ISSN 2039-2117 (online) Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 5 No 27

ISSN 2039-9340 (print) MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy December 2014

Academic Stress among Undergraduate Students:

Measuring the Effects of Stress Inoculation Techniques

A.O. Busari (Ph.D)

Department of Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
Email: [email protected]

Doi:10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n27p599

Abstract

The study investigated the Effects of Stress Inoculation Techniques in Fostering Adjustment to Academic Stress among
Undergraduate Students of University of Ado Ekiti, Emmanuel Alayande Campus Oyo, Symptoms of stress and various
stressors in Academic work of students were identified.480 students participated in this study. Data was collected using
Student Academic Stress scale (SASS) Independent samples, t-test statistical analysis was utilized to process the data of the
hypotheses tested while simple percentage was used to analyse symptoms of stress and various stress in academic
work.Results of the findings indicated that Stress Inoculation Techniques was effective in fostering adjustment to academic
stress among undergraduate students. Experimental group were better adjusted to academic stress than the control group.
Results also indicated that undergraduates in their second year were better adjusted to academic stress than their first year
counterparts. Male participants differ significantly in their level of adjustment to academic stress than the female participants.
Again, treatment was effective on participants that attended public secondary schools than those that attended private
secondary schools.Implications for lecturers, counselors, and university administrators were also discussed.

Keywords: Stress Inoculation, Adjustment, Academic stress, Undergraduates.

1. Introduction

Stress has become an important topic in academic circle as well as in our society. Many scholars in the field of
behavioural science have carried out extensive research on stress and its outcomes and concluded that the topic needed
more attention (Rees and Redfern, 2000; Ellison,2004; Ongori and Agolla, 2008; Agolla, 2009). Stress in academic
institutions can have both positive and negative consequences if not well managed (Smith, 2002; Tweedet al., 2004;
Stevenson and Harper, 2006). Academic institutions have different work settings compared to non-academic and
therefore one would expect the difference in symptoms, causes, and consequences of stress in the two set up (Elfering et
al., 2005; Chang and Lu, 2007). It is important to the society that students should learn and acquire the necessary
knowledge and skills that will in turn make them contribute positively to the development of the general economy of any
nation. However, the intricate academic environment sometimes poses great medical problems to the students’ lives
(Danna and Griffin, 1999; Dyck, 2001; Grawitch et al., 2007; Ongori,2008) that tend to negate the positive gains that one
would expect after completion of University. These scholars assertion needs attention if the needed stress management
in university have to be effective. Students’ expectations vary with respect to personality and their backgrounds which
influences on how individual perceive the environment around him/her. Students at the university have different
expectations, goals, and values that they want to fulfill at the university, which is only possible if the students’
expectations, goals, and values sre integrated with that of the university (Goodman,1993).

2. Stress and Academic Stress

Researchers (Vermunt and Steensman, 2005; Topper,2007; Ussery, 2007; Malach-Pines and Keinan, 2007)have defined
stress as the perception of discrepancy between environmental demands (stressors) and individual capacities to fulfill
these demands. While researcher(Campbell, 2006) defines stress as the adverse reaction people have to excessive
pressure or other types of demands placed on them. Stress occurs when an individual is confronted by a situation that
they perceive as overwhelming and cannot cope up with. Academic stress among students have long been researched
on, and researchers have identified stressors as too many assignments, competition with other students, failures ,lack of
pocket money (Fairbrother and Warn, 2003), poor relationships with other students or lecturers, family or problems at
home. Institutional (university) level stressors are overcrowded lecture halls, (Ongori, 2007; Awino and Agolla, (2008),

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semester system, and inadequate resources to perform academic work.

Erkutlu and Chafra(2006) for instance opines that, when these events take place, an individual becomes
disorganised, disoriented and therefore less able to cope up, thus resulting in stress related health problems.
The pressure to perform well in the examination or test and time allocated makes academic environment very
stressful. (Erkutlu and Chafra,2006; Polychronopoulou and Divaris, 2005; Misra and McKean, 2000). This is likely to
affect the social relations both within the University and outside (Fairbrother andWarn, 2004) since there is conflict with
the social aspect of individual life. This is not the only effect the social relations within or outside the University, but this
goes to affect the individual person’s life in terms of commitment to achieving the goals. Knowing the causes of students
stress will make the University administrator know how to monitor and control the stress factors that are responsible for
the students stress. Scholars (Ornelas and Kleiner, 2003;Jaramillo et al., 2004; Verment and Steesma, 2005;Ongori,
2007; Topper, 2007; Ongori and Agolla, 2008;Agolla, 2009) for instance identified the symptoms and the causes of stress
in work environments as sitting for along period of time, poor work performance, poor interpersonal relationship,
inadequate or lack of resources ,inadequate time to perform particular assignments, poor working conditions,
overcrowded work stations, excessive paperwork, and many others. Whereas these factors have been found to be
responsible for stress, it is worth noting that in order to minimize the stress among students, the University administrators
must develop appropriate strategies that will enable them to detect in advance the symptoms and causes of the stress.
Researchers (Malach-Pines and Keinan, 2007; Ongori,2007; Ongori and Agolla, 2008; Agolla, 2009) have long
identified stress symptoms as lack of energy, taking over the counter medication, high blood pressure, feeling
depresssed, increase in appetite, trouble concentrating ,restlessness, tensions and anxiety among others. An individual
experiencing one of these factors is likely to be a victim of stress. Although this may also depend on how the individual
appraises the situation, and how resilient is the person. While the negative effects of stress on an individual may vary
considerably from one student based on their previous encounter with situations and the resilient of the individual student.
In their findings (Jaramilloet al., 2005; Stevenson and Harper, 2006) point out that ,the perception of the individual
determines whether or not the stressor has a detrimental effect; that is whether itcauses physical or psychological
symptoms of stress in the individual. Earlier study by Siegrist (1998) also indicated a close link between high amounts of
occupational stress and ill health. This means that deterioration in health of the individual is likely to affect the individual
performance. In a higher learning institution such as University (Smith et al., 2000) where the demand placed on students
is based on deadlines and pressure for excelling in tests or examination, students are likely to be the victims of stress.
The argument is that, students stress has not gained much attention since most scholars were preoccupied with
the conventional work related stress as opposed to academic students stress.
Institutions world -wide have not taken serious steps to find out the health of students, this could be attributed to
the fact that students who stay at the university is based on short period, and therefore their stress have little direct
impact on the activities or operations of the institution. Another reason why little have been done on students stress could
be due to the fact that students’ presence in the institution have no direct relationship to the quality of education they get.
It is argue that, unless the university puts appropriate measures that take care of well- being of the students, the student’s
health may compromise the quality of education they are supposed to get(Daniels and Harris, 2000; Smith et al., 2000;
Finlayson,2003). Gibbons and Gibbons (2007) and McCarty et al.(2007) have carried out extensive research on stress
and found out that, stress is associated with how an individual appraises situations and the coping strategies adopted.
The motivation for this research is that, there have been reported cases of stress among students that has resulted
in loss of lives. The causes for such actions are not known since the victims of stress are never present to tell their
stories. Although the counseling centre within the University do keep records of students who seek help from them, but
this alone has failed to help identify strongly the causes and coping mechanisms. Again ,there have been cases of
reported violence among some students, and reported cases of poor lecture attendance. The future of any nation lies
heavily on the young people since they are the tomorrow’s leaders; therefore, it is important to identify the causes,
symptoms, and the consequences of stress on students. This will help the university administrators to come up with the
best strategies to enable the students to cope up with these stressors while pursuing their academic careers. The
negative effect of stress on students is likely to pose challenge to the individual students, their colleagues, and the
institution as a whole (Siegrist, 1998; Cartwright and Boyes, 2000). The outcome associated with stress such as suicide,
violence, and drug abuse among others have been witnessed in the institution often, and are worthpaying attention to.
Stress poses a great threat to quality Sof life for students (Danna and Griffin, 1999; Dyck, 2001).
Students interact amongst themselves as well as with their lecturers, therefore unduly stressed and unhappy
students will reflect this in the process of the engagement that may result in conflict (Ongori, 2007) other researchers
have been assessing academic stress among categories of students using descriptive method. This present study
intends to prevent academic stress by utilizing stress inoculation techniques to foster adjustment among university

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undergraduate students.

2.1 Stress Inoculation Techniques (SIT)

Stress inoculation techniques could be seen as a treatment package incorporating elements and adaptations of other
anxiety reduction methods. These methods are used to assist anxious persons to change self-defeating thoughts and to
enable them tolerate and cope with being in the presence of the anxiety situation until the anxiety diminishes.
Donald Meichenbaum (1979) developed a cognitive restructuring procedure called Stress – Inoculation Training
(SIT),Meichenbaums SIT is described here as a prototype of the cognitive restructuring approaches since it incorporate
elements of the other cognitive approaches along with other treatments that are cognitive in nature.
Stress inoculation training is described by Meichenbaum as a three-phase therapy process. The phases are:
conceptualization, skill acquisition and rehearsal, application and follow through-The initial stage which is
conceptualization phase is on establishing a collaborative relationship with clients and on helping them to better
understand the nature of stress and its effect on emotion and performance and to reconceptualize it in transactional
terms.
In phase 1, the participants is provided with a conceptualization of the problem. This enables the participants to
realize the connection between thoughts, emotion, and behaviour. It is not really the situation that causes the stress, but
what the person think and say to themselves about the situation. The goal of phase 1 is to have the participants realize
this connection between thinking, catastrophic thoughts and self-defeating stress they exhibit.
The second phase is called skills acquisitionand rehearsal during which clients develop and rehearse a variety of
coping skills, primarily within the clinic and gradually in vivo.
Here clients are enlisted as collaborators in appreciating and removing such inhibitory factors.
Phase II involves developing and testing new things to do and to think that can prevent and or counter stess
response. These new things include learning relaxation techniques that could be used to help an individual prepare for
and cope with stress provoking situation. Also new self-statements and thoughts about situations could be tried and
rehearsed. The participants develop statements to say to themselves prior to meeting the stress “no negative thoughts”.
Then when actually in the situation, another set of self-statements can be used to keep the person on task and use
coping skills. Once the stress has passed, the person needs to reinforce him/herself for having tolerated it and got
through it.
The third phase is called application and follow-through which begin once the person has developed and tried out a
series of new self -statements and coping skills. This phase is the actual use of these skills in stressful situations. Here
the full package of new skills, thinking, self-statements and relaxation is put to use to enable the person to begin
tolerating stressful situations.
Other procedures might be enlisted to facilitate this process. For example, Meichebaum (1979) would encourage
participants to use a variant of systematic desensitization as described by Goldfred(1982) in which anxiety hierarchy
scenes are visualized with the person coping with an attempt to reduce the felt stress. These scenes might actually
involve the person visualizing himself being in the situation making coping self-statement and being able to tolerate it. In
other words, this combines elements of systematic desensitization and covert or imaginal self-modeling, along with
changes in self- statements.

2.2 Objectives

The general objective of this study is to assess the effect of Stress Inoculation Techniques in fostering adjustment to
academic stress among undergraduates students.
I. to determine the difference in the adjustment level of participants in the experimental and those in the control
group.
II. To find out the difference in the level of adjustment of male and female participants exposed to stress
inoculation techniques.
III. To ascertain the difference in the level of adjustment of undergraduate students who attended private and
those who attended public secondary schools treated with stress inoculation techniques.
IV. To measure the difference in the level of adjustment of first and second year undergraduate students exposed
to stress inoculation techniques.

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2.3 Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significant
Ho1: There is no significant difference in the level of adjustment to academic stress of participants in the
experimental group and those in the control group.
Ho2: There is no significant difference in the level of adjustment of male and female undergraduate students
exposed to stress inoculation techniques.
Ho3: There is no significant difference in the level of adjustment of undergraduate students who attended private
and those who attended public secondary schools treated with stress inoculation techniques.
Ho4:There is no significant difference in the level of adjustment of first and second year undergraduate students
exposed to stress inoculation techniques.

3. Methodology

3.1 Design

The design adopted for this study was pre-post experimental design.

3.2 Participants

The participants were drawn from undergraduate students of the University of Ado Ekiti Oyo Campus 600 formerly self
administered questionnaires were given to a population of 600 undergraduatestudents, out of this, 480 questionnaires
were duly completed andreturned, giving return rate of 80%.This return rate was consideredsufficient for this type of
research (McCarty et al., 2007; Saunders and Thomhil, 2007). The participants consisted of 290 femaleand 190 male
students. Of the participants 270 were year 1 and 210 year 2 students. 208 attended private secondary schools while 272
attended public secondary schools.

3.3 Sampling

Sampling method applied in this study was a convenient random sampling. The participants were addressed before the
questionnaires were administered during lecture time, and were informed of the purpose of the research and the
importance of their participation in this project. They were given 30 minutes to complete the questionnaire. This time was
found to be appropriate given that the questionnaire was only a page and a half. This procedure was also found to be
appropriate since it is easier for the students to complete the questionnaire and return the same within the lecture time.
The questionnaires were administered to the students of the faculty of Education and students from other faculties within
the Oyo Campus of University of Ado-Ekiti.

3.4 Instrument

3.4.1 Student Academic Stress Scale (SASS)

Busari (2011) constructed and validated Student Academic Stress Scale (SASS).
The SASS is a self reported scale through which individual students describes his areas of stress regarding his/her
academic work, according to the extent to which he/she is willing to disclose them. It is essentially a precise and time-
saving method providing information about the major concerns of individual students or group. The SASS is a measure of
stress response developed specifically for quantifying stress on university students in the stress response domains,
physiological, behavioural, cognitive and affective. This scale has two sub-sections. Section A consists of demographic
information such as sex, course, level, the type of secondary school attended, age, while section B consist of 50 items in
various domain of academic stress.
Respondents rate how much of the time they experience symptoms on a 5-point likert scale with the anchors none
of the time (1) A little of the time (2) some of the time (3) most of the time (4) and all of the time (5) items are summed for
subscale scores and subscales are summed for a total of SASS stress response score. Higher scores indicate a greater
stress response. The SASS produced excellent reliability using cronbach alpha for the overall SASS scale and subscales.
And all alphas were above .80. This indicates that the SASS is a reliable measure of academic stress responses.

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3.5 Procedure

After responding to Stress Scale which was used as a screening device .Participants in this study completed Student
Academic Stress Scale (SASS) by Busari (2011) during the week prior to treatment, the last week of the treatment
programme. Control group participants also completed the questionnaire during the week prior to the start of the
treatment programme and during the last week of the programme. SASS is a self rating instrument, which measures
domain of academic stress. The scale consist of 50 items thatask subjects to describe which academic area gives them
stress. Psychotherapeutic exposure was then provided over eight-one hour sessions for the experimental group only.

3.6 Treatment

480 undergraduate students participated in eight one-hour session which held once a week, for eight consecutive weeks.
The programme consisted of eight basic components, presentation of a conceptual framework, identification of stress
responsiveness of individual participants, identification of relations of stress to anxiety, and well-being , identification of
influence of stress to academic work, developing and testing new skills to counter the stress responses, application and
practice of new acquired skills to manage stress domains and review of previous sessions activities and administration of
post-test instrument.
During the first session pre-test assessment was administered after which participants introduced themselves to
each other and definitions of stress inoculation, incidence of stress, causes of stress and effects of stress on students
and their academic work were discussed.
Each participant was then asked to identify specific situations which were stressful to them as it affects their
academic work. Situations identified include financial problem, academic work loads, inadequate resources, low
motivation, poor performance in academic, continuous poor performance, overcrowded lecture hall etc. participants were
given an overview of the coping skills to be taught during the next session and were informed that in order for the
techniques to be helpful daily practice between sessions was necessary.
The second session focused on the identification of stress responsiveness of individual participants. The therapists
and the participants discussed personal problems which constitutes academic stress.
During the third session, participants were presented with the identifications of relations of stress effect to anxiety
and well-being. The therapists and the participants discussed Meichenbaum(1979) Stress inoculation training
(SIT).Participants were provided with the information that a stress reactions takes place in stages. Some of these stages
include, preparing for stressor, confronting a stressor, being overwhelmed for having coped, and self reinforcement for
having coped .Participants were trained that stress reactions are not as automatic as previously thought and they can
intervene in the middle of the reaction with various learned techniques. Self-reports of stress are to some extent affected
by a general personality disposition to stress more or less independent of the content of the specific stress. Thus in this
session participants were taught in identification of unrealistic beliefs, negative self statements and stress physical
arousal relating to participants academic pursuits.
During the fourth session identification of influence of stress to academic work were reviewed and participants
discussed how these influence contributed to their poor academic performance and their general wellbeing. They were
taught how to recognize maladaptive thoughts that impiches academic work.
In the fifth session participants were presented with the role of self- statements in emotions and behavior. The idea
that emotions are not the direct result of events, but area product of the view an individual takes of them was presented
and personal responsibility for stress was emphasized. They were also trained on how to modify their stressful thoughts
by replacing them with positive self- statements.
The sixth session focused on developing and testing new things to counter stressful thoughts. The therapists and
the participants discussed how to develop and test new things to do and think on, that can prevent and/or counter
stressful responses. These new things include relaxation training to develop statements to say to themselves prior to
meeting the stressor.
The seventh and eight sessions focused on rehearsal and application of treatment conditions. Participants were
taught how to develop “Stress Scripts”. The stress scripts provide cognitive, emotional and behavioural direction for
reactions to stress situations including worry. Participants identified their thought, feeling and behavior to help them cope
with the situations more constructively. The reactions were then rehearsed through role playing and imagery. The post
test instruments were them administered to the treatment and the control groups.

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3.7 Data Analysis

To test the hypotheses of this study, independent samples t-test was used. The independent samples t-test is used when
researchers wants to examine the mean difference between two exclusive or independent groups (Hyman & Sierra
2010). Independent samples test was performed using SPSS version 15.0. Symptoms of stress among students, sources
of stressors in academic work and major source of stress were processed using simple percentage.

4. Results

Table 1: Symptoms of Stress Among Students N=480

Most of the time

Symptoms of stress
and All the time
Experience, anxiety or nervous indigestion 92%
People at home or school make me feel anxious 80%
I eat, drink or smoke in response to anxiety producing situations 40%
I feel tense, experience pain in the neck or shoulders, and suffer form migraine headaches
79%
or have difficulty in breathing
I can’t stop thinking about my concerns at night or on weekends long enough to feel
88%
relaxes and refreshed the next day
I have trouble concentrating on what I’m doing because I’m worrying about otherthings 93%
I take over the counter medications or prescription drugs to relax 18%

Table 2: Sources of Stressors in Academic Work of Student N=480

Variables Most of the time and all of the time

Continuous poor performance 58%
Unfair treatment by boyfriend/girlfriend 37%
Workload 86%
Inadequate resources to do assignments 72%
Uncertainty about getting job after graduating 56%
Competition with fellow students 37%
Overcrowded lecture halls 60%
High expectations from my parents 53%
Not attending lectures 45%
Conflict with my fellow students 23%
Poor performances 70%
Low motivation 74%
Conflict with my lecturers 27%

Table 3: Name one Major Source of your Stress N=480

Items No Percentage
Academic overload e.g. assignments, semester, test 202 42%
Academic performance 90 18.8%
Financial 49 10.2%
Fear of failure 48 10%
Inadequate resources e.g. computers, books, lecturers 43 9%
Fear of getting job 19 3.9%
Overcrowded lecture halls 12 2.5%
Relationship withy girl/boyfriend 9 1.9%
Family/academic life 8 1.7%

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Table 4: t-test Comparison of Level of Adjustment to Academic Stress between Participants exposed to Treatment and
the Control Group

Variables N X SD T Df
Stress Inoculation Techniques 480 24.27 7.13
2.51 558
Control Group 80 22.18 5.63

Table 4, present the difference in the adjustment level of participants between the treatment and the control group. As
seen in table 4 there is a significant difference between participants in the treatment and those in the control group. With
reference to the mean scores, the treatment group scored higher. The implication is that the participants in the treatment
group are better adjusted to academic stress than the control group.

Table 5: t-test Comparison of Level of Adjustment to Academic Stress of Male and Female Undergraduate Students
Exposed to Stress Inoculation Techniques

Gender N X SD T Df
Males 190 46.13 11.51
2.07 478
Females 290 45.05 10.22

Table 5presents the difference in the level of adjustment between males and females exposed to treatment. As seen in
the table, there is a significant difference between the male and female respondents. With reference to the mean scores,
male respondents scored higher. The indication is that male undergraduate students were better adjusted to academic
stress, as high means-score indicates better adjustment.

Table 6: t-test Comparison of Level of Adjustment to Academic Stress of Year 1 and Year 2 Undergraduate Students
Exposed to Stress Inoculation Techniques

Academic level N X SD T Df
Year 1 270 25.77 7.14
5.79 478
Year 2 210 28.10 6.72

As shown in table 6, the difference in the level of adjustment between year 1 and year 2 undergraduate students
indicates that there is a significant difference between the fresh and stale student respondents. With reference to mean
scores, year 2 respondents scored higher ,since high means-score here indicates better adjustment, it means that year 2
students were better adjusted to academic stress.

Table 7: t-test Comparison of Level of Adjustment to Academic Stress of Undergraduate Students with Private and those
with Public Secondary Education Exposed to Stress Inoculation Techniques

Type of secondary school attended N X SD T Df

Private 208 24.32 6.92
2.90 478
Public 272 25.64 7.24

Table 7, presents the difference in level of adjustment to academic stress of undergraduate students with private and
those with public secondary education. The compared means outcome for undergraduate secondary education. The
compared means outcome for undergraduates that attended private and those that attended public secondary schools
were juxtaposed as could be inferred from the table .Undergraduate students who attended public secondary school
exhibited better level of adjustment to academic stress. High means-scores in this case indicates better adjustment.

5. Discussion of Results

In Table I the analysis was done by calculating the percentage of respondents who gave a high rating symptoms on
SASS scale. The result indicates hat students do experience stress related symptoms as shown in Table 1. The
compounded result of the responses indicates that (92%) students have experienced anxiety, or nervous or having

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indigestion problems more than once at the University. The finding is consistent to earlier studies (Cohen and Single,
2001;Ongori, 2007; Topper, 2007; Agolla, 2009). The finding reflects that, most of the students are experiencing stress in
their daily academic activities. Students (86%) pointed out that, people at home or campus makes them feel anxious
about their daily lives. This finding is in agreement with the study of (Fairbrother and Warn, 2003) that identified conflicts
at home and work environment as one source of individual stress. This indicates that students experience a lot of
pressure from home or cam-pus which impact either negatively or positively on their daily lives.
In response to eating, drinking or smoking, (40%) of the students indicated that they engaged in such activities in
response to anxiety producing situations. This finding is consistent with the earlier finding sof the scholars (Cohen and
Single, 2001; Stevenson and Harper, 2006; McCarty et al., 2007) which revealed that ,people tend to resort to drinking as
coping strategies whenever confronted with complex situations in their lives.
While over the counter medication is the lowest among the students. Students also indicate that they often or
sometimes feel tense, experience pain in the neck or shoulders, and suffer from migraine headaches ,or have difficulty in
breathing. This was indicated by(79%) of the students who responded to the symptoms of stress that they have
experienced. This is consistent with the most findings on stress (McCarty et al., 2007; Ongori,2007; Agolla, 2009). When
asked to indicate whether they have stopped thinking of their concerns at night or weekends long enough to feel relaxed
and refreshed the next day, (88%) of the students indicated that they often or sometimes do experience such symptoms.
This finding is consistent with earlier studies (Ongori, 2007; Topper,2007; Agolla, 2009). Students (93%) indicated that
they have trouble concentrating on what they are doing, because they worry about other things. This is in line with the
other studies (Elfering et al., 2005; Agolla, 2008) on stress which also identified trouble concentrating as a symptom. On
the question of whether they are involved in taking over-the-counter medications or prescription drugs to relax, (18%)
indicated that they have been involved in taking over- the- counter medications or prescription drugs to relax. This is
consistent with the finding by (Agolla, 2009). It also reveals that the students do not take to drugs or alcohol as coping
strategies when stressed
However, the second part of the scale was to elicit their responses with regard to what students consider sources
of their stress while on campus. This result is presented in Table 2. The result indicates that (58%) of the students view
continuous poor performance as stressful. This finding is consistent with earlier studies (Dua, 1994; Fairbrother and
Warn, 2003;Erkutlu and Chafra, 2006; Topper, 2007). Whether their relationships with fiancés or fiancées are causing
stress,(37%) of the students agreed. On the question regarding academic workload, (86%) of the students agreed with
the statement that academic workload is stressful. This finding is consistent with earlier findings (Fairbrother and
Warn,2003; Polychronopoulou and Davaris, 2005; Stevenson and Harper, 2006; Ongori and Agolla, 2008; Agolla,2009).
Inadequate resources to do assignments such computers and books were rated by (72%) of the students as
stressful. The students also pointed out that their stress is exacerbated by the inadequate resources which could not
meet their needs. This was consistent with the findings of (Murphy, 1996; Misra and McKean, 2000; Awino and Agolla,
2008; Agolla, 2009). Uncertainty about getting job after graduating was rated by (56%) of the students who indicated that
their prospects of getting a job after graduating is stressful. This finding is in line with that of (Kaczynski, 2004) that
identified the causes of stress among people as uncertainty about the future.
Competition with fellow students (37%) of the participants agreed with the statement that it is causing stress, This
is inconsistent with earlier studies (Ongori, 2007; Ongoriand Agolla, 2008) that identified competition as a source of stress
among employees in organisations. Students(60%) rated overcrowded lecture halls as stressful, since they have to take
their lectures while standing outside or inside due to shortages of seats or accommodation. This finding is consistent with
earlier studies (Ongori, 2007;Topper, 2007; McCarty et al., 2007; Awino and Agolla,2008; Agolla, 2009) which revealed
that overcrowded lecture halls are causing students a serious problem as some have to take their lectures while standing
due to lack of seats or outside because there is no space inside the lecture halls.
Students (53%) rated high expectations from parents ,relatives and friends stressful. This finding is consistent to
earlier findings (Polychronopoulou and Divaris,2005; Ongori, 2007; Topper, 2007; Agolla, 2009) that identified the
expectation from parents, friends or relatives as one of the causes of the stress to an individual.
On the question of whether or not attending lectures will stress them, (45%) of the students agreed strongly,70% of
the students agreed that poor performance is a source of stress. Low or lack of motivation among the students has been
rated by(74%) of the respondents who stated that is stressful .This is consistent with most of the stress
studies(Kaczynski, 2004; McCarty et al., 2007). Conflict with lecturers was not seen as creating stress among students as
only 27% agreed to that statement. This is inconsistent to studies on stress (Goodman, 1993; Murphy and Archer,
1996;LeRoy, 1988; Ongori, 2007; Topper, 2007; Ongori, 2008;Agolla, 2009). This indicates that there is cordial
relationship between students and their lecturers which is good for learning environment.

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In order to find out the major causes of students stress ,the students were restricted to one open ended question
that required them to list only one major source of stress responsible for their academic stress. The result of the open
ended question is presented in Table 3. Thematic analysis (Table 3) reveals that students’ stressors are academic
workload, academic performance, fear of failing, (Awino and Agolla, 2008), inadequate resources ,financial problems,
overcrowded lecture halls, poor relationship with girlfriend / boyfriend, family / academic life conflicts and fear of getting
job after completing studies. Students indicated that academic workload is due to(Misra and McKean, 2000) short
semester coupled with too many assignments, tests and preparation for the final semester examination. They cited too
much work to be accomplished within short time that leaves them with no time to enjoy their social life. This is consistent
with other studies (Fairbrother and Warn, 2003; Ongori, 2007;McCarty, Zhao and Garland, 2007; Agolla, 2009).
Academic performance and fear of failing are other stressors that are of concern to the students’ health life. This is
consistent to earlier studies (Polychronopoulouand Divaris, 2005; Topper, 2007; Trares and Kohler,2007) that identified
fear of failing or poor performance as stressful. Continuous poor academic performance and expectation from family or
friends have been cited as some of the problems that they face in their daily academic life at the campus. On the other
hand students also indicated inadequate resources and financial matters as stressors. This findings is consistent with
earlier studies(Fairbrother and Warn, 2003; Ornelas and Kleiner, 2003).
Inadequate resources such as computers, overcrowded lecture halls, lecturers, and text books were mentioned
since their availability or in availability leads to success or failure in academic pursuits. Whereas other students indicated
that they are affected by their relationship with their spouses. These findings are consistent with the earlier findings of
scholars (Misra and McKean, 2000;Polychronopoulou and Divaris, 2005; Awino and Agolla,2008) who identified
academic stressors among undergraduate dental students as too much amount of class work and lack of time to do
assignment.
The result of this study provide support for the use of stress Inoculation Technique(SIT) in the management of
academic stress among the undergraduate students as seen in Table 4. The data showed improvement in the level of
adjustment of the participants in the treatment group compared to their counterparts in the control group. The result
following the treatment programme showed that the group which was exposed to experimental conditions indicated a
mean score of 24.27 as against the control group with a mean score of 22.18. This finding corroborates with the findings
of Meichenbaun 1979 which found the use of Stress Inoculation Training to be effective with clinical population.
The results of hypothesis two as indicated in table 5 proved that indeed there was significant difference in the level
of adjustment between males and females undergraduate treated with stress inoculation techniques. Male undergraduate
students exhibited better adjustment than their female counterparts to academic stress. This finding lend support to result
of earlier studies conducted by Geatley et al (2007) which focused that gender differences exist in the experience of
stress. It also corroborates the findings of Busari (2000) which reported test anxiety reduction of male students after
exposure to stress inoculation training techniques. This finding is not surprising considering the fact that female students
tend to be more emotional and sensitive towards what is happening in their surroundings.
Again, table 6 shows that there is a significant difference in the level of adjustment to academic stress between
year 1 and year 2 undergraduate students in the treatment programme. The reason for this finding might be related to the
fact that when students resumed newly to higher institutions of learning, they are confronted with enormous problems of
registration, accommodation, and various intra and interpersonal concerns. The problem of transition from home to
school and from dependent to independent might pose adjustment problems on the part of the new students.
Table 7, revealed that undergraduate students with public secondary education exhibited better level of adjustment
to academic stress than their counterparts with private secondary education background after treated with stress
inoculation techniques. The reason for this result might be because those undergraduate students who attended public
secondary schools were used to stressful situations such as inadequate resources, overcrowded classrooms, financial
problems, low motivation etc which may be strange or alien to those participants with private secondary education.
Overall, stress inoculation techniques has been shown to be effective in fostering adjustment to academic stress.

6. Conclusions and Implications

From these findings, the results clearly show that students experience stress in various aspects of academic work. The
symptoms identified are anxiety, nervousness, indigestion, endless worries, tense ,pain in the neck or shoulders and
people at home or school. While these symptoms do not tell the cases that have already lost control, it is important to
note that they are hampering students’ ways of academic life. Stresshas been associated with the outcomes such as
suicides ,violent behaviour, or even social withdrawals and the need to address issues should be seen as urgent. This is
consistent with the spate of violence amongst the university students.

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Again, the results indicated that stress inoculation Techniques is an effective method of fostering adjustment to
academic stress among university students.
The implication of this finding is that the university management need to address the above issues raised by the
students in order to manage the academic environment conducive for learning. Indeed poor performance and continuous
poor performance in tests or examinations can frustrate students and may even (Smith,2002; Tweed et al., 2004;
Stevenson and Harper, 2006 Busari and Uwakwe 2001)leave other students with no options but to experience
depersonalisation and sometimes to withdraw from the campus (Ongori, 2007). This can lead other students to vent
anger at their colleagues or even on girl/ boy friends.
Some students were so specific and did mention course, such as General Education Studies (GES) as heaping too
much workload on them, while in real sense these courses mean absolutely nothing to their careers. University should
employ more qualified lecturers to alleviate the staff shortage that always lead to overcrowded lecture halls. Since most
lecturers encourage students to make use of internet facilities to carry out their research, it is important that there should
be adequate computer stations to accommodate students to avoid failure to submit their assignments in time. University
should also consider offering services such time management to help students manage their time wisely since this will
help them to balance family / academic life, as effective time management seem to lower academic stress.

6.1 Limitations of the study

This study adopted convenient sample to select its participants thus making generalization questionable. The university
where the research was carried out also has its peculiar situation of being a campus inside college of education thus
creating a lot of stress for the undergraduate students.
The researcher therefore recommend that future research should extend their studies to compare academic stress
level at federal, state and private universities to validate the current findings. Also other therapeutic interventions different
from stress inoculation techniques could be employed to reduce academic stress of university and other students.

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