SMJK JIT SIN (SKK)

BUKIT MERTAJAM, PULAU PINANG

SUBJECT: F5 CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER 4 - POLYMER

4.2: NATURAL RUBBER

CLASS: 5S8

GROUP LEADER: GERALDINE KANG QIN ER

GROUP MEMBERS:……………………………………
1) OOH ZI XUAN
2) LOO ZHI QI
Content

No. Subtopics Page Done by

no.
1 1.1: Rubber and History 3 Geraldine
2 1.2: Natural rubber 4
3 1.3: Characteristics, uses for natural rubber 5-6 Ooh Zi Xuan
4 2.1: Coagulation process of Latex 7 Loo Zhi Qi
5 2.2: Experiment Coagulation of Latex 8 Geraldine
6 2.3: Latex Coagulation Prevention 9 Ooh Zi Xuan
7 2.4: Laboratory Experiment: Producing a 9
Product from Latex
8 3.1: Vulcanisation of Rubber 10 Loo Zhi Qi
9 3.2: Laboratory Experiment: Vulcanisation 11 Geraldine
Of Rubber
10 3.3: Alternative Vulcanisation Methods 12
11 3.4: Properties of Vulcanised Rubber 13 Ooh Zi Xuan
12 3.5: Experiment: Elasticity of Vulcanised 14 Loo Zhi Qi
and Unvulcanised Rubber

2
Rubber and History
1. Rubber cultivation in Malaysia started in 1877 when British planters introduced
rubber trees or the scientific name Hevea brasiliensis,to the country.
2. The first commercial rubber plantation was established in Malaysia in 1877 by
H.N. Ridley in Kuala Kangsar, Perak.

Photograph 1.1 The first rubber tree planted in 1877 in Malaysia.

3. Rubber cultivation is quickly spread throughout Malaysia due to favorable
climate and soil conditions, leading to the growth of large rubber estates.
4. The rubber industry played a significant role in the economic development of
Malaysia, attracting foreign investment and contributing to export earnings.
5. Rubber became one of Malaysia's main exports, particularly during the early 20th
century, fueling the country's economic growth.
6. The British administration actively promoted rubber cultivation in Malaysia,
providing support and infrastructure for planters.
7. Rubber production in Malaysia faced challenges during World War II when
Japanese occupation disrupted plantation activities.
8. After Malaysia gained independence in 1957, the government implemented
policies to encourage smallholders to participate in rubber cultivation, promoting
rural development.
9. Malaysia's rubber industry went through periods of expansion and contraction,
influenced by global rubber prices and shifts in international demand.
10. In recent years, Malaysia has diversified its agricultural sector and reduced its
dependence on rubber, focusing on other crops and industries.

By Geraldine Kang
Reference:

https://www.malaysia-traveller.com/history-of-rubber.html

https://www.britannica.com/place/Malaysia/Plant-and-animal-life#ref215121
https://www.sayongresort.com/2017/09/06/malaysias-oldest-rubber-tree/#:~:text=The
%20first%20rubber%20tree%20was,to%20Kuala%20Kangsar%20by%20H.N.
Natural rubber
1. Latex is a white fluid obtained from rubber trees when the tree bark is tapped.
2. Natural rubber that is found in latex is a natural polymer known as polyisoprene.
3

Figure 1.1 Polyisoprene

3. Monomer for polyisoprene is isoprene or with the IUPAC name 2-methylbut-1,3-
diene.

Figure 1.2 Isoprene

4. The protein membrane of rubber particles is negatively charged on the outer
surface.
5. This causes rubber particles to repel each other, preventing coagulation.

By Geraldine Kang
References:
Form 5 Chemistry Textbook
Characteristics & uses of natural rubber
Characteristics:
Characteristics Remarks 4
Elasticity High elasticity, allowing it to stretch and
return to its original shape when released.
Flexibility Highly flexible, making it suitable for
various applications that require bending
or stretching.
High tear strength Excellent tear resistance, making it
resistant to mechanical damage or
tearing.
Abrasion resistance Resistant to wear and abrasion, making it
suitable for applications involving
friction or rubbing.
Low heat resistance At high temperature, natural rubber will
become soft and sticky
Good Electrical insulator Cannot conduct electricity, a good
electrical insulator
Waterproof Water impermeable
Reactive to chemicals Reacts easily with acids, alkalis and
organic solvents
Biodegradability A renewable resource and is
biodegradable, making it environmentally
friendly
Easily oxidised Oxygen in the air can react with the
double bond between carbons and cause
natural rubber to be oxidised

By Ooh Zi Xuan
References:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323313230000033
https://www.fournierrubber.com/blog/rubber-types/#:~:text=Natural
%20Rubber&text=Some%20of%20the%20material's%20key,gloves%2C
%20insulation%2C%20and%20tires.
https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/plastics-rubber/all-about-natural-rubber-
properties-applications-and-uses/
http://www.industrialrubbergoods.com/natural-rubber.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_rubber
Form 5 Chemistry Textbook
Uses:
 Tires and automotive industry: widely used in the manufacturing of tires for
various vehicles due to its excellent elasticity, abrasion resistance, and grip. 5
 Industrial belts and conveyor systems: used in the production of belts and
conveyor systems for material handling and industrial applications due to its high
tear strength and flexibility.
 Footwear and shoe soles: commonly used in the production of shoe soles,
providing comfort, flexibility, and durability.
 Medical and healthcare products: used in various medical and healthcare
products, including gloves, syringe parts, tubing, and seals, due to its
biocompatibility and chemical resistance.
 Construction and infrastructure: utilized in construction applications such as
sealants, adhesives, and waterproofing materials due to its flexibility, adhesive
properties, and resistance to weathering.
 Electrical insulation: employed in electrical insulation products such as cables,
wires, and insulating mats due to its excellent electrical insulating properties.
 Consumer goods: used in various consumer goods such as rubber bands, erasers,
toys, and sporting goods due to its elasticity and durability.
 Seals and gaskets: utilized in the production of seals and gaskets for automotive,
industrial, and plumbing applications due to its excellent sealing properties and
resistance to various fluids.

By Ooh Zi Xuan
References:
https://www.bsbeltfactory.com/conveyor-belt/
http://rubberboard.org.in/menuview
http://www.industrialrubbergoods.com/medical-rubber-products.html
http://www.industrialrubbergoods.com/construction-industry.html
https://elastostar.com/uses-for-food-grade-silicone-rubber-tubing-hose/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0261306986800048
Coagulation process of Latex
1. Latex is collected in liquid from for processing or it can be left to coagulate and
to be collected a day after it was tapped. 6
2. The collection of latex in liquid form should be done quickly because once
exposed to the air for a few hours, the latex will start to coagulate and turn solid.
3. The coagulation process involves two stages of events. First, destabilization of
latex particles by neutralizing the negatively charged particle membranes,
followed by elimination of repulsive forces between particles. Finally, adhesion
and collision between rubber particles take place.

What causes latex to coagulate?

When latex is exposed to air, bacteria from the air slowly attack the protein membrane
to produce lactic acid. The lactic acid helps to coagulate the latex.

Ways to prevent coagulation of latex:

 Stabilizing agents, such as surfactants or protective colloids, can be added to the
latex to enhance dispersion stability. These agents adsorb onto the surface of the
rubber particles, forming a protective layer that prevents particle aggregation.
 pH control: Maintaining the appropriate pH level of the latex can help prevent
coagulation. The addition of alkaline substances like ammonia or buffering agents
can help maintain a stable pH and prevent acid-induced coagulation.
 Temperature control: Controlling the temperature of the latex can minimize
coagulation. Lower temperatures are generally associated with improved stability,
as they reduce the kinetic energy of the particles and inhibit their movement and
aggregation.
 Proper storage: Proper storage conditions are crucial to prevent coagulation.
Latex should be stored in a cool and dark environment to minimize temperature
fluctuations and exposure to light, which can contribute to coagulation.
 Proper mixing techniques: When incorporating additives or coagulants into the
latex, it is important to employ proper mixing techniques to ensure uniform
dispersion and prevent localized coagulation.

By Loo Zhi Qi
References:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0926669022003181
https://pslc.ws/macrog/exp/rubber/menu.htm
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/
S0926669022003181#:~:text=The%20coagulation%20process%20involves
%20two,between%20rubber%20particles%20take%20place.
Experiment:Coagulation of Latex
Aim: To study the coagulation process in latex and how to prevent coagulation
7
Problem statement: Does acid cause latex to coagulate and alkali prevent latex from
coagulating?

Variables:
a) Manipulated variable: Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH and ammonia, NH3 solution.
b) Responding variable: Coagulation of latex.
c) Fixed variable: Volume of latex.

Materials: Latex,1.0 mol dm −3 of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH and 1.0 mol dm −3 of

ammonia NH3 solution.

Apparatus: Beaker, measuring cylinder, glass rod and dropper.

1. Label the beakers A, B and C, respectively
2. Measure 20 cm3 of latex using a measuring cylinder and pour it into each beaker.
3. Measure 2 cm3 of ethanoic acid,CH3COOH using a measuring cylinder and pour
the acid into beaker A while stirring continuously with a glass rod.
4. Step 3 is repeated by replacing ethanoic acid,CH3COOH with ammonia, NH3
solution for beaker B, while beaker C acts as a control.
5. The observation is recorded.

Observation:
Beaker Observation Inference
A The latex turns hard in a few minutes Latex coagulates very quickly
B The latex remains in liquid state Latex does not coagulate
C The latex turns hard after a few hours Latex coagulates very slowly

Discussion:
1. Which substance causes latex to coagulate and which substance prevents latex
from coagulating?
Ethanoic acid causes latex to coagulate, ammonia prevents latex from
coagulating
2. Explain your observation of Beaker C
The latex turns hard after a few hours

Conclusion:
The hypothesis is accepted. The presence of acid in latex causes latex coagulate,
while the presence of alkali prevents the coagulation of latex.
By Geraldine Kang
Form 5 Chemistry textbook
EXCEL Chemistry SPM
Latex Coagulation Prevention
1. Latex is also needed in liquid form to produce specific products, such as gloves
8
and rubber tubes.
2. Alkalis such as ammonia, NH3 solution are added to latex to prevent coagulation.
3. The hydroxide ions from alkali neutralise the acid produced by the bacteria.
4. Because there are no hydrogen ions to neutralise the negative charges on the
rubber particles, they remain negatively charged and rubber particles will
continue to repel when they draw near one another hence cannot combine and
coagulate.

Laboratory activity: Producing a Product from Latex

Aim: To produce a product from latex.

Materials: Latex and ethanoic acid, CH3COOH.

Apparatus: Beaker, glass rod and measuring cylinder.

Procedure:
1. Measure 200cm3 of latex using a measuring cylinder and pour into a beaker.
2. Measure 5 cm 3 of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH using a measuring cylinder and pour
it into the latex.
3. Stir the latex using a glass rod.
4. Leave the glass rod in the latex for a while to allow the layer of latex to form on
the glass rod.
5. Take out the glass rod from the latex and allow it to dry.
6. Dip the glass rod in the latex again to allow a thicker layer latex to form.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 until the desired thickness is obtained.
8. Remove the glass rod from the latex and let it dry for a few days.
9. Strip the layer of dry latex from the glass rod to get a rubber tube.

Discussion:
1. Name another product that can be produced using this method.
Rubber gloves
2. Can the tube produced be stored for a very long time? Explain.
No. Products from natural rubber are easily oxidised.
3. State the characteristics of the product produced in terms of:
(a) Elasticity : Less elastic stretchable but will not return to its original shape.
(b) Hardness: Soft and not hard
(c) Resistance towards heat: Not heat resistant

By Ooh Zi Xuan
References:
https://www.aplustopper.com/acid-used-coagulating-rubber-latex/#:~:text=Alkalis
%20such%20as%20ammonia%20solution,of%20bacterial%20attack%20on
%20protein.
Form 5 Chemistry Textbook
https://www.quora.com/Does-natural-rubber-last-longer-than-synthetic-rubber
Vulcanisation of rubber
1. Natural rubber is soft and easily oxidised when exposed to the air for a long
9
period of time. This condition renders natural rubber unsuitable to be used for
certain conditions or applications.
2. The characteristics of natural rubber can be improved by undergoing the
vulcanisation process.
3. Vulcanization is a chemical process in which the rubber is heated with sulphur,
accelerator and activator at 140–160°C. The process produces rubber that is more
elastic and with better quality through the production of cross-links between
polymer chains.
4. During a vulcanisation process, the double bond between carbons found in rubber
molecules will react with sulphur or other substances to produce sulphur cross-
links as shown in Figure 1.2
5. The sulphur cross-links make vulcanised rubber stronger.

Figure 1.2 Vulcanisation of rubber to form sulphur cross-link.

By Loo Zhi Qi
References:
Form 5 Chemistry Textbook
https://www.ques10.com/p/7182/what-is-vulcanization-explain-with-proper-reacti-2/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/vulcanization
Laboratory Activity: Vulcanisation of Rubber
Aim: To produce vulcanised rubber.
10
Materials: Latex, ethanoic acid, CH3COOH and solution of disulphur dichloride,
S2CL2 in methylbenzene, C7H8 solution.

Apparatus: Beaker, dropper, retort stand, white tile, clip, knife and measuring
cylinder.

Procedure:
1. Measure 25 cm3 of latex using a measuring cylinder and pour it into a beaker.
2. Drop 3-5 drops of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH using a dropper into the latex and
stir using a glass rod.
3. Pour the latex onto the white tile and spread it over using the glass rod as shown
in Figure 1.3
4. The rubber on the white tile is left to dry for a few days.
5. Cut the dried rubber on the tile into smaller pieces using a knife.
6. Dip the rubber pieces into a disulphur dichloride, S2CL2 solution.
7. Dry the rubber pieces by hanging them on the retort stand.

Figure 1.3

Discussion:
1. What is the function of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH?
Ethanoic acid is used for coagulating rubber from latex.
2. Why does latex need to spread out on the white tile?
To obtain even thickness.
3. How do you know vulcanised rubber is successfully produced?
Rubber strips produced are harder and can withstand high temperature.
By Geraldine Kang
References:
https://fliphtml5.com/wjzrs/jbxt/basic
https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/the-substance-used-for-coagulating-
rubber-from-class-12-chemistry-cbse-5fc6eb911f65cd0fc52bba5b#:~:text=%2D
%20When%20the%20neutral%20particles%20collide,for%20coagulating%20rubber
%20from%20latex.
Form 5 Chemistry Textbook
Alternative Vulcanisation Methods
1. Vulcanisation is a range of processes for hardening rubbers.
2. Vulcanisation by using sulphur is the main method used to produce vulcanised 11
rubber from natural rubber.
3. This method cannot be used for certain types of rubber, particularly synthetic
rubber which does not contain C=C.
4. Alternative vulcanisation methods includes:
Peroxide vulcanisation:
A radical process during which carbon–carbon linkages are formed within rubber
matrices.
Irradiation vulcanisation:
A rubber latex vulcanized by using ionizing radiation such as gamma radiation or
electron beam. Gamma radiation is preferred over electron beam due to its higher
penetration power, and Cobalt-60 is commonly used as a gamma radiation source
for the irradiation process.
Metal oxides:
involves the use of metal oxides as crosslinking agents instead of the traditional
sulfur-based system. Metal oxides, such as zinc oxide (ZnO) or magnesium oxide
(MgO), are mixed with rubber compounds to initiate the crosslinking process.
5. Vulcanised rubber produced is free from sulphur and more environmentally
friendly.
6.
Faster Processing Time: Irradiation vulcanization reduces the curing time
compared to sulphur vulcanization. The high-energy radiation quickly initiates the
crosslinking reaction in rubber compounds, leading to faster curing cycles and
increased productivity.

Energy Efficiency: Irradiation vulcanization requires less energy compared to

traditional vulcanization methods. The radiation directly induces the crosslinking
process, eliminating the need for prolonged heating at high temperatures, thus
reducing energy consumption.

Improved Product Quality: The precise control and uniformity of irradiation

vulcanization result in improved product quality. It ensures consistent crosslinking
throughout the rubber material, leading to enhanced mechanical properties, such as
strength, durability, and resistance to wear and tear.

Reduced Chemical Usage: Unlike sulphur vulcanization, irradiation vulcanization

does not require the addition of chemicals, such as sulphur accelerators or
activators. This eliminates the potential for harmful byproducts or impurities
associated with chemical additives, making it a cleaner and environmentally
friendly process.

The advantages of irradiation vulcanisation are:

By Geraldine Kang
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9103945/#:~:text=Peroxide
%20vulcanization%20is%20a%20radical,of%20radicals%20on%20polymer
%20chains.
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/
785/1/012030#:~:text=Radiation%20vulcanized%20natural%20rubber
%20latex,source%20for%20the%20irradiation%20process.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/vulcanization
Properties of Vulcanised Rubber
12
The differences between vulcanised and unvalcanised rubber
Vulcanised Rubber Characteristics Unvulcanised Rubber
Contains crosslinks Crosslinking No crosslinks present.
formed through
vulcanization process.
More elastic Elasticity Less elastic
Hard Hardness Soft
High Strength Low
Resistant to high heat Resistance toward heat Less resistant to high heat
More resistant towards Resistance towards Easier to be oxidised
oxidation oxidation
Increased resistance to Chemical Resistance More susceptible to
chemicals and solvents. chemical degradation.
Lower compression set, Compression Set Higher compression set,
maintaining shape and leading to permanent
sealing properties. deformation
Reduced tackiness, making Tackiness More tacky and sticky.
it less sticky.

By Ooh Zi Xuan
References:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/vulcanization#:~:text=Vulcanization
%20is%20a%20process%20of,chemically%20is%20known%20as%20vulcanizate.
https://pediaa.com/difference-between-vulcanized-and-unvulcanized-rubber/
#:~:text=Vulcanized%20rubber%3A%20Vulcanized%20rubber%20forcibly,when
%20undergoing%20large%20mechanical%20stresses.
https://www.globaloring.com/blog/what-is-vulcanization-and-vulcanized-rubber/
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-vulcanized-and-
unvulcanized-rubber
https://monroeengineering.com/blog/what-is-vulcanized-rubber/
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/physical-sciences-practice/physical-
sciences-practice-tut/e/elasticity-and-kinetics-of-vulcanized-rubber
Experiment: Elasticity of Vulcanised and Unvulcanised Rubber

Aim: To investigate the elasticity of vulcanised and unvulcanised rubber. 13

Problem statement: Is vulcanised rubber more elastic than unvalcanised rubber?

Hypothesis: Vulcanised rubber is more elastic than unvulcanised rubber.

Variables:
a) Manipulated variable: Vulcanised and unvulcanised rubber strips.
b) Responding variable: The elongation of rubber strips when the weight is
removed.
c) Fixed variable: Size of rubber strip and the mass of weight used.

Materials: Vulcanised and unvulcanised rubber strips

Apparatus: Retort stand, bulldog clip, 50g weight and metre ruler.

Procedure:
1. Hand the two rubber strips on the retort stand using bulldog clips as shown in
Figure 1.4
2. Measure and record the initial length, L1 of both rubber strips to be used in this
experiment.
3. Hang a 50g weight on each rubber strip and record each final length, L2
4. Remove the weights, and once again, record the length, L3 of each rubber strip.

Results:
Type of rubber strip Original Length with Extension (cm) Length after
length weight (cm) weight is
(cm) removed (cm)
Unvulcanised rubber 6 9.5 3.5 9
Vulcanised rubber 6 8 2 8

Discussion:
1. Which rubber strip shows the highest elongation?
Unvulcanised rubber
2. Which strip is more elastic? Explain your answer based on the results obtained.
Vulcanised rubber strip, it is able to return to its initial length after the load is
removed
3. Predict which rubber strip will snap first if the mass of the weight continues to
increase.
Unvulcanised rubber strip
4. What can be concluded from this experiment?
 Vulcanised rubber is more elastic compared to unvulcanised rubber. The
hypothesis is accepted

By Loo Zhi Qi
References:
EXCEL Chemistry SPM
Form 5 Chemistry Textbook

14