CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL (TAXONOMY)

The number of different kinds of animals is so innumerous because it is

impossible to classify them without arranging them in an orderly manner
according to their degree of living complexity.

Zoologists have been able to arrange them into some sort of groups by studying
the anatomy of adult animals together with their embryological development.

The part of study with deals is this sort of planning is known as taxonomy,
classification.

SPECIES: A Specie are a group of animals that interbreed freely with one another
and which are essentially similar in all details of their anatomy.

GENUS: (Genera) are specie which are similar in most respect. A genus consists of
several species which resemble one another closely.

SCIENTIFIC NAME: The scientific name of an animal is formed by combining its

generic name and its specific name.

E.g. Man is Homo sepiens. The first letter of the generic name is always
capitalized as shown by the scientific name of man. Another e.g. is Rabbi is Lepus
caniculus. This system of combining the generic with the specific name is known
as bionominal system of Nomenclature of classification. It was first devised by a
swidish naturalistic Linnaeus in the middle of 18th century.

FAMILY: A family comprises both genera which bear some degree of

resemblance. A family name is usually derived from the genus which has been
fixed as the tipical and must end in the surffix –idea.

ORDER: In a similar way, those families which bear some degree of resemblance
are linked together to form an order.

CLASS: Again orders which show major similarilarities are placed together in a
class.

PHYLUM: The phylum comprises classes which have the same general anatomical
structures.

PHYLUM-PROTOZOA

CHARACTERISTICS: Protozoan’s usually consist of single cell (unicellular), are

microscopic in size and either live in water or as parasites in the bodies of animal.
e.g. Ameoba, Euglena, Plasmodia.

PHYLUM-PORIFERA-Are diploblastic

A group of very simple plant like animals called sponges. All are aquatic and most
of them are marine. The bodies are composed of 2 layers which neumerous pores
for the circulation of water. They are fixed to a support (sessile).e.g. bath sponges
and finger sponges

PHYLUM-COELENTERETA-Diploblastic

They usually have hollow-bath like body. They have two body layers with gelly
like-structure. The body cavity also serves as the digestive cavity. They have only a
single opening which serves as the mouth and the anus. Hence the opening
receives food and ejects waste. They all capture their prey with microscopic sting
cells called nematocysts. All are aquatic and mostly marine. Some are microscopic
while others are large .e.g. Hydra, Jelly fish (auselia), sea-anemones and corals.

PHYLUM-PLATYHELMINTHES- Triploblastic

These are flat worms; the body is dorso-ventrally flattened, compressed from the
upper to the lower surface. They consist of 3-layers without a body cavity. Some
are long and tape like. Others are leaf-like. Majority are parasitic

e.g. planeria (free living), flukes and tape worms (parasite).

PHYLUM-NEMATODA- Triploblastic

These are nematodes (round worms). The body is ring- like an unsegmented,
usually pointed at both ends. They consist of 3-layers and a body cavity. They are
both parasitic & free living e.g

E.g. Hook worms, ascaris, filarial. Some are free-living & found in the soil e.g.

E.g. Rabditis.

PHYLUM- ANNELIDA

These are segmented worms. Annelids are distinguished from all other worms
because their body is made up of ring-like segment. These are the only ones that
has red blood cells and a well developed nervous system.

E.g. Leeches, earth worms.

PHYLUM- MOLLUSCA

A large group of animals with soft bodies usually enclosed in a hard lime- like shell
with a ventral muscular fleshy foot for locomotion and usually with gills for
breathing. Majority are aquatic but some are terrestrial. e.g. Garden snails,
octopus, squids (sepia). Mollusca are important to man as food, pearles are
produced by oysters and shells are used for ornaments and buttons.

PHYLUM-ARTHROPODA

Members have jointed appendages (jointed lagged animals).This is a huge group

of animals making over 78% of all known species, roughly 87,500 different kinds.
Arthropods have exoskeleton, external jointed appendages and muscles that are
attached to the inside of the skeleton instead of to the outside as in man. Their
body are segmented like the annelids, but the body cavity is continuous.
Arthropods like every environment that support life, like fresh water, salt water,
soil and practical the entire surface of the soil. The phylum is divided into the
number of classes viz.

A. CRUSTACEAN: Are animals with two pairs of antenna. The head and thorax are
fused to form cephalothorax. Majority are aquatic in fresh and salt water.
E.g. Cry- fish, lob stars, crabs, water fleas (Daphinia).
B. INSECTA: One pair of antenna. Head, thorax and abdomen are distinct. The
thorax has 3 pairs of legs, usually 2 pairs of wings. Are mainly terrestrial
E.g. Grasshopper, Beetle, house-fly.
C. ARACHINIDA: This group of arthropods have know antenna; head and thorax
are fused to form cephalothorax. They have 4 pairs of legs. Are mainly
terrestrial.
e.g. Spider, scorpion, tick etc.
D. CHILOPODA: Have one pair of antenna; have elongated flattened body that
consist of a number of segments from 15-173 each with a pair of legs. Are
mainly terrestrial.
E.g. Centipedes.
E. MYRIAPODA: One pair of antenna, elongated cylindrical body, thorax of 4
segments with a pair of legs on each. Abdomen with 20 to over a 100
segments, each with 2 pairs of legs. Are terrestrial e.g Millipede.
F. ONYCHOPHORA: No head and anterior end, bears a pair of antenna. Body is
cylindrical and unsegmented with several pairs of stumpy and jointed legs. Are
terrestrial. e.g peripatus.
 PHYLUM-ECHINODERMATA

Members usually have a spiny skin and wheel-like shape. The body always
have similar ”arms” (rays), Are strictly marine and normally move by means of
hundreds of tube- feet like with sucker on their tube.

E.g. Star-fish, sea-urchin in, sea-cucumber.

PHYLUM-CHORDATA

Chordata differ from all other phylum by having an internal ske3leton with an
axial rod-like notochord, either through out or at some stage in their life
history. Have gills slits in the throat, either throughout life or in some stage in
their life history. The central nervous system is tubbical or dorsal (back). There
are several groups of chordata, but the most important sub-phylum is the
vertibrata.

Vertebrates have a skull (cranium). The spinal cord is segmented; a notochord

from the tail to the base of the skull. The anterior end of the nerve cord
enlarges to form the brain; the head region have pair sense organ (sight, smell,
hearing). The heart is ventral and consists of 3 to 4 chambers.

The blood contains R.B.C.

The classes of vertibrata are:

1. PISCES: They have internal skeleton of cartilage or bone usually covered with
fins and / or skin. They breath with gills.

e.g Shark, Tilapia, Bony fishes etc.

2. AMPHIBIA: Skin usually moist, heart is 3- chamber; largely aquatic; breaths by

gills. Adults are terrestrial breathing by lungs.
e.g Frogs, toads, salamander, newt
3. REPTILIA: Skin are dry usually with scales or horniplates. Heart is imperfectly
4- chambers, feet and limbs reduced or absent in some. Breath by lungs, Are
mostly terrestrial; some are aquatic
E.g Snake, Lizard, Crocodile, Turtle
4. AVES: Body are covered with feathers, heart is completely 4-chambers.
Breath by lungs. Have constant body temperature, fore limbs modified as
wings for flight; Are either terrestrial or aquatic.
E.g Fowl, Duck, Sparrow etc.
5. MAMMALIA: Body is covered with hairs. Heart is completely 4-chambers;
breath by lungs, maintain constant temperature females have milk gland
 (breast).E.g. Man, horse, dog etc.
These methods of placing animals into different groups are known as
taxonomy classification.

STEPS IN IDENTIFICATION OF ANIMALS

1. Is it unicellular or multicellular
2. Is the body asymmetrical or bilateral symmetrical, or radially
3. Are appendages present, absent, if present, are they jointed or not.
4. Is the body segmented or non- segmented.
5. What is the nature and position of the skeleton – exo or endo skeleton.
6. Is notochord or spinal cord present or absent.
7. Is the body sack like or build tube within tube like asymmetrical containing a
tubular alimentary canal extending from mouth to anus e.g earth worm.
8. Is the body composed of 2 layers (ectoderm and endoderm) or are they 3
layers (ecto, endo and mesoderm).
9. What is the structure and position of the various organs?

All the answers to the questions above would not immediately come to the eye as
some structures are internal or can only be determined by microscopic
examination. All external structures can be determined with the bare (naked)
eyes and one or two macroscopic features correctly interpreted can lead you to
the identification of the animal.

PLANT KINGDOM: CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS (TAXONOMY)

This is a system by which organisms are classified systematically based on

biological characteristics such as nutritional modes, anatomical structures, genetic
make up and evolutional trends of the organism.

This definition and classification model in plants was developed by carlines. He

formulated 7 level of classification system for organisms viz.

1. Kingdom 2.phyllum

3. Class 4. Order

5. Family 6. Genius

7. Specie.
 KINGDOM

Botanical protester Animalia /zoo kingdom

(Plants) (Plant/animal like) (Animals)
E.g. virus

EVOLUTIONAL TREND IN THE PLANT KINGDOM

1. Virus 2. Bacteria 3. Algae
4. Fungi 5. Lichens 6. Bryophytes
7. Pteridophyta 8. Gymnospermata 9. Angiospermata.

From group 1-6, their body is not differentiated into organs or parts.
From group 7-9, the body is differentiated into organs such as roots, stems,
leaves etc. From group 7-9 also have vascular bundles.
Plant kingdom is divided into 5 phyla viz:
1. Shizophyta: members are microscopic, parasitic or free living. Nutrition could
be saprophytic or autotrophic. They undergo asexual reproduction by the
formation of spores and binary fission. They have rigid cell wall with traces of
lipids and other compounds.
Their body is not differentiated into organs e.g. Bacteria
2. Thalophyte/ thalophytesss. They are divided into 3 viz: (a) Algae, (b) Fungi and
(c) Lichens unlike higher plants, the roots, stems and leaves of halophytes are not
well developed or absence and the plant body consist of structure called the hall
us. There is no tissue differentiation.
Fungi: Are non- pigmented plants. Some are parasitic on plants and animals, while
others are saprophytic. They reproduce asexually by spore formation and sexually
by conjugation. They are of different type’s shapes and sizes. There are unicellular
forms e.g. yeast; multicellular forms e.g.: mushroom. Their cytoplasm consists of
large vacuole. Cell wall is made of chitins and lipids.
E.g.: mucus, yeast, rhizopus, penicillium notatum.
Algae: These are of different types, sizes and shapes: E.g unicellular, motile,
colonial, taller etc. Most members are aquatic with photosynthetic pigments.
They undergo sexual and asexual reproduction
e.g. Diatoms Sea weeds Spirogyra etc.
Lichens: This consists of a unicellular algae and a fungus living together. The
fungus absorbs water from the atmosphere and shields the algae from
desiccation. The algae are embedded in the hyphen of the fungus and
manufactures food by photosynthesis. They reproduce by the formation of sordid
e.g. anthodia and caldaria.
3. Bryophytes/Bryophyte: They are multicellular non-vascular and without true
root, stem or leaves. In place of root, (Rhizoids) stem (stalk) and 1 cell thick
leaves.
The plant is divided into two viz.
1. Saprophytes which produce the spores and
2. Gametophytes which produces gametes.
Nutrition is autotrophic while water is essential for reproduction. They undergo
alternation of generation. E.g. moss and liverwort.
4. Pteridophyta: They are multicellular, vascular and non-flowering plants. They
have true root, stem and leaves. Water is essential for sexual reproduction and
nutrition is autotrophic they produce asexually by formation of spores and
undergo alternate of generation e.g. Club moss, and Seligerellas.

5. Spermatophytes: They are divided into two classes viz:

(A) Gymnosperm (naked seeds): They are multicellular, vascular plants with true
stem, roots, and leaves. Their seeds are born naked with needle like leaves. They
grow into trees.

e.g. Pines, Cypress, Cycads, Ginkgo etc.

(B)Angiosperm (seed covered): They are multicellular, vascular plants with true
roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds.
An angiosperm is sub- divided into 2 viz: (i) Monocot and (ii) Dicoct plants.

MONOCOT DICOT

1. One cotyledon Two cotyledon

2. Fibrous root system Tap/tip root system
3. Vascular bundles scattered Vascular bundles arranged in rings
4. Parallel venation except yam Net like venation on or reticulate venation
5. Do not grow into trees except palms Grow into trees and undergo secondary growth
Or thickening.
6. Floral parts are in multiple of 2 & 3 Floral parts are in multiple of 4 & 5
7. Most are unbranched Most are branched
8. Dull coloured flowers Bright coloured flowers.

FUNGI

These are eukaryotic micro-organisms with cell wall. Members range from
unicellular forms to multicellular plants. They are not pigmented and nutrition is
saprophytic or parasitic. Some live in soil, some in dead organic matters while the
rest live on plants and animals.

Funguses are plants but differ from true plants in the following ways.

(1) Fungi store glycogen in form of carbohydrates, instead of starch.

(2) They are non- pigmented plants.
(3) Cell walls consist of chitin of nitrogenous waste and in some phosphoric acid
e.g. yeast.
Plant characteristics of fungus are;
(1) Presence of cell wall
(2) Reproduces asexually by spore formation
(3) Growth is apical
(4) Presence of large vacuole which play important role in osmosis
(5) They have branched bodies.
Examples of fungi are:

a) Rhizopus (black mould). (b)Penicillium notatum (blue mould)

(C)Yeast d) Mucor e)Candida species f) Mushroom etc.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

(1) Potato blight disease is caused by fungi species of phytophthora.

(2) The rust of coffee is caused by puccinia
(3) The rice nust and smut are also caused by fungies
(4) Leaf sport, wilt, and rot are all caused by fungi
(5) Ring worm & althlet’s foot in man
(6) Fungi bring about decay of organic matter & formation of humus.
(7) They are used as antibiotics e.g. penicillin, Aureomycin.
(8) Yeast cells help in bakeries and breweries.
(9) Some fungi are edible e.g. mushroom.
(10) Ezima and Candida in man is caused by fungi.

MICROBIOLOGY

This is the study of micro- organism’s e.g. bacteria, virus, protozoa, etc. Some
micro-organisms are free living performing useful functions as break down of
dead organic matter and conversion of these matters into Carbon, Nitrogen and
Sulphur compounds that are useful by plants and animal for their existence

Micro- organisms can be divided into two groups viz:

(1) Prokaryotic and (2) eukaryotic groups.

1) Prokaryotic groups; has a very simple cell structure (unicellular) and includes
bacteria, rickettesiae, mycoplasm and chlainydiae. The genetic material
(chromosome) of a prokaryote lies as a single piece of double stranded DNA in
the cytoplasm. The cell contains simple enzyme system but lack such
organelles as mitochondria. They multiply by simple dividing process called
binary fission.
2) Eukaryotic group; have complex cell structure similar to those of higher
organisms e.g fungi ,algae, protozoa.
 The genetic material of a eukaryotic cell is differentiated into chromosomes
which are contained in a nuclear
membrane having nucleolus and form a definite nucleus. The cell is able to
make its own energy because it possesses complex enzyme system-
mitochondria and other cell organelles. The y multiply by a process called
mitosis. Bacteria are micro-organism in prokaryotic group of cellular organism.
They are genetically unicellular but the cells may grow in culture media and
attach to one another in pairs, clusters, chain, single rods, filaments or as in
higher bacterium (actionmyceates).
Assignment:

1.) All prokaryotes are unicellular but not all unicellular organisms are
prokaryotes; true or false. Discuss (1/2 Page).

2.) State 3 differences b/w a prokaryote cell and a eukaryote cell.

3.) What is the basis of gram positivity and gram negativity in bacteria
classification?

BACTERIOLOGY

Bacteria are micro organisms have both DNA & RNA. Most are unicellular and do
not contain chlorophyll. They are the smallest microscopic organisms that have
the necessary machinery needed for growth and replication. Bacteria cells are
smaller than those of fungi, and protozoa, measuring usually between 0.4-0.5nm
and in most cases they have rigid cell wall that maintains their characteristics
shape. This may be spherical, coccus (coci), rod shaped (bacillus) comma shaped
(vibrio), spiral shaped (spirillum & spirochate) or filamentous.
Anatomy of Bacteria cell

Bacteria Nucleus DNA: The genetic information of bacteria cell is contained in

a single long molecule of double strands DNA. It is not bounded by proteins
and not visible when examined with ordinary microscope. The nuclear bodies
replicate by growth and simple fission. They show no outer membrane
separating them from the cytoplasm and has no nucleus.
CELL WALL: (10-25nm). It encases the protoplast and lies immediately external
to the cytoplasmic membrane. It is strong and relatively rigid, though with
some elasticity and mildly being freely permeable to solute molecule (smaller
than10, 000 daltones and 1 nm).
It support the weak cytoplasmic membrane against the high, internal osmotic
pressure and mostly it maintain the characteristic shape of the bacterium in its
coccal, bacillary, filamentous or spiral from, hence the integrity of the cell wall
to the viability of the bacterium. If it is weakened or ruptured, the protoplasm
may swell from osmotic inhibitor of water and burst the weak cytoplasmic
membrane. This process is termed lysis. Although the cell wall may play a
minor role in regulating the entry of solute, it does not function in cell
permeability. Differences in the composition of cell wall leads to the
differences in the staining reaction .On this notice, bacteria are classified as
either (1) Gram positive (+ve) or (2) Gram negative (-ve). So gram +ve cell wall
contain a large amount of mucopeptide [peptidoglycan] and it is thicker than
gram negative cell wall in retaining the violet or blue colour of primary stain.
E.g of bacteria that contain gram +ve cell wall are staphylococcus and
streptococcus, (+ve blue and –ve pink for both respectively).
Gram-ve cell wall contain about 10o/o of mucopeptide and are thinner and
does not retain the violet colour of primary stain, but takes up the red colour
of the counter stain. Under microscope, they look pink or red e.g Salmonella,
Shigella, protean etc.
NOTE that; Cell wall, capsule, and cell membrane are external components of
bacteria while mesosome, ribosomes, nuclear materials and inorganic ions,
amino acid, water and in fact a number of granules are internal component of
bacteria.
CYTOPLASM: This is viscous watery solution or soft gel containing a variety of
organic solutes and numerous granules called ribosomes. It does not contain
endoplasmic reticulum or membrane bearing microsome or energy house
(mitochondria). The cytoplasm does not show sign of internal mobility such as
cytoplasmic streaming, the formation, migration and disappearance of
vacuole.
MESOSOME: The cytoplasm poses structures called mesosome which appears
as in indentation in the cytoplasmic membrane.
They are thought to assist the membrane in its transport activities and its cell
reproduction. The .respiratory enzymes are also located on the surface. The
mesosome may also be involved in cell division by initiating the binary fission.
RIBOSOMES: They may be seen with electron microscope at the tens of
thousands. They are strung together on strand of messenger RNA (MRNA) to
form poly ribosome. It is at this site that the code of the messenger RNA is
translated into peptide sequence brought to the site on transfer RNA (tRNA). It
therefore code for protein synthesis.
INCLUSION GRANLES: In many species of bacteria, round granules are
observed in the cytoplasm and may be absent under certain growth
conditions. They consist of volutin (polyphosphates), lipids, glycogen, starch or
sulphur volutin and lipid granules are seen in many parasitic and saprophytic
bacteria, while other demonstration may be seen in certain species which
serves as their identification. This diphtheria bacillus may be distinguished
from other related bacilli found in the throat by its content of volutin granules.
CYTOPLASMIC MEMBRANE: Is about 5-10nm thick and control movement of
water, ions, nutrient & excretory substances in and out of the cell.
It contains enzymes responsible for active uptake of nutrients and respiratory
enzymes. It
has little mechanical strength and is supported on the outside by the cell wall.
NUCLEAR MATERIA: Is a single piece of double stranded DNA and it is the
genetic material for bacteria cell. Other internal component includes; ions,
Amino acids, water etc.
CAPSULE: Many bacteria are surrounded by a covering layer of a relatively
gelatinous material that lies outside and immediately to the cell wall. When it
is wet and can be seen with light microscope, it is called a capsule but when it
can only be detected by indirect or serological means or electron microscope,
it is called a micro-capsule.
FLAGELLA: They are filamentous appendages or protoplasmic organelle of
locomotion originating from the cell membrane. Bacteria that posses flagella is
motile (move). They length varies from about 1-70nm.
FIMBRIAE :(SEX PILLI): They are minute hair like append age extending from
the cell membrane. They are shorter and less rigid unlike the flagella. They are
believed to play the role of attachment to one another during DNA transfer,
hence the name sex Pilli. Some of the fimbriae are believed to play some role
to the attachment of the host tissue. Hence they are also called colonization
factors or attachment factors .These ones are more pathogenic because they
stick to host tissue.

MORPHOLOGY OF PATHOGENIC BACTERIA

Microscopic morphology: Bacteria form a heterogeneous group of micro-
organism which can be distinguished morphologically by the cell shape, cell
grouping (arrangement of cells) and cell sizes (ranges).

CELL SHAPE: This can be,

1. Spherical (or cocci):

2. Straight rod (bacilli):

3. Curved or spiral rods:

Under curved rods, there can be: comma shaped (vibros) or loosely spiral form
(Spirilla) or more tightly curved (spirochaete)

=Spirilla; = Spirochaete.

CELL GROUPING: This has become a constant feature of bacteria and is used to
differentiate species of bacteria. The pattern of cell grouping is determined by
plane or division of bacteria cell and by the fact that daughter cell may remain
attached to one another or quickly break apart. Bacilli and spiral divide at right
angles to the longest axes of the cell. Bacilli are arranged either singly or in chains
of about two or more cell. Or

COCCI: Have no long axis, they are spherical and cell division occurs at different
planes and gives rise to different cells viz:

A. DIPLOCOCCI: Here cell division occurs in one and daughter cell tend to attach
to one another and remain in pairs. e.g
; Or

Diplococcus Pnemoniae.

B. MICRO-COCCI: Of course daughter cell separates quickly after cell division and
arrange irregularly like this;

STAPHYLOCOCCI: Cell division occurs in various angles and the resulting cell
occurring clusters like bundles of grapes clusters;

STREPTOCOCCI: Cell division occurs in parallel and the cell have tendency to be
attached to one another forming chains of variable length.

CELL SIZE: Bacteria are measured in micrometer and varies in size according to
morphological types; this bacilli measuring about 1- 10um in length and 0.2-1nm
in width, vibros; about 3-4um in length and unknown width Spiro cheater; about
5-20um in length and 0.5nmwidth.

Some bacteria species are able to change to another form especially when grown
on artificial media.
Micro-organism which shows variation are reffered to as pleomorphic organism.

NB: Media; are prepared nutrient used in grouping micro-organisms.

NOTE: (A) Strepto bacillus moniliforms result when the rod begins to form chains

(B)When the rod grows and have branches, we call it lactobacillus acidophilus:

c) When the rods grows and mask themselves together, it is called

mycobacterium tuberculosis

(D)When they grow and cross together like Chinese letters at different angles or
various angles, it is called corynebacterium diphtheria

(E) Some are comma shaped e.g vibro cholera while some are spiral shaped
e.g spirillum minus, spirochetes (e.g Treponema palladium that causes syphilis).

(F) Some grow in filamentous or in branches e.g: Actionmyceates Israeli.

LOOSE SLIME OR FREE SLIME

Is an amorphous viscid colloidal material that is secreted extra cellular by some

non- capsulate bacteria and also outside the capsule by many capsulate bacteria?

Capsulate bacteria includes; pnenmococcus, bacillus, and klepsiella.

Capsule protect cell wall against attack by various kinds of anti –microbial agents
or from ingestion by phagocytosis.

BACTERIA IDENTIFICATION AND ISOLATION

Microscopic examination is usually the first step taken in identification of an

unknown bacterium. With morphological and staining reactions, the bacterium
can be allocated to one or other of the major groups. The morphological features
of importance are size, shape and grouping of the cells. Staining reactions are
observed after treatment with special procedures such as gram and ziehl
Nielson’s stains.

REPRODUTION AND PHASES OF GROWTH

Reproduction takes place by simple binary fission. The cell grow in size usually
elongating to twice its original length and the protoplasm becomes divided into
two approximately equal parts by the in-growth of a transverse septum from the
plasma membrane and the cell wall.
Under favorable conditions, growth and division are repeated with great rapidity
e.g: every half hour or less. In some bacteria specie, there can be conjugation of
two individual cells with genetic recombination. It is important medically b/c it is
possible for the genetic material which determines anti-biotic resistance to be
passed from one bacteria to another. Some spp. Particularly those of the genera-
bacillus and clostridium develop a highly` resistance phase or endospores
whereby the organism can survive in a dormant state through a long period of
starvation or other adverse environmental conditions occasioned by arrest of
multiplication at the end of log phase or by depletion of one of the nutrient
necessary for vegetative growth.

However, this is not a form of reproduction as one spore on germination give rise
to a single vegetative cell when favorable conditions returns.

The bacteria spores are highly resistance because of the following reasons:

1. It has low content of free water.

2. It has hard spore coat.
3. It exhibit extremely low metabolic enzyme activity.
Types of spores:
1. Some spores are central and narrower than the bacilli e.g bacillus group
2. Sub-terminal spores wider than the bacilli e.g clostridium
3. Round- terminal spores e.g clostridium tetani

PLEOMORPHISM & INVOLUSION FORMS

In the cause of their growth, bacteria of a single strain may show considerable
variation in size and shape forming a proportion of cell that differ grossly from the
normal. e.g swollen, spherical and pear shaped forms, elongated filaments and
filaments with localized swelling. This occurs most rapidly with Yesinia pestis,
streptobacillus moniliforms especially in ageing culture when these are as a result
of antagonistic substance e.g penicillium and then are reffered to as involusion
forms.

SPHEROPLAST AND FREE PROTOPLASM

If cell wall material is removed from bacteria and they are converted into viable
spherical bodies-(free protoplast), and when they remain enclosed intact
between weakened residual cell wall, they are called spheroplast these could be
caused by penicillin.
L-FORM OR PHASE OF BACTERIA

These are abnormal growth form derived by variation usually in the lab from
bacteria of normal morphology. They differ from the parent bacteria in lacking a
rigid cell wall and consequently in regular size and shape. But they are
nevertheless viable and capable of growing and multiplying through an indefinite
series of culture on a suitable artificial nutrient medium.L-forms may vent back to
their original form upon removal of the inducing stimulus. In some instances, L-
forms occur spontaneously and may cause chronic infections which are relatively
resistance to antibiotics.