Tech Spec 4 Structural Design

Te c h S p e c 4
Structural Design of Interlocking Concrete Pavement

for Roads and Parking Lots
History
The concept of in- from petroleum products or indentations from high tem-
terlocking concrete peratures. Once installed, there is no waiting time for cur-
pavement dates back ing. The pavement is immediately ready for traffic. Cracking
to the roads of the and degradation of the surface is minimized because of the
Roman Empire. See numerous sand-filled joints which act as a means for load
Figure 1. They were transfer without damaging the pavement surface. Like flex-
constructed with ible asphalt pavement, an aggregate base accommodates
tightly-fitted stone minor settlement without surface cracking. An aggregate
paving units set on a base facilitates fast construction, as well as access to under-
compacted aggregate ground utilities. Mechanical installation of concrete pavers
base. The modern ver- can further reduce construction time and costs. Pavement
sion, concrete pav- reinstatement is enhanced by reusing paving units, thereby
ers, is manufactured minimizing costs and reducing waste.
with close tolerances
to help ensure inter- The Principle of Interlock
lock. Concrete pavers Figure 1. The Roman Appian Way: Interlock is the inability of a paver to move independently
were developed in early interlocking pavement from its neighbors. It is critical to the structural performance
the Netherlands in of interlocking concrete pavement. When considering design
the late 1940s as a and construction, three types of interlock must be achieved:
replacement for clay brick streets. A strong, millennia-old vertical, rotational, and horizontal interlock. These are il-
tradition of segmental paving in Europe enabled interlocking lustrated in Figure 2. Vertical interlock is achieved by shear
concrete pavement to spread quickly. It is now established as transfer of loads to surrounding units through sand in the
a conventional means of paving there with some four billion joints. Rotational interlock is maintained by the pavers be-
ft2 (400 million m2) installed annually. Concrete pavers came ing of sufficient thickness, meeting recommended plan and
to North America in the 1970s. They have been used success- aspect ratios, placed closely together, and restrained by a
fully in numerous residential, commercial, municipal, port curb from lateral forces of vehicle tires. Rotational interlock
and airport applications. This Tech Spec covers the structural can be further enhanced if there is a slight crown to the pave-
design of interlocking concrete pavement over an aggregate ment cross section. Besides facilitating drainage, the crown
base as well as asphalt and cement stabilized bases, asphalt enables the pavement surface to stiffen and further lock up
concrete and Portland cement concrete bases. as the pavement undergoes vehicle loading due to traffic.
Horizontal interlock is primarily achieved through the use
Advantages of laying patterns that disperse forces from braking, turning
The paving system offers the advantages of concrete materi- and accelerating vehicles. Herringbone patterns are the
als and flexible asphalt pavement. As high-strength concrete, most effective laying patterns for maintaining interlock (see
the units have high resistance to freeze-thaw cycles and Figure 3). Testing has shown that these patterns offer greater
deicing salts, high abrasion and skid resistance, no damage structural capacity and resistance to lateral movement than
© 1995 ICPI Tech Spec No. 4 • Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute • Revised February 2020 • All rights reserved
Load Load
Load
Load Load
Load Horizontal
Displaced Displaced Horizontal
Displacement
Horizontal
Bedding Sand Bedding Sand Displacement t
Displacement
No Horizontal Interlock No Vertical Interlock No Rotational Interlock
Load Load
Load
Horizontal Interlock Vertical Interlock Rotational Interlock
Figure 2. Types of interlock: horizontal, vertical, rotational
other laying patterns (Shackel 1979 and 1980). Therefore, cies may use open-graded drainage bases as well. Many
herringbone patterns are recommended in areas subject to pavements for city and residential uses do not require an
vehicular traffic. See Figure 3. Stable edge restraints such as aggregate subbase except for very heavy use or over a weak
curbs are essential. They provide better horizontal interlock soil subgrade. In these situations it may be more economi-
among the units while they are subject to repeated lateral cal to use asphalt or cement-stabilized base layers. They are
loads from vehicle tires. ICPI Tech Spec 3–Edge Restraints for often placed over a subbase layer of unbound compacted
Interlocking Concrete Pavements offers guidance on the selec- aggregate and cement-stabilized soil offers another option
tion and detailing of edge restraints for a range of applications. for improving structural capacity.
Construction is covered in ICPI Tech Spec 2–Construction
Typical Pavement Design and Construction of Interlocking Concrete Pavement. The steps for preparing
Flexible pavement design uses untreated aggregate, cement- the soil subgrade and base materials are similar to those
or asphalt-treated aggregates or asphalt under the concrete required for flexible asphalt pavements. After the base sur-
pavers and bedding layer. Flexible pavements distribute the face is built to specified elevations and surface tolerances,
loads to the subgrade by spreading them through consecu- bedding sand is screeded in an even layer, typically 1 in. (25
tively weaker layers to the compacted soil subgrade. Such mm) thick. The units are placed, manually or mechanically,
pavements are often preferred in colder climates because on the even bedding sand constrained by stationary edge
they can offer greater protection against frost heaving. Figure restraints. Slopes should be a minimum of 1.5%. In the case
4 illustrates typical schematic cross sections for interlocking of roads, the minimum longitudinal slope should be 1% with
concrete pavement designed as a flexible system. The base a minimum cross slope of 2%.
and subbase are compacted aggregate. Some road agen-
45° Herringbone 90° Herringbone
Figure 3. Laying patterns for vehicular traffic
ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 2

materials. Design for heavy duty pavements such as port and
Concrete Pavers Joint Sand
airport pavements is covered in ICPI manuals entitled, Port
and Industrial Pavement Design for Concrete Pavers and Airfield
Edge
Bedding Pavement Design with Concrete Pavers.
Sand
Restraint/
Curb Compacted Unbound Design Methodology
Aggregate Base
Structural design of interlocking concrete pavements follows
the American Society of Civil Engineers Transportation &
Compacted Unbound Development Institute standard (ASCE/T&DI 58-16), Struc-
Aggregate Sub-Base
tural Design of Interlocking Concrete Pavement for Municipal
Streets and Roadways (ASCE 2016). This standard applies to
Compacted Subgrade Soil
paved areas subject to applicable permitted axle loads and
(A) Unbound Base/Subbase trafficked up to 10 million (18,000 lb or 80 kN) equivalent
single axle loads (ESALs) with a vehicle speed of up to 45
Concrete Pavers Joint Sand
mph (70 km/h). The standard provides information required
for design, key design elements, design tables for pavement
Edge
Bedding equivalent structural design, construction considerations, ap-
Sand
Restraint/ plicable standards, definitions and best practices. Readers are
Curb Compacted Cement or
Asphalt Treated Base
encouraged to purchase and review this guideline standard.
The ASCE standard relies on the flexible pavement design
method described in the 1993 Guide for Design of Pavement
Compacted Unbound
Aggregate Sub-Base
Structures published by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO 1993). Future
versions of the ASCE standard may include the mechanistic-
Compacted Subgrade Soil
empirical design methodology as described in the 2004 Guide
(B) Cement or Asphalt Treated Base for Mechanistic Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated
Pavement Structures (AASHTO 2004). The level of detailed
Figure 4. Typical schematic cross sections information required to use this procedure is unavailable for
most non-highway applications.
The pavers are vibrated with a minimum 5,000 lbf (22 kN),
The design process is characterized by the flowchart shown
high frequency plate compactor. This action forces sand into
in Figure 5. The following provides information on the key
the bottom of the joints of the pavers and begins compac-
input variables noted in the flowchart.
tion of the bedding sand. Sand is then spread and swept into
Design Traffic—When pavement is trafficked, it receives
the joints, and the process repeated until the joints are filled.
wear or damage usually evidenced as the depth of rutting in
Complete compaction of the joint sand and slight settle-
flexible asphalt pavements and the extent of cracking in rigid
ment of the pavers tightens them. During compaction, the
concrete pavements. For interlocking concrete pavements,
pavement is transformed from a loose collection of pavers damage is typically measured by the depth of rutting since
to an interlocking system capable of spreading vertical loads it behaves as a flexible pavement similar to asphalt. Cracked
horizontally. This occurs through shear forces in the joints. paving units are rarely evidence of a pavement damaged by
Structural Design Procedure traffic loads and therefore are not typically used as a means
The load distribution and failure modes of flexible asphalt and to estimate damage or wear of an interlocking concrete
interlocking concrete pavement are very similar: permanent pavement.
As with all pavements, the amount of damage from traffic
deformation from repetitive loads. Since failure modes are
depends on the weight of the vehicles and the number of
similar, flexible pavement design procedures are used. The
expected passes over a given period of time. The period of
structural design procedures are for roads and parking lots.
time, or design life, is 20 to 40 years. Design life is the period
Base design for crosswalks should consider using stablized
of time a pavement will last before damage requires major
aggregate or cast-in-place concrete with sand-set paving
rehabilitation, often complete removal and replacement. The
units, or bitumen-set paving units over concrete. Additonal
designer or transportation agency selects a design life in years
information on crosswalk design and bitumen-set applica-
which is influenced by the available budget to construct or
tions can be found in the following two ICPI Tech Specs: Tech
rehabilitate a pavement.
Spec 19–Design, Construction and Maintenance of Interlocking
Predicting traffic over the life of the pavement is an esti-
Concrete Pavement Crosswalks and Tech Spec 20 –Construction
mate of various vehicle loads, axle and wheel configurations,
of Bituminous-Sand Set Interlocking Concrete Pavement. Stiffer
and the number of loads (repetitions). The actual amount of
bases will compensate for stress concentration on the sub-
traffic loads can often exceed the predicted loads. Therefore,
grade and base where the pavers meet adjoining pavement

Figure 5. Design Process Flow Chart – *Indicates outside scope of the standard

engineering judgment is required in estimating expected each pass of the vehicle over a pavement. Another way to
sources of traffic and loads well into the future. When future illustrate this is one single axle load of 36,000 lbs (160 kN)
traffic loads are difficult to predict, an engineer will often exerts the same damage as 16 passes of a single axle load of
design a pavement for higher loads to ensure that the risk 18,000 lbs (80 kN) or (36/18)4 = 16. Therefore, doubling the
of excessive pavement damage is low over the service life of axle load increases the damage 16 times.
the pavement. The California Department of Transportation or Caltrans
Compared to cars, trucks and busses do the most damage uses Traffic Index or TI rather than ESALs. Converting ESALs
to pavements because their wheel loads are much higher to TI is accomplished by using the formula below. Table 1
than cars. One pass of a fully loaded truck will exert more illustrates the relationships between ESALs and TIs. Table
damage to pavement than several thousand cars passing 2 provides AASHTO road classifications and typical lifetime
over it. Since there is a range of expected loads (usually ex- ESALs and TIs.
pressed as axle loads) over a pavement during its life, AASHTO
developed a means to normalize or equalize all axle loads of
them into a single axle load exerted repeatedly over the life
of the pavement.
The 1993 AASHTO Guide characterizes traffic loads as the For the ASCE standard, ESAL levels are provided for 10
number of 80 kN or 18,000 lbs equivalent single axle loads typical levels of municipal traffic up to a maximum of 10
or ESALs. The 18,000 lbs (80 kN) load emerged from AASHTO million ESALs. The designer needs to select the appropriate
(then called AASHO) road tests conducted in the 1950s and traffic level and design life. The typical initial design life for
have remained as a convenient means to quantify a range of municipal pavements is on the order of 20 to 40 years.
different vehicle axle loads. The AASHTO tests demonstrated Subgrade Characterization—The next step is for the
that loads and resulting damage to pavement is not linear designer to characterize the subgrade soil and drainage for
but exponential as loads increase. The tests showed that for the purpose of selecting a subgrade strength. Typically the
every incremental increase in axle load, damage to the pave- resilient modulus or Mr (AASHTO T-307) is used to describe
ment increased by roughly the fourth power. This exponential
load-damage relationship resulted in determining ESALs by
taking the weight of each axle and dividing each by a ‘stan- Table 1. Relationship of ESALs to
dard’ ESAL of 18,000 lbs or 80 kN. Then the quotient is raised Caltrans TIs
to the fourth power.
For example, a five axle tractor-trailer truck has two rear ESAL TI
axles on the trailer each exerting 18,000 lbs or 80 kN; two on
the back of the truck at 15,800 lbs or 70 kN; and one in the 5x104 6
front (steering) at 11,000 lbs or 50 kN. AASHTO uses the fol- 1x105 6.8
lowing relationships called load equivalency factors or LEFs
for each axle to estimate ESALs. These express the exponential 3x105 7.2
relationship between damage and loads. LEF and ESALs for
this truck are as follows: 5x105 8.3
Trailer: LEF = (80/80)4 = 1 (x 2 axles) = 2 ESALs 7x105 8.6

Truck rear: LEF= (70/80)4 = 0.6 (x 2 axles) = 1.2 ESALs 1x106 9
Truck front: LEF = (50/80) = 0.15 ESALs
4
3x106 10.3
When added together, all LEFs = 3.35 ESALs. So for every
pass across a pavement, this truck exerts 3.35 80 kN (18,000 5x106 10.9
lbs) ESALs.
To put automobile axle loads into perspective, the axle 7x106 11.3
loads of one passenger car placed into the formula yields 1x107 11.8
about 0.0002 ESALs. Therefore, pavement design primarily
considers trucks and busses because they exert the highest 2x107 12.8
loads and most damage. In contrast, thousands of cars are
required to apply the same loading and damage as one pas- 3x107 13.5
sage of a truck.
The more axles on trucks the better, since tandem axles
spread loads over a wider area and render lower damage for

the strength of the subgrade Table 2. AASHTO Lifetime ESALs (Caltrans TI)
soil. This can be determined di-
ESAL (TI)
rectly from laboratory testing.
Other means to characterize Arterial Commercial/
Road Class Major Minor
soil strength include California or Major Multi-Family
Collectors Collectors
Bearing Ratio or CBR (ASTM Streets Locals
D1883) and R-value (ASTM 7,500,000 2,800,000 1,300,000 430,000
Urban
D2844) tests. The relationship (11.4) (10.2) (9.3) (8.1)
among Mr, CBR and R-value of 3,600,000 1,500,000 550,000 280,000
subgrade soils are character- Rural
(10.5) (9.4) (8.4) (7.7)
ized by the equations below:
Mr in psi = 2,555 * (CBR)0.64 to the user for guidance only. Actual laboratory characteriza-
Mr in MPa = 17.61 x CBR0.64 tion of subgrade properties for each project is recommended.
Designers are cautioned against making generalizations.
Mr in psi = 1,155 + 555 x R
Once the general subgrade type has been selected, then
Mr in MPa = (1,155 + 555 x R)/145
the drainage quality of the subgrade and pavement structure
The ASCE standard utilizes eight categories of subgrade is characterized (See Table 4). Depending on the type of
quality ranging from good quality gravels and rock with ex- subgrade, the strength of the pavement may be reduced if
cellent drainage to poor quality clay materials that are semi- there is excess water in the subgrade. The standard includes
impervious to water. Subgrade types are classified according an adjustment to the resilient modulus of the subgrade
to the Unified Soils Classification method (ASTM D2487). Soil based on the overall quality of the pavement drainage, as
categories in Table 3 are from the standard and are provided shown in Table 5.
Table 3. General Soil Categories and Properties (ASCE 2016)

Category Unified Soil Drainage Susceptibility to
Brief Description
No. Classification Characteristics Frost Action
Rock, rock fill, shattered rock, boulders/
1 Boulders/cobbles Excellent None
cobbles
Well graded gravels and sands suitable
2 GW, SW Excellent Negligible
as granular borrow
3 GP, SP Poorly graded gravels and sands Excellent to fair Negligible to slight
Fair to Slight to
4 GM, SM Silty gravels and sands
semi-impervious moderate
Practically impervi-
5 GC, SC Clayey gravels and sands Negligible to slight
ous
6 ML, MI Silts and sandy silts Typically poor Severe
Low plasticity clays and compressible Practically
7 CL, MH Slight to severe
silts impervious
Semi-impervious to
8 CI, CH Medium to high plasticity clays Negligible to severe
impervious
Table 4. Pavement Drainage According to Soil Category

(ASCE 2016)
Quality of Soil Category No.
Time to Drain
Drainage from Table 3
Good 1 day 1,2,3
Fair 7 days 3,4
Poor 1 month 4,5,6,7,8

Where local specifications are
Table 5. Resilient Modulus (Mr), R-Values and CBRs for Subgrade Drainage Conditions unavailable, the base material
(ASCE 2016) is required to meet the grada-
Drainage tion requirements according to
ASTM D 2940. Table 6 includes
Good Fair Poor
Category these requirements. The mini-
Mr Mr Mr
R CBR R CBR R CBR mum required strength of the
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
unbound base is a CBR of 80%
1 90 21 13 80 19 11 70 16 9 or equivalent bearing strength
2 80 19 11 70 16 9 50 11 5 as described by the test methods
in Section 3.6 of the standard.
3 70 16 9 50 11 5 35 7 3
Unbound base materials are
4 50 11 5 35 7 3 30 6 2 required to have a maximum
5 40 8 4 30 6 2 25 4 2 loss of 60% when tested in ac-
cordance with CSA A23.2-29A
6 30 6 2 25 4 2 18 3 1 (Micro-Deval abrasion) and a
7 27 5 2 20 3 1 15 2 1 maximum loss of 40% when
tested in accordance with ASTM
8 25 4 2 20 3 1 15 2 1
C 131 or CSA A23.2-17A (Los
Angeles abrasion).
The required plasticity index
Selection of Base Material—The next step in the design is a maximum of 6 and the maximum liquid limit of 25 when
process is selecting the type of base material for the pavement. tested in accordance with ASTM D4318 and AASHTO T-89
The standard supports the use of bound and unbound bases. and T-90. For constructability purposes, the minimum design
For unbound dense-graded bases, the aggregates are unbound base thickness is 4 in. (100 mm) for traffic less than
required to be crushed, angular materials. Crushed aggregate 500,000 ESALs and 6 in. (150 mm) for 500,000 or higher ESALs.
bases used in highway construction are generally suitable for Figure 6 illustrates a typical cross section with an unstabilized,
interlocking concrete pavement, and unbound base materials dense-graded base.
should meet the local state, provincial or municipal standards For bound or treated bases, asphalt-treated base (ATB)
governing base materials. and cement-treated base (CTB) materials and installation are
Table 6. ASTM D 2940 Gradation for Unbound Aggregate Bases and Subbases
Design Range* Job Mix Tolerances

Sieve Size (Mass Percentages Passing) (Mass Percentages Passing)
(square openings)
Bases Subbases Bases Subbases
2 in. (50 mm) 100 100 -2 -3
11/2 in. (37.5 mm) 95 to 100 90 to 100 ±5 +5

3/4 in. (19 mm) 70 to 92 ±8
3/8 in. (9.5 mm) 50 to 70 ±8
No. 4 (4.75 mm) 35 to 55 30 to 60 ±8 ±10
No. 30 (0.600 mm) 12 to 25 ±5
No. 200 (0.075 mm) 0 to 8** 0 to 12** ±3 ±5
*Select the Job Mix Formula with due regard to the availability of materials and service requirements of project. Test
results outside the design range are not prohibited, provided they are within the job mix tolerances.
**Determine by wet sieving. Where local environmental conditions (temperature and availability of free moisture) indicate
that in order to prevent damage by frost action it is necessary to have lower percentages passing the No. 200 (0.075
mm) sieve than permitted in Table 6, appropriate lower percentages shall be specified. When specified, the material
having a diameter smaller than 0.020 mm shall not exceed 3% mass.

CURB PAVER
12 IN. (300 mm) WIDE GEOTEXTILE

ALONG PERIMETER. TURN UP
AGAINST CURB
BEDDING SAND
CONCRETE CURB AND GUTTER

AGGREGATE BASE PER LOCAL STANDARDS
WITH 90 DEGREE FACE
DETAIL 'A'
CONCRETE PAVER
3 1/8 IN. (80 mm) MIN THICKNESS
12 IN. (300 mm) WIDE GEOTEXTILE

ALONG PERIMETER TURN UP
WALK / GRASS AGAINST CURB. SEE DETAIL 'A'
1 IN. (25 mm) BEDDING SAND

(COMPACTED THICKNESS)
COMPACTED AGGREGATE BASE
COMPACTED SOIL SUBGRADE
GEOTEXTILE AS REQUIRED
DRAIN SURROUNDED BY
OPEN-GRADED AGGREGATE
AND GEOTEXTILE AS REQUIRED
Figure 6. Typical cross section with an unstabilized, dense-graded base
required to conform to provincial, state or local specifications asphalt cement. The asphalt base layer thicknesses noted
for a dense-graded, compacted, asphalt concrete. ATB material in Table 11 vary between 2 in. (50 mm) and 8.5 in. (220 mm)
is required to have a minimum Marshall stability of 1,800 lbf depending on traffic, soil category and drainage conditions.
(8000 N) per ASTM D5 or AASHTO T-49. Use of the appropriate Subbase Materials—Aggregates for subbase are crushed,
asphalt (performance grade) binder for local climate condi- angular materials typically used in highway construction are
tions is also recommended. For example, a state department generally suitable for interlocking concrete pavement. All
of transportation Superpave intermediate binder course mix bound or treated bases are constructed over 4 to 8 in. (100 to
required for interstate or primary roads may be adequate. 200 mm) unbound dense-graded aggregate base as described
Cement-treated base material is required to have a minimum above. Unbound subbase materials are required to meet
7-day unconfined compressive strength of 650 psi (4.5 MPa) the local state, provincial or municipal standards governing
per ASTM D4320 and D4219. For constructability purposes, subbase materials. Local road agencies may also use open-
the minimum bound base thickness for design purposes is graded subbases for drainage. Where local specifications are
set at 4 in. (100 mm). Figure 7 illustrates a typical cross section unavailable, the subbase is required to meet the gradation
with treated bases or an asphalt base and drainage holes. requirements according to ASTM D2940 noted in Table 6.
Asphalt bases should conform to typical provincial, state or The required minimum strength of the unbound subbase is
municipal material and construction specifications for asphalt a CBR of 40% per ASTM D1883. The required plasticity index
pavements. This layer does not require a surface riding layer is a maximum of 10 and the maximum liquid limit of 25 ac-
of fine aggregate and consists of coarser aggregates and cording to ASTM D4318 and AASHTO T-90.

Compaction Requirements—Compaction of the sub- and overseas has shown that the combined paver and sand
grade soil during construction should be at least 95% Standard layers stiffen while exposed to greater numbers of axle loads.
Proctor Density as tested using AASHTO T-99 or ASTM D698 The progressive stiffening that results in “lock up” generally
for cohesive (clay) soils and at least 95% Modified Proctor occurs early in the life of the pavement, before 10,000 ESALs
density as tested using AASHTO T-180 or ASTM D1557 for (Rada 1990). Once this number of loads has been applied, Mr
cohesionless (sandy and gravelly) soils. The higher compac- = 450,000 psi (3,100 MPa) for the combined 3 1/8 in. (80 mm)
tion standards described in T-180 or D 1557 are preferred. thick paver and 1 in. (25 mm) of bedding sand. Pavement
The effective depth of compaction for all cases should be stiffening and stabilizing can be accelerated by static proof-
at least the top 12 in. (300 mm). Soils having an Mr of 4,500 rolling with an 8–10 ton (8–10 T) rubber tired roller.
psi (31 MPa) or less (CBR of 3% or less or R value of 8 or less) The above resilient modulus is similar to that of an
should be evaluated for replacement with a higher bearing equivalent thickness of asphalt. The 3 1/8 in. (80 mm) thick
strength material, installation of an aggregate subbase cap- pavers and 1 in. (25 mm) thick bedding sand together have
ping layer, improvement by cement stabilization or use of an AASHTO layer coefficient at least equal to the same thick-
geotextiles at the soil/subbase interface or geogrids. ATB ness of asphalt, i.e., 0.44 per inch (25 mm). This renders an
and CTB density testing should conform to provincial, state AASHTO Structural Number or SN of 4.125 in. x 0.44 = 1.82
or local requirements. In-place density testing of all of the for this pavement layer. The recommended Caltrans Gravel
soil subgrade and pavement layers should be included in Equivalency (GE) for the concrete paver layer = 2 and unlike
the project construction specifications and documented asphalt the GE for concrete pavers does not decrease with
with written testing reports. Density tests on the site project increasing TIs. The modulus or stiffness of the concrete paver
as part of construction quality control are critical to pavement layer will not substantially decrease as temperature increases
performance. Difficult to compact areas can include areas next nor will they become brittle in cold climates. The surfacing
to curbs, other pavements, and around utility structures. Such can withstand loads without distress and deterioration in
areas may require additional compaction or use of manual temperature extremes.
equipment to achieve specified densities. Bedding and Joint Sand Selection—Bedding sand
Structural Contribution of the Concrete Pavers and Bed- thickness should be consistent throughout the pavement
ding Sand Layer—Research using accelerated traffic studies and not exceed 1 in. (25 mm) after compaction. A thicker
and non-destructive structural testing in the United States sand layer will not provide stability. Very thin sand layers (less
CONCRETE CURB
CONCRETE PAVER
3 1/8 IN. (80 mm) MIN. THICKNESS
1 IN. (25 mm) BEDDING SAND
WOVEN GEOTEXTILE OVER JOINTS

AND CTB – TURN UP AT CURB (NOT
USED ON ATB)
ASPHALT-TREATED BASE (ATB),
CEMENT-TREATED BASE (CTB),
ASPHALT OR CONCRETE BASE
COMPACTED AGGREGATE SUBBASE
COMPACTED SOIL SUBGRADE UNDER GEOTEXTILE

(OPTIONAL CEMENT STABILIZED SOIL)
2 IN. (50 MM) DIA. DRAIN HOLE–

LOCATE AT LOWEST ELEVATIONS
AND FILL WITH PEA GRAVEL
Figure 7. Drain detail in treated bases

Table 7. Recommended Bedding Sand Gradation
Gradation for Bedding Sand
ASTM C33 CSA A23.1 FA1
Sieve Size Percent Passing Sieve Size Percent Passing
3/8 in.(9.5 mm) 100 10.0 mm 100
No. 4 (4.75 mm) 95 to 100 5.0 mm 95 to 100
No. 8 (2.36 mm) 80 to 100 2.5 mm 80 to 100
No. 16 (1.18 mm) 50 to 85 1.25 mm 50 to 90
No. 30 (0.6 mm) 25 to 60 630 µm 25 to 65
No. 50 (0.3 mm) 5 to 30 315 µm 10 to 35
No. 100 (0.15 mm) 0 to 10 160 µm 2 to 10
No. 200 (0.075 mm) 0 to 1 80 µm 0 to 1
Note: Bedding sands should conform to ASTM C33 or CSA A23.1 FA1 gradations for concrete sand. For ASTM C33, ICPI recommends the
additional limitations on the No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve as shown. For CSA A23.1 FA1, ICPI recommends reducing the maximum passing the
80 μm sieve from 3% to 1%.
than 3/4 in. [20 mm] after compaction) may not produce the for the pavers and bedding sand layer used in the standard,
locking up action obtained by sand migration upward into either by testing or confirmation from the manufacturer. ICPI
the joints during the initial compaction in construction. The takes a conservative approach by not recognizing differences
bedding layer should conform to the gradation in ASTM C 33, among paver shapes with respect to structural and functional
as shown in Table 7. Do not use screenings or stone dust. The performance. Certain manufacturers may have materials and
sand should be as hard as practically available and the par- data that discuss the potential benefits of shapes on func-
ticle shape should be sub-angular. ICPI Tech Spec 17–Bedding tional and structural performance in vehicular applications.
Sand Selection for Interlocking Concrete Pavements in Vehicular Subbase Thickness and Final Pavement Structural
Applications provides additional information on gradation Design—The required subbase thickness is determined
and test criteria on selecting bedding sands for pavements based on the design reliability, design life, estimated traffic,
subject to 1.5 million lifetime ESALs or higher. subgrade soil type, pavement structure drainage and base
Joint sand provides vertical interlock and shear transfer of type selected. Subbase thicknesses are determined from one
loads. It can be slightly finer than the bedding sand. Gradation of the four design tables. The design tables provide structural
for joint material should comply with ASTM C144 or CSA A179 design thicknesses primarily for unbound bases (granular
with a maximum 100% passing the No. 16 (1.18 mm) sieve base), ATB, and CTB. However, a thickness design table is also
and no more than 5% passing the No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve. provided for asphalt concrete (AC) bases to reduce thick pave-
Bedding sand may be used for joint sand. Additional effort ment structures associated with high traffic/low subgrade
in filling the joints during compaction may be required due strength conditions. In the development of the AC table, an
to its coarser gradation. AASHTO structural layer coefficient of 0.44 has been assumed
Concrete Paver Selection—Concrete pavers shall meet for AC. For AC layer coefficients other than 0.44, the designer is
the product requirements of ASTM C936 Standard Specifica- advised to consult the 1993 AASHTO Guide. Tables 8 through
tion for Solid Interlocking Paving Units in the United States and 11 show the design tables for unbound granular base, ATB,
CSA A231.2 Precast Concrete Pavers in Canada. For vehicular CTB and AC for 80% reliability factor using the 1993 AASHTO
applications, the ASCE standard requires pavers that have Guide. This reliability factor is slightly higher than the 75%
an aspect ratio (overall length/thickness) less than or equal in the ASCE Standard tables and in some cases can result in
to 3:1 and a minimum thickness of 3 1/8 in. (80 mm). A 45 or slightly thicker subbases, specifically in weak soils.
90-degree herringbone laying pattern is recommended with
sailor courses at the perimeter. No less than one-third of a Design Example
cut paver should be exposed to tire traffic. The designer is Design examples are given with good soil conditions (sub-
advised that alternative laying patterns may be considered grade category 4) and, fair drainage, with lifetime traffic of
as long as they are functionally and structurally equivalent. 5,000,000 ESALs. Designs developed for these conditions are
Other shapes than rectangular pavers can be considered in shown in Table 12.
the design with the responsibility of the design engineer to
confirm that the structural capacity is at least equal to the
AASHTO structural number layer coefficient (SN) of the 0.44

Table 8. Design Tables for Granular Base
GRANULAR BASE THICKNESSES (mm) (80 % reliability)
ESALs (x 1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000

Pavement
Caltrans Traffic Index 5.2 5.7 6.3 6.8 7.4 8.3 9.0 9.8 10.9 11.8
Drainage
Layer Type
Pavers and Bedding 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105
Good Unbound Dense-graded Base 100 100 100 100 100 150 150 150 150 150
Unbound Dense-graded 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 150 225 350
Subbase
Category 1
Fair Unbound Dense-graded Base 100 100 100 100 100 150 175 150 150 150
Subbase
Poor Unbound Dense-graded Base 100 100 100 100 100 150 200 150 150 150
Subbase
Subbase
Category 2
Subbase
Subbase
Subbase
Category 3
Subbase
Subbase
Subbase
Category 4
Subbase
Subbase
(Table continues on p. 12)

Table 8—Continued from p. 11
GRANULAR BASE THICKNESSES (mm) (80% reliability)
ESALs (x 1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
Pavement
Caltrans Traffic Index 5.2 5.7 6.3 6.8 7.4 8.3 9.0 9.8 10.9 11.8
Drainage
Layer Type
Subbase
Category 5
Subbase
Subbase
Subbase
Category 6
Subbase
Subbase
Subbase
Category 7
Subbase
Subbase
Subbase
Category 8
Subbase
Subbase

Table 9. Design table for asphalt treated base
ASPHALT TREATED BASE THICKNESSES (mm) (80% reliability)
ESALs (x 1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
Pavement Caltrans Traffic Index
5.2 5.7 6.3 6.8 7.4 8.3 9.0 9.8 10.9 11.8
Drainage
Layer Type
Asphalt Treated Base 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Good Unbound Dense-graded 100 100 100 100 100 150 150 150 150 175
Base
Subbase
Category 1
Fair Unbound Dense-graded 100 100 100 100 100 150 150 150 150 200
Base
Subbase
Poor Unbound Dense-graded 100 100 100 100 100 150 150 150 150 150
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Category 2
Fair Unbound Dense-graded

100 100 100 100 100 150 150 150 150 150
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Category 3
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase

ESALs (x 1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
Pavement Caltrans Traffic Index 5.2 5.7 6.3 6.8 7.4 8.3 9.0 9.8 10.9 11.8
Drainage
Layer Type
Base
Subbase
Category 4
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Category 5

100 100 100 100 100 150 200 150 150 150
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Category 6
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase

ESALs (x 1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
Pavement Caltrans Traffic Index 5.2 5.7 6.3 6.8 7.4 8.3 9.0 9.8 10.9 11.8
Drainage
Layer Type
Base
Subbase
Category 7
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Category 8

100 100 100 100 125 150 150 150 150 150
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase

Table 10. Design table for cement treated base
CEMENT TREATED BASE THICKNESSES (mm) (80% reliability)
ESALs (x 1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
5.2 5.7 6.3 6.8 7.4 8.3 9.0 9.8 10.9 11.8
Drainage
Layer Type
Cement Treated Base 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Base
Subbase
Category 1
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Category 2
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Category 3
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase

ESALs (x 1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
5.2 5.7 6.3 6.8 7.4 8.3 9.0 9.8 10.9 11.8
Drainage
Layer Type
Base
Subbase
Category 4
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Category 5
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Category 6
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase

ESALs (x 1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
5.2 5.7 6.3 6.8 7.4 8.3 9.0 9.8 10.9 11.8
Drainage
Layer Type
Base
Subbase
Category 7
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase
Category 8
Base
Subbase
Base
Subbase

Table 11. Design table for asphalt concrete base
ASPHALT BASE THICKNESSES (mm) (80% reliability)
ESALs (x 1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
5.2 5.7 6.3 6.8 7.4 8.3 9.0 9.8 10.9 11.8
Drainage
Layer Type
Good Asphalt Concrete Base 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
Base
Category 1
Fair Asphalt Concrete Base 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 60

Base
Poor Asphalt Concrete Base 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 70
Base
Unbound Dense-graded
Base 100 100 100 100 100 150 150 150 150 150
Category 2

Base
Base
Base
Category 3

Base
Base
Base
Category 4

Base
Base

ASPHALT BASE THICKNESSES (mm) (80% reliability)
ESALs (x 1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
5.2 5.7 6.3 6.8 7.4 8.3 9.0 9.8 10.9 11.8
Drainage
Layer Type
Base
Category 5

Base
Base
Base
Category 6

Base
Base
Base
Category 7

Base
Base
Base
Category 8

Base
Base

Table 12. Material thickness (mm) results for design example options with initial and maintenance costs plus discount rates
can be examined for selection of an optimal design from a
Unbound budget standpoint. Sensitivity analysis can be conducted
ATB CTB AC
Base
on key cost variables on various base designs. For further
Pavers and
105 105 105 105 information on both free software programs, contact ICPI
Bedding
members, ICPI offices or visit www.icpi.org.
ATB n/a 100 n/a n/a
Geosynthetics
CTB n/a n/a 100 n/a Geotextiles, geogrids and cellular confinement systems are
seeing increased use in pavements. Geotextile selection
AC n/a n/a n/a 110 and use should follow the guidance provided in AASHTO
M288. Geotextiles are placed over the top of the compacted
Unbound Base 150 150 150 150 soil subgrade and separate the soil from the base materials.
These are recommended over silt and clay soils. Geogrids are
Unbound Subbase 625 300 400 n/a
sometimes used in very soft, wet and slowly draining soils.
Cellular confinement systems filled with base materials and
placed over the compacted soil subgrade have been used to
Other Design Considerations and reduce base thicknesses. Manufacturer’s literature should be
Construction Details consulted for guidance on reduction of base thickness given
Guidance is also provided on proper detailing around utility anticipated traffic and soil conditions.
structures, including edge detailing with sailor and soldier
courses. Particular emphasis is given to drainage details for
unbound aggregate and treated bases. This benefits pave-
ment life and performance for all structural designs, and some
details unique to interlocking concrete pavements are shown
in Figures 7 and 8. For further details, design considerations,
best practices and maintenance procedures designers are
directed to the ICPI Tech Spec series and detail drawings
available at www.icpi.org. The designer is also encouraged to
address how interlocking concrete pavement can contribute
to sustainability through applying the Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design (LEED®) credit system. Additional
information on LEED® credits can be found in ICPI Tech Spec
16–Achieving LEED® Credits with Segmental Concrete Pavement.
Computerized Solutions
The preceding design example and most interlocking con-
crete pavement for parking lots and roads can be designed
with “Interlocking Concrete Pavement Structural Design Pro-
gram” that uses Excel-based software. The software is based
on the ASCE 58-16 design standard and generates thickness
solutions for unbound aggregate base, asphalt- and cement-
treated, and asphalt concrete bases.
After a pavement structure has been designed, the user
can project life-cycle costs by defining initial and lifetime
(maintenance and rehabilitation) cost estimates. ICPI offers
life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) software in Excel format. This
software enables LCCA comparisons among interlocking
concrete pavement, asphalt and concrete pavements. It can
perform deterministic and probabilistic cost analyses. Design

Rigid Pavement Design with Interlocking Concrete Pavers
Rigid pavements consisting of Portland cement concrete about 1/16 in. (1.5 mm) for every 10 ft (3 m) over an 80°F (27°
(PCC) slabs distribute loads to the compacted soil subgrade C) temperature change. Pavement temperatures generally
through flexure, or bending action. In such pavements the fluctuate over a wider range than air temperatures.
load spreading is primarily a function of the thickness of the Thickness design for PCC pavements for low-speed roads
slab and the flexural strength of the PCC. Base materials are and parking lots is typically done according to the 1993
often placed under the slab to provide additional structural AASHTO Guide or to local adaptations. Different equations
support and drainage. are used for the design of rigid pavements than those for
When PCC slabs are used as a base under concrete pavers, flexible pavements. The thickness of PCC pavements is
the structural contribution of the concrete pavers is often determined to resist wheel loads imposed by the predicted
ignored by designers. The following sections provide a de- traffic. Thickness depends on the soil conditions, the type of
sign method that includes some structural contribution by subbase, the edge conditions, the reliability requirements
concrete pavers and bedding materials over PCC slabs as well and the number of 18,000 lb (80 kN) ESAL repetitions. Some
as over roller compacted concrete. This pavement assembly design considerations follow and thickness design is covered
requires consideration of the bedding materials, prevention in greater detail later.
of bedding sand loss and avoiding discontinuities over slab
joints. Detailing that addresses these aspects are also covered Jointed Concrete Pavement
in the following sections. In a jointed concrete pavement (JCP) the joints are placed
at close centers so that curing shrinkage does not lead to
Background to PCC Pavements random cracking, and that joint widths are restricted to ac-
There are three main types of PCC pavement; jointed concrete ceptable limits. The joints may have load transfer devices
pavements (JCP), jointed reinforced concrete pavements such as steel dowel bars (doweled JCP), or the interlocking
(JRCP) and continuously reinforced concrete pavements of the aggregate particles on each face of the joint may be
(CRCP). Although other types are used, this Tech Spec will sufficient to transfer the loads from one side of the joint to
only address these three PCC systems. The differences among the other (plain JCP).
them are primarily in how environmental effects are con- The joint spacing is dependent upon the thickness of the
trolled such as moisture change and temperature changes, concrete. A general rule of thumb is that the joint spacing
including curing and environmental factors. These factors should not exceed thirty times the slab thickness and should
affect the reinforcement and jointing arrangements with in no case exceed 20 ft (6 m). Individual panels should gener-
little change in the slab thickness. ally have a length of no more than 1.25 times the width. For
As concrete cures and dries, water in small pores within doweled joints the joint spacings are typically between 10
the cement creates surface tension. This force pulls the pore and 20 ft (3 and 6 m) with joint widths potentially up to 1/8 in.
walls closer together causing the volume of the cement (3 mm). For plain joints, the joint spacings are typically 10 to
paste to shrink. This action reduces the entire paving slab size 15 ft (3 to 4.5 m) with joint widths of up to 1/16 in. (1.5 mm).
slightly. As the slabs are partially restrained by friction from This type of pavement is the best solution as a base under
the underlying base or soil subgrade, tensile stresses develop interlocking concrete pavers.
that can result in shrinkage cracks. The stress from shrinkage
is proportional to the length of the section of pavement. To Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
control the shrinkage it is therefore necessary to provide joints Jointed reinforced concrete pavements are designed with
at sufficiently close centers to keep the shrinkage stresses longitudinal and transverse reinforcement to accommodate
below the tensile strength of the concrete. Alternatively, the tensile stresses that arise during curing. This enables
reinforcement can be used to increase the tensile strength greater joint spacing to be achieved, but results in wider joint
of the pavement so that greater joint spacing can be used. opening. As such, aggregate interlock cannot be relied upon
As concrete pavements heat up the slabs expand, and and all joints require load transfer devices such as dowels. The
when they cool the concrete contracts. This movement re- reinforcement is typically located at about mid-depth in the
sults in closing and opening of the joints in the pavement. slab so it does not increase the load capacity of the concrete
As expansion and contraction are proportional to the length section, As such, the same thickness of slab is required as for
of the slab, the movement range increases with greater joint jointed concrete pavements. Joint spacings are typically 15
spacing. Movement is also proportional to the temperature to 60 ft (4.5 to 18 m) with joint widths of up to 1/2 in. (13 mm).
range, so this also requires consideration when designing Intermediate joints are usually included to enable construc-
the joints. Typically concrete can expand or contract by tion activities and to control warping of the slabs.

Warping occurs when there is a temperature difference occur in a defined position. In addition to being formed dur-
between the top and the bottom of the concrete that causes ing pouring, weakened plane joints may be induced by early
it to curl. The intermediate joints are typically spaced at 10 to sawing, or by inserting crack-inducing plastic strips. Their
20 ft (3 to 6 m) and include tie bars to keep the two sides of the placement controls where the tensile failure will occur so that
joint from moving relative to each other. Large joint spacings the resulting cracks are in pre-defined positions, preventing
can be problematic under pavers as joint movement reflects random cracking. They can be oriented in the transverse and
to the surface resulting in bedding sand loss and localized longitudinal directions relative to the pavement. The spacing
settlement and loosening of the pavers. of the joints is determined based upon the materials used, the
thickness of the slab and the local environmental conditions,
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement as described above. Load transfer devices are used when
Continuously reinforced concrete pavements are designed the joint opening is too wide to permit aggregate interlock.
with a greater amount of longitudinal reinforcement so Contraction joints should be covered with minimum 12 in.
that they can be constructed without transverse joints. The (300 mm) wide woven geotextile strips to prevent bedding
same thickness of slab is required as for jointed concrete sand loss under concrete pavers.
pavements as the reinforcement does not increase the load
capacity of the pavement. There is a general acceptance that Expansion Joints
transverse cracking will occur, however, the cracks are held Expansion joints perform in the same way as contraction
tightly together by the longitudinal reinforcement. The cracks joints but are also used to accommodate any longitudinal
are initially widely spaced, but with full curing, subsequent or transverse expansion of the pavement that exceeds the
traffic and temperature changes, the cracks may develop as drying shrinkage. A compressible filler board absorbs any
closely spaced as 2 ft (0.6 m). Minor opening and closing of compressive stresses induced in the concrete by expansion.
these joints are generally considered to accommodate the Where possible, their use is minimized with their most fre-
expansion and contraction of the pavement. Reinforcement quent location being at changes in the pavement construc-
in the transverse direction is generally similar to that in jointed tion and at intersections or other fixed structures in the
reinforced concrete pavements. Longitudinal joints are con- pavement surface. In some cases the joint may also need to
structed in a similar fashion to jointed reinforced concrete accommodate lateral movement. Expansion joints should
pavements. They may have tie bars or dowels depending generally be carried through the paver surfacing with the
on the pavement width. Excessive spacing of longitudinal installation of edge restraints on either side.
movement joints may result in localized movement of the
overlying pavers. Isolation Joints
Isolation joints are used in locations where movements in
Joints the pavement are to be isolated from an adjacent feature.
As described above, the joints in a concrete pavement control They may be used against a building, a utility structure or
cracking from curing shrinkage and to permit movement other feature where vertical and horizontal movement could
caused by moisture and temperature changes. Joint locations impose unwanted load into that feature. They are normally
should provide adequate load transfer across each from aggre- formed by including a compressible filler board without any
gate interlock or from load transfer devices. Joints are typically load transfer devices. Isolation joints do not generally experi-
laid out in a rectangular grid pattern with joints meeting edges ence significant movement and they should be covered with
of the pavement at no less than 60 degrees. Joints should not a woven geotextile to prevent bedding sand loss.
dead-end at another joint. They should be detailed to prevent
ingress of moisture and infiltration of foreign mater. Roller Compacted Concrete Background
There are three basic joint types that are formed during Roller compacted concrete (RCC) behaves in a similar fashion
pouring or induced shortly afterwards. These are contraction to jointed concrete pavement and may be used as an alterna-
joints, expansion joints and isolation joints. Each are described tive base under interlocking concrete pavement. Fresh RCC
below and how they should be detailed when under inter- consists of a semi-dry concrete spread through a modified
locking concrete pavement. asphalt paving machine. PCC aggregates are used in the
mix and the final strength is similar paving quality concrete.
Contraction Joints Mix designs are prepared in the laboratory to determine
Contraction joints provide a release for tensile stress in the compressive strength and maximum density. Compressive
pavement as the concrete contracts during curing. When they strengths of 3,000 to 5,000 psi (20 to 35 MPa) may be specified.
are induced in the interior of a pour of concrete, they are often Compaction is initially done by the paving machine and finally
referred to as weakened plane joints as they cause a crack to by rollers until the target density is achieved. This is typically

Table 13. Approximate relationships among Mr*, CBR and The design k-value is considered at the underside of the
k-value in pounds per cubic inch (MPa/m) concrete, and includes the effects of any subbase layers. The
AASHTO method also includes seasonal changes of subgrade
Design Mr, psi Design CBR, Design k-value,
strength and the proximity of rock to the surface to develop
(MPa) % pci
a composite k-value for design. This provides a wide range of
3,000 (20.6) 1.3 155 (42) k-values although the designed thickness has low sensitivity
to this property. As such, the design charts in this Tech Spec
5,000 (34.4) 2.8 258 (70) are simplified to use an approximate relationship between
7,000 (48.2) 4.8 361 (98) the design resilient modulus (Mr) and the k-value. The design
values are listed in Table 13. The values stated assume no sub-
10,000 (68.9) 8.4 515 (140) base is present and that the depth to a rigid rock layer exceeds
10 ft (3 m). Where soils are known to be prone to pumping
15,000 (103.4) 15.8 773 (210)
under concrete pavements, a minimum of 4 in. (100 mm) of
20,000 (137.8) 25 1,031 (280) compacted aggregate subbase material over the subgrade
is recommended prior to casting the concrete. This thickness
25,000 (172.3) 35.3 1,289 (350) is also recommended with soils with an Mr < 7,000 psi (48
30,000 (206.8) 47 1,546 (420) MPa) or CBR < 5%.
*Mr=2,555 x (CBR) , Mr is in psi
0.64
Pavement Materials
Mr=17.61 x (CBR)0.64, Mr is in MPa Most states, provinces and municipalities have material and
construction standards for concrete pavements. However,
material requirements vary among jurisdictions, particularly
98% of modified Proctor density. RCC may be placed without material strengths. The design tables on the following pages
joints, or joints can be induced on a regular grid. When joints with rigid pavement base layer thicknesses are based upon
are not planned, the roller compacted concrete develops a typical values encountered in many standards.
network of narrow cracks during curing. The curing shrinkage There are two properties used in the AASHTO design
is far less than for PCC pavements so the joints and cracks method to characterize PCC pavements; flexural strength
transfer loads by aggregate interlock. Design thicknesses are and the elastic modulus. Typically pavement quality concrete
similar to those for PCC pavements. is specified with a flexural strength, although compressive
strength is occasionally substituted. The flexural strength
Traffic should be determined using beam specimens loaded at third
The AASHTO equations for pavement design express service-
points as described in ASTM C78 or AASHTO T-97. If compres-
ability loss as a measure of pavement damage. The damaging
sive strength is the only requirement available, the designer
effect of axles is different between the flexible and the rigid
can use Table 14 to provide an approximate correlation. The
pavement equations. This is reflected in the AASHTO design
elastic modulus of concrete is rarely specified and so typical
method by having a different flexible ESAL values to rigid
relationships to flexural or compressive strengths are required
ESAL values, however the difference is not considered to be
as provided in Table 14. The AASHTO design equation is based
significant for design of interlocking concrete pavements
upon the average value of flexural strength, which will be
over concrete.
slightly higher than the specified value. When PCC is used
Soil Subgrade Support as a base under concrete pavers it is usually not necessary to
The AASHTO design method for rigid pavements uses the include an air entraining agent. The pavers provide protection
soil subgrade property known as the Modulus of Subgrade against damage from frost action.
Reaction or k-value. This value is determined using a plate Reinforcement is not considered in the AASHTO design
load test that is different than those described above in the equation for determining the PCC pavement thickness. How-
flexible pavement section. The test is described in ASTM ever, the type of reinforcement is important in determining
D1194 or AASHTO T-235. It involves placing a 30 in. (0.76 the required bar sizes and centers and the spacing of joints.
m) diameter rigid plate on the subgrade and measuring the Typically, reinforcing bars and tie bars are Grade 60 deformed
deflection of the soil as the load on the plate is gradually bars in size numbers #4, #5 or #6. However, Grade 40 steel
increased. The k-value is determined as the pressure divided may be used. As jointed concrete pavement is the preferred
by the deflection at during certain points in the test. The test base condition, no additional guidelines are provided for
is rarely carried out and alternative means are generally used determining the size and spacing of reinforcement. Dowel
to establish the design value. bars are typically Grade 60 in sizes ranging from 1/2 to 11/4 in.

(13 to 32 mm). Table 15 sets out typical recommendations for the apparent opening size or AOS. Woven geotextiles with an
dowel bars recommended by the American Concrete Institute. apparent opening size of 0.300 mm to 0.600 mm are generally
All dowel spacings are 12 in. (300 mm) on center. suitable. As noted earlier geotextiles are applied to joints in
Joint filler board is used in expansion joints and isola- minimum 12 in. (300 mm) wide strips.
tion joint to absorb any compression as the adjacent slabs
move or expand. There are several different types including Structural Design Procedure
foam and bitumen impregnated fiber board. The thickness The following structural design procedure is for roads and
is selected dependent on the anticipated movement. Joint parking lots. PCC pavements are designed using a simpli-
sealant is used to prevent the ingress of moisture and intru- fied version of the method in the AASHTO 1993 Guide. These
sion of foreign matter into joints. It may not be required on pavement sections were then analyzed using mechanistic
all joints when the concrete is exposed at the surface of the analysis to determine the critical stresses. The pavements
pavement if the movement range is small and if the lower were also analyzed considering a concrete paver surface to
layers are not moisture susceptible. When jointed concrete distribute the loads to a larger area on top of the concrete.
pavement is used under pavers the sealant may be left off if The pavements were reduced in thickness incrementally
the joints are covered by geotextile. Sealant is recommended until the same critical stresses were achieved in the concrete.
for joints with wider spacings. The results of the analyses are presented in the tables. All
Woven geotextiles are recommended to cover the joints designs are minimum 3 1/8 (80 mm) thick concrete pavers in
and cracks in the PCC base to prevent bedding sand loss. Since a herringbone pattern. Bedding materials are sand or sand-
they are manufactured from plastics such as polypropylene asphalt (bitumen-setting bed). ICPI Tech Spec 17–Bedding
and polyester, the materials are stable and resistant to many Sand Selection for Interlocking Concrete Pavements in Vehicular
chemicals encountered in the ground, and also to the dete- Applications provides guidance on testing and selecting bed-
riorating effects of sunlight. Woven geotextiles are preferred ding sands. ICPI Tech Spec 20–Construction of Bituminous-sand
for use directly under the bedding sand as they maintain their Set Interlocking Concrete Pavement provides guidance on this
integrity under loads exerting abrasion on the concrete. The installation method.
important property in geotextiles for preventing sand loss is
Table 14. Approximate correlations among flexural strength,

compressive strength and elastic modulus Table 15. PCC slab thickness and dowel characteristics
Flexural Compressive Elastic Slab Thickness, Dowel Diameter, Dowel Length,

Strength, psi Strength, psi Modulus, psi in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) 4 and 41/2 1/2 (13) 12 (300)
(100 and 115)
3,700,000
550 (3.8) 3,000 (20) 5 and 51/2
(25,517) 5/8 (16) 12 (300)
(130 and 140)
4,000,000 6 and 61/2
590 (4.1) 3,500 (24) 3/4 (19) 14 (350)
(27,586) (150 and 165)
4,250,000 7 and 71/2

630 (4.3) 4,000 (28)
7/8 (22) 14 (350)
(29,310) (175 and 190)
8 and 81/2
1 (25) 14 (350)
4,500,000 (200 and 215)
670 (4.6) 4,500 (31)
(31,034) 9 and 91/2
11/8 (32) 16 (400)
(230 and 240)
4,700,000 10 and 101/2
700 (4.8) 5,000 (35) 11/2 (38) 16 (400)
(32,414) (250 and 265)

Table 16. PCC base thicknesses under interlocking concrete pavement for a 3,000 psi (20 MPa) or 550 psi (3.8 MPa)
flexural strength cement base.
PCC Base Thickness – 3,000 psi (20 MPa) compressive or 550 psi (3.8 MPa) flexural strength
ESALs (x1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
Caltrans Traffic Index 5.2 5.6 6 6.8 7.4 8.3 9 9.8 10.9 11.8
Subgrade Mr
psi (MPa)
30,000 (206) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 127 152
25,000 (172) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 140 165
20,000 (137) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 140 178
15,000 (103) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 152 191
10,000 (68) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 152 191
7,000 (48) 102 102 102 102 102 102 114 140 178 203
5,000 (34) 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 152 178 203
3,000 (21) 102 102 102 102 102 114 140 165 191 216
Table 17. PCC base thicknesses under interlocking concrete pavement for a 4,000 psi (27.5 MPa) or 630 psi (4.3 MPa)
flexural strength concrete base
PCC Base Thickness – 4,000 psi (27.5 MPa) compressive or 630 psi (4.3 MPa) flexural strength
ESALs (x1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
Subgrade Mr
psi (MPa)
30,000 (206) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 127 152
25,000 (172) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 127 152
20,000 (137) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 140 165
15,000 (103) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 152 178
10,000 (68) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 152 178
7,000 (48) 102 102 102 102 102 102 114 140 165 191
5,000 (34) 102 102 102 102 102 102 114 140 165 191
3,000 (21) 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 152 178 203

Table 18. PCC base thicknesses under interlocking concrete pavement for a 5,000 psi (34 MPa) or 750 psi (5
MPa) flexural strength concrete base
PCC Base Thickness - 5,000 psi (34 MPa) compressive or 750 psi (5 MPa) flexural strength
ESALs (x1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
Subgrade Mr
psi (MPa)
30,000 (206) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 127 140
25,000 (172) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 127 140
20,000 (137) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 127 152
15,000 (103) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 140 165
10,000 (68) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 140 165
7,000 (48) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 152 178
5,000 (34) 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 127 152 178
3,000 (21) 102 102 102 102 102 102 114 140 165 191
Structural Design Tables 2. Characterize subgrade Mr: 4,500 psi (31 MPa) from
Tables 16, 17, and 18 establish the PCC base thickness design previous example. Conservatively select 5,000 psi
solutions. Depending on the soil subgrade strength (Mr) and (35 MPa) on Tables 16, 17 or 18.
ESALs. The recommended minimum thickness of PCC base is 3. Determine concrete strength: Consider 3,000 psi
4 in. (100 mm) at and below 1,000,000 ESALs, and 5 in. (125 (21 MPa) and 4,000 psi (27.5 MPa) options on
mm) above 1,000,000 ESALs. Tables 16 and 17.
Use the following steps to determine a pavement thickness: 4. Determine base thickness requirements: the thick-
1. Compute design ESALs or convert computed TIs ness required for 3,000 psi (20 MPa) concrete is 5
to design ESALs or use the recommended default in. (125 mm) and for 4,000 psi (28 MPa) concrete
values given in Table 1 as for flexible base design. is 41/2 in. (115 mm).
2. Characterize the soil subgrade strength from labo- The final cross section design is shown in Figure 8 on page
ratory test data. If there is no laboratory or field 28 with 31/8 in. (80 mm) thick concrete pavers and a 1 in.
test data, use Tables 3, 4 and 5 to estimate Mr. (25 mm) thick bedding sand layer over 41/2 in. (115 mm) of
3. Select the appropriate table (16, 17 or 18) de- 4,000 psi (27.5 MPa) PCC base and 4 in. (100 mm) compacted
pending on the compressive strength of the aggregate subbase since the soil Mr < 7,000 psi (48.2 MPa)
concrete base. which is CBR < 5%. As on flexible bases, concrete pavers on
4. Determine the required PCC base thickness. Use rigid bases should not exceed an aspect ratio (length divided
Mr for design subgrade strength and design ES- by thickness) of 3. Additionally, the concrete slab is jointed at
ALs in the selected tables. 10 ft (3 m) centers and dowels are 1/2 in. (13 mm) diameter.
The joints will be covered with a strip of woven geotextile,
Example Solution and Results minimum 12 in. (300 mm) wide, to prevent bedding sand loss.
For a given site where the soils are ML, it is assumed that an
aggregate subbase will be used to provide a working platform
and to protect the pavement from pumping related distress.
1. Estimate design load: 840,000 ESAL. Interpolate
between 500,000 and conservatively select
1,000,000 when using Tables 16, 17 or 18.

CONCRETE CURB
CONCRETE PAVER
3 1/8 IN. (80 MM) MIN. THICKNESS
1 IN. (25 MM) BEDDING SAND
WOVEN GEOTEXTILE OVER JOINTS
4 1/2 IN. (115 MM) THICK 4,000 PSI (27.5 MPa)

CONCRETE BASE
MIN. 4 IN. (100 MM) THICK COMPACTED

AGGREGATE SUBBASE OVER SUBGRADE CBR <5%
COMPACTED SOIL SUBGRADE
2 IN. (50 MM) DIA. DRAIN HOLE

LOCATE AT LOWEST ELEVATIONS AND
FILL WITH PEA GRAVEL, MIN. 10 FT (3 M)
SPACING
NOTES:
1. DRAIN BEDDING SAND OF EXCESS MOISTURE THROUGH PAVEMENT AT LOWEST POINTS
AS SHOWN OR AT CATCH BASIN(S).
2. PROVIDE 2 IN. (50 MM) HORIZONTAL DRAIN HOLES IN CATCH BASINS. BOTTOM OF HOLES TO BE
EVEN WITH SURFACE OF EXISTING PAVEMENT. COVER HOLES WITH GEOTEXTILE.
3. DO NOT PROVIDE DRAIN HOLES TO SUBGRADE WHEN WATER TABLE IS LESS THAN 2 FT.
(0.6 M) FROM TOP OF SOIL SUBGRADE. PROVIDE DRAIN HOLES TO CATCH BASINS.
Figure 8. Interlocking concrete pavers on a concrete base design example solution.
References Figure 1 photo credit iStock.com. Figures 5 and 6, Tables 5, 6 and

AASHTO 1993. American Association of State Highway and Trans- 7 are copyright © 2010 ASCE. Used with permission.
portation Officials, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures,
Washington, D.C., USA.
ASCE 2016. American Society of Civil Engineers, Structural Design
of Interlocking Concrete Pavement for Municipal Streets and
Roadways. ASCE/T&DI 58-16, Reston, Virginia, USA.
Rada 1990. Rada, G.R., Smith, D.R., Miller, J.S., and Witczak, M.W.,
“Structural Design of Concrete Block Pavements,” American 14801 Murdock Street Tel: 703.657.6900
Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Transportation Engineering, Suite 230 Fax: 703.657.6901
Vol. 116, No. 5, September/October. Chantilly, VA 20151 E-mail: [email protected]
Shackel 1979.Shackel, B., “A Pilot Study of the Performance of www.icpi.org
Block Paving Under Traffic Using a Heavy Vehicle Simulator,” In Canada:
Proceedings of a Symposium on Precast Concrete Paving Block, P.O. Box 1150
Johannesburg, South Africa. Uxbridge, ON L9P 1N4
Shackel 1980. Shackel, B., “An Experimental Investigation of the Canada
Roles of the Bedding and Joint Sand in the Performance of In- The content of ICPI Tech Spec technical bulletins is intended for use only as a guide-
line. It is not intended for use or reliance upon as an industry standard, certification
terlocking Concrete Block Pavements,”Concrete/Beton, No. 19.
or as a specification. ICPI makes no promises, representations or warranties of any
Shackel 1980. Shackel, B.“Loading and Accelerated Trafficking Tests kind, expressed or implied, as to the content of the Tech Spec Technical Bulletins
on Three Prototype Heavy-Duty Industrial Block Pavements,” and disclaims any liability for damages resulting from the use of Tech Spec Techni-
cal Bulletins. Professional assistance should be sought with respect to the design,
National Institute for Transport and Road Research, CSIR, specifications and construction of each project.
Pretoria, South Africa, Technical Report 12. BOD Approved: February 2020

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Te c h S p e c 4

Structural Design of Interlocking Concrete Pavement

Horizontal Interlock Vertical Interlock Rotational Interlock

Figure 2. Types of interlock: horizontal, vertical, rotational

45° Herringbone 90° Herringbone

Figure 3. Laying patterns for vehicular traf﻿fic

ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 2

ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 3

ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 4

Trailer: LEF = (80/80)4 = 1 (x 2 axles) = 2 ESALs 7x105 8.6

ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 5

Table 3. General Soil Categories and Properties (ASCE 2016)

Table 4. Pavement Drainage According to Soil Category

ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 6

Design Range* Job Mix Tolerances

2 in. (50 mm) 100 100 -2 -3

11/2 in. (37.5 mm) 95 to 100 90 to 100 ±5 +5

No. 4 (4.75 mm) 35 to 55 30 to 60 ±8 ±10

No. 30 (0.600 mm) 12 to 25 ±5

No. 200 (0.075 mm) 0 to 8** 0 to 12** ±3 ±5

ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 7

12 IN. (300 mm) WIDE GEOTEXTILE

CONCRETE CURB AND GUTTER

12 IN. (300 mm) WIDE GEOTEXTILE

1 IN. (25 mm) BEDDING SAND

COMPACTED AGGREGATE BASE

COMPACTED SOIL SUBGRADE

Figure 6. Typical cross section with an unstabilized, dense-graded base

ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 8

1 IN. (25 mm) BEDDING SAND

WOVEN GEOTEXTILE OVER JOINTS

COMPACTED AGGREGATE SUBBASE

COMPACTED SOIL SUBGRADE UNDER GEOTEXTILE

2 IN. (50 MM) DIA. DRAIN HOLE–

Figure 7. Drain detail in treated bases

ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 9

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ESALs (x 1,000) 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000

(Table continues on p. 12)

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ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 12

Fair Unbound Dense-graded

(Table continues on p. 14)

Fair Unbound Dense-graded

(Table continues on p. 15)

Fair Unbound Dense-graded

ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 15

(Table continues on p. 17)

ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 16

(Table continues on p. 18)

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ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 18

Fair Asphalt Concrete Base 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 60

Fair Asphalt Concrete Base 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 70

Fair Asphalt Concrete Base 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 80 100

Fair Asphalt Concrete Base 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 70 110 140

(Table continues on p. 20)

ICPI Tech Spec 4 Page 19

Fair Asphalt Concrete Base 50 50 50 50 50 50 60 90 120 150

Figure 3. Laying patterns for vehicular traffic

No. 200 (0.075 mm) 0 to 8 0 to 12 ±3 ±5