Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Diversity- is everything that makes people different

Metacognition from each other.
- Term coined by John Flavell (1970). Factors that makes us different:
- Consists of both metacognitive knowledge and Race Gender
metacognitive experiences. Age Ability
- “Thinking about thinking” or “learning how to Religious belief Political conviction
learn”. Ethnicity Sexual orientation
- Refers to higher order thinking which involves Socio-economic
active awareness and control over the cognitive SENSORY SYSTEM
processes engaged in learning. Sensory Receptors
- An understanding of cognitive process. - Specialized cells or multicellular structures that
- The ability to regulate those process. collects information from the environment.
- Helps students build conceptual understanding Sensation
by activating prior knowledge and making - A feeling that occurs when brain becomes
connection between the prior and new aware of sensory impulse
knowledge. Perception
CARL Method - A person’s view of the situation; the way the
C- comprehension brain interprets the information
A- anticipation General Senses
R- removal - Receptors that are widely distributed
L- leverage throughout the body
- Skin, various organs and joints
Strategies to Develop Metacognition Receptors
 Knowledge of Task - An organ or cell able to respond to light, heat or
 Knowledge of Strategies other external stimuli and transmit a signal to a
 Knowledge of Self sensory nerve.
 Monitoring - The receptors are transducers.
 Evaluation - They convert any form of energy into electrical
form.
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES - The output of all receptors is electrical energy.
The 14 Psychological Principles
- pertain to the learner and the learning process. Type of Receptors:
- focus on psychological factors that are primarily  P- Pressure Mechanoreceptors
internal under the control of the learner rather  P- Pain Receptors Nociceptors
than conditioned habits or physiological factors.  T- Thermoreceptors
- intended to deal holistically with learners in the  C- Chemoreceptors
context of real-world learning situations.  O- Osmoreceptors
 P- Photoreceptors
The 14 principles are divided into those referring to:
 Cognitive and Metacognitive (mental task) Special senses- specialized receptors confined to
 Motivational and Affective structures in the head: mouth, eye, ear, nose
 Developmental and Social
 Individual Difference Factors COMMON DISORDER OF THE RECEPTOR CELLS
A. Eye
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS  Visual impairment- is a term experts use to
1. Nature of Learning Process describe any kind of vision loss, whether it’s
2. Goals of the Learning Process someone who has partial vision loss.
3. Construction of Knowledge a. injury
4. Strategic Thinking b. congenital
5. Thinking about thinking c. infection
6. Context of Learning d. inherited
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS
7. Motivational and Emotional Influences on Common Eye Disorders and Diseases
Learning 1. Myopia- nearsightedness
8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn 2. Hyperopia- farsightedness
9. Effects of Motivation on Effort 3. Presbyopia- loss of near vision with age
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS 4. Cataract- a cloudy area in the lens of eye
10. Developmental Influences on Learning 5. Diabetic Retinopathy- diabetes complication
11. Social Influences on Learning 6. Amblyopia- poor vision in just one eye
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS 7. Strabismus
12. Individual Differences in Learning 8. Color blindness
13. Learning and Diversity 9. Glaucoma
14. Standards and Assessment
B. Ears - At age 10, children have developed half of the
 Hearing impairment- whether permanent or brain cell connections.
fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s - Myelination- the change or maturation of
educational performance. certain nerve cells whereby a layer of myelin
forms around the axons which allows the nerve
 Deafness- is defined as “a hearing impairment impulses to travel faster. It begins prenatally and
that is so severe that the child is impaired in continues after birth.
processing a linguistic information through - The brain weighs about 3 pounds.
hearing, with or without amplification”. - The right side of the brain controls the left side
of the body. (vice versa)
Types of Hearing loss: - The brain is made up of 75% water.
1. Conductive hearing- inability to hear faint sound - There are no pain receptors in the brain,
2. Sensorineural hearing loss- results from damage therefore it can not feel pain.
to the inner air (cochlea) - The human brain is the fattest organ in the
3. Central hearing loss- unable to properly interpret body. It is about 60% fat.
speeches/signal Brain Anatomy
4. Mixed hearing loss- where a conductive hearing The human brain is comprised of 3 parts:
loss occurs in combination with a sensorineural - Hindbrain
hearing losses - Midbrain
5. Unilateral hearing- one-sided hearing loss - Forebrain

Strategies Available to Deaf: A. Hindbrain- located at base of skull and consists:

- sign language  Cerebellum- posture, balance, voluntary
- speech/oral communication- refers to the use of movement
speechreading and auditory cues  Medulla- breathing, heart rate, reflexes
- hearing aids  Pons- bridge between the spinal cord
and the brain
Common Ear Disorders and Diseases  Brainstem- controls the basic functions
1. Balance Disorders of life: breathing, heart rate,
2. Cholesteatoma swallowing, reflexes to sight or sound,
3. Ear infections sweating, blood pressure, sleep,
- acute otitis media hormonal maturation, and balance.
- otitis media with effusion B. Midbrain
- otitis externa - integrates sensory information
4. Tinnitus - handles all sensory information that passes
5. Hearing Loss between the spinal cord and forebrain
6. Perforated eardrum - it is also involved in body movement in relation
to auditory and visual signals
C. Tongue - located just above the hindbrain
 Aglossia- absence of the tongue
 Hypoglossia- short and incomplete tongue C. Forebrain
 Burning Mouth Syndrome- burning sensation - Limbic system- regulates emotion and memory
 Macroglossia- large tongue - Thalamus- sensory info relay except smell
 Atrophic glossitis- missing some of its papillae - Hypothalamus- controls hunger, thirst, pleasure
- Hippocampus- important in forming memories
D. Nose - Amygdala- involved in memory and emotions
 Sinusitis- sinus infections/swollen - Cerebrum-the largest and most developed part;
 Congestion- clogging responsible for intelligence, personality,
 Airway blockage thinking; the cerebral cortex is a gray tissue that
covers the cerebrum.
HEMISPHERE OF THE BRAIN
Brain Development LOBES OF THE BRAIN
 Brain- one of the largest and most complex organ The cerebral is divided into two hemispheres which
in the body contain the:
 Pruning- is the degradation of neurons because  occipital lobe- for vision and recognition
of aging.  parietal lobe- handles information from senses
 Plasticity- is the ability of the brain to  temporal lobe- hearing, memory, emotion,
continuously change in response to learning or speaking, smelling, tasting, perception,
injury. aggressiveness, and sexual behavior
Facts about Human Brain  frontal lobe- organizing, planning, creative
- The human brain contains 50 billion neurons of thinking
birth.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES c. Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments
- theory suggests that all humans posses eight - Physical and Health Impairments- affect
intelligences individual’s energy and strength, mental
- these eight intelligences exist as a unique alertness and muscle control
combination in each and every one of us - Severe and Multiple Disabilities- presence of
- Howard Gardner (proponent) two or more different types of disabilities
d. Sensory Impairments
mnemonics: IM NVISSBLE - Visual impairments- malfunction of the eyes or
Intrapersonal optic nerves that prevent normal vision
Musical  myopia (farsightedness)
Naturalist  hyperopia (nearsightedness)
Verbal/Linguistic  astigmatism
Interpersonal - Hearing Impairments- “hearing loss”,
Spiritual malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that
Spatial/Visual hinders perception of sounds within the
Bodily-Kinesthetic frequency range of normal speech
Logical/Mathematical e. Giftedness
Existential - Six areas where giftedness could be found:
a. creative thinking
LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALISTIES b. leadership
Terminologies: c. general intellectual ability
World Health Organization 3-tier terms: d. psychomotor
A. Impairment- loss or abnormality of e. specific academic ability
psychological, physiological or anatomical f. visual/performing arts
structure or function - Characteristics:
B. Disability- measurable impairments or a. Perfectionist and idealistic
limitations that interferes with a person’s ability b. Heightened sensitivity to their own
C. Handicap- disadvantage that occurs as a result expectations and those of others
of disability c. Maturity beyond age
d. Problem solvers
Exceptional Learners e. Abstract thinkers’
- are different from “normal” or “average” - speaks of talent, which includes all areas of a
- needing special needs such related to cognitive child’s life: academic, artistic, athletic, and social
abilities, behavior, social functioning, physical - involves significantly high levels of cognitive
and sensory impairments, emotional development
disturbance, and giftedness. - performance and accomplishments
- Identification:
CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONALITIES a. Ability vs. Achievement
Omrod’s Educational Psychology (2000) b. Tests vs. Grades
c. Standardized Testing
a. Cognitive or Academic Faculties d. Ability
Learning Disabilities- perception, language, memory e. IQ
or metacognition f. Creative and Critical Thinking Achievement
- Dyslexia- reading disorder
- Dysgraphia- writing disorder DEALING WITH LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES:
- Dyscalculia- arithmetic disorder - People-First language (PFL)- puts the person
- Dyspraxia- psychomotor disorder before the disability, and describes what a
- ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)- person has, not who a person is.
inattention, distractibility; with or without  no generic labels
hyperactivity  emphasize abilities; not limitations
- Speech and Communication Disorders- spoken  no euphemisms
language including voice disorders (e.g.  no implication of illness of suffering
difficulties pronouncing sounds, or articulation - Brief and simple instructions
disorders, and stuttering) - Clear definition of course requirements, the
dates of exams, and deadline of assignments.
b. Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties - Handouts and visual aids and study guides
- Autism- social skills, repetitive behaviors, - Several examples and demonstrations
speech and nonverbal communication - Consultation time
- Mental Retardation- sub-average intelligence - Asking and providing assistance
and deficits in adaptive behavior; imbecile - Encouragement
- Emotional/Conduct Disorders- presence f - Patience
emotional states like depression and aggression
disturbing and performance in school
THEORIES RELATED TO THE LEARNER’S DEVELOPMENT  Fixation:
- anal expulsive- messy, wasteful,
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY- destructive
Sigmund Freud - anal retentive- orderly, rigid,
Our childhood experiences and unconscious desires obsessive
shape our behavior. 3. PHALLIC
 Conscious- our current thoughts, feelings, and  Age- 4-6
perceptual focus  Erogenous zone- genitals (discover
 Preconscious/Subconscious- everything we can differences between male and female)
recall or retrieve from our memory  Conflict-
 Unconscious- deepest level of our mind. These - Oedipus complex- boys view their
are hidden memories, memories we tried to fathers as a rival for the mother’s
forget. We hide these because of negativities, affection
guilt, shame, pain, discomfort, and fear. - Electra complex- similar set of
Components of the Human Mind: feelings experienced by young girls
 ID to their mothers
 Pleasure-driven 4. LATENCY
 Seeks immediate pleasure/avoid pain  Age- 7 to puberty
 It is a selfish trait  Erogenous zone- sexual feelings are inactive
 The libido (sexual reproduction) is part - Here, ego and superego develops and
of Id they contribute to this period of
 EGO calmness. Individuals are more
 Acts as filter for the Id. concerned with peer relationships,
hobbies and interests.
 Ensures our needs are met in a socially
5. GENITAL
appropriate way.
 Age- puberty and beyond
 SUPEREGO
 Erogenous zone- sexual reawakening (strong
 Where morality resides.
sexual interest to the opposite sex)
 Centered on the conscience.
 Encourages social responsibility.
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Feud believed that personality developed through a
Erik Erikson
series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking
energies of id become focused on certain erogenous
areas.
 An erogenous zone is characterized as an area
of the body that serves as a source of pleasure.
 Psychosexual energy or the libido was described
as the driving force.
 Fixations can occur if there are unresolved
issues in each stage. A fixated person will
remain on “stuck” on that stage.

Psychosexual Theory Different Stages (OAPhaLaGe)

1. Oral COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
2. Anal Jean Piaget
3. Phalic  Suggests that children move through four
4. Latency different stages of learning. His theory focuses
5. Genital not only on understanding how children acquire
knowledge, but also on understanding the
1. ORAL nature of intelligence.
 Age- birth to 1  As kids interact with the world around them,
 Erogenous zone- mouth they continually add new knowledge, build
 Conflict- because an infant is entirely upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously
dependent on caretakers the primary held ideas accommodate new information.
conflict of this stage is the weaning process. 1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
 Fixation:  Birth to 2
- oral aggression- verbally abusive  know the world through senses
- oral receptive- overeats, drink,  Learn about object permanence- that things
smoke, nail-bite continue to exist even when they cannot be
2. ANAL seen.
 Age- 2-3 2. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
 Erogenous zone- anus (controlling bowel  3 to 7
movements)  Begin to think symbolically and learn to use
 Conflict- toilet training words and pictures to represent objects.
  Tend to egocentric and struggle to see things MORAL DEVELOPMENT
from the perspective of others. Lawrence Kohlberg
 Getting better with language and thinking, but  Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral
still tend to think in very concrete terms. dilemmas presented to his study subjects.
3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE Participants were also interviewed to determine
 7 to 11 the reasoning behind their judgements in each
 Begin to think logically about concrete events. scenario.
 Begin to understand the concept of  “Heinz Steals the Drug”
conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny
glass, for example.
 Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from
specific information to a general principle.
 Children also become less egocentric and begin
to think about how other people might think
and feel.
4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
 12 and beyond
 Begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems.
 Begins to think more about moral,
philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues
that require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
 Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from
a general to specific information. The Five Ecological Systems
1. Microsystem
 Schema- knowledge that help us to interpret - have direct contact with the children their
and understand the world immediate environment such as parents,
 Assimilation- the process of taking in (add) new siblings, teachers, and school peers.
information into our already existing schema - The interactions within microsystems are
 Accommodation- the ability to change existing often very personal and are crucial for
schemas in light of new information fostering and supporting the child’s
 Equilibration- children try to strike a balance development.
between assimilation and accommodation using 2. Mesosystem
a mechanism he called equilibration. - interactions between the child’s
Equilibration helps explain how children can microsystems such as the interactions
move one stage of thought to the next. between the child’s parents and teachers or
between school peers and siblings.
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - where a person’s individual microsystems
Lev Vygotsky do not function independently, but are
 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) interconnected and assert influence upon
- the ability of a learner to extend beyond one another
their own innate ability through interaction 3. Exosystem
with others in their environment - it incorporates formal and informal
- it is the difference between what a learner structures, which do not themselves contain
can achieve independently and what they the child but indirectly influence them
can learn with the guidance and support of - exosystems are neighborhood, parent’s
what Vygotsky referred to as “more workplaces, parent’s friends, and mass
knowledgeable others (mko)” media.
- Example: the parent may come home and
have short temper with the child
4. Macrosystem
- How the cultural elements affect a child’s
development such socioeconomic status,
wealth, poverty, and ethnicity, geographic
location, government and ideologies of the
culture.
- Example: a child is living in a third-world
country would experience a different
development than a child living in a
wealthier country.
 5. Chronosystem
- Consists of all the environment changes that Principles of Classical Conditioning (AESSS)
occur over the lifetime that influence  Acquisition- response is established for the first
development, including major life time and begins to strengthen
transitions and historical events.  Extinction- conditioned response is no longer
- These include normal life transitions, such present
as starting school, and non-formative life  Spontaneous Recovery- a conditioned response
transitions, such as parents getting divorced comes back after being extinct for some time
or having to move to a new house.  Stimulus Generalization- shows same response
to a stimulus similar to the original stimulus
BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY  Stimulus Discrimination- ability to discriminate
John B. Watson (Father of Behaviorism) between different stimuli

Behaviorism CONNECTIONISM
- focus on objectively observable behaviors and Edward Thorndike
discounts any independent activities of the
mind Connectionism- puts more emphasis on the response of
 Little Albert Experiment- understanding the organism, not limiting himself to the association
fears, love, phobias and prejudice between the stimulus and the response.
- This learning theory states that behaviors are
learned from the environment, and says that LAWS OF LEARNING
innate or inherited factors have very little  Law of Readiness
influence on behavior. - A learner may be satisfied or frustrated
Behavioral Learning Theory depending on his/her stage of readiness.
- Operates on the principle of attached to a S-R - The learner should be biologically/
also known as Adhesive Principle. physically, mentally, and emotionally
- The recurrence of a stimulus will cause a ready to learn and they so not learn if they
response, even without reinforcement. see no reason for learning.
- Conclusions are based on Observations of - Motivation is needed to develop or display
external manifestations of Learning. changed behavior.
Habituation- decrease tendency to respond to stimuli  Law of Exercise
that become more familiar - The S-R connection is strengthened by use
and weakened by disuse.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Things most often repeated are best
Ivan Pavlov remembered.
- Students do not learn complex tasks in a
Classical- “in an established manner” single session.
- an individual learns when a previously neutral - One must repeat important items at
stimulus is paired with an unconditioned reasonable intervals.
stimulus unit the neutral stimulus evokes a  Law of Effect
conditioned response - If the connection of S-R is strengthened,
Five Key Elements of Classical Conditioning the consequence/result is positive.
1. Neutral Stimulus- a stimulus that does not - If the connection of S-R is weakened, the
cause a reaction at first result is negative.
2. Unconditioned Stimulus- an element that elicits - Learning is strengthened when
an automatic response accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying
3. Conditioned Stimulus- stimulus that is feeling.
repeatedly paired with the UCS until it - Learning is weakened when associated
eventually causes the same response with an unpleasant feeling.
4. Unconditioned Response- response that  Law of Primacy
naturally occurs - What is learned first, often creates a
5. Conditioned Response- response that is taught strong, almost unshakeable impression and
through the experiment. underlies the reason an instructor needs to
teach correctly the first time.
- The first experience should be positive,
functional, and lay the correct foundation
for all that is to follow.
 Law of Recency
- Things most recently learned are best
remembered.
- Often determines the sequence of lectures
within a course of instruction.
  Law of Intensity delivering or removing a stimulus immediately after a
- The more intense the material taught, the behavior; any consequence that strengthens a behavior
more likely it will be retained. - Primary reinforcer
- A student will learn more from the real - Secondary reinforcer
thing than from a substitute. - Positive reinforcer
 Law of Freedom - Negative reinforcer
- Things freely learned are best learned. Kinds of Reinforcement:
- The greater the freedom enjoyed by the - Non-verbal- smiles, winks, warm looks
students in the class, the greater the - Activity- being allowed to play games to listen to
intellectual and moral advancement music etc.
enjoyed by them. - Token- points, chips, stars
STAGES OF LEARNING - Consumable- cookies, soda, chocolates, money
 S1 Acquisition- Child is starting to be able to
complete the target skill correctly, but he is not PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
yet accurate or fluent in the skill. Goal is to Edward Tolman
improve accuracy. - often referred to as Sign Learning Theory
 S2 Fluency- Child is now able to complete the - states that organisms learns by pursuing signs to
target skill accurately, but he works slowly and a goal
thoughtfully in order to do so. Goal is to - stressed the relationship between stimuli rather
increase student’s speed of responding. than stimulus-response.
 S3 Generalization- Child is now accurate and Key Concepts
fluent in using his new skill, but he will not - Learning is purposive and goal-oriented.
typically do so in different settings/ - Cognitive maps in rats
environments. - Latent Learning
 S4 Adaptation- Child is accurate and fluent in - Intervening variable- variables that are not
using the target skill. readily seen but serve as determinants of
behavior
OPERANT CONDITIONING - Reinforcement is not essential for learning.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (B.F. Skinner)
SOCIAL OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING THEORY
Operant Conditioning Albert Bandura
- Stresses the consequence of behavior in order
to learn. Social Learning Theory
- Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool in - vicarious learning
shaping and controlling behavior inside and - Bobo doll experiment
outside the classroom. - People learn through observation, simulation,
- using pleasant and unpleasant consequence to modelling which means watching (observing),
control the occurrence of behavior. another called a model and later imitating the
Principles of Operant Conditioning model’s behavior.
 Shaping- reinforcing successive steps to reach a - concentrates on the power of example
desired behavior
 Chaining- reinforcing a series of behaviors to get Four Phases of Modelling
a reward  Attention- observing the model’s behavior
 Extinction- occurs if the behavioral response is  Retention- remembering what you observed
no longer reinforced  Motor Reproduction Process- imitating
Schedules of Reinforcement  Motivational Process- having a good reason to
 Continuous Reinforcement- reinforcement after reproduce the behavior
every correct response
 Partial Reinforcement- reinforcement after Self- Efficacy
some correct responses - an individual’s belief on his or her capacity to
o Fixed- reinforcement is given a fixed execute behaviors necessary to produce specific
amount of time after a correct response performance attainments.
o Variable- reinforcement is given an - reflects confidence
average amount of time after a correct
response Gestalt Psychology
o Fixed-ratio- reinforcement is given after - shape and thoughts that looks at the human
a fixed number of correct responses mind and behavior
o Variable-ratio- reinforcement is given - Kurt and Koffka and Max Wertheimer
after an average number of correct - Gestalt means form, figures, configuration
responses - “the whole is more than the sum of its part”
Reinforcement- is used to help increase the probability - Perception- understanding and interpreting
that a specific behavior will occur in the future by sensations from a stimulus
- Gestalt Rules: Law used by brain to group or
elements of a scene
Types of Stimuli Processing 2. Performs operation in it, stores the information
 Bottom-up- starts with the smaller specific (storage).
elements of a scene and is used to create the 3. and retrieves it when needed (retrieval).
larger units of context.  Recall- supplying information is
 Top-down- starts with larger context or units to response to a cue or question
recognize smaller, specific elements of the  Recognition- deciding whether
scene; uses schema. information was encountered before

The classic principles of the gestalt theory of visual Memory- the ability to store information so that it can
perception include be used at a later time.
1. Figure and Ground- examines how the eye can
separate shapes in a design from the INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
background of that design.  Sensory Register- when information first enters
2. Proximity- when objects close together, unity memory system. Large capacity, short duration;
occurs. While they continue to be separate some encoded in the STM
shapes, they are now perceived as one group.  Haptic memory- from the sense of
3. Continuation- occurs when the eye is compelled touch
to move through one object and continue to  Echoic memory- auditory information
another object. Eyes will follow the smoothest  Iconic memory- visual sensory memory
path when viewing lines.  Short-term memory- where we use and are
4. Similarity- occurs when objects look similar to aware of memories. The ability to keep a small
one another. People often perceive them as a amount of information available for a short
group or pattern. They can also be grouped by period of time. Working memory; provides
color, shape, or size. temporary storage and manipulation of the
5. Closure- occurs when an object is incomplete or information.
a space in not completely enclosed, It’s the idea - small capacity (7 plus or minus 2 items)
what your brain will fill in the missing parts of o chunking- increased capacity of
the design or image to create a whole. Refers to STM by recoding information not
our tendency to complete an incomplete shape larger, meaningful units
in order to rationalize the whole. - short duration (30 seconds)
6. The Law of Pragnanz- is sometimes referred to o rehearsal- increased duration of
as the law of good figure or the law of STM through repetition of
simplicity. Shows how our eyes can simplify information
complex shapes into simple shapes.  Long-term memory- relatively permanent store
of information, unlimited capacity, and long
INSIGHT LEARNING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING THEORY duration, one can transfer memories from STM
Wolfgang Kohler to LTM by rehearsal.
Insight Learning
- refers to the sudden realization of a solution of 3 kinds of Long-term:
a problem. - semantic- memory for general meanings
- The capacity to discern the true nature of a and information.
situation. - episodic- associated with our recall of
- The imaginative power to see into and particular times and places and a storage
understand immediately. place for many personal experience.
- Gaining insight is a gradual process of - procedural- refers to “knowing how” as
exploring, analyzing, and structuring opposed to knowing what
perception until a solution is arrived at.
Categories of Long-term:
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY - Implicit memory- also sometimes referred
Richard Shiffrin & Richard Atkinson to as nondeclarative memory since you are
not able to consciously bring it into
Attention- process of perceiving some information and awareness.
not the other information - Declarative or Explicit memory- is one of
 Cocktail Party Effect- being able to focus on two categories of long-term memory. The
what a person says with noise around. other is procedural memory. Declarative
 Stroop Effect- delay in the reaction time of a memory is the conscious recollection of
task occurs due to a mismatch in stimuli. experiences, events, and information used
The individual learns when: in everyday living.
1. The human mind takes in information
(encoding).
Levels of Processing:
 Shallow- encoding for surface features
 Deep- encoding for structural
relationships and meaning.
CUMULATIVE LEARNING CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
Robert Gagne Jerome Burner
 Any task or skill can be broken down to simpler
skills which can still be further broken down to Instrumental Conceptualism
more simple tasks or skills. - believes that “you can’t teach people everything
 This model proposed that new learning builds they need to know. The best thing to do is to
upon prior learning and is dependent on the position them where they can find what they
combination of previously acquired knowledge. need to know when they need to know it.
Spiral Curriculum
Nine Events of Instruction: - learning is spread our over time rather than
1. Gaining Attention being concentrated in shorter periods. In a
2. Informing Learner of Objective/s spiral curriculum, material is revisited
3. Recalling Prior Knowledge repeatedly over months and across grades.
4. Presenting Material Learning Modes
5. Providing Guided Learning  Enactive- learn through movement or action
6. Eliciting Performance  Iconic- learn through images or icons
7. Providing Feedback  Symbolic- learns through abstract symbols
8. Assessing Performance
9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer Constructivism- is a learning theory which holds that
knowledge is best gained through a process of reflection
MEANINGFUL RECPTION THEORY and active construction in the mind (Mascolo & Fischer,
David Ausubel 2005)
 Meaningful learning occurs when new  The learner must consider the information
experiences are related to what a learner being taught and based on past experiences,
already knows. personal views, and cultural background-
construct and interpretation.
May occur through:  Jean Piaget is known as one of the first theorists
1. Reception- the learner actively associates the in constructivism.
substances of new chains concepts and so forth
with relevant components of previous learning. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
2. Rote learning- a memorization technique based Lev Vygotsky
on repetition. The idea is the one will be able to
quickly recall the meaning of the material the - Cognitive development is viewed as dependent
more one repeats it. on social interaction.
3. Discovery learning- refers to various - Child is socially dependent at the beginning of
instructional design models that engages his cognitive life and becomes increasingly
students in learning through discovery. independent in his thinking trough many
Four (4) Processes of Meaningful Learning experiences in which adults or older peers help
1. Derivative Subsumption- new information you or offer help.
learn is an example of a concept that you have - Emphasizes how meaning and understanding
already learned. grow out of social encounters.
2. Correlative Subsumption- changing or
expanding the possibility to learn the concept. Three Domains of Bloom’s Taxonomy:
3. Superordinate Learning- concept must be Cognitive
taught Affective
4. Combinatorial Learning- newly acquired Psychomotor
knowledge combines with prior knowledge to
enrich the understanding of both concepts Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Instructional mechanism- proposed by Ausubel is the

use of advance organizers which help to link new
learning material with existing related ideas.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ADBANCE ORGANIZER:

 Expository organizer- describes the new
content
 Comparative Organizers- designed to
discriminate between the old and new concepts
to prevent confusion caused by their similarity.
 Narrative- presents the new information in the Benjamin Bloom- classic
form of a story to students. Lorin Anderson- revised
 Kendall & Marzano  Perceptual abilities- stimuli adjust to environment
Self-System Thinking New tasks beliefs about  Physical abilities- endurance, strength, vigor, agility
one’s efficacy  Skilled Movements- degree of efficiency to do task
Metacognitive System Design strategies, set  Non-discursive communication- through body
goals movement’s
Knowledge Utilization
Analysis Cognitive system process STERNBERG’S THEORY OF SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE
Comprehension information Stenberg (1997) also stated that to be a successful
Retrieval intelligent person, one must combine and balance the
three abilities: analytical, creativity, and practicality.
TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN (Kendall & Marzano)
(ReCA K. MeS) The WICS model is a possible common basis for
Self-System- importance of knowledge identifying gifted individuals (Sternberg, 2003). WICS is
an acronym standing for Wisdom, Intelligence,
Metacognition System- monitoring clarity
Creativity, and Synthesize.
Knowledge Utilization- using the concept
Analysis- breaking down Dr. E. Paul Torrance (1915-2003) is called The Father of
Comprehension- understanding Creativity. Torrance invented the “Torrance Tests for
Retrieval- recalling Creative Thinking”.

TAXONOMY OF AFFECTIVE DOMAIN (David Krathwohl) COMPONENTS OF CREATIVITY

ReResVOC 1. Fluency- the ability to generate quantities of
Characterization ideas
controls behavior 2. Flexibility- the ability to create different
by value set
Organization comparing values categories of ideas, and to perceive an idea
from different points of view
Valuing putting worth
3. Originality- the ability to generate new,
Responding reacting
different, and unique ideas that others are not
awareness, willingness to likely to generate.
Receiving
hear 4. Elaboration- the ability to expand on an idea by
Knowledge Dimension: embellishing it with details or the ability to
 Factual Knowledge- basic elements create an intricate plan.
students must know to be acquainted with
a discipline to solve problems and complete Motivation
tasks. - ability refers to what an individual can do or is
 Conceptual Knowledge- knowledge of the able to do and motivation (or lack of it) refers to
interrelationships among the basic elements what a person wants to do.
- in order to do this effectively, it is necessary to
within a larger structure that enables them
understand that motivation comes in two forms.
to function together.
 Procedural Knowledge- knowledge of how TYPES OF MOTIVATION
to do something and criteria for using skills, 1. Extrinsic Motivation- learners reason to work or
algorithms, techniques, and methods. study lies primarily outside.
 Metacognitive Knowledge- knowledge of 2. Intrinsic Motivation- learners reason for
strategies that may be used for different learning resides primarily inside or upon them.
tasks, the conditions under which these
strategies are used, their effectiveness, and Need- is a physiological deficiency that creates a
self-knowledge. condition of disequilibrium in the body.

David McClelland’s Human Motivation Theory

TAXONOMY OF PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN (Simpson’s)
(Need Theory)
PSG MCAO - allows you to identify people’s motivating
Organization creation drivers.
Adaption modification - He identified three motivators that he believed
Complex Overt Response expert proficiency we all have:
Mechanism basic proficiency
Guided Response imitates
Set readiness
Perception sensory awareness

TAXONOMY OF PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN (Harrow)

 Reflex abilities- response to stimuli
 Fundamental Movements- combination of reflexes
DRIVE THEORY TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Clark Hull  Lateral Transfer- learners are able to solve
different but similar problems of equal
Drive complexity.
- is a condition of arousal or tension that  Vertical Transfer- Learning at a lower level must
motivates behavior. be transferred to a higher level thus it is the
- drives that most typically have been considered ability to solve similar but more complex
to involve the physiological survival needs: problems.
hunger, thirst, sleep, pain, sex.  Specific Transfer- Predicated on the perception
- drive results from the activation of a need. and utilization of specifying information in a
transfer task.
EXPECTANCIES AND VALUES THEORY  General Transfer- Using previously acquired
John W. Atkinson knowledge and skills in new learning or
problem-solving situations.
VARIABLES THAT AFFECT MOTIVATION
1. Expectancy- people must believe that they can
accomplish a task that is, they should have an
expectancy about what they want to achieve.
2. Value- people should likewise place an
importance or value in what they are doing.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY
Bernard Weiner

Attribution Theory
- Attributions pertain to people’s various
explanations for success and failure – their
beliefs about what causes attributions.
- Dimensions underlying people’s attributions.
People can explain events in many different
ways.

ABRAHAM MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEED

THE 5 PRIMARY MOTIVATION FACTORS

1. Fear
2. Peer Pressure
3. Pride
4. Recognition
5. Money