The Comprehensive Guide

to Tracking Skills
 The Comprehensive Guide
to Tracking Skills
How to Track Animals and Humans by Using
All the Senses and Logical Reasoning

by
Cleve Cheney

Safari Press Inc.

 This book is dedicated in humble thanks to
the Creator of heaven and earth.

To my dear family:
my wife, Bernice; son Hunt;
and daughters Jess, Tamaryn, and Ami;
sons-in-law Rudi, George, and Earle;
daughter-in-law Lizanne; and my grandchildren
Ben, Ethan, and Bella.
You give meaning to life.
I love you all dearly.

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 TABLE Of CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ............................................. vii Chapter 5

Gait Patterns and Pressure Releases ........129
• Gait Patterns ......................................................129
Chapter 1 • Interpreting Gait Patterns ...................................133
What Is Tracking? ............................................... 1 • Pressure Releases ................................................134
• Introduction .......................................................... 1
• Aims and Objectives ............................................... 2 Chapter 6
• Practical Applications ............................................ 3 Blood Trailing ....................................................163
• Blood Sign ..........................................................163
Chapter 2 • Size of the Wound Channel ..................................163
Teaching Yourself to Track .............................. 5 • Wound Channel Opening .....................................163
• Sensory Optimization and Logical Reasoning........... 5 • Organ and Tissue Damage—Types of Bleeding .......167
• What Is Sign? ........................................................ 6 • Interpreting Blood Sign .......................................169
• Tracker Awareness ............................................... 20
• Reawakening the Senses ...................................... 24 Chapter 7
• Learning Methodology ......................................... 47 Tracking Specific Animals ............................171
• Substrate Character.............................................. 59 • Tracking the Big Seven .......................................172
• The Qualities of a Good Tracker ..................................69 • Tracking “Nondangerous” Species ........................202
• Conclusions ......................................................... 69
Chapter 8
Chapter 3 Track, Stalk, and Approach ..........................241
Understanding Wildlife Behaviour ............ 75 • Animal Senses ....................................................241
• The Key to Tracking Wild Animals ........................ 75 • Avoiding Visual Detection ...................................243
• Feeding and Drinking .......................................... 76 • Avoiding Detection by Scent (Smell) ....................253
• Habitat Preference ............................................... 79 • Avoiding Detection by Sound...............................255
• Grouping Behaviour ............................................. 80
• Breeding Behaviour ............................................. 82 Chapter 9
• Care of Young ...................................................... 84 Bird, Reptile, and Invertebrate Sign ........259
• Aggressive Behaviour ........................................... 84 • Birds ..................................................................259
• Submissive Behaviour .......................................... 85 • Reptiles ..............................................................276
• Social Behaviour .................................................. 86 • Insects and Invertebrates ....................................281
• Self-Advertising Behaviour and Territoriality ........ 86
• Predator and Danger Avoidance ............................ 87 Chapter 10
• Play Behaviour .................................................... 87 Tracking Man .....................................................289
• Danger Signals ..................................................... 88 • Combat Tracking .................................................289
• Antipoaching Tracking........................................330
Chapter 4 • Search and Rescue Tracking (SAR) .......................342
Identification of Mammal Tracks
and Sign ................................................................ 89 Chapter 11
• Identification of Mammal Tracks ........................... 89 Dangers of the Bush........................................357
• Track Distortion................................................... 95 • Insects, Spiders, and Scorpions ............................357
• Partial or Distorted Track Identification ...............103 • Reptiles ..............................................................361
• How to Tell Which Track Is That of a Canine, Feline, • Wild Animals ......................................................364
or Hyena ............................................................113 • Environmental Dangers .......................................364
• Scat Identification ..............................................116 • Confrontation with Armed Poachers .....................367
• Estimating Age from Fluid Signs ..........................126
• Collecting Scat Samples .......................................128 Conclusion...........................................................371

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank my wilderness trail brothers for their

companionship. We lived and shared the good years. Two
great trackers who were better than I will ever be inspired me:
Ozias Cubai, who passed away in September 2011, and Ringane.
They were my ranger colleagues, mentors, and friends. This
book is a tribute to them both. I will always fondly remember
and cherish the years we spent in the bush
together. Thank you for teaching me all I
know about practical tracking in the wilds
of Africa, for your patience with a slow
learner, and for sharing your skills. I will
always be truly grateful. Without you two
this book would never have happened.
Ringane

I want to say a
special thank you
to Ringane for the
unforgettable days
we shared as we
walked side by side
through thousands
of kilometers of
bush—a country
Author and Ozias Cubai
that we both love so
dearly. I still see you in my mind’s eye as you stand resolutely
next to me, unmovable and dependable, as we faced charges
time and again from some of Africa’s most feared wild animals.
I think back with nostalgia to the hundreds of campfires we
shared with quiet companionship. Thank you for being my
teacher and friend.

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Chapter 1

WHAT IS TRACKING?

Introduction

T
racking principles are universal. Because they are consistent, the principles you will learn in this
book can be applied anywhere in the world. The species of animals might differ, but the way that
soils, substrate, and vegetation responds will be the same. All animals have behaviour patterns—they
mark territories, they vocally advertise their presence, To make good observations and draw sound
they use shelter, and they utilize game paths. Birds, conclusions in the natural environment, one must be
invertebrates, and mammals of any given system interact very familiar with what is “normal” in the particular
with one another; therefore, the one can give clues natural system where one is operating. Deviations from
about the other. the normal are then easier to detect.
 The Comprehensive Guide to Tracking Skills

Aims and Objectives

What Is Tracking?
Tracking can best be described as learning to use
all your senses to monitor your surroundings and
to make logical and realistic deductions from what
you have observed

Simply put, it is observing “signs” with your senses—

sight, taste, touch, smell, and hearing—and interpreting
what is observed using sound reasoning and previously
learned knowledge. There is also what could best be
described as a “gut feel” component that goes beyond
the five senses. It is an ability acquired by experienced
trackers with advanced skills.
There has always been an air of mystery associated
with tracking. The uninitiated stand awestruck at a
tracker’s ability to “read” sign and draw significant
conclusions from what appears to be very scant and
inconsequential evidence.
It is the express purpose of this work to unravel some
of the mystery and to reveal the logic of tracking skills.
This book will help put at least a modicum of ability
within the reach of every individual prepared to expend
the time and energy in learning the principles of tracking
and then putting these ideas into practice.

The aims and objectives of tracking are to recognize

and interpret sign for some practical purpose.

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 What is Tracking?

Practical Hunters either have to learn

tracking skills themselves or have
Applications to make use of “trackers” during
hunting activities. Tracking in
Track i ng ca n be broadly t he moder n hu nt i ng conte x t
classified into activities associated revolves pr imar ily around the
with wildlife and those aspects identification of mammal tracks and
relating to the tracking of the scat (droppings) and the follow-up
human species. of wounded animals. This often
involves following blood spoor.
Professional guides are called
Wildlife Tracking upon to interpret natural sign on
Tracking is most often associ- a far wider scale to clients with
ated with something to do with the aim of familiarizing people
wildlife. The term “wildlife” should with natural phenomena and with
not be mistakenly understood as monitoring the environment for
pertaining only to animals. The safety reasons. This can encompass
term must be understood in its a wide variety of interpretive skills.
broadest context to encompass all These include the identification
components of the natural system of c all s a nd t r ac k s of bi rd s,
both living (mammals, birds, in- mammals, amphibians, insects,
sects, reptiles, plants, etc.) and reptiles, and arachnids (spiders
nonliving (water, soil, climate). and scorpions); the identification
People who lived prior to the of plants (especially edible and
modern technological age were medicinal plants); recognition and
very dependent on tracking skills interpretation of animal behaviour;
to survive in the environment of the and an understanding of how
hunter/gatherer. The whereabouts weather and geology (soils) have
and type of game that provided an effect on plant and animal
food, clothing, and implements distribution. Professional nature
had to be established before it guides are also frequently called
could be trapped or hunted. To upon to track animals so that visual
do this successfully the hunter/ sightings can be obtained.
gatherer had to have an intimate In the conser vat ion f ield,
knowledge of the local wildlife. tracking skills are util ized to
Hunts often involved following ident i f y s ign t hat ca n a ss i st
up on animal s that had been i n establ i sh i ng t he presence,
wounded or poisoned. The skill behaviour, movements, and habitat
to track also provided the individual preference of wildlife (again in the
with the ability to recognize and broadest context) species. Tracking
avoid danger and to f ind the skills are also required to follow-
up wounded or injured animals.
things necessary for sustaining
Tracking skills are also important
life in a natural environment.
in locating animals that have
The list necessary for life included
run off after having been darted
not only food but also water,
during chemical immobilization
shelter, and medicinal plants. A
operations. The ability to recognize
tracker’s skill is directly related
and interpret natural signs also
to his knowledge of all aspects of
enables the individual to be aware
the natural environment. of and avoid possible danger.
Trackers involved in some aspect
I n t h e m o d e r n c o n t ex t , of “wildlife” tracking are intensely
aware of the interrelatedness of
wildlife tracking is associated
all components that collectively
with hunting, guiding, and
make up what is referred to as
conservation activities.
the ecosystem. They need to

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 THE COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO TRACKING SKILLS
have a broad-based understanding criminal investigations, and in A nt ipoach i ng operat ions
and knowledge of all aspects of the searching for f ugitives or lost incorporate aspects of both military
natural world. persons. and criminal tracking but because
In the military context, trackers of its specific nature can be regarded
are sometimes also referred to as as a field of its own. Antipoaching
Man Tracking scouts, ”recces,” or “point men.” t rac k i ng i nvolves all a spec t s
Human presence and activity, It is their responsibility to search relating to the identification and
like that of animals, presents for, identify, and interpret signs interpretation of signs associated
or leaves behind evidence. It is left behind by the enemy to warn with poaching activities as well
possible, therefore, to also identify of their presence, help locate their as follow-up operations aimed at
and interpret human sign for some whereabouts, establish what they are apprehending poachers.
specific purpose. up to, and in some instances to avoid The third type of man tracking
the enemy or to make it difficult for is the one associated with the
Man tracking is the identification, the enemy to follow. search for missing persons.
interpretation, and follow-up of Criminal tracking would include It must be understood that
signs present or left behind by all aspects of forensic investigations at although one makes a distinction
the human. crime scenes as well as following signs between wildlife and man tracking
left behind by a criminal intending a nd al so bet ween d i f ferent
In this context man tracking to evade capture. This can include t y pes of ma n t rack i ng, t here
would be included in mil itar y the physical tracking of a suspect or a re com monal it ies a s well a s
activities, antipoaching operations, escaped fugitive from the law. differences.

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Chapter 2

TEACHING YOURSELf TO TRACK

Sensory Optimization and Logical Reasoning

W
e evaluate what is going on around us through
sensory input. If we do not regularly exercise our
muscles, they atrophy and become weak. The same
can happen if we do not train our senses. They can become
lazy and operate at suboptimal levels. This will mean that
we will not be as aware of what is going on around us as
is possible, and we will lose a lot of potentially valuable,
even lifesaving, information.

Sensory optimization means learning to train your

senses so that they are used to best effect.

As a tracker, you want to assimilate (take in) as

much sensory information as possible. The sorting of
this information will take place at a cognitive level.
This means that you will use your brain to integrate
(bring together) information gathered by your senses
and your powers of reasoning to make logical deductions
and establish an order of priorities as to how you will
respond.

Logical reasoning is the capacity to sort and

interpret incoming information to best effect.

The fundamental foundation of good tracking skills is

vested in your ability to use your information-gathering
systems (sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch) to best
effect and then correctly interpret information from
signs. Correct interpretation of signs also depends
heavily on the knowledge bank you have accumulated
over time.
 The Comprehensive Guide to Tracking Skills

What Is Sign?
The tracker’s source of information is sign. What is sign? Wild creatures live in association with, not in
isolation of, their environment. As they are going about their daily activities, they are constantly leaving
behind evidence of having been there.

A sign includes anything that can be produced or left behind by living creatures and that can be perceived
by our five senses.

We could, therefore, list signs as things that can be perceived by our sense of sight, those that we can hear, and
those that we can smell, touch, feel, or taste.

Visual Sign
A visual sign is one that can be
detected using eyesight. There are
many examples.

Tracks
A track or spoor refers to
impressions left by feet, paws,
claws, hands, or other body parts
(e.g., an elephant’s trunk dragging)
on the substrate. See Figure
CCCH.02.02.01.
A lot of information can be
obtained from tracks: when the
track was registered, the age of the
Figure CCCH.02.02.01: Tracks are important sources of information to the tracker.
animal (adult/subadult/young),
the group composition (single/
pair/herd), the size, the speed, and
direction of travel, the condition
of the animal, the sex, and the
activity.

Excretions
This refers to scat (droppings/
feces), urine, and saliva. See Figure
CCCH.02.02.02.
Scat and urine can also provide
useful information. By determining
the age of the sign, it is possible to
figure out how long ago the animal
was there. The scat’s shape, colour,
and configuration can identify the
species. The content and consistency
of the scat can indicate the diet
and often also the condition of the Figure CCCH.02.02.02: A scat is a source of
animal. The distribution pattern very useful information.
can show whether the species is
territorial or not.
The way the scat is deposited
can also give an indication of the Figure CCCH.02.02.03: Flies (top right) and
species involved and the gait of the dung beetles (bottom right) can draw the
animal at the time the droppings trackers’ attention to scat in the vicinity.

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 Teaching Yourself to Track
were deposited. Is it spread out (the
animal was moving), broken up and
scattered (hippo, black rhino), in a
pile (the animal was stationary), or
buried with soil (steenbok)?
S c at a nd u r i ne a re of ten
indicated by the presence of flies
and the noisy flight of dung beetles.
The presence of f lies and dung
beetles will indicate to the tracker
that fresh scat is close-by. See
Figure CCCH.02.02.03.
The relative position of urine
to the scat can sometimes indicate
the sex of an animal. See Figure
CCCH.02.02.04. Figure CCCH.02.02.04: In this photograph the relative position of the scat pellets to the patch
of urine indicates that a female impala deposited it.

Figure CCCH.02.02.05: Examples of a feeding sign are when cud was dropped from the mouth of an herbivore during rumination (left), seeds
were dropped by feeding vervets (middle), and broken vegetation was left behind by feeding elephants (right).

Figure CCCH.02.02.07: Some animals such

Figure CCCH.02:02.06: Places where animals drink can usually supply the tracker with a lot as elephants and rhinos will dig for water
of information. in dry riverbeds.

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 The Comprehensive Guide to Tracking Skills
Feeding and Drinking
Sign
Animals leave signs when they
feed. See Figure CCCH.02.02.05.
Scat content that can indicate
whether the animal is a browser,
grazer, mixed feeder, carnivore,
omnivore, or insectivore. Scat
will also give evidence of how the
food was procured, handled, and
disposed of, and it can indicate
the species involved, preferred
habitat and diet, and when the
animal was there.
Examples of feed ing signs
include saliva, gnawing marks on
trees, a clearly defined browse line
in preferred habitat of resident
Figure CCCH.02.02.08: Elephants digging for water in a dry riverbed.
browsers, cud (chewed vegetation)
dropped f rom the mouth, the
rema i ns of a n i mal s k illed by
predators, grass cropped close to
the ground by grazing animals,
broken vegetation, stripped bark,
and so on. Places where animals
drink are a mine of information.
See Figure CCCH.02.02.06. Many
animals will dig for water in dry
riverbeds. See Figure CCCH.02.02.07
and Figure CCCH.02.02.08. Smaller

Figure CCCH.02.02.09: (above) Preorbital

glands can be clearly seen on this gray
duiker.

Figure CCCH.02.02.10: (top right) The tarsal

glands are located in the tuft of black hair
on an impala’s hind feet.

Figure CCCH.02.02.11: (right) The parallel

scrape marks of a territorial white rhino bull
can be clearly seen.

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 Teaching Yourself to Track
species w ill then make use of
these “wells.” Drops of water can
spill from an animal whilst it is
drinking or moving away from a
watering point. Sometimes the
evidence of feeding is obvious;
often it is more subtle and requires
greater powers of observation.

Scent and Territorial

Marking
Scent plays an extremely important
role in the lives of animals. Depending
on the species, scent-producing glands
may be found at the anus, on the
face below the eyes, on the forehead,
below the eye, on the feet above the
hock, or between the toes. Scent is
Figure CCCH.02.02.12: The impala ram is horning a bush to rub off facial secretions (left).
On the right is a paper-bark acacia that has had a good rubbing.

Figure CCCH.02.02.13: This nyala bull is horning the ground and will leave clear sign of having done so.

Figure CCCH.02.02.14: A white rhino midden (left) and an impala midden (right).

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 The Comprehensive Guide to Tracking Skills

Figure CCCH.02.02.15: Animals wallow to help cool themselves and to help rid themselves of external parasites. Buffalo wallowing (left)
and warthog (right).

also incorporated in urine and scat.

See Figure CCCH.02.02.09 and Figure
CCCH.02.02.10.
Some animals define territorial
boundar ies by ma rk i ng or by
depositing dung, urine, or some
form of secretion on the ground or
on surrounding vegetation.
This can be observed as scrapes
on the ground (e.g., white rhino).
See Figure CCCH.02.02.11. An animal
will also paste, meaning it will wipe
anal secretions onto vegetation by Figure CCCH.02.02.16: Dislodged ticks are evident in the mud rubbed off onto this tree.
straddling it (e.g., civet and hyena).
Then there is shrub horning (e.g.,
i mpala a nd k udu—see Figure
CCCH.02.02.12) and horning the ground
(e.g., nyala and bushbuck—see Figure
CCCH.02.02.13). Animals will also
deposit scat in piles called middens
or latrines (e.g., some antelopes and
rhino). See Figure CCCH.02.02.14.

Wallows and Dust Baths

A number of animal species enjoy
wallowing in mud. They are so partial
to this pastime that they sometimes
take on the colour of the local soils.
Thus, it’s not unusual to see a “red”
white rhino (if the soils of the area
are reddish in colour) or a “white”
black rhino (if the soils are light in
colour).
Why do they wallow? Well, for
a number of reasons but mainly for
the pure enjoyment of it! Next time Figure CCCH.02.02.17: A recently vacated mud wallow used by a white rhino.

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 Teaching Yourself to Track
you see a warthog heading for a mud
wallow, take the time to stop and watch.
It will be most entertaining. Watch as it
slithers this way and that in the oozing,
gooey, sticky mud. You will almost feel
so inclined as to want to join in the
fun. Animals wallow also as a means
of thermoregulation, which is a means
of controlling body temperature. Most
species that wallow are dark-skinned.
Buffaloes, rhinos, blue wildebeests,
elephants, and warthogs are addicted to
wallowing. See Figure CCCH.02.02.15. Figure CCCH.02.02.18: Signs left behind from an animal walking away
from a mud wallow include bits of mud on the ground. The amount
Because they are dark-skinned, they tend to absorb of mud sign decreases the farther the animal moves away from the
radiant (light) energy, and this can cause them to overheat wallow. On the right, notice how the mud was scraped off onto a bush
when temperatures hit the midthirties (Celsius) or higher. as the animal walked past.
Rolling in mud cools the skin and helps to keep an animal’s
body temperature within normal limits.
Thirdly, when mud hardens, it entraps external
parasites. When the animal rubs this mud off onto trees,
rocks, or termite mounds, the entrapped parasites are
dislodged. See Figure CCCH.02.02.16.
Certain wallows become very popular, and their long-
term use can cause them to deepen and develop into
semipermanent water holes. Each time an animal wallows
in a water hole, it becomes deeper because some mud
adheres to and is carried off by the animal.
From a tracking perspective, following mud sign is
exciting and fun. It is fairly easy to follow and find an
animal that has been wallowing.
It is fairly obvious to see when a mud wallow has
recently been used. See Figure CCCH.02.02.17. It will be
churned up and the exit point will be quite obvious.
The body of the animal often leaves an impression in
the mud, making it easy to identify which animal has
been wallowing. Muddy footprints will lead away from
the wallow and bits of mud will begin dropping off
the animal as it moves away into the bush. See Figure
CCCH.02.02.18.
Not only will bits of mud drop off, but mud will be
scraped off on surrounding vegetation as well. The trail
left behind is fairly easy to follow, but the amount of mud
sign decreases the farther the animal moves away from the
wallow. See Figure CCCH.02.02.18. The amount of moisture
retained in mud can also give the tracker a good indication
of how far behind the animal he is.
Mud tracking is a good opportunity for someone
learning to track because it is relatively easy to follow,
and the tracker is often rewarded with a sighting of the
animal being tracked. Following an animal that has been
wallowing is fairly simple even on substrate where other
signs (such as tracks) do not show up well.
The height of the mud adhering to vegetation when
passing by or when rubbing will indicate the size of the Figure CCCH.02.02.19: The height of mud scraped or rubbed off will give
animal and the degree of moisture retention the age of the an indication of the type of animal: an elephant rub on tree (top)
sign. See Figure CCCH.02.02.19 and Table 2.1. and warthog rub on a small termite mound (above).

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 The Comprehensive Guide to Tracking Skills
Table 2.1
SPECIES HEIGHT OF RUB
Elephant 2.5–3.4 m
White rhino 1.8 m
Black rhino 1.6 m
Buffalo 1.4 m
Warthog 65 cm

Rolling in sand or dust is also a Figure CCCH.02.02.20: A zebra dust bath (left) and a favourite dust bath area used after a
grooming activity often practiced by shower of rain (right).
zebras and wildebeests. This is usually
seen as a dusty, bare patch where the
substrate has been disturbed. See
Figure CCCH.02.02.20.

Figure CCCH.02.02.22: Rubs are convenient objects against which animals will rub themselves
Figure CCCH.02.02.21: Because animals will to relieve an itch. This photo illustrates where a buffalo (left) and a warthog (right) have
seek out shade and cover, these are good rubbed themselves against tree trunks.
areas in which to look for sign.

Shade and Cover

Animals will seek out shade
during hot weather and cover during
cold or inclement weather. The
tracker will, therefore, look in these
places for additional signs such as
bedding areas (which might still feel
warm if recently vacated), cud falling
from the mouth of ruminants, and
scat. See Figure CCCH.02.02.21.

Rubs and Bark Stripping

Animals will sometimes use
objects such as trees, fallen logs, and
rocks on which to rub themselves
to relieve an itch or scrape off
mud during grooming. Figures Figure CCCH.02.02.23: A buffalo uses a convenient branch to relieve an itch.

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 Teaching Yourself to Track
CCCH.02.02.22 and CCCH.02.02.23. Warthogs are very
partial to this activity as are rhinos and elephants.
Elephants strip bark from trees to supplement their diets.
See Figure CCCH.02.02.24.

Paths
Game paths are usually most distinct around water
holes and favourite feeding areas. Well-utilized paths
often have a layer of fine soil covering them as a result
of hoofs breaking down coarser soil. This is conducive
to leaving distinct spoor impressions that can help to
identify which species were present.
Active game paths can have a wide variety of tracks
and sign, both fresh and old. The super imposition of
tracks upon one another can also give an indication
of sequence of events and the age of tracks. Figure
CCCH.02.02.25.
Figure CCCH.02.02.24: During the dry season, elephants will often
Bedding Areas, Burrows, Nests, and strip and eat tree bark to supplement dietary needs.
Shelters
Some animals will be continually on the move
choosing different resting and sleeping sites. Others black-backed jackals. Figure CCCH.02.02.26. An occupied
will make use of holes or burrows to which they will burrow will usually have some sign of occupation, such
return on a regular or irregular basis. The species that as the presence of flies, bones scattered around the
make use of underground burrows include porcupines, entrance, spoor leading into and out of the hole, freshly
aardvarks, aardwolfs, warthogs, springhares, dwarf excavated soil, and so on. The shelters or bedding sites
mongooses, wild dogs, bat-eared foxes, Cape foxes, and of animals, which do not use burrows, will often be seen

Figure CCCH.02.02.25: Game paths are a source of much information.

Figure CCCH.02.02.27: Note how the vegetation

in this bedding area is flattened. The size and
Figure CCCH.02.02.26: A variety of species use underground burrows for nesting and for shape of the bedding area can also give an
shelter: a warthog burrow (left) and a hyena den (right). indication of the type of animal or bird.

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 The Comprehensive Guide to Tracking Skills
as flattened grass or vegetation,
or body impressions left on soft
substrate. See Figure CCCH.02.02.27.
These bedding areas will usually be
found in shade or areas providing
cover from the elements.

Blood Sign
The abil it y to follow a nd
correctly interpret blood sign is an
important tracking skill.
The colour and amount of blood
can indicate whether bleeding is
from an artery, vein, or capillary.
Figure CCCH.02.02.28. The clotting
process of blood can give the tracker
a good indication as to the age of the
blood sign. Following a blood trail
is important when trying to locate a
wounded animal or human.

Skeletal Signs or Carcasses

Skeletal remains can indicate the Figure CCCH.02.02.28: Blood sign can assist the tracker in determining the severity of a
presence of a particular species in a given wound and the time the animal was there. It can help lead the tracker to an injured animal
area and can also indicate the presence or human.
of predators. Figure CCCH.02.02.29.
Carcasses and skeletal signs may be
present as a result of death by natural
causes, death by accident, or death
by disease.

Interpreting Visual Sign

The modern city dweller has,
to a large degree, lost the ability to
observe signs correctly in the bush.
Small signs escape their notice and
even large animals like elephants
and buffaloes are sometimes not
seen, even at short range. Figure
CCCH.02.02.30. The city eye looks for
complete objects. When looking for
a kudu, for example, the unpracticed
eye will look for the whole animal.
The bush-wise and skillful tracker
will know to look for “parts” of
the animal—part of a leg sticking
out from under a bush, a glint of
sunlight off a horn, the rounding
of a rump showing through dense
vegetation. Another trick is to learn
to look “through” vegetation and
not “at” it. If one allows the focal
point to shift from “at” to “beyond”
an intervening object, the tracker
is able to see and observe much Figure CCCH.02.02.29: Skeletal signs (bottom) and carcasses (top) can supply the tracker
more acutely. with information on the presence of a species, predator activity, or diseases.

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 Teaching Yourself to Track
Olfactory Sign
Olfactory sign is that which
can be detected using our sense of
smell. Some animals have a very
characteristic smell and emit odours
specific to the particular species. An
example is an elephant in musth. The
author, as an exercise, once tracked
a bull elephant in musth for about
two kilometers by following the
lingering smell of musth in the air
and surrounding vegetation. Another
example is the buffalo, which have
the typical bovine odour of cattle.
Then there is the goatlike odour of
waterbuck, which can sometimes
be smelled from a distance. Dung
and urine also have characteristic
odours. The smell of smoke can warn
the tracker of an oncoming bushfire,
or the presence of a poacher’s camp.
The smell of rain in the distance can
give the tracker warning of a possible
flash flood, giving him time to move
out of drainage lines.

Sound Sign
Most emphasis is placed on the
visual aspects of tracking. That is
logical because we make the most
use of sight to search for visual clues
or sign.

Sound, an extremely important

aspect of tracking, does not
always receive the attention
it deserves.

The bush is filled with sound that

can vary with intensity depending
on the time of day and prevailing
weather conditions. At times the
bush can also be profoundly silent,
and this, too, tells a story.
Just think for a moment of all the
possible sources of sound. Animals,
amphibians, and birds all possess vocal
cords and are capable of vocalizing.
They can also generate noise by
their footfalls, brushing up against
vegetation, or breaking branches.
Snakes do not possess vocal cords
Figure CCCH.02.02.30: The tracker must learn to look through vegetation instead of at it. If but can hiss or make a rasping sound
you looked at the bush in this photo, you would miss seeing the elephant standing behind it by rubbing scales together. Many
(top). At first it might be easy to miss seeing the two kudus in the photo on the bottom. insects are equipped with anatomical

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 Teaching Yourself to Track
Behaviour of Other
Animals and Birds
The behav iour of other
inhabitants of the bush can often
be of assistance to the tracker, and
sometimes a hindrance. Birds like
red-billed oxpeckers and cattle egrets
can warn you of the presence of
animals such as impalas, buffaloes,
giraffes, elands, kudus, and rhinos.
See Figure CCCH.02.02.31. They
can also warn these animals of
your presence. Even if you are not
tracking these species in particular,
it is important for the tracker from
a safety perspective to be aware of
the presence of these animals.
Ground birds such as francolin,
quail, and guinea fowl, flushing
up from under the feet of animals
can warn you of their presence and
whereabouts. Francolin and guinea
fowl are often very vocal and noisy
when flushed and can be heard a
long way off. Fork-tailed drongos
frequently hang around grazing
animals. As the animals move along,
they flush up insects from the grass.
The drongos then swoop down to
catch the insects. Gray louries emit a
raucous call when observing humans
and predators. Other bird species
such as double-banded sand grouse
can lead you to water. See Figure
CCCH.02.02.32.
Carrion-eating birds such as
vultures can lead the tracker to sites
of kills or warn them of the presence
of large predators. Vultures, kites, Figure CCCH.02.02.31: Cattle egrets (top) and red-billed oxpeckers (above) can indicate the
marabou storks, and some eagles are presence of animals, including dangerous species such as buffaloes, rhinos, and hippos.

Figure CCCH.02.02.32: The behaviour of birds such as fork-tailed drongos (left), guinea fowl (centre), and double-banded sand grouse (right)
can warn of danger or the presence of animals, humans, and snakes. They can also help the tracker find food or water.

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