Public Speaking

Lecture 51 : Effective Use of Language in Public Speaking

Prof. Binod Mishra

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

1
“Language is power, life and the
instrument of culture, the
instrument of domination and
liberation.”
- Angela Carter
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

2
 Introduction
❖ Language is one of the most important constructions of human society.

❖ Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf propounded the linguistic relativity

hypothesis.

❖ According to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, “the particular language one

speaks influences the way one thinks about reality.”

❖ It helps us to understand the powerful role of language in constructing

human perceptions and understanding one’s world.

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 Functions of Language
❑ Russian Linguist Roman Jakobson
states that there are six functions of
language.

❑ Each function has its purpose of

achieving and establishing a
communicative act between the
addresser and addressee.

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 Functions of Language

1. Referential: Objective use of language. Information transfer.

2. Conative: Calls for attention. Receiver-oriented.
3. Emotive: Deals with emotion and suggests the tone of speech.
4. Phatic: Establishes social connection.
5. Poetic: Aesthetic and rhetorically oriented.
6. Metalingual: Discusses the language in itself - its function, meaning,
features, ambiguity etc.

5
 Oral and Written Language
Oral Language Written Language

Employs conciseness. Pays attention to detail.

Few syllable words are chosen. Word syllables range vary.

Short sentences are preferred. Large sentences are also accepted.

First-person pronouns. Third-person pronouns.

Flexibility with formality and tone. Standard and concrete.

6
 Six C’s of Language Use
❑ Michael Osborn et al. (1988), in their book entitled Public Speaking:
Finding Your Voice, jot down six key elements of language:

❖ Clarity
❖ Color
❖ Concreteness
❖ Correctness
❖ Conciseness
❖ Cultural Sensitivity

7
 Clarity of Thoughts and Words
❑ Clarity:
a. Clarity comes as the essential element and posits itself as the first
standard to be met when it comes to public speaking.
b. One must have clarity of one’s own thoughts in order to express clarity
in their words.
c. Finding the most suitable words helps the speaker in achieving clarity.
d. The element of clarity is essential for an understanding to develop
between the addresser and the addressee.

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 Factors Impairing Clarity

1. Jargon: Technical language that creates distance between

speaker and receiver who are not acquainted with the
vocabulary.
2. Euphemism: Although it relieves the tension of speech when
talking about delicate issues, at times, it may obscure the truth
and intention.
3. Doublespeak: The prodigy of two Orwellian terms, namely This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC

“doublethink” and “newspeak”, signifies the conscious

distortion of language.

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 Connection between Language and Thought

“A man may take to drink because he feels himself to be a

failure, and then fail all the more completely because he drinks.
It is rather the same thing that is happening to the English
language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts
are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier
for us to have foolish thoughts.” (George Orwell)
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 Color of Language

● Color here refers particularly to the tone and vibrancy of language used,
and not in contextual terms relating to race or ethnicity.
● It employs rich imagery and creative neologism that captures the
attention of the listeners.
● Slang, which one should refrain from using in formal scenarios, embodies
the colour of common reality. As a general semanticist, S.I. Hayakawa
connotes slang as “the poetry of everyday life.”

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 Choosing Conciseness

❑ Clarity of thoughts enables conciseness in itself.

❑ The quote offered by Thomas Jefferson sums up the value of
conciseness, “The most valuable of all talents is that of never using two
words when one will do.”
❑ Verbosity and Pompousness can be replaced with the usage of effective
maxims.
❑ However, amplification, i.e., explanation of words, becomes necessary.

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 Constructing Concrete Language
1. Orality faces the challenge of being concise yet effective enough to satisfy
all the listener’s understanding and attention requirements.
2. Concreteness of words chosen helps to solve the problem of oral
communication.
3. Pictorial and precise information helps to counter the ambiguity of
abstractions.
4. S.I. Hayakawa coined the “ladder of abstraction” to evaluate how humans
communicate and think in varying degrees.
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 Ladder of Abstraction

❑ As an effective public speaker, one must not stick

only to the top or the bottom of the ladder, which
shall result in misunderstanding and gaps.
❑ As prominent writing coach Roy Peter Clark
mentions, a public speaker “must climb up and
down the ladder of abstraction” throughout the
speech.

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 Correctness and Cultural Sensitivity

5. Correctness:
❖ Grammatical and lexical correctness becomes integral for a public
speaker to maintain their credibility.
❖ Avoid Malapropisms, i.e., making language errors by using words of
similar sounds interchangeably.
6. Cultural Sensitivity:
● Apart from grammar, conscious and sensitive word choice concerning
the cultural group of listeners also reflects the talent of a public speaker.

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 Some Cautions

❖ Make use of simple and natural

language.
❖ Ensure to talk with the audience, Different from/different from
not to them, not at them. Further/farther
❖ Use personal references. Imply/infer
Lie/lay
❖ Prefer active to passive verbs.
Prescribe/proscribe
❖ Concrete and not generalities.
❖ Avoid using jargon unless speaking
to your professional group.

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 Make Use of Small Words
“We shall not flag nor fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France and on
the seas and oceans; we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in
the air. We shall defend our island whatever the cost may be; we shall fight on
beaches, landing grounds, in fields, in streets and on the hills. We shall never
surrender, and even if, which I do not for the moment believe, this island or a large
part of it were subjugated and starving, then our empire beyond the seas, armed
and guarded by the British Fleet, will carry on the struggle until in God's good time
the New World with all its power and might, sets forth to the liberation and rescue
of the Old.” (Winston Churchill)

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 Strong Emotional Appeal
“The shadows are lengthening for me. The twilight is here. My days of old have
vanished, tone and tint. They have gone glimmering through the dreams of things
that were. Their memory is one of wondrous beauty, watered by tears, and
coaxed and caressed by the smiles of yesterday. I listen vainly, but with thirsty
ears, for the witching melody of faint bugles blowing reveille, of far drums beating
the long roll. In my dreams I hear again the crash of guns, the rattle of musketry,
the strange, mournful mutter of the battlefield.”

( General Douglas MacArthur, in his farewell to Corps of Cadet in 1962)

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“The difference between the right word and the almost
right word is the difference between fire and a firefly”.
--Mark Twain

Thank You

19
 Works Consulted
❖ DeVito, J. A. The Interpersonal Communication Book (12th ed.) Allyn & Bacon, 2009.

❖ McCroskey, James C. "Oral communication apprehension: A summary of recent theory and research." Human communication research,
vol. 4, no. 1, 1977, pp. 78-96.

❖ Jakobson, Roman. "Linguistics and communication theory." Proceedings of symposia in applied mathematics, Vol. 12, 1961.

❖ Osborn, Michael, Suzanne Osborn, and Randall Osborn. Public speaking: Finding your voice. Pearson Higher Ed, 2011.
❖ Hayakawa, S. I. Language in Action. Harcourt, 1941.

❖ Clark, Roy Peter. Writing tools: 55 essential strategies for every writer. Little, Brown Spark, 2008.

❖ https://lumen.instructure.com/courses/218897/pages/linkedtext54243

❖ https://open.library.okstate.edu/speech2713/chapter/12-3-using-effective-language-in-public-speaking/

❖ https://ethos3.com/how-to-use-language-effectively-part-1/

20
 Public Speaking
Lecture 52 - Handling Feedback and Criticism

Prof. Binod Mishra

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

1
“A life spent making mistakes is not
only more honourable but more
useful than a life spent doing
nothing.”
-George Bernard Shaw.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

2
 Introduction
❖ Criticism refers to one’s expression of judgment about:
o an individual,
o an event or
o an object of review.
❖ Under close scrutiny, anything/anyone shall beget
criticism ranging from positive to negative.
❖ In public speaking, it is not only the speaker who shall
offer criticism through speech, but one should
simultaneously be ready to receive criticism and
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND
feedback as well.

3
 Understanding Criticism
❑ Criticism is generally understood as a negative reaction,
disapproval or a mark of rejection.
❑ However, in written and oral discourse, it can mean the
investigation of the subject matter to discuss subsequent
merits and demerits.
❑ Apart from criticism expressed through public speaking,
public speakers receive criticism depending upon their: This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed
under CC BY-SA-NC
❖ Skills (verbal and non-verbal)
❖ Content (message, idea and argument)
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 Understanding Feedback

❑ Feedback has a more positive connotation attached to

itself as compared to criticism.
❑ It is usually a part of the task/performance assessment
report which suggests areas requiring improvement.
❑ In public speaking, feedback is offered by audience
members who listen to evaluate the speaker’s delivery.
❑ Audience may offer direct feedback (verbally) or even
indirect feedback (non-verbal signs).

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 Feedback in Communication
❖ A communicative act is not uni-
directional in nature.
❖ A speaker shall also receive
feedback responses from the
audience.
❖ Feedback helps the sender to
understand if s/he is
misunderstood or ineffective.
❖ A speaker may then clarify
themselves better and develop
their strategy. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

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 Differences Between Criticism and Feedback
Criticism Feedback

➢ Criticism solely points out the demerits of the ➢ Feedback focuses on the areas to be
speaker. improved.

➢ Mostly discouraging and harsh in tone ➢ Supportive and suggestive

➢ Problem- oriented ➢ Solution Oriented

➢ Past-oriented ➢ Future-oriented

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 Importance of Criticism and Feedback
❖ Gaining feedback and criticism could be the most useful and inexpensive
way to help oneself become a better public speaker.
❖ One needs a good and attentive audience to expect relevant feedback
and criticism.
❖ A sound criticism implies that the audience listened to the speaker
carefully.
❖ It can serve as a great resource to evaluate the effectiveness of one’s
speech or presentation.

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 Approaching Constructive Criticism and Feedback
❑ Combating common areas of criticism:
▪ Be loud and express confidence through your voice. (Paralanguage)
▪ Stick to your main message. Avoid too much digression. (Content)
▪ Connect better with the audience through eye contact. (Kinesics)

❑ Understanding how your message is received on the other end:

▪ Try to eliminate the negatives to increase your potential as a public speaker.
▪ Approach the suggestions with an open attitude and growth mindset.

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 Types of Criticism
Constructive Criticism Destructive Criticism

▪ Offers an objective analysis without any

▪ Disapproving and biased in nature
personal bias

▪ It is a feedback method that offers positive

▪ Does not offer any recommendations
recommendations

▪ Specific and Clear ▪ Vague and Ambiguous

▪ Motivates the speaker to improve further ▪ Demotivates and puts speaker in distress

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Components of Effective Criticism

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

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 Types of Feedback
• Too much appreciative
Positive Feedback • Fails to offer suggestions

• Creates conflict
Negative Feedback • Directs anxiety and stress

• Explains errors that occurred.

Corrective Feedback • Refers to the areas for improvement.

Motivating Feedback • Reinforces support

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 How to Gather Feedback?
✓ Perceive non-verbal cues as live
feedback from the audience during the
session.
✓ Prompting the audience to ask
questions, raise doubts and seek clarity.
✓ Circulating feedback forms after the
event.
✓ Providing email-id to communicate and This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-

interact further about the topic NC

discussed.
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 Self-Criticism
❑ Self-criticism is a psychological tendency to self-
evaluate oneself negatively. It may result in the
feelings such as:
▪ Worthlessness
▪ Failure
▪ Guilt
▪ Anxiety
▪ Depression
❑ It hampers one’s self-esteem and may sabotage
one’s opportunity in the public speaking arena.
❑ Excessive perfectionism drives toxic self-criticism.
❑ A public speaker must strive to be emotionally
“He is his own harshest critic”
intelligent and mature to overcome such tendencies.

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 Rational-emotive Behaviour Therapy
❖ Proposed by Dr Albert Ellis in 1955.
❖ Either low or high self-esteem can be unhealthy because any level of self-
esteem reflects the occurrence of a dysfunctional self-rating process, an
evaluation of one’s global worth.
❖ Our thinking about events leads to emotional and behavioural upset.
❖ USA (Unconditional Self-Acceptance)
❖ Those scoring higher in the USA tend to be lower in depression
proneness and more objective in their evaluations of their speech
performances
 Role of Emotional Intelligence
❑ Emotional Intelligence (EI) is the key to
handling any kind of criticism and feedback,
be it positive or negative.
❑ Here are a few tips to utilize E.I. while
handling criticism:
➢ Pause and listen. Let the other person
finish.
➢ De-personalize the message
➢ Take away the positive insights.
➢ Appreciate the critic for their time, This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

attention and suggestions With EI, one can also be one’s own best
critic!

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 Make effective use of persuasion.
❑ Christopher Turk, in his book Effective Speaking, suggests seven levers of
persuasion:
❖ Self-preservation
❖ Possession
❖ Power
❖ Posterity
❖ Convention
❖ Sentiment
❖ Contrary suggestion
“Criticism may not be agreeable,
but it is necessary. It fulfils the
same function as pain in the human
body. It calls attention to an
unhealthy state of things.”
-Winston Churchill
Thank You This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

18
 Works Consulted
❖ Chamberlain, John M., and David AF Haaga. "Unconditional Self-Acceptance and Responses to Negative
Feedback." Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, vol. 19, no. 3, 2001, pp. 177-
189.
❖ Cohen, Jodi R. Communication Criticism. vol. 2, Sage Publications, 1998.
❖ Crocker, Lionel. "Class Criticism in Public Speaking." The English Journal, vol. 18, no. 10, 1929, pp. 833-
836.
❖ Jackman, Jay M., and Myra H. Strober. "Fear of Feedback." Harvard Business Review, vol. 81, no. 4, 2003,
pp. 101-108.
❖ Marlow, Mikaela L. "Speech criticism, face-work, and communication responses: Towards a model of
speech criticism and feedback." Journal of Multicultural Discourses, vol. 11, no. 4, 2016, pp. 389-411.
❖ Schweda Nicholson, Nancy. "The Constructive Criticism Model." The Interpreters Newsletter, vol. 5,
1993.

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 Public Speaking
Lecture 53 - Role of Creative Thinking

Prof. Binod Mishra

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

1
“You can’t use up creativity.
The more you use, the more
you have.”
-Maya Angelou

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

2
 Creative Thinking

• If creativity is the ability to create something novel, creative thinking implies the
novelty of thoughts and ideas.
• Creative thinking offers a different perspective toward an issue or a debate.
• Creative thinking becomes integral to being successful in writing and speaking
domains.
• Creative Thinking has two main components to satisfy:
– Originality: The ideas generated should be the first of their kind.
– Functionality: It should be applicable and should show degrees of usefulness.

3
 Critical and Creative Thinking

“Although creative and critical thinking may very well be different sides of the
same coin, they are not identical.” - Barry Beyer
4
 Public Speaking and Creativity
• A creative mind begets a creative speech which garners the audience’s time
and attention.
• Innovative openings.
– For example, Swami Vivekananda began his 1893 Chicago speech with
the greetings to “Sisters and Brothers of America.”
• Humorizing the audience. (Thinking outside the box)
• Delivering relatable speeches for the audience to connect easily. (Active
interpersonal communication)

5
 Requisites for Creative Thinking
Hungarian-American psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi in his phenomenal
work entitled Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention,
writes three main criteria as essential for creative thinking to occur, they are:
• Energy:
A highly active individual is exhibiting energetic physical and mental state.
• Intelligence:
Intellect is necessary; however, it should not restrict one’s perspectives.
• Discipline:
Self-motivated and equally enthusiastic towards work and life events.

6
 Creativity and Big Five
McCrae and Costa had devised a five-factor theory for grouping
global population in accordance to five major personality traits.
1. Extraversion
2. Agreeableness
3. Conscientiousness
4. Openness
5. Neuroticism
Out of the five traits, openness to experience gains the highest
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
correlation with creative thinking.

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 Convergent and Divergent Thinking

*Creative minds employ divergent thinking.

8
 Types of Creative Thinking
❑ Dr. James C. Kaufman and Dr. Ronald Beghetto identified Four-c model of
creativity based on the impact level of creative thinking.
1. “Mini-c” creativity:
a. Personal creative thoughts restricted only to a particular individual’s lifestyle.
2. “Little-c” creativity:
a. Creative thinking which solves everyday problems and adapts to changes.
3. “Pro-C” creativity:
a. Professional level creativity that increases work efficiency.
4. “Big-C” creativity:
a. Ideas that leads to a revolutionary change in the concerned area.

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 Four-P Model of Creativity
• When creative thinking meets
functionality, it results in growth,
convenience and comfort for the parties
involved.
• The “4-P’s of Creativity” model generated
by Mel Rhodes in his article The Analysis of
Creative Thinking (1961) elucidates upon
how a creative mind can be developed and
employed in different fields.

10
 Four-P Model of Creativity
• Person:
Individual traits, habits and attitudes.
• Process:
Applied research and experimentation.
• Product:
Construction of a final creative output i.e., useful and
original.
• Press:
Creativity in relation to the external conditions of culture, This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

codes and principles.

11
 Four Stages of Creative Thinking
• British Psychologist Graham Wallas in his book The
Art of Thought (1926) deduced a four-stage model
to understand creative process.
• Stage 1 and 4 deals with concrete processes such
as collecting and evaluating resources. (conscious
level)
• Meanwhile, the intermediate stages of creative
thinking deals with abstract level thinking,
imagination and inspiration. (unconscious level)

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 Four Stages of Creative Thinking
➢ Stage 1 - Preparation:
○ Collecting information and knowledge to gain base for further creative
development.
➢ Stage 2 - Incubation:
○ Combining and connecting different ideas with the resources at hand.
➢ Stage 3 - Illumination:
○ Revelations of brilliant ideas. Eureka moment!
➢ Stage 4 - Revision:
○ Verification of the whole process and idea generated.

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 Lateral thinking in Public Speaking
❖ The term “lateral thinking” suggests unorthodox and inventive approaches to a given
task/situation.
❖ It is an approach which a public speaker shall employ to make their delivery more
creative and engaging.
❖ Lateral thinking is more function-oriented with enough concern towards
implementation of ideas and its practicality.
❖ The speech which incorporates such thinking challenges assumptions and escapes
dominant narrative.
❖ Vivid perspectives offered by a speaker shall captivate large number of masses.

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When learning is purposeful, creativity blossoms.
When creativity blossoms, thinking emanates. When
thinking emanates, knowledge is fully lit. When
knowledge is lit, the economy flourishes.

-A.P.J. Abdul Kalam

Thank You

15
 Works Consulted
❖ Beyer, B.K. Practical Strategies for the Teaching of Thinking. Allyn and Bacon Inc,
1987.
❖ Rhodes, Mel. "An Analysis of Creativity." The Phi Delta Kappan, vol. 42, no. 7,
1961, pp. 305-310.
❖ Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. The Systems Model of Creativity: The Collected Works of
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Springer, 2015.
❖ McCrae, Robert R., and Paul T. Costa. Personality in Adulthood: A five-factor
Theory Perspective. Guilford Press, 2003.
❖ Wallas, Graham. The Art of Thought, vol. 10, Harcourt, Brace, 1926.
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 Public Speaking
Lecture 54: Some Other Forums of Public Speaking

Prof. Binod Mishra

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

1
 Popular Forums for Discussion
1. CONFERENCE: A platform to confer with people on a topic
(of a wider spectrum than seminar or symposium) and to
collaborate on their experiences and opinions.
CONFERENCE
2. SYMPOSIUM: A group of knowledgeable participants
examine different aspects of a problem, ensued by an open
discussion. Ideal for reviewing multiple types of research on PANEL
SYMPOSI
a common theme. DISCUSSI
UM
3. CONVENTION: A fellowship get-together of a close-knit ON DISCUSSI
ON
fraternal group, for instance, professional gatherings of FORUMS
companies or political parties.
4. SEMINAR: A discussion in a small group where a paper
presenter reports their findings, followed by a detailed CONVENTI
discussion. SEMINAR
ON
5. PANEL DISCUSSION: A process of cooperative thinking
enabling a direct exchange of ideas on a topic by a group of
experts.

2
 Seminar
❑ A seminar may be defined as a small
gathering of people who come to
interact together to discuss the
delineated topic.
❑ It is a mode of group communication,
usually academic in nature.
❑ Oral as well as written presentations are
made.
❑ The sessions are followed by question
and answer sessions.
❑ It is a mixture of speech and group
discussion.
❑ It always has a chairperson.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

3
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

4
 Significance of Seminar

❑ A seminar is operational in fetching the experts’ experiences and views on

a particular subject matter.
❑ It includes meaningful discussions on the existing literature, data and
presented papers, their summaries and recommendations.
❑ It is an effective method of oral communication.
❑ The presenter has the responsibility of carefully articulating the intended
subject matter.

5
 Organizer’s Role

For a seminar to be effective and successful, organisers must

❖ Decide the date, venue and theme beforehand.
❖ Publish required and relevant materials.
❖ Promote the seminar in well advance.
❖ Ensure the arrangement of aids and gadgets beforehand.
❖ Arrange basic courtesies and hospitality.

6
 Speaker’s Role
❖ The speaker should present bring something relevant and innovative.
❖ Materials should be borrowed from multiple sources- libraries, websites, pdfs, etc.
❖ The presentation should be informative, coherent and in logical order.
❖ The use of PowerPoint presentations is helpful for maintaining the interest of the
audience. However, everything that is supposed to be spoken should not be written
in the slides.
❖ Time constraints should be followed.
❖ Questions should be handled with ease and efficiency without backlashing at
anyone.
❖ The presentation is for the audience so they should be thanked for their co-
operation.

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 Chairperson’s Role
❖ Chairperson plays an important role during the seminar.
❖ S/he introduces the topic of discussion briefly.
❖ S/he introduces the speakers of the session before their presentation and
briefs the audience about their specialisations and achievements.
❖ Chairperson has the responsibility of making sure that the presenters wind
up in the allotted time.
❖ S/he is in charge of moderating the question-answer sessions and avoiding
undesirable digressions.
❖ S/he has to sum up the entire presentation and the supposed takeaways
from every presentation.
❖ S/he should thank the speakers as well as the audience at the end.

8
 Audience’s Role
❖ Audiences should occupy the seats beforehand and not wait to arrive in
the nick of time.
❖ They should listen to understand and not merely react or counter.
❖ They should make a note of important points and citations.
❖ Avoid interrupting during the presentation and wait patiently for the
question-answer session.
❖ The question should be relevant and fall under the area of enquiry.
❖ Maintain decorum and stay seated till the concluding remarks.

9
 Seminars in the 21st Century
❑ The conventional understanding and setup of seminars are being modified
in the 21st century. For instance, in Singapore, several learning centres and
educational institutes have come up with a revised version of a seminar,
especially for students.
These are unconventional because:
▪ They are concerned with the enhancement of students’ intellect.
▪ These promote a flexible teaching process
▪ These seminars don’t follow a specific setting.

10
 Types of Seminars for Student Interaction and Communication
Community Content Area School-Wide
Faculty seminar
seminar seminar seminar
• Involves adults • It involves • Designed for
with some • A training seminar professionals who schools for
common purpose with integrated can share their cultural diversity
• Organised for classroom model experiences. and promotion
people facing • Students can look • These are capable • Seminar leaders
difficulty at work at their curriculum of changing may
• Improves objectively education culture change/modify
collaboration and give new the questions as
between two learning per their
groups/individuals experience to requirements
students.

11
 Symposium
❑ Symposium (Greek: συμπόσιον symposion or symposio, from συμπίνειν
sympinein, "to drink together") was a part of a banquet that took place
after the meal when drinking for pleasure was accompanied by music,
dancing, recitals, or conversation.
❑ A symposium is “a public presentation in which several people present
prepared speeches on different aspects of the same topic” (Lucas 408).
❑ It consists of a moderator and several speakers.

12
 Contd…

❑ The moderator introduces the topic as well as the speakers.

❑ The talks/speeches are followed by a question-answer session.
❑ It is used for group report presentations.

❑ All the speeches are required to be aptly planned and delivered.

❑ Coordination is the key in this kind of presentation.

13
 Panel Discussion
❑ A panel discussion is a structured conversation on a pre-decided topic among
several people. It always takes place in front of an audience.
❑ Like a symposium, it also has a moderator to introduce the topic as well as the
panellists.
❑ Once the discussion begins, it is the job of the moderator to interject
questions and comments in order to save the discussion from derailing.
❑ The panellists should be audible to the audience in order to deliver their
intended points of view.
❑ Panelists must speak briefly and in an informal manner.

14
 Contd…
❑ It is followed by a question-answer session.
❑ Because of its spontaneity, panel discussions are enjoyed by the audience
as much as by the panellists.
❑ Every panellist should be mindful of not making the entire discussion
around themselves.
❑ These discussions are meant for the panellists and audience, so only a few
voices should not dominate.
❑ As an audience, one must ask mindful and related questions and not just
be a mere spectator.

Avoid monopolizing.

15
Reflecting Thinking Method (Lucas) Define the problem with clarity and brevity

Analyse the problem to determine the causes

Establish criteria for evaluation solutions

Generate wide range of potential solutions

Select the best solution(s)

16
 Workshop

❑ According to Collins Dictionary, “A

workshop is a period of discussion
or practical work on a particular
subject in which a group of people
share their knowledge or
experience.”
❑ The chief objective of any
workshop is to add to the expertise
of every participant.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND

17
 When to conduct a workshop?
At the beginning of any new venture

During the initial training of staff or volunteers

For the in-service training and development of staff or volunteers

For the demonstration of a new concept

For the explanation of something to the public

Because of the availability of a knowledgeable presenter

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 Contd…
Benefits:
❑ It helps in improving professional skills and qualifications.
❑ It instils a sense of co-operation and partnership among the participants.
❑ Workshops can be a breeding ground for many innovative ideas.

Functions:
❑ It provides room for enquiry, discussions and problem-solving.
❑ It provides training/knowledge to the participants by the experts.

19
 Contd…

Purpose:
❑ It aims at providing the newest trends and indispensable information.
❑ It exposes the experts to newer variables in their field of knowledge.
❑ The diverse group of participants have a lot to offer and exchange.

Duration:
The duration of a workshop depends on what and how long the organisers
have to offer. It can be for one day or more.

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 Contd…
❑ In order to conduct an effective and successful workshop, one requires to
plan and prepare thoroughly on the different aspects of the workshop: the
tentative audience, the motif of the workshop, venue, duration, activities,
and availability of various equipment.

❑ One should also keep in mind the importance of feedback in order to cater
to the needs of the audience as well as for personal growth.

21
There's no use talking
about the problem
unless you talk
about the solution.
-Betty Williams

Thank You

22
 Works Consulted
❑ “4 Types of Seminars to Support Thinking and Communication among Students.” Training
& Seminar Room Rental Singapore |, 2 July 2015,
https://trainingroomsg.com/general/4-types-of-seminars-to-support-thinking-and-
communication-among-students/.
❑ Azhfar, Afkar. “Workshop: Definition, Benefits, and Its Purpose for Individuals.”
BusinessTech, 27 Apr. 2022, https://www.hashmicro.com/blog/understanding-workshop/.
❑ Henri, Anholt Robert Rene. Dazzle 'Em with Style: The Art of Oral Scientific Presentation.
Elsevier Acad. Press, 2011.
❑ Mohan, Krishna, and Meera Banerji. Developing Communication Skills. Macmillan
Publishers India Ltd., 2009.
❑ Public Speaking Success in 20 Minutes a Day. Learning Express, 2010.
❑ “Section 4. Conducting a Workshop.” Chapter 12. Providing Training and Technical
Assistance | Section 4. Conducting a Workshop | Main Section | Community Tool Box,
https://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/structure/training-and-technical-
assistance/workshops/main.
23
 Public Speaking
Lecture 55: Etiquettes and Mannerisms in Public Speaking
Prof. Binod Mishra
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

1
 Speech Etiquettes
 According to Cambridge dictionary, etiquette is “the set of rules or Levels of Speech Etiquettes
customs that control accepted behaviour in particular social groups or
social situations.”
 “Etiquette is all human social behaviour. If you're a hermit on a Vocabulary
mountain, you don't have to worry about etiquette; if somebody comes
up the mountain, then you've got a problem. It matters because we want
to live in reasonably harmonious communities.” - Judith Martin Phraseology

Grammar
 Speech etiquette refers to the system of speech behaviour, the
rules of live conversation and correspondence, how to use the
language and its tools in a specific situation and environment. Style & Tone
 The study of speech etiquettes is of indispensable importance
because it occupies a paramount space at the intersection of Orthoepy
linguistics, cultural theory, ethnography and psychology and is
crucial in creating an efficient communicative space. Psychology

2
 Pragmatics of Speech: Co-text
 George Yule, in his book, The Study of Language “A customer-
(128) states that the knowledge of pragmatics is “Steep and friendly bank”
essential in order to create an effective and overgrown bank”
productive communicative culture. The co-text –
 Yule discusses the significance of the linguistic The co-text – “customer-
context, also termed as co-text in speech. “steep and friendly”
overgrown” helps influences our
 Co-text refers to a word or set of words used in
us to decide that interpretation of
proximity to the principal word, and act as a
here bank means the word bank as
qualifier to effect what we think the word
a river bank a financial
probably means.
institution
 Co-texts are of particular importance to clarify
the intended meaning in case of usage of
homonyms.

BANK

3
 Pragmatics of Speech: Use of Deictic Expressions
 The term ‘Deictic Expressions’ Temporal
comes from the Greek word Person Deixis Spatial Deixis
Deixis
‘Deixis’, which means “pointing”
via language. Words or
Used to point
 Deictic Expressions refer to those phrases which Used to point
to a thing or a
bits of language which can be point to a to a time
person
location
understood or interpreted only
when the listener knows the Expressions Expressions Expressions
immediate context (especially the like – it, these, like – here, like – now,
him, them, there, near then, last
physical context) of the speaker.
those people that week
 Any act of communication involves
a clear and informed use of deictic E.g. – “The E.g. – “The
E.g. – “Place
expressions in order to drive home teacher asked convocation is
the box of
John to tell scheduled to
the intended message in a non- chocolates
them to come take place
ambiguous manner. there.”
tomorrow.” next week.”

4
 Pragmatics of Speech: Reference and Inference
 George Yule defines reference The act of referencing in speech can be carried out
as “an act by which a speaker by the use of the following categories of identifiers:
(or writer) uses language to
enable a listener (or reader) to Proper Nouns – George, Chomsky, Kristen
identify something.”
 Words by themselves do not Noun Phrases – The doctor with a squint eye;
refer anything; people refer.

TYPES OF SIGNIFIERS
My neighbor's cat; The girl with a blue umbrella
 Inference is the “additional
information (background
Pronouns – He; She; It; They
knowledge, awareness of the
context, presence of mind)
used by the listener/reader to For unidentified/unsure objects – That glowing
create a connection between thing; The red stuff
what is said and what must be
meant.” (Yule) To describe the peculiarities of a person – The
 Successful speech requires a name of a book, for E.g. ‘Encyclopedia’ can be
harmonious interplay of used to refer to a person possessing multifarious
reference and inference. knowledge.

5
 Pragmatics of Speech: Pre-supposition
 “A context is a psychological construct” (Sperber
and Wilson, 1995). Statement Pre-supposition
 Pre-supposition is an assumption by the speaker
about what is already known by the audience, His wife is waiting He is married.
while using referencing in his/her talk. outside.
 Speakers tend to design their linguistic message
Why did you arrive You did arrive late.
on the basis of large-scale assumptions (called as
late?
presuppositions) about the knowledge,
awareness and understanding of the audience.
How far were you 1. George was
 Mistaken pre-suppositions on the part of the from the gas driving.
speaker leads to the failure of communication of station, George, 2. He did run out
the intended message. when that old thing of fuel.
 Thus, the speaker’s skill of appropriate pre- ran out of fuel? 3. He has an old
supposition is one of the prominent etiquettes of vehicle.
speech.

6
 Pragmatics of Speech: Speech Acts
 Speech act is defined as the action (for example – requesting, questioning, informing,
commanding, promising) performed by the speaker with an utterance.
For e.g. – when a speaker says “I’ll visit you tomorrow at six”, he is not merely speaking, but also
performing the speech act of ‘promising’.
 For a proficient communication of the intended message, it is imperative for the audience to
possess knowledge/awareness about how the speaker intends them to interpret the function of
his utterance.
 Thus, an understanding of the speaker’s speech acts happens to be one of the pre-requisite
conversational etiquettes on the part of the audience.
 Speech acts can be distinguished into:

Speech Act

Direct Speech Act Indirect Speech Act

7
 Pragmatics of Speech: Direct and Indirect Speech Acts
An action in which the syntactical An action in which the syntactical
form used (e.g. interrogative) is form used does not directly match
congruent to the function with the function performed by the
Direct Speech Act

(question) performed by a speaker speaker with an utterance.

with an utterance.
E.g. Did you eat the apple? (Structure
– Interrogative; Function – Question) E.g. Can you pass me the plate?

Indirect Speech Act

(Structure – Interrogative; Function –
Eat the apple. (Structure – Imperative; Request)
Function – Command)
You left the window open. (Structure –
You ate the apple. (Structure – Declarative; Function – to make a request
Declarative; Function –Statement) to close the window)

Direct speech acts are more curt and Indirect speech acts are considered to be
direct in manner. more polite than direct speech acts.

8
 Pragmatics of Speech: Politeness
 In terms of speech pragmatics, politeness can be understood as showing awareness and
consideration of another person’s face.
• Face, in pragmatics of speech, refers to your public self-image. It connotes the emotional and
social sense of self that a person has and expects others to recognize.

Face-saving Act Face-threatening Act

When the speaker threatens the listener’s self- When the speaker employs indirect speech act
image by exhibiting social power through to remove the assumption of social power in
his/her utterance his/her utterance
E.g. – “Give me that bottle!” (Command) E.g. – “Could you please pass me that bottle?”
Communicates power over the listener (Request); Reduces the possible threat to
listener’s face
• The markers of politeness differ across cultures. For instance, in cultures which value straight-forwardness,
direct speech acts are considered better expressions.
• In cultures which are disposed to avoiding impositions, indirect speech act is preferred and direct speech acts
are considered to be impolite.

9
 The Co-operative Principle
 The co-operative principle is a general description of the expectations that the interlocutors have
in a conversation. This principle, along with its four maxims, was propounded by the philosopher
Herbert Paul Grice as follows:
 “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs,
by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”
(Grice, 1975: 45).

 The four maxims supporting this principle, referred to as Gricean Maxims are:
 The Quantity Maxim: Make your contribution as informative as is required, neither more
nor less than is required.
 The Quality Maxim: Do not state that which you believe to be false or for which you lack
adequate evidence.
 The Relation Maxim: Be relevant.
 The Manner Maxim: Be clear, brief and orderly.

10
 Speech Etiquettes: Use of Hedges
 Hedges refer to a word or a phrase that is employed to indicate that the speaker is not
completely sure that his/her utterance is sufficiently correct or complete.

 The need of the use of hedges entails from adherence to the co-operative principle, and is, thus,
a pre-requisite of speech etiquettes.

 A few examples of hedges used in sentences include:

 So, to cut a long story short, we managed to get our stuffs back from the thief. (The speaker
is conscious of the Quantity Maxim.)
 I’m not absolute sure, but I think the meeting is scheduled on Friday evening. (The speaker
is conscious of the Quality Maxim.)
 Not to change the subject, but whose hand writing is this? (The speaker is conscious of the
Relation Maxim.)
 I don’t know if this is clear at all, but I think the car had no lights and it crashed while it was
reversing. (The speaker is conscious of the Manner Maxim.)

11
 Speech Etiquettes: Implicatures
Peter: Lucy,
 George Yule defines implicature in would you join us
speech as “an additional meaning for the movie,
(other than the literal sense of a tonight?
statement) conveyed by a speaker
adhering to the co-operative
principle”.

 To arrive at a meaningful interpretation

Lucy’s statement is not a direct answer to Peter’s question.
of implicatures in a conversation
But, Peter, through his background knowledge will
involves an appeal to some understand that “exam tomorrow” means “study tonight”
background knowledge to be shared by which further rules out the possibility of “movie tonight”.
the conversational participants. Thus, Lucy statement about tomorrow’s activities contains
an implicature concerning tonight’s plan.
 The use of implicatures involves paying
careful attention to the maxims of co-
operative Principle.

12
 Contextual Variations of Speech Etiquettes
• The three levels of politeness in communication correspond to their own style of speech –
official, neutral and familiar.

Neutral
Official Polite communication
Polite communication in a conducted between strangers
formal setting E.g. – “Excuse me, could you Familiar
The significance of the tell me the time, please?”
Polite communication in
interlocutors is determined family, between friends,
by their social status and social acquaintances
position
E.g. – “What time is it, Tom?”
E.g. – “Professor Smith,
could you please tell me the
time?”
Politeness

13
 Etiquettes on the Podium
 Stand at a proper distance from the lectern: Stand 10 to 12
inches behind the lectern. Don’t lean upon the lectern. Do not
beat or pound on the lectern to emphasize your point.
 Do not leave the podium unattended: After finishing the
speech, the speaker should wait patiently at the lectern until
the host takes charge of it. Also, do not pace upon the stage
without purpose while delivering your talk.
 Introducing a speaker: The host should stay at the podium and
greet the speaker (by a professional handshake) before leaving
stage to the speaker. The speaker, in turn, should begin the
speech by thanking the host for introducing him/her.
 Leave the lectern gracefully: Do not end your presentation by
gathering up your script papers while leaving the podium.
Rather, enjoy the applause of the audience and leave
gracefully. The notes and props can be collected after the
meeting has ended.

14
Etiquettes for Telephonic Conversation

15
16
17
 Homilies on Etiquettes of speech
“Words that do not cause distress, are truthful, inoffensive, and beneficial, as well as regular
recitation of the Vedic scriptures – these are declared as austerity of speech.”
– Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 7, Verse 15

“ Talk straight, to the point, without any ambiguity or deception.” Holy Quran [33:70]
“Always speak the truth. Shun words that are deceitful and ostentatious.” Holy Quran [22:30]
“Speak in a civilized manner in a language that is recognized by the society and is commonly
used.” Holy Quran [4:5]

“Let no corrupting talk come out of your mouths, but only such as is good for building up, as
fits the occasion, that it may give grace to those who hear.” – Holy Bible – Ephesians 4:29
“Whoever guards his mouth preserves his life; he who opens wide his lips comes to ruin.”
– Holy Bible – Proverbs 13:3

According to Buddhist teachings, Right Speech or samma vaca is described as: “Abstaining
from lying, from divisive speech, from abusive speech, & from idle chatter: this is called right
speech.” – Samyutta Nikaya XLV.8

18
Etiquettes of Speech: Statistics

Fig. The Ratio of Types of Etiquettes

19
Thank You

20
 Works Consulted
 Mohan Krishna, Meera Banerjee. Developing Communication Skills. New Delhi: Trinity Press, 2017. Print.

 Stephen, Lucas E. The Art of Public Speaking. New York: McGraw Hill, 2009.

 Yule, George. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Print.

 Yule, George. The Study of Language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

 Zarefsky, David. Public Speaking: Strategies for Success. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2011. Print.

 https://www.hinduwebsite.com/buddhism/rightspeech.asp

 https://reformedwiki.com/verses/public-speaking

 https://alquranclasses.com/etiquettes-of-speaking/

 https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/preemptive-safety/what-is-netiquette

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