American Welding Society

Power  Plant
Heat  Treatments
 Presentation  Overview
• Requirements  for  Power  Plant  Heat  Treatments
– Creep  Strength  Enhanced  Ferritic  Steels  
• Normalization  and  Tempering

– Improved  Toughness  in  Cold  Service

• C  Mn  Pressure  Vessel  Steel  

– Local  Heat  Treatment  Principals

• Temperature  Measurement
• Local  Heat  Treating  Practices
• The  Hill  Number  

– Local  Furnaces  for  Heat  Treatments

• Case  History  Examples
• Questions  &  Discussion  
 Normalizing  Heat  Treatments
• Many  important  metal  alloys  obtain  desired  
properties  as  a  result  of  normalizing  heat  treatment
• Metal  is  heated  above  the  critical  temperature  and  
held  for  a  period  necessary  for  transformation  to  
occur
• Normalizing  establishes  a  more  uniform  carbide  size  
and  distribution
• Cooling  in  still  air,  agitated  air  or  quenching  is  
applied  to  retain  desired  carbide  distribution  
 Temper  Heat  Treatment
• After  normalizing  heat  treatment  it  is  important  to  
insure  metal  is  cooled  to  room  temperature  to  
assure  complete  transformation  of  austenite  to  
martensite  
• As  normalized,  alloys  such  as  P91  are  too  brittle  for  
service  
• Temper  heat  treatment  is  performed  to  improve  
ductility  (for  P91  in  the  range  of  740  – 760  °C)  
• Hold  time  during  normalization,  rate  of  cooling  and  
tempering  temperature  are  critical  factors  in  
determining  the  final  properties  of  the  metal
 N&T  of  P91  Weldments
• Research  performed  by  the  Oak  Ridge  Laboratories  and  the  
Electric  Power  Research  Institute  indicates  that  N&T  heat  
treatment  of  welded  components  provides  superior  
properties  over  welds  subjected  to  sub-­‐critical  heat  
treatment  after  welding    
• N&T  heat  treatment  is  required  after:
– Cold  forming  with  large  strains  
– Hot  swaging  or  forming  operations  including  resizing  and  bending
– Localized  heating  for  alignment  of  tubing  during  installation
– Manufacture  of  longitudinal  seamed  pipe
– Hot  bends  in  pipe  made  up  of  multiple  pipe  pieces
– Material  mistakenly  heated  above  the  Ac1 during  PWHT  
 Local  Heat  Treatments  Principals
• Pipe  welding  is  a  very  common  requirement  in  power  
plants  and  fabrication  facilities  servicing  power  plants  
• Where  possible,  furnace  PWHT  of  welds  is  preferred
• Field  welds  require  local  heat  treatment  methods
• In  the  U.S.A.,  use  of  resistance  heating  elements  is  
the  method  most  commonly  applied
• Induction  and  radiant  heating  equipment  is  also  
commonly  used
• A  key  issue  in  the  local  heat  treatment  of  pipe  in  
power  plant  service  is  to  insure  complete  relief  of  
stress  on  interior  surfaces  of  the  pipe    
 Temperature  Measurement
• Accurate  control  of  all  heat  treatment  processes  requires  reliable  
metal  temperature  measurement
• The  first  rule  of  temperature  measurement  is  to  avoid  heating  the  
work  piece  above  the  lower  critical  transformation  temperature
• For  this  reason,  the  heat  input  source  control  thermocouple  is  
always  located  where  the  highest  temperature  is  expected
• Each  heat  input  zone  must  be  controlled  by  its  own  control  
thermocouple
• Research  has  shown  the  only  reliable  method  for  installing  
thermocouples  is  to  weld  the  thermocouple  to  the  work  piece  
using  a  capacitor  discharge  Thermocouple  Attachment  Unit  (TAU)
• When  two  dissimilar  metal  wires  are  welded  to  a  work  piece  
about  6  mm  apart,  the  piece  becomes  the  thermocouple  junction
• The  Code  bodies  allow  these  low  energy  welds  to  be  performed  
on  the  work  surface  on  condition  the  weld  area  is  ground  away  
once  the  thermocouple  is  removed  
 Capacitor  Discharge  TAUs
• The  first  TAUs  were  introduced  by  Cooperheat  in  the  early  1970s

• Today  there  are  many  manufacturers  of  TAUs

• After  the  thermocouple  wires  are  welded  to  the  surface,  the  junction  
must  be  shielded  from  the  heat  source  to  prevent  an  inaccurate  reading
• Thermocouple  junctions  must  also  be  covered  by  insulation,  a  junction  
exposed  to  the  cold  environment  will  be  inaccurate
• Preheating  metal  surface  prior  to  TC  welding  will  insure  good  fusion
• It  is  important  to  file  or  grind  the  surface  to  remove  scale  and  
contamination  prior  to  TC  installation  
 Thermocouple  Placement
• The  AWS  D10.10  committee  document  on  
recommended  local  heat  treatment  practices  
provides  details  on  recommended  practices  for  
the  placement  of  control  and  monitoring  
thermocouples  
• This  document  also  provides  guidance  on  the  
number  of  heat  input  zones  for  various  pipe  
diameters
• It  is  important  to  remember  that  to  assure  
proper  completion  of  heat  treatments,  the  
reliability  of  temperature  measurement  means  
is  critical
 Through  Wall  Temperature  Gradients
• Stress  corrosion  cracking  occurs  at  the  pipe  interior
• As  a  result,  it  is  critical  for  all  post  weld  stress  is  relieved  at  the  interior  surfaces  
of  the  pipe  joints
• Experience  has  shown  in  many  cases,  stress  corrosion  cracking  still  occurs  in  
pipe  following  local  PWHT
• Research  conducted  to  address  this  issue  revealed  large  metal  temperature  
differences  between  pipe  exterior  and  interior  surfaces  

Nearly  52  °C

Nearly  67  °C  

 Radiation  &  Convection  Losses
• Test  results  indicated  interior  temperatures  were  not  sufficient  to  relieve  all  weld  
induced  stress  on  pipe  interior  surfaces
• Further  tests  revealed  large  through  wall  temperature  gradients  existed  even  with  
thin  walled  pipe
• To  determine  radiation  and  convection  heat  losses  on  interior  metal  surface  
temperatures,  a  test  was  performed  with  a  insulation  plug  place  inside  the  pipe
• The  solid  plug  of  insulation  prevented  both  radiant  and  convection  heat  loss  from  
the  pipe  interior  surfaces

Only  3.3  °C

Only  13.3  °C  

 Theoretical  Approach  to  Through  Wall  △T
• To  achieve  proper  stress  relief,  minimum  stress  relief  metal  
temperature  must  be  achieved  in  the  weld  metal  and  the  HAZ
• The  volume  of  metal  to  be  heat  treated  is  called  the  soak  zone
• The  soak  zone  extends  two  wall  thicknesses  from  the  weld  center
• Heat  transferred  from  the  soak  zone  is  the  sum  of  three  distinct  
heat  transfer  mechanisms;  conduction,  convection  and  radiation  
• Although  heat  transferred  into  a  weldment  may  be  uniform,  
temperature  uniformity  of  the  work  piece  is  also  controlled  by  the  
rate  of  heat  loss
• During  local  heat  treatments  using  resistance  elements,  induction  
or  radiant  heaters,  adequate  temperature  uniformity  may  not  be  
achieved  unless  non-­‐uniform  rates  of  heat  loss  are  addressed
 Conduction  Heat  Loss
• Metals  are  an  efficient  conductor  of  heat
• As  metal  temperatures  increase,  d  subshell  electrons  are  
excited
• Since  these  electrons  are  not  tightly  held  to  each  nucleus,  
they  move  and  excite  electrons  of  neighboring  atoms
• Conductive  heat  transfer  is  represented  by  the  equation
Qc =  kc Ac dt/dx
• Qc  is  the  rate  of  conductive  heat  transfer  in  kW/hr
• kc  is  the  coefficient  of  conductivity  for  the  metal
• Ac is  the  metal  area  through  which  the  heat  is  transferred
• dt/dx  is  the  temperature  gradient  through  the  metal
 Convection  Heat  Loss
• Heat  will  be  transferred  from  a  hot  metal  surface  to  air  in  
contact  with  that  surface
• Convective  heat  transfer  is  represented  by  the  equation
Qcv =  hcv Acv ∆T  
• Qcv is  the  rate  of  convective  heat  transfer  in  kW/hr
• hcv is  a  coefficient  unique  to  conditions  at  the  metal  surface
• Acv  is  the  metal  area  in  contact  with  the  air
• ∆T  is  the  temperature  difference  between  the  metal  and  air
 Radiation  Heat  Loss
• Heat  will  be  transferred  from  a  hot  metal  surface  to  other  
surfaces  in  view  by  radiation
• As  electrons  of  a  hot  metal  move  from  an  excited  orbitals  to  
lower  orbitals,  electromagnetic  radiation  is  generated
• Radiant  heat  transfer  is  represented  by  the  equation
Qr =  hr Ar (Th4 – Tc4)  
• Qr is  the  rate  of  radiant  heat  transfer  in  kW/hr
• hr  is  a  coefficient  unique  to  conditions  at  the  metal  surface
• Ar is  the  metal  area  from  which  the  heat  is  radiating
• Th is  temperature  of  the  hot  metal  surface
• Tc   is  temperature  of  cold  surfaces  in  view  of  the  hot  surface
 Dynamic  Heat  Balance
• At  a  constant  temperature,  heat  entering  a  volume  of  metal  
is  equal  to  heat  leaving  the  volume
Qhs =  Qc +  Qcv +Qr  
• Qhs  is  the  rate  of  heat  input  from  the  heating  source
• Heat  input  is  controlled  on  the  pipe  top  outside  surface
• This  is  the  hottest  part  of  the  pipe,  it  is  important  to  limit  
the  hottest  part  of  the  pipe  to  avoid  exceeding  the  lower  
critical  temperature
• Because  of  convection  currents  inside  the  pipe,  cooler  air  is  
drawn  toward  the  soak  zone  along  the  bottom  of  the  pipe
• Hot  air  flows  away  from  soak  zone  along  the  pipe  top  inside  
 Non-­‐Uniform  Temperatures
• As  a  result,  the  heat  loss  rate  on  the  bottom  inside  surfaces  
of  the  soak  zone  is  much  greater
• With  separate  control  zones  on  the  pipe  top  and  bottom,  
large  through  wall  temperature  gradients  still  occur
 Research  Findings
• Heavier  walled  pipe  has  increased  conductive  losses
• Weld  joints  is  between  thicker  and  thinner  wall  components  
have  greater  heat  loss  through  the  heavier  walled  section
• Convection  and  radiation  losses  increase  with  pipe  diameter
• Radiation  losses  increase  with  increased  temperatures
• As  a  result,  to  achieve  temperature  uniformity,  heat  input  
must  be  matched  with  heat  losses  
• Rates  of  heat  loss  by  conduction,  convection  and  radiation  
are  all  a  function  of  a  constant,  an  area  and  a  temperature  
gradient    
 Hill  Number
• A  local  heat  treatment  with  good  temperature  uniformity  
will  have  a  small  temperature  gradient
• Heat  transfer  coefficients  for  conduction,  convection  and  
radiation  cannot  not  be  easily  changes,  they  are  constants
• Research  findings  showed  the  area  of  heat  input  divided  by  
the  sum  of  heat  loss  areas  predicts  temperature  uniformity  
• This  area  ratio  is  the  Hill  Number  expressed  by  the  equation
Hi =  Ahs /  (Ac +  Acv +  Ar)
• The  Hill  Number  is  dimensionless,  it  can  be  applied  to  pipe  
of  all  sizes  and  configurations  
 Hill  Number  Logic
• Remember,  a  local  heat  treatment  is  essentially  a  furnace  
built  around  the  weld  metal  to  be  heat  treated
• A large  component  extending  out  both  ends  of  a  furnace,  
would  not  have  good  temperature  uniformity
• However,  in  a  very  long  furnace,  there  would  be  good  
temperature  uniformity  at  the  furnace  center    
• Research  showed  for  PWHT  of  horizontal  pipe  a  Hill  Number  
of  5  would  provide  good  temperature  uniformity
• As  the  previous  example  of  test  results  showed,  blocking  the  
area  of  convective  and  radiant  heat  loss  on  the  pipe  interior  
with  an  insulation  plug  will  provide  good  temperature  
uniformity  with  a  Hill  Number  of  less  than  2
 Hill  Number  Rules
• When  treating  pipe  joints  with  different  wall  thicknesses,  
more  heat  input  area  is  required  on  the  thick  walled  side  of  
the  soak  zone
• When  treating  joints  with  a  diameter  change,  more  heat  
input  area  is  required  on  the  larger  ID  side  of  the  joint
• A  weld  joint  near  an  elbow  where  a  portion  of  the  soak  zone  
is  in  view  of  colder  surfaces  down  the  elbow,  more  heat  
input  area  is  required  on  the  elbow  side  of  the  joint    
• Heat  treatment  of  a  weld  joint  on  a  vertical  pipe  requires  
twice  the  heat  input  area  below  the  joint  to  compensate  for  
convection  losses
 Insulation
• Insulation  plays  a  critical  role  in  minimizing  heat  loss  
from  the  exterior  surfaces  of  the  soak  zone,  the  heated  
zone  and  the  gradient  control  zone
• Two  layers  of  insulation  provided  the  best  results
• It  is  important  to  always  lap  joints  in  the  insulation
• Where  ever  possible,  insulating  the  interior  surfaces  of  
the  pipe  or  work  piece  is  preferred
• A  good  indication  of  temperature  uniformity  during  the  
soak  period  is  a  very  low  rate  of  heat  source  input
• If  very  little  heat  input  is  required  to  maintain  the  soak  
temperature,  heat  losses  are  low  and  therefore  
uniformity  is  very  good
 Local  Furnaces  for  Heat  Treatments
• Frequently  it  is  not  practical  to  furnace  heat  treat  
boiler  sub-­‐assemblies  and  large  pipe  components  in  
a  conventional  furnace  at  the  fabrication  facility
• For  large  assemblies  and  field  fabricated  piping,  
assembly  of  local  furnaces  is  often  a  good  solution
• The  following  slides  provide  a  number  of  case  
histories  of  typical  applications  
 Non-­‐Traditional  Furnaces  
• Shown  below  is  an  electric  top  hat  furnace  that  can  be  
used  to  heat  treat  multiple  pieces  of  pipe  and  small  
components  at  a  fabrication  facility  or  in  the  field
• This  is  a  modular  furnace  that  can  be  easily  transported  
between  a  fabrication  facility  and  the  erection  site

Furnace  Floor  with  Elements                                          Furnace  Top  Hat  with  Elements                                                          

 HRSG  Header  Furnace  
• HRSG  module  header  
welds  heat  treated  in  
custom  electric  
furnace  as  shown
 Steam  Turbine  Rotor  Straightening  
• A  small  furnace  is  
built  around  a  bent  
steam  turbine  rotor
 Turbine  Rotor  Straightening  
• Furnace  frame  is  insulated
• Shaft  slowly  rotated  as  heat  is  applied  to  relieve  stress
 Weld  Repair  of  Cracks  in  Rotor  Disk  
• SCC  of  blade  attachment  area  required  removal  of  damaged  metal
• Removed  metal  replaced  by  submerged  arc  weld
• Hub  furnace  was  built  around  wheel  to  stress  relieve  weld  metal
 Weld  Repair  of  Steam  Turbine  Casing  Cracks  
• Inspection  of  steam  
turbine  casing  revealed  
deep  cracks  in  the  casing
• Cracks  ground  out  and  
weld  repairs  made  
followed  by  PWHT
 Welding  of  High  Pressure  Pipe  Wye  
• A  forged  wye  weighing  
over  2,700  kg  was  welded  
to  thick  wall  piping
• Preheat  was  applied  by  
resistance  elements
• To  assure  temperature  
uniformity  the  entire  wye  
was  heat  treated  in  a  
single  operation
 High  Pressure  Pipe  Wye  
• Wye  shown  as  welded  and  also  during  PWHT
• This  PWHT  was  performed  on  first  of  three  units
• Advised  client  to  make  wye  to  pipe  welds  at  fabrication  
facility  and  perform  furnace  heat  treatment
• Then  only  pipe  joint  welds  required  PWHT  in  the  field
 Stop  Valve  Weld  Joint  

• Steam  turbine  stop  valves  

are  chrome  vanadium  
castings
• Joint  between  P91  pipe  
and  stop  valve  requires  
PWHT
• This  is  a  very  difficult  heat  
treatment  due  to  heavy  
mass  of  the  stop  valve
• Stop  valve  disassembly  
allows  installation  of  an  
insulation  plug  inside  pipe  
assured  good  temperature  
uniformity
Questions
&
Discussion