and Automation: Sensor Based Integration, Allied

Publishers,
Chennai, 1998.

2. Asfahl C.R., Robots and manufacturing Automation, John Wiley, USA 1992.
 Module -1
Fundamentals of Robotics and Automation
 Automation and Robotics

• In industrial context, automation is a technology that is concerned with the

use of mechanical, electronic and computer based system in the operation
and control of production

» Transfer lines
» Mechanized assembly machines
» Feedback control system
» Numerically controlled machine tools
» Robots
Robotics is a form of industrial automation

Three broad classes of industrial automation

• Fixed automation
• Programmable automation
• Flexible automation
 Fixed automation
• Used when the volume of production is very high

• It is appropriate to design specialized equipment to process the product (or

component of the product) very efficiently and at high production rates
– Automobile industry – highly integrated transfer lines consisting of
several work stations used to perform machining operations on engine
and transmission components

• Economics of fixed automation is divided over larger number of units,

resulting in relatively low unit cost.

Drawbacks:
• Initial investment cost is high
• After the product’s life cycle is finished, the equipment is likely to
become obsolete
 Programmable automation

• Used when volume of production is relatively low and there are variety of
products to be made.
• Production equipment is designed to be adaptable to variations
• Adaptability is accomplished by operating the equipment under the control
of a program
• Program is read into production equipment to perform the particular
sequence of processing operations to make product.
• Many different and unique products can be made economically in small
batches
 Flexible automation
• Combination of first two types
• Product variety and production volume
• It includes flexible manufacturing system (FMS) and computer integrated
manufacturing systems(CIMS)
• Most suitable for mid volume production range
• It consists of a series of workstations that are interconnected by a material
handling and storage system
• Computer (centralized) to control the various activities
– Routing the various parts to the appropriate stations
– Controlling the programmed operations at the different stations
• After the completion of each batch, the equipment is reprogrammed to
process the next batch.
• Versatility is made possible through computational power of the control
computer
 Robotics

Closely coincides with programmable automation

A industrial robot is a general purpose, programmable machine which

possesses certain anthromorphic or human like characteristics

Industrial operations can be automated or semi automated

Examples
– Machine loading and unloading
– Spot welding
– Spray painting

Official definition is framed by the “Robotics Industries Association”

(RIA)
Definition:
An industrial robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or special
devices through variable programmed motions for the performance
of a variety of tasks.
• Robotics is an applied engineering science that has been referred to as a
combination of machine tool technology and computer science

• It includes diverse fields

– Machine design
– Control theory
– Micro electronics
– Computer programming
– Artificial intelligence
– Human factor
– Product theory

• Highly interdependent
• End effector to handle parts and tools
• Robots work with sensors, tools and grippers
 Robot anatomy

• Concerned with the physical construction of the body, arm, and wrist of the
machine.
• Body, arm and wrist – “Manipulator”
• Relative movements are provided by a series of joints
• Movement – rotating or sliding

• Manipulator is mounted on a base, fastened to the floor.

» Arm and body joints - used to position the end effector
» Wrist joints – used to orient the end effector

• Industrial robots – wide variety of sizes, shapes and physical

configurations.
Four basic configurations

1. Polar configuration

2. Cylindrical configuration

3. Cartesian configuration

4. Jointed arm configuration

Polar configuration
» Uses telescoping arm
» Raised or lowered about a horizontal pivot
» Pivot is mounted on a rotating base
» Capability to move its arm within a spherical coordinate

Eg: Unimate 2000 series, MAKER 110 ( smaller than Unimate 2000)
Cylindrical configuration

• Uses vertical column and slide that can be moved up or down along
the column
• Robot arm is attached to the slide
• Also moved radially with respect to column

Eg: GMF Model

Cartesian configuration
Uses three perpendicular slides
X, Y and Z axis
Capable of operating within a rectangular work envelope

Eg: IBM RS – 1

Gantry robot is the another name used for Cartesian robots – generally
large and possesses the appearance of a gantry type crane
Jointed arm configuration
» Similar to that of the human arm
» Two straight components corresponding to human fore arm and upper
arm
» Mounted on a vertical pedestal
» Connected by two rotary joints corresponding to the shoulder and
elbow
» Wrist attached to the end of the fore arm
Eg:
» Cincinnati Milacron T3 (Model 776) robot
» SCARA – Selective compliance assembly robot arm – provides
substantial rigidity for the robot in vertical direction
• Relative advantages and disadvantages of the robot – anatomies simply
because of their geometries
• Repeatability – Cartesian robots are preferable (inherently rigid structure)
• Reach – Polar and jointed arm
• Lift capacity – cylindrical and gantry xyz robot (high rigidity and load
carrying capacity)
• Machine loading and unloading applications
– Ability of the robot to reach into a small opening without interference
– Polar and cylindrical configuration
 Robot motions

• Industrial robots are designed to perform productive work

• Enabling the robot to move its body, arm and wrist through a series of
motion and positions
• Wrist - End Effector – performs specific tasks
• Robot’s movements
• Arm and body motions
• Wrist motions
• Individual joint motions – “Degree of freedom”
• Robot motions – accomplished by means of powered joints
• Connecting the various manipulator joints together are rigid members
called link
• Output link moves wrt input link
• Relative motion of the adjoining links either linear or rotational
For robots of polar cylindrical or jointed arm configuration, 3 DOF
associated with arm and body motions

1. Vertical traverse – move wrist up or down to provide desired

vertical attitude.
2. Radial traverse – This involves extension or retraction of the
arm from vertical center of the robot
3. Rotational traverse – Rotation of the arm about vertical axis.

Vertical – z axis
In and out – y axis
Right or left – x axis

Wrist movement is designed to enable the robot to orient the end

effector properly wrt the task
• Degree of freedom, in mechanics context, are specific, defined
modes in which a mechanical device or system can move.

✔ Up-down
✔ Forward-backward
✔ Right-left
✔ Roll
✔ Pitch
✔ Yaw
• Wrist roll
• Wrist pitch
• Wrist yaw
Joint notation scheme

• Physical configuration of the robot manipulator can be

described by means of “joint notation scheme”

T - Twisting
R - Rotational
L - Linear
V - Revolving
Robot configuration (arm and body) Symbol
Polar configuration TRL
Cylindrical configuration TLL, LTL, LVL
Cartesian configuration LLL
Jointed arm configuration TRR, VVR

Robot configuration (wrist) Symbol

Two axis wrist :RT
Three axis wrist :TRT
Notation system can be expanded to include wrist motion

Eg: Robots can move on a track in the floor or along an overhead rail
system in the factory

• TRL:TRT
– polar configuration (arm and body)
– Three axis wrist
• L-TRL:TRT
– Driven along a track between several machine tools(linear
motion)
Work volume

• Refers to space within which the robot can manipulate its wrist end
• The work volume is determined by the following physical
characteristics of the robot

1. Robot’s physical configuration

2. Sizes of the arm, body and wrist components
3. Limits of the robot’s joint movements
 Robot configuration Work volume
Polar configuration Partial sphere
Cylindrical configuration Cylindrical work envelope
Cartesian configuration Rectangular work space
Jointed arm configuration spherical

Size of each work volume is influenced by the dimensions of the arm

components
 Robot drive system
• The robot’s capacity to move its body, arm and wrist is provided by the
drive system.
• To power the robot
• Drive system determines
• The speed of the arm movements
• Strength of the robot
• Dynamic performance

Types of drive systems

Commercially available industrial robots are powered by one of three types

2. Hydraulic drive
3. Electric drive
4. Pneumatic drive
 Hydraulic drive systems

• Generally associated with larger robots(such as Unimate 2000

series)
• Advantage-provides the robot with greater speed and strength
• Disadvantage
– adds to the floor space required by the robot
– Inclined to leak oil
• Designed to actuate either
– Rotational joints - rotary vane actuators can be utilized
– Linear joints – hydraulic pistons can be used
 Electric drive systems
• Generally associated with smaller robots, requiring less floor space
• Applications tend towards more precise work such as assembly
Eg : MAKER 110

• Actuated by dc stepping motors or dc servomotors

• Actuation of rotational joints through appropriate drive train and
gear systems
• Electric motors can be used to actuate linear joints (Eg: telescopic
arms) by means of pulley systems.
 Pneumatic drive systems
• Generally reserved for smaller robots that possess fewer degree of freedom
(2 - 4 joint motions).
• Often limited to “ pick and place “operations with fast cycles.
• Pneumatic power can be readily adapted to the actuation of piston devices
to provide either translation movement of sliding joints or rotary motion of
rotational joints.
 Speed of motion
• Speed capabilities of current industrial robots range up to a maximum of
about 1.7 m/s (5ft/sec)
• Speed would be measured at the wrist
• Hydraulic tend to be faster than electric drive
• Determination of the most desirable speed, to minimize the production
cycle time, would also depends on other factors
– The accuracy with which end effector must be positioned
– The weight of the object being manipulated
– The distances to be moved
• Accuracy is inversely related to speed
 Load carrying capacity
• Size, configuration, construction and drive system determine the
load carrying capacity of the robot
• Load capacity should be specified under robot’s arm in its weakest
position
Eg :
– prab versatran model FC – Rated load capacity of 2000lb
– MAKER 110 – 5lb
• Manufacturer’s specification of this feature as the gross weight capacity
• User must consider the weight of the end effector
Eg:
– Robot – rated capacity – 5lb
– End effector -2lb, then net weight –carrying capacity of the robot
would be only 3lb
 Control system and dynamic performance

In order to operate, a robot must have a means of controlling its drive

system to properly regulate its motion

Four types of robot controls

1. Limited – sequence robots
2. Playback robots with point-to-point control
3. Playback robots with continuous path control
4. Intelligent robots
 Limited sequence robots

• Lowest level of control

• Do not use servo control to indicate relative position of the joints
• Controlled by setting limit switch and /or mechanical stops to
establish the end points to travel
• Establishing positions and sequence of these stops involves a
mechanical setup of the manipulator rather than robot
programming
• Motion cycle – stepping switch or other sequencing device
• Robot controller – signals each of the particular actuators to
operate in the proper succession
• No feedback associated with a limited sequence
• Any of the three drive system can be used
• However, pneumatic drive – commonly employed
• Application – simple motions
Eg: Pick and place operation
 Playback robots

• More sophisticated control unit in which series of positions or

motions are “taught”.
• Teaching and recording into memory – programming the robot
• Taught , recorded into memory and repeated under its own control
• Form of control – servo control – to achieve position

Eg: closed loop feedback system

Again classified into two categories

1. Playback robots with point to point control
2. Playback robots with continuous path control
 Playback robots with point to point control

• Motion cycle – series of desired point locations and related actions

• Points recorded into robot’s control unit
• Motion from one point to another in the proper sequence
• Limited amount of control over the desired path
• Programming a series of points

Eg: Loading and unloading machines, spot welding

 Playback robots with continuous path control

• Motion cycle - path followed by robot controller

– Moves through series of closely spaced points which describe the desired
path
• Individual points – defined by the control unit rather the
programming
• Programmer specifies the start point and end point of the path,
control unit calculates the sequence of individual joints for straight
line trajectory
• Controller unit is capable of storing large number of individual
point locations that define the compound curved line
• Involves the use of digital computer as a robot controller
• Industrial applications

Eg: spray coating, arc welding

 Intelligent robots

• Growing class of robots in industries

• Playback a programmed motion cycle and also interact with its
environment
• Controller unit consists of a digital computer(programmable
controller)
• It can alter their programmed cycle in response to conditions of
workplace
• Logical decisions based on sensor data
 Speed of Response and Stability

• Speed and stability – Important characteristics of dynamic performance related to

control system design
• Speed of response – capability of the robot to move to next position in a short amount
of time
• Stability – measure of the oscillations which occur in the arm during movement from
one position to the next
• Good Stability – no oscillations either during or at the termination of the arm
movement
• Generally desirable – good stability and fast response time
• Stability can be controlled by incorporating damping elements into the robot's design
• High level damping – increases robot’s stability
• Damping reduce its tendency towards oscillations
• High damping
– Reduces the speed of response
– No oscillatory motion about final position
• Low damping
– Moves to the programmed position quickly
– Exhibits considerable oscillation about the position
 Precision of movement

Another measure of performance is precision of the robot’s movement

• Spatial Resolution
• Accuracy
• Repeatability
 Spatial resolution
• Smallest increment of movement into which the robot can divide its work
volume
• Depends on
– System control resolution
– Robot’s mechanical in accuracies
• Increments – addressable points
• Ability to divide – depends on the bit storage capacity
• Control resolution – determined by the robot’s position control system and
its feedback measurement system
• To obtain control resolution for the entire robot
– Component resolution for each joint is vectorially summed
– Depends on wrist motion as well as arm and body motions
• Robot’s control resolution
– complicated Quantity to determine(joints are likely to be rotary while
others are sliding)
• Mechanical inaccuracies contribution to spatial resolution
– Elastic deflection in the structural members
– Gear backslash
– Stretching in pulley cords
– Leakage of hydraulic fluids
– Other imperfections
Also influenced by factors such as

– Load being handled

– Speed of arm
– Condition of maintenance
– Other similar factors
 Accuracy

• Refers to a robot’s ability to position its wrist end at a desired target point
with in the work volume
• It can also be defined in terms of spatial resolution
• How closely the robot can define the control increments
• Accuracy applies to the worst case, where the target position is directly
between two control points
Factors affecting accuracy

• Varies within the work volume(better when the arm is closer to its base)
– Mechanical inaccuracies(improved if the motion cycle is restricted to a
limited work range)
– Limited workspace – local accuracy
– Full work volume – global accuracy
• Load being carried by the robot
 Repeatability

• Concerned with robot’s ability to position its wrist or an end effector

attached to its wrist at appoint in space that had previously been taught to
the robot
• Repeatability and accuracy – two different aspects
• Accuracy – relates to the robot’s capacity to be programmed to achieve a
given target point
• Repeatability refers to the robot’s ability to return to the programmed point
when commanded to do so
• T – Target point
During Teach procedure

• Robot is commanded to move to point T, because of accuracy limitations –

program position becomes point P
• The distance between P and R is a result of limitations on robot’s
repeatability
• Repeatability errors form a random variable and constitute a statistical
distribution
• Bell shaped curve – normally distributed random variables
• Resulting aggregate error
• In 3-D space, the repeatability errors will surround the programmed point P
, forming a distribution , as a sphere
 Compliance

• Refers to the displacement of the wrist end in response to the a force

or torque exerted against it
• It is a directional feature
• Compliance is very important, because it reduces the robot’s
precision of movement under load (reaction force of the part may
cause deflection of the manipulator – Heavy load)
• Load condition needs to be considered while programming
 End effector

• Industrial robots – Augmented by means of additional devices

( robot’s peripherals)
• Includes tooling and sensor system which allow robot to
interact
• End effector represents the special tooling that permits the
general purpose robot to perform a particular application.
• Specifically designed for application
• End effector – two categories
Grippers
Tools
• Grippers
• utilized to grasp an object or work part and hold it during robot
work cycle
• Grasping between two or more fingers
• Additional method includes
» Suction cups
» Magnets , hooks
» Scoops
• Tool
• Required to perform some operation on the work part
• Tools attached to accomplish the applications
• Spot welding, arc welding, drilling, spray painting
 Robotic Sensors

• Sensors are used as peripherals devices

• Integral components of the robot’s position feedback control system

• To permit coordination with different activities

✔ Tactile sensors
– Sensors which respond to contact forces with another project
– Capable of measuring the level of force involved
– Proximity and range sensors

✔ Proximity and range sensors: A proximity sensor is device that

indicates when an object is close to another object(before contact has been
made)

✔ Miscellaneous types- temperature , pressure and other variables

✔ Machine vision
– capable of viewing the workspace and interpreting what it sees
– Used in robotics to perform inspection, parts recognition and other
similar tasks
 Robot programming and work cell control
• Robot program can be defined as a path in space through
which the manipulator is directed to move
• To reach robot
• Path also includes controlling of end effector and receiving
signals from sensors
Two basic programming methods

1. Lead through programming

2. Textual language programming
 Lead through programming
• Forcing robot arm to move through motion sequence – recording
motion to controller memory – repeat
• Playback robots
Point to point playback
✔ Control box (teach pendant) to drive the robots joints to desired
position
✔ Record for subsequent playback
Teach pendant – equipped with a series of switches and dial to control
robot’s movement
✔ Continuous path playback – straight line- teach two points
✔ Robot controller computes the trajectory in order to follow the path
✔ For more complex
Eg : spray painting
Programmer physically move the robot arm and end effector through
desired path and records position(closely spaced sampling intervals)
 Textual programming methods

• Uses English like language to establish the logic and sequence of the
work cycle
• Computer terminal to input program instruction into the controller
and teach pendant to define location of points in workspace
• Robot languages permit
In addition to identification of points

✔ use of calculation
✔ Logic flow
✔ Sub routines in the program
✔ Sensors
✔ communications
 Sample program

SPEED 35 IPS
MOVE P1
CLOSE 40 MM
WAIT 1 SEC
DEPART 60 MM

✔ Velocity of the wrist – 35 in/sec

✔ Move gripper to point P1 and close to an opening of 40mm
✔ Directed to wait for 1.0 s before departing from P1 by a distance of
60 mm above the point
Future enhancement
✔ Offline programming without teach pendant to define points

Advantages – programming can be accomplished without taking the robot out of

production, without major time delay for reprogramming

Current methods (Traditional methods) – requires participation of robots to

perform programming.

Offline programming – defining the spatial locations of the positions

In addition to lead through and textual – another form of programming “ low

technology limited sequence robots”
✔ Programmed using
– limit switches , mechanical stops (mechanical programming)
– Involves more of a manual setup procedure
– Limited tasks(sequences)
• Eg : Pick and place robots
 Work cell control
• Deals with the problem of coordinating robot to operate with other
equipment in the work cell
• Robot cell consists of

✔ Conveyors
✔ Machine tools
✔ Inspection devices
✔ Human operators
• Some activities are sequential and other are simultaneous
• Purpose of work cell is to control and synchronize various activities
• Work cell control is accomplished by robot controller or programmable
controller
• Controller communicate signals to equipment and receives signals back
from the equipment - Interlocks
 Robot applications

• Wide assortment of applications in industry

• Current applications- material handling, processing applications,

assembly and inspection(non manufacturing tasks)

• Future applications
– Space exploration
– Construction works
– Medical care
– House hold robots
 Three categories

• Material handling and machine loading and unloading applications

– Move materials or parts
– MAKER 110- Material handling
– Unimate 2000- Machine loading/unloading operation for a machine tool
• Processing applications
– Spot welding, arc welding, Spray coating
– Manipulate a tool to accomplish task
• Assembly and inspection
– Economical potential
– SCARA- Assembly operation
– Inspection robots- use of sensors to gauge and measure quality,
characteristics of manufactured products