Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2019) 26:11662–11673

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04816-9

REVIEW ARTICLE

Constructed wetland microcosms as sustainable technology

for domestic wastewater treatment: an overview
Saroj Kumar 1 & Venkatesh Dutta 1

Received: 12 September 2018 / Accepted: 7 March 2019 / Published online: 16 March 2019
# Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2019

Abstract
Constructed wetland microcosms (CWMs) are artificially designed ecosystem which utilizes both complex and ordinary inter-
actions between supporting media, macrophytes, and microorganisms to treat almost all types of wastewater. CWMs are
considered as green and sustainable techniques which require lower energy input, less operational and maintenance cost and
provide critical ecological benefits such as wildlife habitat, aquaculture, groundwater recharge, flood control, recreational uses,
and add aesthetic value. They are good alternatives to conventional treatment systems particularly for smaller communities as
well as distant and decentralized locations. The pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and temperature are the key controlling factors while
several other parameters such as hydraulic loading rates (HLR), hydraulic retention time (HRT), diversity of macrophytes,
supporting media, and water depth are critical to achieving better performance. From the literature survey, it is evaluated that
the removal performance of CWMs can be improved significantly through recirculation of effluent and artificial aeration
(intermittent). This review paper presents an assessment of CWMs as a sustainable option for treatment of wastewater nutrients,
organics, and heavy metals from domestic wastewater. Initially, a concise note on the CWMs and their components are presented,
followed by a description of treatment mechanisms, major constituents involved in the treatment process, and overall efficiency.
Finally, the effects of ecological factors and challenges for their long-term operations are highlighted.

Keywords Constructed wetland microcosms . Domestic wastewater . Nutrients . Heavy metals . Macrophytes . Sustainability

Introduction sources mainly because of their reliable efficiency, ecological

benefits, easy operation, and less maintenance cost (He et al.
Lack of appropriate wastewater management practices are 2018: Kumar and Dutta 2019). They use natural functions of
contributing to both scarcity and decline of fresh water quality macrophytes, soil, and microorganisms to treat different water
worldwide (Almuktar et al. 2018). The situation is posing streams (Ilyas and Masih 2017). The use of this technique has
serious threat to ecosystems especially in developing countries grown-up over recent decades with various successful exam-
(Wu et al. 2017). Discharge of majority of raw wastewater ples (Zhang et al. 2014). CWs are being used to treat almost all
directly into rivers has become a common practice due to lack types of wastewater such as domestic sewage, stormwater
of suitable and effective technologies, operational failures of runoff, agricultural runoff, industrial drainage, and polluted
larger treatment plants, and higher cost involved in setting rivers water (Li et al. 2017). There are many co-benefits of
new treatment units (Kumwimba et al. 2017). The constructed CWs together with wastewater treatment and recycling as they
wetlands (CWs) are engineered systems that have evolved as also provide important ecological services such as valuable
an inventive approach to tackle wastewater from domestic wildlife habitat, aquaculture, groundwater recharge, carbon
sequestration, fisheries, flood control, silt capture, recreational
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues uses, and add aesthetic values to the surroundings.

* Venkatesh Dutta Classification of constructed wetlands CWs are characterized

[email protected]
generally into three categories, namely, subsurface flow con-
1 structed wetlands (SSFCWs), surface flow constructed wet-
Department of Environmental Science (DES), School of
Environmental Science (SES), Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar (A lands (SFCWs), and hybrid system. Further, on the basis of the
Central) University, Lucknow, UP 226025, India flow path, SSFCWs are differentiated into vertical flow
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:11662–11673 11663

constructed wetlands (VFCWs) and horizontal flow construct- Major constituents involved in treatment
ed wetlands (HFCWs) (Wang et al. 2018). According to the mechanisms
macrophytic growth, they are categorized into emergent, free-
floating, submerged, and floating-leaved macrophytes Wetland vegetation (macrophytes)
(Vymazal 2010).
In CWMs, macrophytes are primary vegetation. They are es-
Constructed wetland microcosms (CWMs) A working model sentially grouped in four categories, namely, emergent, sub-
of a CWM (Fig. 1) possesses various types of supporting merged, floating-leaved, and free-floating macrophytes
media and aquatic macrophytes depending upon target pollut- (Kumar and Dutta 2019). Growth characteristics and nutrient
ants. In general, wastewater reaches the treatment chamber, uptake capacity of some frequently used macrophytes are pre-
runs all the way through the supporting media, and is released sented in Table 1. The macrophytes relocate oxygen and pro-
out of the chamber from an outlet system. A CWM unit has vide dissolved organic matter and supporting media for mi-
following five major components: basin (or chamber), crobial attachment (Meng et al. 2014). They are also contrib-
substrate/media materials, vegetation (mostly macrophytes), uting to enhance porosity and permeability of the substrate, act
and inlet and outlet system (Sudarsan et al. 2015). as a catalyst, and promote a number of biological and chem-
A number of researchers across the world have pub- ical reactions (Yahiaoui et al. 2018). More than 150 species of
lished their review articles on the use of CWs for waste- macrophytes have been reported that are used in CWMs
water treatment (Liu et al. 2015; Haynes 2015; Almuktar worldwide; however, only a few of them are commonly used.
et al. 2018). However, there are somewhat few studies It is observed that emergent aquatic macrophytes are preferred
detailing the treatment dynamics, rather the information choice because they have high contaminant removal efficien-
is meant to provide onsite domestic wastewater treatment cy (Vymazal 2013). The choice of macrophytes must be in-
that are site specific. Recent investigation on CWs has digenous which can grow naturally in wetlands. They should
principally provided information on wastewater decon- be also capable to withstand with short dry periods as well as
tamination (Avila et al. 2014), suitable working models shocks generated by wastewater loads. Macrophytes which
and appropriate choice of macrophytes (Wang and have well developed root and rhizome systems inside the sup-
Sample 2013), retention time (HRT), hydraulic loads portive material are most preferable.
(HLR) (Dzakpasu et al. 2015), and variety of supporting
media (Ge et al. 2015) (Fig. 2). Supporting media

Currently, available and frequently used supportive media are

the industrial by-products, natural and artificial or synthetic
Treatment mechanisms involved in CWMs materials (Yan and Xu 2014). Some frequently used
supporting media in CWMs are presented in Table 2. They
Treatment mechanisms involved in CWMs are biogeochemical must be chosen according to their capacity to absorb/adhere
transformations and solid/liquid separations. Transformation wastewater contaminants and their permeability. It is generally
possesses reduction, oxidation, acid/base reactions, biochemical observed that reduced hydraulic conductivity greatly influ-
reactions, flocculation, and precipitation. Separation includes enced adsorption ability (Wang et al. 2010). Ultimately, the
adsorption, absorption, gravity separation, stripping, leaching, long-lasting applications of the treatment system are highly
filtration, and ion exchange (Choudhary et al. 2011). affected by the chosen media materials (Wang et al. 2010).

Fig. 1 CWM unit planted with

emergent macrophytes
11664 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:11662–11673

Fig. 2 a, b CWM units designed under net house of Department of Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, Telangana,
Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, India. e Constructed wetland for wastewater treatment for a colony in
Lucknow, India. c CSIR- Institute of Minerals and Materials Andhra Pradesh, India. f CWs working successfully in Georgia treating
Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha. d International Crops Research runoff from a plant nursery

Microorganisms roots, and/or in leaves in the form of biofilms (Faulwetter et al.

2009). The complex microbial communities in the form of
The principal microorganisms concerned with wetlands sys- biofilms formed by interactions with wastewater are primarily
tem are bacteria, yeasts, protozoa, fungi, and algae. responsible for the breakdown of the wastewater pollutants
Collectively, all these microorganisms participate in the deg- and increase the overall treatment performance of the
radation of nearly all of the wastewater contaminants into CWMs (Sleytr et al. 2009). Several previous studies have
insoluble or harmless substances. The well-established micro- identified and characterized microbial communities in full-
bial communities are attached to the supporting media, plant scale constructed wetlands and laboratory scale units under
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:11662–11673 11665

Drought resistance Nutrient uptake capabilities (kg ha−1 yr−1)

specific environments (Calheiros et al. 2009; Krasnits et al.
2009; Sleytr et al. 2009; Dong and Reddy 2010; Zhang et al.
2010). However, in case of domestic wastewater, there is lack

Phosphorous
of information about how the microbial communities and di-
versity change during long-term operations (Adrados et al.

120

350
180

40
2014). Comprehensive information about the structure of

–
–
–
these communities must be attained by suitable design impro-
visation in order to understand the biological developments
that are taking place inside them (Dong and Reddy 2010). It is
Nitrogen

observed that the rhizosphere region of the CWMs is capable

2500

1000

2400
of providing unique add-on sites for microbial connection and
900
–
–
–
release root exudates and oxygen which helps in estimating
the role of the microbial cosmos (Zhang et al. 2016; Lv et al.
2017). Different design and operational parameters undertak-
en to treat various wastewater in several countries are present-
Moderate to rapid Moderate
Moderate
Possible

ed in Table 3.
High

No
No

No

Removal of organics
Very rapid
Very rapid
Very rapid

Very rapid
Optimal pH Root penetration (cm) Maximum water Growth

Biodegradation of organics takes place by both aerobic as well

Rapid
Rapid
Growth characteristics of some frequently used aquatic macrophytes in CWMs treating municipal wastewater

as anaerobic microorganisms depending upon the availability

of oxygen. For aerobic degradation, oxygen can be added
from convection, atmospheric dispersal and through root or-
ganization of macrophytes (Cooper et al. 1996), while pores
depth (in.)

of supporting media are sites responsible for anaerobic bio-

12–18

degradation. Settleable organics are removed rapidly under

19
12
3
3

gravitational forces by filtration and sedimentation whereas

soluble organics are removed by attached or suspended mi-
crobial growth. Degradation of organics by aerobic processes
mainly proceeds by aerobic chemoheterotrophs because they
have a faster metabolic rate as compared to chemoautotrophs.
These chemoheterotrophic bacteria oxidize organic com-
25
2
60

75
75

80

100

pounds using oxygen and release carbon dioxide (CO2), am-

monia (NH3), and other stable compounds (Garcia et al.
5–7.5
6.5–7.5

6.5–7.5
6–6.8

2010). Sufficient supply of oxygen greatly enhances degrada-

4–10
3.7–8

4–9

tion of organic matter by increasing biochemical oxidation

(Vymazal and Kropfelova 2009). Anaerobic degradation of
temperature (°C)

organic matter by anaerobic heterotrophic bacteria involves

two processes namely methanogenesis and fermentation. In
Optimal

methanogenesis, methanogens (methane-producing bacteria)

12–23

Free-floating Lemna sp. (duckweed) 6–33

Free-floating Eichhornia crassipes 12–35

10–30
16–27
16–26

15–35

convert organic compounds into methane (CH4) and CO2 and

produce new bacterial cells whereas fermentation utilizes
acid-forming bacteria to convert organic matter into organic
Scirpus sp. (bulrush)

(water hyacinth)
(common reed)
Typha sp. (cattail)

*Compiled from various sources

acids and alcohols. These two processes continue in anaerobic

Juncus sp. (rush)

(water lettuce)
Free-floating Pistia stratiotes
Phragmites sp.

zone of wetland system (Kadlec and Knight 1996).

Macrophytes

Removal of nitrogen

The contribution of macrophytes in terms of nitrogen removal

Emergent

Emergent
Emergent
Emergent
Table 1

varies among several species such as Typha latifolia contrib-

Type

uting 1.73 to 8.81%, Canna indica 0.98 to 17.95%, and for

11666 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:11662–11673

Table 2 Frequently used

supportive media in CWMs S. no. Supporting media type Type of wastewater* Reference
(Revised from Wu et al. 2015)
1 Industrial by-products
Fly ash Municipal Xu et al. 2006
Coal cinder Domestic Ren et al. 2007
Slag Domestic Zuo et al. 2018
Alum sludge Synthetic Babatunde et al. 2010
Oil palm shell Synthetic Chong et al. 2013
Hollow brick crumbs Domestic Ren et al. 2007
2 Natural material
Sand Textile Saeed and Sun 2013
Gravel Tannery Lima et al. 2018
Clay Tannery Calheiros et al. 2008
Limestone Synthetic Tao and Wang 2009
Zeolite Municipal Bruch et al. 2011
Maerl Synthetic Saeed and Sun 2012
Shale Synthetic Saeed and Sun 2012
Peat Domestic Saeed and Sun 2012
Organic wood mulch Synthetic Saeed and Sun 2012
3 Artificial material
Compost Refinery Saeed and Sun 2012
Activated carbon Domestic Ren et al. 2007
Lightweight aggregates Synthetic Lima et al. 2018
Basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) Synthetic Barca et al. 2014
Rice straw Hypereutrophic waterǂ Cao and Zhang 2014
Light ceramsite Hypereutrophic water Cao and Zhang 2014
Electro-oxidation Hypereutrophic water Cao and Zhang 2014

*Domestic wastewater has been used here to include wastewater originating from household activities from a
community whereas municipal wastewater is generated in towns and urban areas from any combination of
domestic, commercial, or agricultural activities including wastewater from public facilities, surface runoff,
stormwater, and any sewer inflow or sewer infiltration. Industrial wastewater is a by-product of industrial or
commercial activities. Synthetic or artificial wastewater differs from domestic wastewater or municipal wastewa-
ter as it is synthetically made according to the treatment technologies to be tested
ǂHypereutrophic water is sourced from a lake or other water body characterized by excessive nutrient concentra-
tions (nitrogen and phosphorous) and high productivity

Phragmites australis, it ranges from 7.15 to 17.04% (Jesus aerobic facultative zone as compared to the bottom obligate
et al. 2018). In CWMs, the different macrophytes offer oxy- anaerobic zone. Both ammonification and ammonia volatili-
gen and surface which is necessary for the development of zation are pH-dependent process. The suggested pH value to
microbes in the root zone, consequently enhancing nitrifica- get good results from ammonification ranges from 6.5–8.5
tion. In addition, there is supply of carbon from root system (Saeed and Sun 2012), while a notable rise in pH (> 9.3)
(5–25%, fixed photosynthetically) and optimization of deni- converts ammonium ions into ammonia gas (Bialowiec et al.
trification process (Wang et al. 2012). Wastewater stream has 2011). Adsorption takes place mostly in the form of ammonia
typically inorganic and/or organic form of nitrogen into the supporting media (Tsihrintzis 2017) which is used to
(Stefanakis et al. 2014). Major nitrogen elimination pathways encourage cation exchange capacity. Supporting media with
which are engaged with CWMs are classified into two broad greater cation exchange capacity has been employed due to
categories—novel (new) and classical (traditional) nitrogen their enhanced nitrogen removal efficiency (Saeed and Sun
removal pathways (Saeed and Sun 2012). Traditional nitrogen 2012). Biochar is a potential material which supports the de-
removal pathways in CWMs include ammonification, ammo- nitrification process and removal of NO3− by providing organ-
nia volatilization, nitrification, denitrification, and adsorption. ic carbon source. A short description of novel nitrogen remov-
In the CWM system, ammonification is more in the upper al pathways is provided below:
Table 3 Wetland design and operational parameters considered for different wastewater in several countries

Type of Total surface Plant species Plant density HLR m3/m2/day HRT days Flow rate m3/ d Study area/country Reference
wastewater (WW) area m2 plants m2

Municipal 185.5 C. papyrus NA 0.18, 0.10, and 0.07 1.8, 3.2, and 4.7 8 Giza, Egypt Abou-Elela et al. 2017
Municipal 1.5 P. australis NA 0.37 1.75 0.75 Barcelona, Spain Avila et al. 2017
Domestic 1.09 H. psittacorum NA 0.15 NA 0.150 Pereira, Colombia Bohórquez et al. 2016
Domestic 200 P. australis 4 0.46 0.7 65 Bedfordshire, UK Butterworth et al. 2016
T. latifolia 0.1 1.2 76
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:11662–11673

Secondary* 0.66 C. articulatus 33 0.46 3 0.028 Atlántico, Colombia Caselles-Osorio et al. 2017
Domestic 0.6 C. ligularis 38 0.06 2.3 0.042 Barranquilla, Colombia Casierra-Martínez et al. 2017
E. colona
Domestic 130 P. australis 4 0.5 and 0.75 NA NA Marrakech, Morocco Elfanssi et al. 2017
Domestic 45.36 T. parviflora, J. acutus, 1 0.053 3.48 2.4 Heraklion, Greece Fountoulakis et al. 2017a
S. perrenis, L. monopetalum
Domestic 1.08 A. halimus, J. acutus 9 0.095 NA 0.6 Heraklion, Greece Fountoulakis et al. 2017b
and S. perennis
Synthetic 0.137 R. japonicas, O. hookeri, 12 NA 10 NA Beijing, China Geng et al. 2017
P. arundinacea and R. carnea
Domestic 180 C. generalis 4–5 1728 0.25 NA Udupi District, India Ojoawo et al. 2015
Urban 51.87 T. latifolia, P. australis, NA NA 2–3 NA Haridwar, India Rai et al. 2015
and C. esculenta
Municipal 0.0004 L. perenne 0.1 0.0375 6 0.15 Xian, China Ren et al. 2016
Domestic 404 T. latifolia L and NA 0.022 NA NA Ontario, Canada Rozema et al. 2016
S. tabernaemontani
Synthetic 0.2 E. crassipes NA NA 2 0.012 Parana, Brazil Lima et al. 2018
Domestic 30 P. stratiotes, T. latifolia, NA 0.10 5 3 Telangana, India Tilak et al. 2017
C. indica, and A. conyzoides
Domestic 0.13 P. australis 8 NA 6 0.21 Shaanxi, China Wu et al. 2016
Secondary 8,660,000 P. australis, T. orientalis, NA 0.035 7 380,000 Shaanxi, China Wu et al. 2017
Z. latifolia, N. nucifera,
N. tetragona, P. crispus,
L. minor and E. crassipes
Synthetic 0.72 T. angustifolia 14–15 0.056 4 0.02 Singapore Zhang et al. 2012
Synthetic 0.19 R. japonica, O. javanica. P. 12 NA NA NA Hangzhou, China Zhao et al. 2016
arundinacea L. and J. effusus L

*Secondary wastewater is primary-treated wastewater

11667
11668 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:11662–11673

Novel nitrogen removal pathways orthophosphates (PO43−). The performance of CWMs is

reduced due to low phosphorus removal efficiency. The
Recently, some new and more efficient nitrogen exclusion treatment efficiency of CWMs towards phosphate de-
routes are pointed out which comprises of partial nitrifica- pends on the prevailing ecological situations, type and
tion-denitrification, anaerobic ammonium oxidation the number of macrophytes, available form of phosphate,
(Anammox), and completely autotrophic nitrite removal and the loading rates (USEPA 2000). The contribution of
(Canon). The main operating factors of partial nitrification macrophytes in removal of phosphate ranges from 4.8 to
processes (i.e., Anammox and Canon) include temperature, 74.87% (Jesus et al. 2018). Various macrophytes possess
pH, free ammonia, free nitrous acid, HRT, dissolved oxygen, different plant uptake capacity such as Typha latifolia
salt, organic compounds, and hydroxylamine (Wang and Yang contributing 0.06 up to 74.87%, for Canna indica, 0.43
2004; Lee et al. 2009). They are described briefly in the fol- to 4.17%, and for Phragmites australis, it ranges from
lowing section. 0.56 to 36.7% (Jesus et al. 2018). It is pointed out that
the higher water depth with reduced flow velocity ad-
Partial nitrification-denitrification This process involves trans- vances the removal rate (Guo et al. 2017). Phosphate re-
lation of NH4–N to NO2–N which is called nitrification (Eq. moval is regulated by immobilization by microorganisms,
1) after that the denitrification of NO2–N to N2 gas (Eq. 2) the adherence capability of a range of filter media used in
takes place. different seasons, temperature, and growth periods.
Dissolved state of phosphorus is taken up by macrophytes
NH4 þ þ 1:5O2 →NO2 − þ H2 O þ 2Hþ ð1Þ or adhered to the substrates when the cations such as Fe,
NO2 − þ 1=2CH3 OH þ Hþ →1=2N2 þ 1=2CO2 Al, Mg, and Ca are present in excess. The process starts
by ligand exchange reactions. Phosphate allocates H2O
þ 1:5H2 O ð2Þ and OH− ions on the face of iron oxides and aluminum.
However, the rate of deletion typically decreases unless an
Jianlong and Ning (2004) reported that this process needs
appropriate adsorbent matter is incorporated in the system
approximately 40% and 25% lower organics and oxygen re-
(Vymazal 2010). Removal of phosphorus through various
spectively, as compared to other available nitrogen removal
supporting media is ranging between 40 and 60%.
methods.
Currently, a number of specialized media materials are
used in CWMs to attain enhanced removal performance
Anammox Oxidation of ammonium anaerobically (anammox)
such as slag (Okochi and McMartin 2011), basic oxygen
is a recently revealed nitrogen removal pathway in which
furnace slag (BOFS), sandstone, zeolite, dolomite bauxite
ammonium changes into nitrogen gas with the assistance of
(Stefanakis et al. 2014), and electric arc furnace (EAF)
Planctomycetes bacterial group under anaerobic environment.
(Barca et al. 2014). It is reported that biochar has huge
The anammox process is more advantageous than another
potential to enhance phosphorus removal by providing
treatment system as it requires external carbon in negligible
maximum adherence sites. Inorganic, organic, dissolved,
amount. Further, oxygen and energy requirements are also
and insoluble phosphate is not as such taken up by mac-
very low and nitrogen is removed at greater speed (Saeed
rophytes until they are transformed into a simple soluble
and Sun 2012).
form (Choudhary et al. 2011). It has been observed that
magnesium (Mg)-containing materials such as magnesia
Canon Removal of nitrite over nitrate in the complete autotro-
and magnesite, in the supporting media improves TP re-
phic way involves the anammox process and partial nitrifica-
moval performance (Lan et al. 2018). In terms of plant
tion simultaneously; together, these processes remove all
uptake, macrophytes have lower phosphorus uptake ca-
available total nitrogen (TN) in a particular region. There is
pacity compared to nitrogen because
a mutual co-existence between anammox bacteria and
ammonium oxidizing bacteria. Sun and Austin (2007) report-
a. Under aerobic setting, unsolvable phosphate is precipitat-
ed that the canon process in a vertical flow constructed wet-
ed with Fe, Ca, and Al ions.
lands (VFCWs) removed a significant amount of nitrogen
b. Organic peat, clay, and Fe and Al hydroxides and oxides
(approximately 52%).
have participated in phosphate adsorption.
c. Phosphorus is bound up in organic matter through assim-
ilation by bacteria, algae, and macrophytes.
Removal of Total phosphate (TP)
A number of man-made substrates such as zirconium oxide
A mixture of inert and natural phosphate is available in nanoparticle (ZON), magnetic iron oxide nanoparticle
the wastewater stream, out of which, the most common is (MION), and iron oxide coated granular activated carbon
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:11662–11673 11669

(Fe-GAC) have been identified with improved adsorption ca- metals buildup in their tissues (Mishra and Tripathi 2008).
pability. Because of high-cost involvement, discharge of sec- Removal of metals from domestic wastewater through
ondary contaminants, and complications in manufacturing CWMs involves mainly filtration, sedimentation, adsorption,
processes, the use of these materials is limited in full-scale cation exchange, precipitation, complexation, macrophyte up-
treatment systems (Park et al. 2017). As a result, the selection take, and microbial oxidation/reduction processes. Several bi-
of right filter media with better adsorption ability is crucial for otic, abiotic, and environmental factors like pH and tempera-
better performance. ture in the CWMs have direct consequences on bioaccumula-
tion of trace metals (Xing et al. 2013). Removal of heavy
metals in CWs using aquatic macrophytes by different studies
Removal of heavy metals has been shown in Table 4.

Wastewater which is contaminated with trace metals has the

great impact on biosphere; therefore, the remediation of these Sustainability of CWMs
trace metals is essential. The presences of such metals greatly
affect the flora and fauna of an aquatic system (Parnian et al. A sustainable design of CWMs for domestic wastewater treat-
2016). Remediation of wastewater polluted with heavy metals ment includes the suitable design of CWMs at proper site with
implies various technologies in which adsorption, reverse-os- efficient macrophytes and supporting media. Design in a way
mosis, electrodialysis, and ion exchange are more common. that it acquires the natural features of the surroundings and to
Almost all of such technologies are expensive, energy-inten- diminish its disturbance. The working model is set by the
sive, and generally metals-specific. However, macrophytes in prevailing landscape, geology, and availability of land.
the CWMs are known to have the huge potential towards trace Supply of additional oxygen is via artificial aeration, water

Table 4 Removal of heavy metals in CWs using aquatic macrophytes

CWs type Wastewater type Plants used Target metals Removal efficiencies Study area/country References
(%)

Winter Summer

HFCW Urban T. latifolia Pb, Cu 78.5, 72.5 86, 84.0 Haridwar, India Rai et al. 2015
Zn, Co 68.4, 65.1 83.4, 76.8
Cr, As 64.5, 63.2 81.6, 82.2
Mn, Ni 53.3, 51.4 62.2, 68.1
NA Municipal E. crassipes Hg, Up to 95 Irbid, Jordan Qasaimeh et al. 2015
HFCW Municipal P. phalaris Cu, Pd 84, 78 Brehov, Czech Republic Kropfelova et al. 2009
Ni, Zn 46, 86
Hg 39
HFCW Domestic P. phalaris Cu, Pd 84, 88 Leon, Spain Pedescoll et al. 2015
Ni, Zn 12, 87
HFCW Domestic P. australis Cu, Pd 88, 67 Zemst, Belgium Lesage et al. 2007
Ni, Zn 36, 86
HFCW Municipal P. phalaris Cu, Pd 73.8, 84.2 Morina, Czech Republic Kropfelova et al. 2009
Ni, Zn 49.1, 90.5
Hg 29.4
VFCW Synthetic C. indica Cr 98.3 Bhubaneswar, India Yadav et al. 2010
Ni 96.2
FWS Rainfall P. australis, T. latifolia Cu, Pd 60, 31 Dublin, Ireland Gill et al. 2017
Zn, Cd 86, 05
NA Synthetic P. stratiotes Pd 13.0–84.3 Parana, Brazil Lima et al. 2013
Cr 92.0–95.0
NA Synthetic S. grossus Pd 99 Selangor, Malaysia Tangahu et al. 2013
NA Municipal P. australis and T. latifolia Cu, Cd 78, 60 Varanasi, India Kumari and Tripathi 2014
Cr, Ni 68, 73.8
Fe, Pb, Zn 80.1, 61, 61

NA, not available

11670 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:11662–11673

Fig. 3 Sustainability of CWMs—

key criteria (modified from Wu
et al. 2015)
Design
- Appropriate Plant
selecon
- Supporng media
selecon

Maintenance Enhancing technologies

- Suitable plant - Arficial aeraon
harvesng strategies - External carbon supply
Sustainability
- Reclamaon and - Augmentaon of
recycling of plant
of CWMs
microbes
resources
- Effluent recirculaon

Operaon
- Opmizaon of HLR and
HRT
- Manipulaon of feeding
mode
- Opmizaon of C/N rao

depth, optimization of HLR and HRT, bioaugmentation of weather conditions. Therefore, suitable design improvisation
specific microorganisms, proper plant harvesting; reuse/ could be done to reduce the overall land requirements. This is
recycling methods, and the addition of extra organic matters also reported by various researchers that the CWMs are by
(Fig. 3) (Kadlec and Wallace 2009). Recently, the recircula- nature prime mosquito habitat. This challenge could be tack-
tion of effluent within the CWM system attains huge potential led by conserving natural enemies (invertebrates) such as
towards enhancement of removal performance through suffi- dragonflies, damselflies, beetles, predatory flatworms, true
cient settling time. The removal performance of CWMs de- bugs, and crustaceans such as copepods, tadpole shrimp.
clines considerably when the environmental parameters such Fishes, amphibians, spiders, bats, and microbial larvicide
as water temperature, pH, and DO are not properly managed Bacillus thuringensis var. israelensis (Bti) are also used to
(Kadlec and Wallace 2008). control mosquitoes’ larvae (Mazzacano and Black 2013).

Future concerns and challenges Conclusion

Firstly, optimization of hydraulics, selection of appropriate CWMs can be designed as biofilters to imitate the features of
macrophytic species and supportive media, mode of opera- natural wetlands for removing nutrients, and other contami-
tion, and pollutant loading rate are important factors to gain nants from the wastewater streams. The focus of this review
higher removal efficiencies. Suitable plant harvest techniques paper has been on evaluation of treatment performance of
are vital because when they die and decay, leave nutrients and CWMs treating domestic wastewater. Both ecological factors
several other contaminants into the water body. In future re- such as temperature, pH, DO, and working parameters such as
search, there is a need to develop techniques to improve treat- availability of carbon, HLR, HRT, pollutant loads, recircula-
ment efficiencies which could be achieved by microbial aug- tion, C/N ratios, plant harvesting techniques, addition of extra
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supply of additional carbon, tidal action, step feeding, baffled isms are vital to achieving sustainable contaminant removal
flow, and mixed systems (Wu et al. 2015). CWMs are land efficiency. Supply of additional oxygen via artificial aeration
intensive, requiring large land area and prone to seasonal (mainly intermittent) and effluent recirculation greatly
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2019) 26:11662–11673 11671

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Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge laboratory support ex- waters by ecological floating beds (EFBs) with various substrates.
tended from Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Ecol Eng 62:148–152
Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University), Lucknow, Caselles-Osorio A, Vega H, Lancheros JC, Casierra-Martínez HA,
throughout this study. Mosquera JE (2017) Horizontal subsurface-flow constructed wet-
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Funding information This work received financial support in terms of 479–485
research fellowship (UGC Ref. no. 3525/SC/NET-JULY 2016) to the first Casierra-Martínez HA, Charris-Olmos JC, Caselles-Osorio A, Parody-
author from University Grants Commission, New Delhi. Munoz AE (2017) Organic matter and nutrients removal in tropical
constructed wetlands using Cyperus ligularis (Cyperaceae) and
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