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STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 3

2 S TO
TOIIC HIO MET R Y

2 .1 ST OI CH I OM ET RY :
Derived from the Greek word „stoichio‰ and „metry‰, Stoichiometry literally translates to
Measurement of elements. It deals with determination of quantities of products or reactants of a chemical
reaction.
Stochiometry can be divided into two sub-categories :
(a) Gravimetric analysis
(b) Volumetric analysis.
There are two methods to solve problems in stochiometry, one using the mole concept while the
other using equivalent concept. Both methods are equally important and would be discussed in the text
below.
Let a balanced equation
mA + nB  pC + qD
In this reaction
A and B are the reactants
C and D are the products
m, n p and q are stoichiometric coefficient.
Mole concept states that
m moles of A = n moles of B = p moles of C = q moles of D.

2 .2 CH EM I CA L EQU A T I ON S A N D ST OI CH I OM ET RY
Let the balanced chemical equation we have is
MnO2 + 4HCl  MnCl2 + 2H 2O + Cl2
The quantitative information drawn from this balanced chemical equation is
(a) The molar ratio in which two reactants (MnO2 and HCl) reacting is 1 : 4.
(b) The molar ratio between two products can be known i.e. moles of H2O produced would be
double the moles of MnCl2 produced.
(c) The initial moles of MnO2 and HCl (to be taken in vessel) for the reaction to occur may not
necessarily be 1 and 4 respectively or also should not be in the molar ratio of 1 : 4.
(d) We can start reaction with MnO2 and HCl taken in any molar ratio, but the moles of two
reacting will always be in the molar ratio of 1 : 4.
(e) The balanced chemical equation should follow the law of conservation of mass.

STOICHIOMETRY
 4 MARKS

Let us consider the same chemical system with initial composition (in terms of mole) as
0 0 0
nMnO2
, nMnCl2
, nH 2O
and n0Cl2 . The n 0HCl is four times of n0MnO2 . When the reaction occurs, these mole
numbers change as the reaction progresses. The mole numbers of the various species do not change
independently but the change are related by the stoichiometric coefficients in the chemical equation. Let
after time ÂtÊ from the commencement of reaction, the moles of MnO2 reacting be x, then the moles of
HCl reacting in the same time interval be 4x since MnO2 and HCl react in the molar ratio of 1 : 4.
Thus, after time t, the composition of the system would be

nMnO = n0MnO2 ă x
2

n HCl = n0HCl ă 4x

nMnCl = n0MnCl 2 + x
2

nH O = n0MnO2 + 2x
2

nCl = n0Cl 2 + x
2

The algebric signs, + and ă indicates that the reactants are consumed and products are produced.
After long time interval from the commencement of reaction i.e. after  time, the composition of
the system would be
nMnO = 0, nHCl = 0
2

n 0HCl
nMnCl = n0MnCl 2 + n0MnO2 = n0MnCl 2 +
2 4

n0HCl
nH O = n0H2O + 2n0MnO2 = n 0H2 O +
2 2

n 0HCl
nCl = n0Cl 2 + n 0MnO2 = n0Cl2 +
2 4

Ex a m p l e 1
Calculate the weight of time (CaO) that can be prepared by heating 200 kg of limestone
(CaCO3) which is 95% pure.
Solution :
CaCO 3  CaO + CO 2

95
Actual amont of CaCO 3 =  200000g  190000 g.
100

Since Ca atoms are conserved,

 moles of Ca in CaCO3 = moles of Ca in CaO

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 5

1 ï moles of CaCO3 = 1 ï moles of CaO

190000 Wt. of CaO


100 56

Wt. of CaO = 106400 = 106.4 kg

2 .3 CON CEPT OF L IM IT IN G REA GEN T

In the single-reactant reactions, the calculations are carried out with only that amount of the
reactant which has converted to the product.
In the reactions where more than one reactant are involved, one has first to identify the limiting
reactant, i.e., the reactant which is completely consumed. All calculations are to be carried out
with the amount of the limiting reactant ony. Now the question is how to know the limiting
reactant? The procedure is simple as illustrated below :

Initially ... 5 mole 12 mole 0 mole

A + 2B  4C
If A is the limiting reactant : Moles of C produced = 20
If B is the limiting reactant : Moles of C produced = 24

The reactant producing the least number of moles of the product is the limiting reactant
and hence A is the limiting reactant. Thus;
Initially ... 5 mole 12 mole 0 mole
A + 2B  4C

Finally ... 0 mole 2 mole 20 mole

The limiting reactant can also be ascertained by the knowing the initial number of equivalents (or
milli-equivalents) of each reactant. The reactant with the least number of equivalents (or milli-
equivalents) is the limiting reactant. The equivalent method to identify the limiting reactant can
be applied even if the chemical equation is not balanced.
Suppose you are given 5 moles of MnO2 and 18 moles of HCl and you have to calculate the
maximum amount of MnCl2 being produced.
The balanced equation is :
MnO 2 + 4HCl  MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl 2
initial moles 5 18
Now since 1 mole of MnO2 reacts completely with 4 mole of HCl to produce 1 mole of MnCl 2.
Therefore, 5 mole of MnCl 2 will react with 20 mole of HCl. But since moles of HCl is only 18. So,
HCl will be the reagent, which will be consumed first, and hence HCl is the limiting reagent. If
MnO2 have been the limiting reagent 5 mole of it would have given 5 moles of MnCl2 but it is not so.
As one can see from the balanced chemical equation that 1 mole of MnCl2 is produced from 4 mole

STOICHIOMETRY
 6 MARKS

of HCl. So 18 moles of HCl will produce 4.5 moles of MnCl2. So, one can define limiting reagent.
„The reagent producing the least number of moles of products is the limiting reagent.‰

Y I EL D I N A REA CT I ON WI T H L I M I T I N G REA GEN T

For reactions where one of the reagent is limiting, the product yield would not be 100% but would
depend on amount of limiting reagent.

actual yield
Percentage yield =  100
Theoretical maximum yield

actual yield
 % yield of the product =  100
Theoretical maximum yield

Ex a m p l e 2
The reaction, 2C + O2  2CO is carried out by taking 24 g of carbon and 96 g O2 , find out :
(a) Which reactant is left in excess ?
(b) How much of it is left ?
(c) How many mole of CO are formed ?
(d) How many gm of other reactant should be taken so that nothing is left at the end of
reaction ?
Solution :
2C + O2  2CO

24 96
Mole before reaction
12 32

=2 =3 0
Mole after reaction 0 2 2
(a) O 2 is left in excess.
(b) 2 mole of O2 or 64 gm O2 is left
(c) 2 moe of CO or 56 gm CO is formed
(d) To use O 2 completely total 6 mole of carbon or 72 gm carbon is needed.

2 .4 GRA V I M ET RI C A N A L Y SI S
Gra vimetri c a n al ysis is a n a na lytic a l tec h ni que ba sed on the mea surement o f ma ss of
solid substances and/or volume of ga seous species.
The gravimetric analysis is broadly classified into three heads.
(a) Mass-mass relationship
(b) Mass-volume relationship and
(c) Volume-volume relationship

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 7

2 .4 .1 M a s s –Ma s s Re l a t i o n s h i p
This relates the mass of a species (reactant or product) with the mass of another species (reactant
or product) involved in a chemical reaction.
Let us consider a chemical reaction

CaCO 3 (s)   CaO(s)  CO 2 (g)
Let the mass of CaCO3 taken be x g and we want to calculate the mass of CaO obtained by heating
x
x g CaCO 3. Then the moles of CaCO3 taken would be (where M 1 represents the molar mass of
M1
CaCO3). According to the balanced reaction, the molar ratio of CaCO3 and CaO is 1 : 1. So same number
 x 
of moles  M  of CaO would be formed. Now for converting the moles of CaO into mass of CaO
 1 
obtained, we need to multiply the moles of CaO with the molar mass of CaO. Let the molar mass of CaO
 x 
be M2, so the mass of CaO obtained by heating x g of CaCO3 would be   M 2 g .
 M1 

Ex a m p l e 3
What will be the mass of CaO produced by 10 gm of CaCO3. The reaction is


CaCO3 s   CaO s   CO2 (g)

Solution :


CaCO 3 s   CaO(s)  CO 2 (g)

at t = 0 10 gm 0 0
at t =  0 ? ?
(completely
consumed)

wt. in gm 10
No. of moles of CaCO 3 = 
Mol. wt 100

= 0.1 mole
from mole concept
1 mole of CaCO 3 = 1 mole of CaO
 moles of CaO produced will be equal to moles of CaCO3
moles of CaO(s) = 0.1 mole
wt. of CaO = 0.1 ï mol. wt. of CaO
= 0.1 ï 56
= 5.6 gm

STOICHIOMETRY
 8 MARKS

2 .4 .2 M a s s -V o l u m e Re l a t i o n s h i p
This establishes the relationship between the mass of a species (reactant or product) and the
volume of a gaseous species (reactant or product) involved in a chemical reaction. Let us take x g of
CaCO3 in a vessel of capacity V L and the vessel is heated so that CaCO 3 decomposes as

CaCO 3 (s)   CaO(s)  CO 2 (g)
We want to find out the volume of CO2 evolved at STP by heating x g of CaCO3 . Then

x
Moles of CaCO3 = (since molar ratio of CaCO3 and CO 2 is 1 : 1)
M1

 x 
 Volume of CO2 evolved at STP =   22.4  L
 M1 
But, if the volume of CO2 evolved is to be calculated at pressure P and temperature T K. Then,
x
moles of CO2 evolved =
M1
x RT
Volume of CO2 evolved at pressure P and temperature T =  (Using PV = nRT)
M1 P

Ex a m p l e 4
What volume of oxygen (NTP) will be required to react with 1 gm of Ca ?
Solution :

1
Ca(s)  O2  g  CaO(s)
2

t= 0 1 gm ?
Applying mole concept

1
1 mole of Ca = mole of O2
2

Since volume of 1 mole of O2 (g) at NTP = 22.4 lt.

1
 volume of mole of O 2 (g) at NTP = 11.2 lt.
2

There can be written as

1 mole of Ca or 40 gm of Ca react with 11.2 lit. of O2 at NTP

11.2
 1 gm Ca react with =  0.28 lt.
40

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 9

2 .4 .3 V o l u m e -V o l u m e Re l a t i o n s h i p
This relationship deals with the volume of a gaseous species (reactant or product) with the volume
of another gaseous species (reactant or product) involved in a chemical reaction.
Let us consider the reaction, N2(g) + 3H2 (g)  2NH3(g). We are given x L of N 2 at pressure P atm
and temperature T K and we want to know the volume of H2 required to react with it at the same
pressure and temperature.

Px
Moles of N 2 =
RT

3 P  x
Moles of H2 required = (since molar ratio of N 2 & H2 is 1 : 3)
RT

3  P  x  RT
 Volume of H2 required at same pressure & temperature =  3x L
RT  P

This result could also have been obtained by knowing that for a gaseous relation, at the same
pressure and temperature, the moles of gas is directly proportional to volume of the gas (V  n since
P & T are constant) or molar ratio and volume ratio are same.
Thus, when x L of N2 is taken at Pressure P atm temperature T K,then at the same pressure and
temperature, the volume of H2 required would be 3 x L (since the volume ratio of N2 & H2 would be
same as molar ratio i.e. 1 : 3). But if the volume of H2 required is to be calculated at another pressure
P atm and temperature TÊK, then

3 P  x
Moles of H2 required =
RT

 Volume of H2 required at pressure PÊ atm & temperature TÊK

3  P  x  RT '  3 x  PT ' 
=  L
RT  P'  P' T 

Ex a m p l e 5
8 gm of methane is burnt with 4.48 L of O2 at STP. Find out the volume of CO 2 gas produced
at STP and also the weight of CO2 gas.
Solution :
The balanced chemical equation is
CH4 + 2O 2  CO2 + 2H 2O
1 mol 2 mol 1 mol
Ideal 16 gm 2 ï 22.4 L 22.4 L
44 gm

STOICHIOMETRY
 10 MARKS

8
No. of moles of CH4 =  0.5 mol
16

4.48 L
No. of moles of O 2 = 22.4L = 0.2 mol

Now since 1 mole of CH4 required 2 mole (i.e., 44.82) of O 2 for complete combustion. But the given
moles of O 2 is only 0.2 mol. So, O2 is the limiting reagent.

Again, since 2 moles of O 2 reacts with 1 mole of CH4 to give 22.4 L of CO 2 at STP.

So 0.2 mole of O2 will react with 0.1 mol of CH 4 to give 2.24 L of CO2 .

Wt. of CO2 produced = 0.1 mol ï 44

= 4.4 gm of CO2

Ex a m p l e 6

NaCl of 95% purity is used to prepare salt cake (Na2 SO4) by the reaction,

2NaCl + H 2SO 4  Na 2SO4 + 2HCl

If the product (Na2 SO4) is only 85% pure, what weight of NaCl is used up in producing 1 kg
of the impure salt cake?

Solution :

Let the weight of NaCl used up in producing 1 kg of impure product be x g.

x  95
Mass of pure NaCl =
100

x  95
Moles of pure NaCl =
100  58.5

x  95 1
Moles of pure Na 2SO4 = 
100  58.5 2

x  95 1 100  85
Mass of pure Na2SO4 =   142 
100  58.5 2 100

 x = 73.72 g

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 11

Ex a m p l e 7
Calculate the mass of 90% pure MnO2 to produce 35.5 gm of Cl2 according to following
reaction.
MnO2 + 4HCl  MnCl 2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
Solution :
MnO2 + 4HCl    MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H 2O
87 gm 71 gm
 71 gm Cl2 is produced by 87 gm of MnO 2

87  35.5
 35.5 g Cl 2 is produced by =  43.5 g MnO
71 2

 90 gm pure MnO 2 is present in 100 gm sample

100  43.5
 43.5 gm pure MnO2 =  48.3 gm
90

Ex a m p l e 8
KClO3 decomposes on heating in two possible ways as

KClO3    KCl  3 / 2 O 2


4KClO3   KCl  3KCl O4

when 15 g of KClO3 were heated in an experiment, analysis of the product showed that 5.21
g of KCl and 4.59 g of KClO 4 were formed. What was the weight of KClO 3 remaining
undecomposed ? What fraction of the KClO3 decomposed yielded KClO 4 ?
Solution :
In order to calculate the weight of KClO3 remaining undecomposed, we need to find out the total
weight of KClO3 that decomposes. The weight of KClO3 that decomposes in second reaction would
be known using the KClO 4 data. Using KClO 4 data, we would also calculate the weight of KCl
obtained in second reaction. Since, total weight of KCl obtained is known to us, so the weight of
KCl obtained in first reaction would also be known, using this we will find out the weight of KClO3
decomposed in first reaction.

4.59
Moles of KClO4 obtained =
138.5

4.59 1
Moles of KCl obtained in IInd reaction =   0.011 (since molar ratio of KClO and KCl
138.5 3 4

in IInd reaction is 3 : 1)

STOICHIOMETRY
 12 MARKS

4.59 4
Moles of KClO3 that decomposes in IInd reaction =  (since molar ratio of KClO4 and
138.5 3
KClO3 in IInd reaction is 3 : 4)

4.59 4
 Mass of KClO3 that decomposes in IInd reaction =  ï 122.5 = 5.41 g
138.5 3

 5.21 
Moles of KCl obtained in Ist reaction =   0.011  0.07  0.011  0.059
 74.5 
Moles of KClO3 that decomposes in Ist reaction = 0.059
(since molar ratio of KCl and KClO3 in Ist reaction is 1 : 1)
Mass of KClO3 that decomposes in Ist reaction = 0.059 ï 122.5 = 7.23 g

Ex a m p l e 9
In a process for producing acetic acid, oxygen gas is bubbled into acetaldehyde, CH3CHO,
under pressure at 60ĈC in presence of suitable catalyst.
2CH3CHO (l) + O2 (g)  2CH3COOH (l)
In a laboratory test of this reaction, 20.0 g CH3CHO and 10 g O 2 were put into a reaction
vessel.
(a) How many grams of acetic acid can be produced by these amounts of reactants ?
(b) How many gram of the excess reactant remain after the reaction is complete ?
(c) If actual yield is 23.8 g, calculate percentage yield.
Solution :

20 g
(a) 20 g CH3CHO =  0.455 mol
44 g mol 1

10 g
10 g O 2 =  0.313mol
32 g mol1

CH3 COOH obtained from 0.455 mol. of CH3CHO = 0.455 mol

CH3COOH obtained from 0.313 mol of O 2 = 0.313 ï 2 = 0.626 mol
Thus CH3CHO is the limiting reactant.
Hence CH 3COOH formed = 0.455 mol
= 0.455 ï 60 = 27.3 g
(b) O2 is in excess

0.455
0.455 mol of CH 3CHO will react with mol of O2
2

= 0.2275 mol of O2

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 13

O2 left unreacted = 0.313 ă 0.2275

= 0.0855 mol
= 2.736 g O2

actual yield
(c) Percentage yield = ï 100
thheoretical yield

23.8
=  100 = 87.2%
27.3

Ex a m p l e 1 0
Titanium, which is used to make airplane engines and frames, can be obtained from titanium
tetrachloride, which in turn is obtained from titanium oxide by the following process :
 3TiCl4 (g) + 2CO 2 (g) + 2CO (g)
3TiO2 (s) + 4C (s) + 6Cl2 (g) ·
A vessel contains 4.15 g TiO2, 5.67 g C and 6.78 g Cl 2 suppose the reaction goes to
completion as written, how many grams of TiCl4 can be produced ? (Ti = 48)
Solution :
3TiO2 (s) + 4C (s) + 6Cl2 (g)  3TiCl4 (g) + 2CO2 (g) + 2CO (g)
Firt we determine the quantity of TiCl4 from each reactant.
4.15 g TiO 2 = 0.052 mol of TiO2 = 0.052 mol of TiCl4
5.67 g C = 0.4725 mol of C = 0.3543 mol of TiCl4
6.78 g Cl 2 = 0.0955 mol of Cl2 = 0.0477 mol of TiCl4
Thus Cl2 is limiting reactant.
TiCl 4 obtained = 0.0477 mol = 9.072 g.

Ex a m p l e 1 1
Calculate the weight of FeO produced from 2 g VO and 5.75 g of Fe2O3. Also report the
limiting reagent.
VO + Fe2 O3  FeO + V2 O5
Solution Balancing the given equation
2VO + 3Fe2O3  6FeO + V2O5
2 5.75
Mole before reaction
67 160
= 0.0298 0.0359 0 0

 0.0359  2  1
Mole after reaction  0.0298  0 0.0359 ï 2 0.0359 
 3  3
 Mole of FeO formed = 0.0359 ï 2
 Weight of FeO formed = 0.0359 ï 2 ï 72
= 5.17 g

STOICHIOMETRY
 14 MARKS

Ex a m p l e 1 2
A mixture of FeO and Fe3O 4 when heated in air to a constant weight, gains 5% in its weight.
Find the composition of the initial mixture.

Solution :
When FeO and Fe3O4 are heated, both change to Fe2O 3. Let the weights of FeO and Fe3O 4 be x g and
y g respectively.
 total weight of reactant = (x + y) g
Since weight increases 5% on heating,
 when FeO and Fe 3O4 change completely to Fe2 O3 ,

105
the wt. of Fe 2O 4 =   x  y  1.05  x  y g
100

Now,
FeO + Fe 3O 3  Fe2O 3
xg yg 1.05 (x + y) g,
Now for Fe atom,
moles of Fe in FeO + moles of Fe in Fe3O4 = moles of Fe in Fe2O 3
1 ï moles of FeO + 3 ï moles of Fe3O 4 = 2 ï moles of Fe2O3

In this example, since we do not know 

the balanced equation, but all the   FeO  72 
 
products and reactant contain Fe,  x 3y 2  1.05  x  y  
Fe 3O 4  232 
thus we can directly balance Fe atom   
and solve it 72 232 160 Fe O  160 
  2 3 

Dividing by y, we get

1 x 3 2  1.05 x 2  1.05
  =  
72 y 232 160 y 160

x 1 2.1  2.1 3
 72  160   160  232
y 

81
 % of FeO = 81  319  100  20.02%
 

319
and % of Fe 3O 4 =  100 = 79.98%.
81  319 

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 15

Ex a m p l e 1 3
Crude CaC2, is made in an electric furnace by the following reaction :
CaO + 3C  CaC2 + CO 
The product contains 85% CaC2 and 15% unreacted CaO.
(a) How much CaO is to be added to the furnace charge for each 1000 Kg of pure CaC2
produced ?
(b) How much CaO is to be added to the furnace charge for each 1000 Kg of crude
product ?
Solution :
(a) for pure CaC2 (1000 Kg)
1 mole CaC2  1 mol of CaO
 1000/64 mole  1000/64 mole of CaO
(1000/64) ï 56 kg of CaO
Also, the product (final) contains 15% unreacted CaO.
for 85 kg of CaO (pure) produced, 15 kg is CaO. (unreacted)

 15 
1000 kg of CaO   85  1000  kg of unreacted CaO
 

 1000   15 
total amount of CaO to be used =  64  56    85  1000  kg
   

= 875 + 176.47 = 1051.47 kg

(b) for crude CaC2 (1000 kg)
In 1000 kg crude, there will be 150 kg CaO & 850 pure CaC2 .
so amount of CaO to be used

850
= 150   56
64

= 150 + 743.75 = 893.75 kg.

2 .5 V OL U M ET RI C A N A L Y SI S
The volumetric analysis is an analytical method of estimating the concentration of a substance in
a solution by adding exactly same number of equivalent of another substance present in a solution of
known concentration.
Titration : The process of determination of concentration of a solution of unknown concentration
with the help of a solution of known concentration i.e., standard solution, is known as Titration.
Before approaching towards the depth of voumetric analysis one must know the following terms
very clearly.

STOICHIOMETRY
16 MARKS

Molarity (M) : The no. of moles of solute present in one litre of solution is called the molarity (M).

No. of moles of solute

Molarity 
Volume of solution in litre

Wt. of solute/Molecular wt. of solute

or Molarity 
Volume of solution in litre

So, no. of moles of solute = Volume of solution (in litre) ï Molarity of solution
Molality (m) : No. of moles of solute present in one kilogram of solvent is know as molality.

No. of moles of solute

Molality (m) = Wt. of solvent in kg 

Normality (N) : No. of equivalents of solute present in one litre of the solution is known as
Normality (N).

No. of equivalents of solute

Normality (N) =
Volume of solution in litre

Wt. of solute/equivalent weight of solute

=
Volume of solution in litre

No. of equivalent of solute = Volume of solution (in litre) ï normality of solution

No. of milli equivalents of solute = Normality of solution ï Volume of solution in millilitres
Equivalent Weight : Number of parts by mass of an element which reacts or displaces from a
compound 1.008 parts by mass of hydrogen, 8 parts by mass of oxygen and 35.5 parts by mass of
chlorine, is known as the equivalent weight of that element e.g.
(1) 2Mg + O2  2MgO
48g 32g
12g 8g
 32g of O2 reacts with 48g of Mg

48  8
 8g of O2 =  12g
32
 Equivalent weight of Mg = 12
Similarly, Zn + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H 2
65.5g 2 ï 1.00g
 2 ï 1.008 g of hydrogen is displaced by 65.5 g

65.5
 1.008 g of H =  32.75 g
2  1.008

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 17

65.5
 Equivalent weight of Zn =  32.75
2

3
(2) Al  Cl2  AlCl3
2

3
32g ï 71 g  111.5 g chlorine reacts with 27g of Al
2

27  35.5
 35.5 g chlorine reacts with  9.0 g of Al
111.5

27
 Equivalent weight of aluminium =  9.0
3
As we can see from the above examples that equivalent weight is the ratio of atomic weight and
a factor (say n-factor) which is in above three cases is their respective valencies. So,

atomic weight
equivalent weight =
n  factor

In a similar way, the equivalent weight of acid/base is the ratio of molecular weight and the
basicity/acidity and for oxidizing agents and reducing agent it is the ratio of molecular weight and
the number of moles of electrons gained or lost. So in case of acid/base the n-factor is basicity/acidity
(i.e. number of dissociable H+ ions/number of dissociable OHă ion and in case of oxidizing agent/
reducing agent, n-factor is number of moles of electrons gained/lost per mole of oxidizing agent/
reducing agent. Therefore, in general, we can write.

Atomic or molecular weight

Equivalent weight E  
n  factor

Wt W W
No. of equivalents of solute   
Eq. wt. E M/n

No. of equivalents of solute = No. of moles of solute ï n-factor

And also Normality = n-factor ï molarity of solution

2 .6 n –FA CT OR CA L CU L A T I ON
2 .6 .1 I n N o n -Re d o x Re a c t i o n

1. Ac ids
For acids, n-factor is defined as the number of H+ ions replaced by 1 mole of acid in a reaction.
Note : That the n-factor for acid is not equal to its basicity; i.e. the number of moles of replaceable
+
H atoms present in one mole of acid.

STOICHIOMETRY
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For example, năfactor of HCl = 1,

năfactor of HNO 3 = 1,
năfactor of H 2SO 4 = 1 or 2, depending upon extent of reaction it undergoes.
H 2SO4 + NaOH  NaHSO 4 + H2O
Although one mole of H2SO4 has 2 replaceable H atoms but in this reaction H 2SO 4 has given only
one H+ ion, so its năfactor would be 1.
H2 SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2 SO4 + 2H2O
The năfactor of H 2SO4 in this reaction would be 2.
Similarly, năfactor of H 2SO 3 = 1 or 2
năfactor of H2 CO3 = 1 or 2
năfactor of H3 PO4 = 1 or 2 or 3
năfactor of H3 PO3 = 1 or 2 because one of the H is not replaceable in H 3PO 3.

O
||
P
This can be seen using its structure H  O | O  H . The H atoms which are linked to oxygen are
H
replaceable while the H atom linked directly to central atom (P) is non replaceable.
năfactor of H 3BO3 = 1
In H3 BO3, although all three H are linked to oxygen, yet all 3 H are not replaceable. Here boron
atom is electron deficient, so its acts as a Lewis acid. When H3BO 3 oxygen atom of H2 O through its lone
pair attack the boron atom, as follows
OH OH H OH
| .. | | .. |
 HO  B   OH  H3 O
H 2O
..

B< + OH2  HO  B  O  H 

..
..

 |
HO OH OH
The net reaction is H3 BO3 + 2H 2O  [B(OH) 4] ă + H3O +
Thus, one mole of H3 BO3 in solution gives only one mole of H+, so its năfactor is 1.

2. Ba ses
For bases, năfactor is defined as the number of OH ă ions replaced by 1 mole of base in a reaction.
Note that năfactor is not equal to its acidity i.e. the number of moles of replaceable OH ă ions present
in 1 mole of base.
For example, năfactor of NaOH = 1
năfactor of Ca(OH)2 = 1 or 2
năfactor of Al(OH) 3 = 1 or 2 or 3
năfactor of NH4(OH) = 1

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2 .6 .2 I n Re d o x Re a c t i o n s
1 . Sa l t s i n w h i c h n o a t o m u n d e r g o e s c h a n g e i n o x i d a t i o n s t a t e i n r e a c t i o n s
The năfactor for such salts is defined as the total moles of cationic/anionic charge replaced in 1
mole of the salt. For the reaction,
Na3PO4 + BaCl2  NaCl + Ba3 (PO4 ) 2
To get one mole of Ba 3(PO4) 2, two moles of Na 3PO 4 are required, which means six moles of Na +
are completely replaced by 3 moles of Ba2+ ions. So, six moles of cationic charge is replaced by 2 moles
of Na3 PO 4, thus each mole of Na3 PO4 replaces 3 moles of cationic charge. Hence, năfactor of Na3PO4
in this reaction is 3.

2 . Sa l t s w h ic h r e a c t i n a m an n e r t h a t o n l y o n e a t o m u n d e r g o e s c h a n g e i n o x i da t i o n
st at e and goes in only one produc t
The năfactor of such salts is defined as the number of moles of electrons exchanged (lost or gained)
by one mole of the salt.
Let us have a salt Aa Bb in which oxidation state of A is + x. It changes to a compound, which has
atom D in it. The oxidation state of A in Ac D be + y.
+x y
A a B b  Ac D

The năfactor of AaBb is calculated as

n = |ax ă ay|
To calculate the năfactor of such salts, we apply following method :
1. Take one mole of rectant whose oxidation state is changing.
2. Multiply this with oxidation state of element in reactant to give us total oxidation state of
element in reactant.
3. Calculate total oxidation state of the same element in the product for same number of moles
of atom in reactant.
Another similar case would be that the salt has only one atom undergoing change in oxidation state
but going into two different products with the same oxidation state. Try it yourself.
For example, let us calculate the năfactor KMnO4 for the given chemical change.

H
KMnO4  Mn 2

In this reaction, oxidation state of Mn changes from + 7 to + 2. Thus; KMnO 4 is acting as oxidising
agent, since it is reduced.
 năfactor of KMnO4 = |1 ï (+ 7) ă 1 ï (+ 2) = 5
Similarly

 Mn 4
H O
(a) KMnO4 
2

năfactor of KMnO4 = |1 ï (+ 7) ă 1 ï (+ 4) = 3

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 20 MARKS


(b) OH
KMnO4   Mn  6

năfactor of KMnO4 = |1 ï (+ 7) ă 1 ï (+ 6)| = 1

It can be seen that in all the above chemical changes, KMnO4 is acting as oxidising agent, yet its
năfactor is not same in all reactions. Thus, the năfactor of a compound is not fixed, it depends on
the type and the extent of reaction it undergoes.

Ex a m p l e 1 4
Calculate the năfactor of reactants in the given chemical changes ?


 Cr3 
H
(a) K 2Cr2O 7 


(b) C 2O24  
 CO 2

(c) S2 O23 
alkaline
    SO24

(d) I 
 ICl

Solution :

+6 
(a) H
K 2 Cr 2 O7  Cr 3 

The oxidation state of Cr changes from + 6 to + 3.

 n = |2 ï (+ 6) ă 2 ï (+ 3)| = 6

+3 +4
(b) C 2 O 24 CO 2

Carbon get oxidized from + 3 to + 4

 n = |2 ï (+ 3) ă 2 ï (+ 4)| = 2

+2 +6
(c) S 2 O 23 
alkaline
 S O 24


The oxidation state of sulphur changes from + 2 to + 6

 n = |2 ï (+ 2) ă 2 ï (+ 6)| = 8

+1
(d) I   ICl

Iă get oxidized to I+ .
 n = |1 ï (ă 1) ï (+ 1)| = 2

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3 . Sa l t s w h i c h re a c t in a m a n n e r t h a t o n l y o n e a t o m u n d e r g o e s c h a n g e i n o x i d a t i o n
s t a t e b u t g o e s i n t w o p r o d u c t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t o x i d a t i o n s t a t e (d i f f e r e n t t h a n i n
t he reac t ant ) as a result of eit her ox idat ion or redu c t ion.
Let the chemical change be
x +y +z
A a B b  A c D + A e F
The number of moles of electrons lost or gained by one mole of AaBb would depend on the fact that
how much of A underwent change to oxidation state + y and how much of A underwent change to
oxidation state + z. năfactor calculation in such cases can be done as follows.

Let us take a chemical change 2Mn 7  Mn 4  Mn 2 out of the two moles of Mn +7 , one mole
Mn+7 changes to Mn +4 by gaining 3 mole of electrons and the other mole of Mn +7 changes to Mn +2
by gaining 5 mole of electrons, so in all 8 mole of electrons are gained by 2 mole of In+7. So each
mole of Mn+7 has gained 8/2 = 4 mole of electrons. Thus, 4 would be the năfactor on Mn+7 in this
reaction.
If the reaction would have been

3Mn  7  2Mn 2  Mn  4

Out of 3 moles of Mn+7 , two moles of Mn+7 changes to Mn +2 by gaining 10 mole of electrons and
one mole of Mn+7 changes to Mn+4 by gained 3 mole of electrons. Thus each mole of Mn+7 have
gained 13/3 mole of electrons. Therefore, the năfactor of Mn+7 in this reaction would be 13/3.
ÂÂNote that năfactor can be a fraction because it is not the number of electrons exchanged but it
is the number of moles of electrons exchanged which can be a fraction.ÊÊ

4 . Sa l t s t h a t r e a c t i n a m a n n e r t h a t t w o t yp e o f a t o m s i n t h e s a l t u n d e r g o c h a n g e
i n o x i d a t i o n s t a t e (b o t h t h e a t o m s a r e e i t h e r g e t t i n g o x i d i s e d o r r e d u c e d ).
Let the change be represented as
 
A a B b  A c D  E f B 
x y z

In such cases, the năfactor of the compound would be the sum of individual năfactors of A and B.
năfactor of A = |ax ă ay|
năfactor of B = |ax ă bz| because the total oxidation state of ÂbÊ BÊs in the reactant is ă ax (as the
total oxidation state of ÂaÊ AÊs in the reactant is + ax and the total oxidation state of y BÊs in the
product is bz.
 năfactor of AaBb = |ax ă ay|+ |ax ă bz|
In general, the năfactor of the salt will be the total number of mole of electrons lost or gained by
one mole of the salt.
+4
For example, we have a reaction, Cu1 S2  Cu2   S O
2 2

in which Cu+ and S2ă both are getting oxidised to Cu 2+ and S+4 respectively.
 năfactor of Cu2S = 2 ï (+1) ă 2 ï (+2) + 1 ï (ă2) ă1 ï (+4) = 8

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5 . Sa l t s t h a t r e a c t i n a m a n n e r t h a t t w o a t o m s i n t h e s a l t u n d e r g o e s c h a n g e i n
o x i d a t i o n s t a t e (o n e a t o m i s g e t t i n g o x i d i s e d a n d t h e o t h e r i s g e t t i n g r e d u c e d ).
The năfactor of such a salt can be calculated either by taking the total number of moles of electrons
lost or total number of mole of electrons gained by one mole of the salt.

+5 2 1 0
K ClO 3  KC l  O2

In this reaction, O2ă is getting oxidised to O 2 and Cl+5 is getting reduced to Cl ă1. In each case, 6
mole of electrons are exchanged whether we consider oxidation or reduction.
năfactor of KClO 3 considering oxidation = |3(ă 2) ă 3 (0)| = 6
or năfactor of KClO3 considering reduction = |1 ï (+ 5) ă 1 ï (ă 1) = 6

6 . Sa l t s o r c o m p o u n d s w h i c h u n d e r g o e s d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t i o n r e a c t io n
Disproportionation reactions are the reactions in which oxidising and reducing agents
are same or the same element from the same compound is getting oxidised as well as
reduced. năfactor of a disproportionation reaction can only be calculated using a balanced chemical
reaction. We will categorize disproportionation reactions into two types.
(a) Disproportionation reactions in which moles of reducing and oxidizing agents are the same.
In such compounds we either calculate the năfactor for reducing agent or oxidizing agent since
calculating both would be simply a waste of time.
For example, 2H 2O2  2H 2 O + O2
Out of the 2 mole of H2O2 used in reaction, one mole of H2 O2 gets oxidised to O2 (oxidation state
of O changes from ă 1 to 0) while the other mole of H2 O2 gets reduced to H2 O (oxidation state of
O changes from ă 1 to ă 2). When 1 mole of H2 O2 gets oxidised to O 2, the half-reaction would be

O22   O02  2e  and when 1 mole of H 2O 2 gets reduced to H2O, the half-reaction would be

O22   2e   2O2 

Thus, it is evident that one mole of H2O2 (which is either getting oxidised or reduced) will lose or
gain 2 mole of electrons. Therefore năfactor of H2 O2 as oxidizing as well as reducing agent in this
reaction is 2. Thus

H2O2 + H 2O2  2H2O + O2

Reducing agent Oxidizing agent

(n = 2) (n = 2) (n = 1) (n = 2)

(b) Disproportionation reactions in which moles of compound getting oxidised and reduced are not
same i.e. moles of oxidising agent agent and reducing agent are not same.

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 23

For example,
6Br 2 + 12 OHă  10Bră + 2BrO3 ă + 6H2O
In this reaction, the mole of electrons lost by the oxidation of some of the moles of Br 2 are same
as the number of mole of electrons gained by the reduction of rest of the moles of Br2. Of the 6
moles of Br2 used, one mole is getting oxidized, loosing 10 electrons (as reducing agent) and 5 moles
of Br2 are getting reduced and accepts 10 moles of electron (as oxidizing agent).
Br2     · 2Br +5 + 10eă
5Br 2 + 10e ă  · 10Bră
Br2 + 5Br 2 · 10Br ă + 2Br +5

Reducing agent Oxidizing agent

(n = 10) (n = 2) (n = 1) (n = 5)

Thus, năfactor of Br2 acting as oxidizing agent is 2 and that Br 2 acting as reducing agent has nă
factor 10.
Or when the reaction is written as
6Br 2   10Bră + 2Br +5
where, Br 2 is not distinguished as how much of it functions as oxidizing agent and how much as
reducing agent, then for calculating năfactor of compound in such reactions, first find the total
number of mole of electrons exchanged (lost or gained) using the balanced equation and divide it
with the number of mole of Br2 involved in the reaction to get the number of mole of electrons
exchanged by one mole of Br2 .
In the overall reaction, the number of mole of electrons exchanged (lost or gained) is 10 and the
moles of Br2 used in the reaction are 6. Thus, each mole of Br 2 has exchanged 10/6 or 5/3 mole of
electrons. Therefore, the năfactor of Br2 when the reaction is written without segregating oxidising
and reducing agent is 5/3.
6Br2  10Br ă + 2Br +5
(n = 5/3) (n = 1) (n = 5)

2 .1 0 L A W OF EQU I V A L A N CE A N D DI L U T I ON EFFECT
L a w o f Eq u i v a l e n c e
It is not practically possible to remember all the chemical reactions in balanced forms though that
is how we require them to be for solving problems.
Hence we use the law of equivalence. This law helps us determine the molar ratio of reactants and
products. It can be stated as :
According to the law of equivalence, whenever two substances react, the equivalents of
one will be equal to the equivalents of other and the equivalents of any product will also
be equal to that of the reactant.

STOICHIOMETRY
24 MARKS

Law of equivalence
For a reaction
aA + bB  mM + nN
eq. of A = eq. of B = eq. of M = eq. of N

wt. of A wt. of B wt. of M wt. of N

or   
EA EB EM EN

Let us suppose we have a reaction, A + B  C + D. In this reaction, the number of moles of

electrons lost by 1 mole of A are x and the number of mole of electrons gained by 1 mole of B are
y. Since, the number of mole of electrons lost and gained are not same, the molar ratio in which
A & B react cannot be 1 : 1. Thus, if we take y moles of A, then the total moles of electrons lost
by y moles of A would be (x ï y). Similarly, if x moles of B are taken, then the total mole of
electrons gained by x moles of B would be (y ï x). Thus, the number of electrons lost by A and
number of electrons gained by B becomes equal. For reactant A, its năfactor is x and the number
of moles used are y. So,
The equivalents of A reacting = moles of A reacting x năfactor of A = y ï x
Similarly, for reactant B, its năfactor is y and the number of moles used are x. So,
The equivalents of B reacting = moles of B reacting ï năfactor of B
=xï y
Thus, the equivalents of A reacting would be equal to the equivalents of B reacting. Thus, the
balancing coefficients of the reactant would be as
yA + xB   C + D
(năfactor = x) (năfactor = y)
The năfactor of A & B are in the ratio of x : y, and their molar ratio is y : x. Thus, molar ratio
is inverse of the năfactor ratio.
In general, whenever two substances react with their năfactors in the ratio of a : b, then
their molar ratio in a balanced chemical reaction would be b : a.
To get the equivalents of a substance, its năfactor is to be known. Let the weight of the substance
used in the reaction be w g.
w w w
Then, equivalents of substance reacted would be or M /n  M  n (where E and M1 are the
E 1 1
equivalent mass and molar mass of the substance) Thus, in order to calculate the equivalents of
a substance, knowledge of năfactor is a must.
When a solution is diluted, the moles and equivalents of solute do not change but molarity and
normality change while on taking out a small volume of solution from a larger volume, the molarity
and normality of solution do not change but molar and equivalents change proportionately. This
concept is useful in solving dilution problems.

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 25

2 .1 1 So m e I m p o r t a n t Fo r m u l a e

gB
1. moles = MVlt  (M = Molarity of solution
MB

V = Volume of solution_

millimoles = MVcc  gB  100 gB/M B = Gram equivalent of substance

MB

gB
2. gm eq. = NVlt  N = Normality of solution
EB

V = volume

gB gB
meq = NVcc   1000 EB = Gram equivalents
EB

10 3  d 103  d
3. Molarity (M) = Normality (N) =
M0 E

d : density of solution in g/cc; x : %age strength of solution (by weight)

M0 = Molar mass of substance
4. N=xM
x : acidity for base or basicity for acid or electron transfer/mole for O.A and R.A
N = Normality
M = Molarity

1000  x B
5. m =
MA  xA

m = molarity
xB = mole fraction of B
xA = mole fraction of A
6. Strength of a solution is generally expressed as grams of solute in one litre of solution.

gB
Strength =
litres of solution

Strength = NE = M M0

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Ex a m p l e 1 5

N
How many milli equivalent of H2SO 4 in 10 ml. of H SO4 .
10 2

Solution :
no. of equivalent = NV (in lt)
no. of m.eq. = NV ï (100)

=
1
10
 
 10  10 3  1000

m.eq. = 1

Ex a m p l e 1 6
What volume of 0.1 M KMnO4 in acidic medium will be required to react completely with 100
ml; 0.1 M NaHC2 O4.
Solution :
In redox reaction, n-factor of NaHC2 O4 is 2.8 and that of KMnO 4 is 5.
Therefore,
From law of equivalence,
(N 1 V1) KMnO 4 = (N2 V2)NaHC 2O4
0.1 ï 5 ï V 1 = 0.1 ï 2 ï 100  V 1 = 40 ml

Ex a m p l e 1 7
What volume of 0.1 NaOH will be required in previous problem.
Solution :
NaOH + NaHC2 O 4 Acid base reaction
Here, n-factor of NaHC2 O4 = 1
(N1 V2) NaHC2 O4 = (N 2 V 2) NaOH [from law of equivalence]
 100 ï 0.1 = .1 ï V
V2 = 100 ml
N1 = Normality of NaHC2 O4
N2 = Normality of NaOH
V1 = Volume of NaHC 2O4
V2 = Volume of NaOH

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 MARKS 27

Ex a m p l e 1 8
What is the normality and nature of a mixture obtained by mixing 0.62 g of Na2 C2O 3. H2O
to 100 mL of 0.1 N H 2SO 4 ?
Solution :

0.62 w 
Meq. of Na2CO3 .H2O =  100  E  1000  Meq. 
62  

Meq. of H2SO 4 = 100 ï 0.1

Na2CO 3 + H 2SO4  Na 2SO 4 + H2 O + CO 2 
Meq. added 10 10 0 0 0
Meq. left 0 0 10 10 10

10
 N Na 2SO4   0.1
100

Solution becomes neutral since both acid and base are used up and Na2SO4 does not show hydrolysis.

Ex a m p l e 1 9
A sample of an alloy weighing 0.50 g and containing 90% Ag was dissolved in conc. HNO3. Ag
was analysed by Volhard method in which 25 mL of KCNS were required for complete
neutralization. Determine normality of KCNS.
Solution :

90  0.5
Wt. of Ag =  0.45
100

0.45
 Meq. of Ag =  1000  4.17
108

HNO 3 KCNS
NowAg   AgNO 3   AgCNS

 Equal Meq. reacts and therefore

Meq. of KCNS = Meq. of AgNO3

= Meq. of HNO 3 = Meq. of Ag

N ï 25 = 4.17

N = 0.167

STOICHIOMETRY
 28 MARKS

Ex a m p l e 2 0
HNO3 used as a reagent has specific gravity of 1.42 g mLă1 and contains 70% by strength
HNO3 . Calculate,
(a) Normality of acid
(b) Volume of acid that contains 63 g pure acid
(c) Volume of water required to make 1N solution from 2 mL conc. HNO3.
Solution : (a) Strength of HNO3 = 70%
i.e. Volume of solution = 100 mL
and Volume of HNO3 = 70 mL
 Wt of HNO 3 in solution = 70 ï 1.42 g

70  1.42  Eq. 
 Eq. of HNO 3 in solution =  N = 
63  100 /1000  V in litre 

= 15.78
(b)  70 ï 1.42 g of pure acid is present in 100 mL

100  63
 63 g of pure acid present in =
70  1.42

= 63.38 mL
(c) Meq. of conc. HNO3 = Meq. of dil. HNO 3
 2 ï 15.78 = V ï 1
V = 31.56 mL
 Volume of water added = 31.56 ă 2 = 29.56 mL

2 .1 2 Volum et ric Analysis

Now, we have developed enough platforms to understand the law of equivalents and volumetric
before analysis.
The volumetric analysis is an analytical method of estimating the concentration of a
substance in a solution by adding exactly same number of equivalents of another
substance present in a solution of known concentration.
This is the basic principle of titration. Volumetric analysis is also known as titrimetric analysis.
The substance whose solution is employed to estimate the concentration of unknown solution is
called titrant and the substance whose concentration is to be estimated is called titrate.
The volumetric analysis is divided into following types :
(a) Simple titrations
(b) Back titrations
(c) Double titrations

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 29

SI M PL E T I T RA T I ON
A known volume of the solution of unknown concentration is taken in a flask and required reagents
are added to it. The solution of known concentration is added from the burette in the solution of
unknown concentration till the latter reacts completely. This process is called titration. At the end
point (equivalence point) the equivalents or milliequivalents of the two reacting substances are
equal.
Volume of solution (A) = VA litres
Normality of solution (A) = NA
Equivalents of substance (A) = NA V A
Similarly, equivalents of substance (B) = NB V B
At the equivalence point (end point) the equivalents (not the moles) of the two substances equal.
NA V A (litre) = NB ï V B (litre)

Ex a m p l e 2 1
40 ml N/10 HCl and 60 ml N/20 KOH are mixed together. Calculate the normality of the acid
or base left. What is the normality of the salt formed in the solution?
Solution :

1  40
Milli equivalents of HCl = N ï V (ml) = 4
10

1  60
Milli equivalents of KOH = N ï V (ml) = 3
20

One milli equivalent of an acid neutralizes one milli equivalent of a base

Milli equivalent of HCl left = 4 ă 3 = 1

Total volume of the solution = 40 + 60 = 100 ml

Milli equivalents of HCl = N ï V (ml)
1 = N ï 100

Normality (N) of HCl left in solution = 0.01

Salt formed = Milli equivalent of acid or base neutralized
Milli equivalents of the salt formed = N ï V (ml)
3 = N ï 100
Normality (N) of salt formed = 0.03

STOICHIOMETRY
 30 MARKS

DOU B L E T I T RA T I ON
If an aqueous solution contains a mixture of any two of the three NaOH, NaHCO3 and Na 2CO3 and
it has to be titrated against an acid HCl or H2 SO4, it will require two indicators to determine the
strength of the bases present. The two indicators used are phenophthalein and methyl orange.

M et h o d
A given volume of the aqueous solution of the bases is taken and phenophthalein indicator is added
to it. This solution is titrated with an acid of known normality to the end point the volume of the
acid used to noted. This end point is called first end point. Now in the same solution methyl orange
is added and gain titrated with an acid of known strength to the end point. It is called second end
point. The volume of acid, used in the second end point is also noted. The normality of the bases
present is then calculated.
Principle : In the presence of phenophthalein indicator
(i) NaOH is completely neutralized by the acid
(ii) Only half of the milliequivalents of Na2CO3 present are titrated as the phenophthalein will
show the colour change when only NaHCO3 (weak base) and neutral species are left in the
reaction mixture. The following reactions take place,

NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H 2O

Na 2CO 3 + HCl  NaHCO3 + NaCl

weak base

Since phenolphthalein is a weak organic acid, and it changes its colour in weakly basic medium
(NaHCO3 ), so as soon as the Na2CO3 is converted to NaHCO3 , phenophthalein shows the colour
change indicating the completion of the reaction.
In the presence of methyl orange, all the basic structures, left in the mixture will be neutralized
by acid and methyl orange will show the colour change when the medium is weakly acidic
(H 2O + CO2 i.e. H 2CO3 ).
1. Titration of the solution containing both NaOH and Na2CO 3 : A given volume of the
aqueous solution is titrated with an acid of known normality using phenophthalein indicator.
Suppose ÂaÊ milli equivalents of acid are used in the first end point then,
milli equivalents of NaOH + ó milli equivaent of Na2CO3
= milli equivalent of acid = a .... (1)
Now in the same already titrated solution methyl orange indicator is added and again
titrated to the end point. Suppose ÂbÊ milli equivalents of the acid are used at the second end
point.
ó milli equivalents of Na2 CO3 = milli equivalents of acid = b ...... (2)

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 31

From equation (1) and (2)

Milli equivalents of acid used by Na2CO 3 = 2b
= milli equivalents of Na2CO3
Milli equivalents of acid used by NaOH = a ă b
= milli equivalent of NaOH
Knowing the milli equivalents of Na2CO 3 or NaOH and the volume of the solution titrated,
their normality can be calculated.

Ex a m p l e 2 2
NaOH and Na 2CO3 are dissolved in 200 ml aqueous solution. In the presence of phenophthalein
indicator, 17.5 ml of 0.1 N HCl are used to titrate this solution. Now methyl orange is added
in the same solution titrated and it requires 2.5 ml of the same HCl. Calculate the normality
of NaOH and Na2CO 3 and their mass present in the solution.
Solution :
Milli equivalents (a) of HCl used in the presence of phenolphathalein indicator
= N ï V (ml)
= 0.1 ï 17.5 = 1.75
1.75 (a) = milli eq. of NaOH + ó milli eq. of Na 2CO3 .... (1)
Milli eq. (b) of HCl used in the presence of methyl orange indicator
= N ï V (ml)
= 0.1 ï 2.5 = 0.25
0.25 (b) = ó milli equivalents of Na2 CO3 ... (2)
For Na2 CO3 solution : From equation (2)
Milli eq. of acid used by Na 2CO 3 = 2b
= 2 ï 0.25 = 0.5
Volume of Na2 CO3 solution = 200 ml
Suppose, Normality of Na 2CO 3 = N
Milli equivalents of Na 2CO 3 = N ï V (ml) = 200 N
Putting equivalents of acid and Na2CO3 equal
200N = 0.5

1
or (Normality of Na 2CO 3 solution) N =
400

Mass of Na 2CO 3 = N ï E ï V (litre)

STOICHIOMETRY
 32 MARKS

1
(E for Na2CO3 = 53) =  53  0.2
400

= 0.0265 gram
For NaOH solution : From equation (1) and (2)
Milli eq. acid used by NaOH = a ă b = 1.75 ă 0.25
= 1.50
Volume of NaOH solution = 200 ml
Suppose, Normality of NaOH solution = N
Milli eq. of NaOH = N ï V (ml) = 200 N
Putting the milli eq. of NaOH and acid used equal
200 N = 1.5

1.5
(Normality of NaOH solution) N =
200

Mass of NaOH = N ï E ï V (litres)

1.5
=  40  0.2
200

(E for NaOH = 40) = 0.06 g

2. Titration of the solution containing both Na 2CO3 and NaHCO3 : Given volume of the solution
is titrated by an acid using phenolphthalein indicator. Suppose ÂaÊ milli equivalents of acid are used
in the first end point. Then ó milli equivalent of Na2CO3 = milli equivalents of acid ... (1)
Now in the same already titrated solution methyl orange indicator is added and again titrated to
the end point : Suppose ÂbÊ milli equivalents of the acid are used at the second end point. Then

ó milli equivalents of Na2 CO3 + milli equivalents of NaHCO3

= milli equivalents of acid = b ... (2)
From equation (1) and (2)
Milli equivalents of acid used by Na2 CO3 = 2a
= milli equivalents of Na2CO3
Milli equivalents of acid used by NaHCO3 = b ăa
= milli equivalent of NaHCO3
Knowing the milli equivalents of the base and volume of the solution titrated, the normality
(strength) of the bases can be calculated.

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 33

Ex a m p l e 2 3
Both Na2CO 3 and NaHCO 3 are present in an aqueous solution. In the presence of
phenolphthalein indicator 10 ml of this solution requires 2.5 ml of 0.1 M H2SO4 for titration.
After this methyl ornge is added in the same solution and titration requires 5 ml M H 2SO4.
Calculate the concentration of Na2 CO3 and NaHCO 3 in g/litre.
Solution :
Milli eq. (a) of H2SO4 used in the presence of phenolphthalein indicator
= N ï V (ml) = 0.1 ï 2 ï 2.5 = 0.5

1
a = 0.5 = milli equivalents of Na2 CO3 ... (1)
2

Milli eq. of NaHCO 3 + ó milli eq. of Na2CO3 = (b) ... (2)

For Na2 CO3 solution : From equation (1)
Milli eq. of acid used by Na2CO3 = 2 ï 0.5 = 1
Suppose, Normality of Na 2CO3 solution = N
Volume of Na 2CO 3 solution taken = 10 ml
Putting the milli eq. of H 2SO 4 and Na2CO 3 equal
1 = 10 N
or (Normality of Na2CO3 ) N = 0.1
Strength (S) in g/litre = N ï E
= 0.1 ï 53 (E for Na 2CO 3 = 53)
= 5.3 g/litre
For NaHCO3 solution : From equation (1) and (2) milli eq. of acid used by
NaHCO3 = b ă a = 1.0 ă 0.5 = 0.5
Suppose, Normality of NaHCO3 solution = N
Volume of NaHCO3 solution taken = 10 ml
Milli equivalents of NaHCO3 taken = 10 N
Putting the milli eq. of H 2SO 4 and NaHCO3 equal,
0.5 = 10 N
or (Normality of NaHCO3 solution) N = 0.05
Strength (S) in g/litre =N ï E
(E for NaHCO3 = 84) = 0.05 ï 84 = 4.2 g/litre

STOICHIOMETRY
 34 MARKS

B A CK T I T RA T I ON
Let us consider that we have an impure solid substance ÂZÊ weighing ÂwÊ g and we are required to
calculate the percentage purity of ÂZÊ in the sample. We are also provided with two solutions ÂXÊ and ÂYÊ,
where the concentration of ÂYÊ is known (N 1) and that of ÂXÊ is unknown. For the back titration to work,
following conditions are to be satisfied.
(a) Compounds ÂXÊ, ÂYÊ and ÂZÊ should be such that ÂXÊ and ÊYÊ reacts with each other.
(b) ÂXÊ and pure ÂZÊ also reacts with each other but impurity present in ÂZÊ does not react with ÂZÊ.
Z + X (excess)  Product 1
Remaining (X) + Y  Product 2
Note : Product 1 should not react with Y
Milli equivalent of Y = N2 V2
Where N 2 and V 2 (ml) is the normality and volume of Y
Initial milli equivalent of X = N1V1
Where N 1 and V 1 (ml) is the normality and volume of X
Remaining milli equivalents of X after reacting with Y = N1V1 ă N2V2
Remaining milli equivalents of X = milli equivalents of Z
a ï 100
N 1V 1 ă N2V 2 = Equivalent weight

Where ÂaÊ is the weight of pure Z which is reacted.

Molecular weight  N1 V1  N2 V2 
a=
n  factor

 N 1 V1  N 1V 2 Molar Mass of Z
 Percentage purity of ÂZÊ =   100
n  factor W

Ex a m p l e 2 4
20 g of sample of Ba(OH)2 is dissolved in 10 ml of 0.5 N HCl solution. The excess of HCl was
titrated with 0.2 N NaOH. The volume of NaOH used was 10 cc. Calculate the percentage of
Ba(OH)2 in the sample.
Solution :
Milli eq. of HCl initially= 10 ï 0.5 = 5
Milli eq. of NaOH consumed = Milli eq. of HCl in excess
= 10 ï 0.2 = 2
 Milli eq. of HCl consumed = Milli eq. of Ba(OH) 2
= 5ă2=3
 eq. of Ba(OH) 2 = 3/1000 = 3 ï 10ă3
Mass of Ba(OH) 2 = 3 ï 10ă3 ï (171/2) = 0.2565 g
% of Ba(OH) 2 = (0.2565/20) ï 100 = 1.28%

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 35

(i) IODIMETRY
This titration involves free iodine. Such direct estimation of iodine is called iodimetry. This
involves the titration of iodine solution with known sodium thiosulphate solution, whose normality
is N. Let the volume of sodium thiosulphate used by V litre.

I2  2Na 2S2O 3  2NaI  Na2S 4 O6

(n  2) (n  1)

Equivalents of I2 = Equivalents of Na 2S2O 3 used = N ï V

NV
Moles of I2 =
2

N  V 
Mass of free I2 in the solution =   254 g
 2 

(ii) IODOMETRY
This is an indirect method of estimation of iodine. An oxidising agent is made to react with excess
of solid KI. The oxidising agent oxidises Iă to I 2. This liberated iodine is then made to react with
Na2S2O3 solution of normality N. Let the volume of thiosulphate solution required be V litre.
2Na 2S 2O3
Oxidising Agent (A)  KI I2   2NaI  Na2 S4 O6

reduced form of oxidizing agent

Equivalents of ÂAÊ = equivalents of I 2 = Equivalents of Na2S2O3 used = N ï V
Equivalents of I 2 liberated from KI = N ï V
Equivalents of ÂAÊ = N ï V
Let the năfactor of ÂAÊ in its reaction with KI be x, then

NV
Mass of ÂAÊ consumed =  MA (where M is the molar mass of A)
x A

Ex a m p l e 2 5
A 1.1 g sample of copper are is dissolved and Cu2+ (aq.) is treated with KI. I2 liberated
required 12.12 mL of 0.1 M Na 2S2 O2 solution for nitration. What is % of Cu in the ore ?
2Cu2+ + 4Iă  Cu2I2 + I2
I2 + 2S2O32ă  S4O 62ă + 2Iă
2S2O32ă  I 2  2Cu 2+
Thus S2O32ă  I  Cu2+
hence equivalent weight of S2O32ă = mol. wt.
and that of Cu 2+ = mol. wt.

STOICHIOMETRY
 36 MARKS

Equialent of Na2S 2O3 = equivalent of I2

= equivalent of Cu2+
NEV
w (pure (Cu)) =
1000
0.1  63.5  12.12
=
1000
= 0.077 g
This is present in 1.1 g copper ore.
 % of copper = 7.0%

Ex a m p l e 2 6
A 0.589 g sample of pyrolusite ore (impure MnO2) is treated with 1.65 g hydrate oxalic acid
(H2C2 O4.2H2 O) in an acidic medium. Following this reaction, the excess oxalic acid required
30.6 mL of 0.1 M KMnO4 . What is % of MnO2 in pyrolusite ?
Solution : Oxalic acid will react with pure MnO2
unreacted oxalic acid  30.06 mL of 0.1 M KMnO4

1.65
oxalic acid taken = 1.65 g =  0.013 mol
126
MnO2 + C 2O4 2ă + 4H+  2CO2 + Mn2+ + 2H2 O ...(i)
2MnO4 ă + 5C 2O 42ă + 16H+  10CO 2 + 2Mn2+ + 8H2 O ...(ii)
unreacted
30.06 mL of 0.1 M KMnO4 = 30.06 mL of 0.5 N KMnO4.

NEV
unreacted oxalic acid =
1000

0.5  63  30.06
=
1000
0.95
= 0.95 g =
126
= 0.0075
used oxalic acid in reaction (i) = 0.013 ă 0.0075
= 0.00558 mol
= 5.58 ï 10 ă3 mol
hence mol of MnO2 (pure) = 5.58 ï 10 ă3 mol
= 0.485 g

0.485
% of pure MnO2 =  100 = 82.42%
0.589

STOICHIOMETRY
 MARKS 37

Ex a m p l e 2 7
A 0.608 g sample of fertiliser contained nitrogen as ammonium sulphate, (NH4) 2SO 4. It was
analysed for nitrogen by heating with sodium hydroxide.
(NH4) 2SO 4(s) + 3NaOH(aq)  Na2SO 4 (aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH 3(g)
The ammonia was collected in 36.3 mL of 0.213 M HCl.
NH3 (g) + HCl (aq)  NH4 Cl(aq)
This solution was titrated for excess HCl with 44.3 mL of 0.128 M NaOH. What is the percentage
of nitrogen in the fertiliser ?
Solution :
Equivalent of acid for NH3  equivalent of NH 3 from fertiliser
first we determine unreacted HCl (V mL)
V mL of 0.213 M HCl  44.3 mL of 0.128 M NaOH

44.3  0.128
V  26.62 mL
0.213

used HCl = 46.30 ă 26.62

= 19.68 mL

NEV
amount of nitrogen in fertiliser =
1000

0.213  14  19.68
equivalent to 19.68 mL of 0.213 M HCl = g
1000

= 0.0587 g
This amount is present in 0.608 g sample of fertilisers

0.0587
% of nitrogen =  100
0.608
= 9.65%

Ex a m p l e 2 8
What mass of Na2SO 3 must have been present in a sample that required 26.50 mL of 0.0510
M KMnO 4 for its oxidation to Na2SO 4 in acidic solution ?
Solution :
Redox reaction is

5SO32   2MnO4  6H   2Mn2   5S24   3H 2 O

+ 5eă
ă 2eă

STOICHIOMETRY
38 MARKS

equivalent weight of MnO 4  M

5

M
equivalent weight of SO 23 
2

26.50 mL of 0.510 M MnO4  26.50 mL of 0.2550 N MnO4

 26.50 mL of 0.255 N SO23

NEV
 weight of Na2SO 3 =
1000

0.2550  63  26.50
=
100

= 0.426 g

STOICHIOMETRY
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